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 TAKe THe GuIDeD Tour vii

LAB AUTHOR

Freddie Williams is the author of MyHVAClab and the Year at Lanier Tech in 2010 and the Master Teacher award
program chair of the Air Conditioning Technology Department in Hall County, Georgia, in 2010. Mr. Williams is a member of
at Lanier Technical College, with over twenty-three years ASHRAE and RSES and holds degrees in management and
of professional experience. Mr. Williams has been a faculty technical studies. He has extensive experience with electri-
member at Lanier Tech since 2002, teaching air condition- cal and mechanical systems in industrial, commercial, and
ing and industrial systems. He was awarded Instructor of the military environments.

LAB CONTRIBUTORS

Gary Reecher Bryan DeNardis

Current member of Refrigeration Service Engineers Everest Institute
Society (RSES)
Robert Yeomans
Tom Owen
Robert Polchinski
Sullivan College of Technology & Design
New York City College of Technology
Jason Rouvel
Donald Steeby*
Western Technical College
Grand Rapids Community College

ASSESSMENT CONTRIBUTORS

Michael Garrity Tom Owen

Branford Hall Career Institute Sullivan College of Technology & Design
Elwin Hunt Michael Patton*
San Joaquin Valley College Branford Hall Career Institute
Glen Martin Edward Rosenberg
Branford Hall Career Institute Branford Hall Career Institute
Patrick Monahan
Branford Hall Career Institute

POWERPOINT SLIDES AND LECTURE NOTES CONTRIBUTORS

Bruce Bowman Joe Owens*

Davidson County College Antelope Valley College
Jerry Britt Kevin Pulley
Horry Georgetown Technical College Career Institute of Technology
Michael Brock Roger Raffaelo
Florida State College Daytona State College, Main
James Chadwick Doug Sallade
Kaplan University Cypress College
Gabriel Cioffi Donald Steeby
LA Trade Tech Grand Rapids Community College
Clint Cooper Monty Timm
Chattahoochee Technical College Ivy Tech Community College
Mike Falvey S. Shane Todd
Copiah-Lincoln Community College Ogeechee Technical College
Rick Marks
Cisco College
viii TAKe THe GuIDeD Tour

PICTORIAL SUPPORT

We would also like to acknowledge the following individu- David Kuchta

als, companies, and colleges for allowing photographs to be The Jackson Laboratory
taken of their equipment and facilities for use in this text.
Jeff Vose
Jerry Markley and Lynn Darnell Allen’s Blueberry Freezer, Inc.
Maine Maritime Academy
Robin Tannenbaum LEED AP and Phil Kaplan AIA, LEED AP
Charlie Veilleux, Rick Gomm, and Jim Peary Kaplan Thompson Architects
Eastern Maine Community College
Keith Collins, M.D.
Tom Kissell BrightBuilt Barn
Terra Community College
Bob Morse and Mike Hudson
Glenn Carlson Getchell Bros. Inc.
Hannaford Bros. Co.
 ix

About the Authors

Carter Stanfield is program director of the Air Conditioning David Skaves, P.E., has been a faculty member at the
Technology Department at Athens Technical College, where Maine Maritime Academy since 1986 and received the
he has taught since 1976. His industry credentials include Teaching Excellence award at the college in 2006. His career
both an RSES CM and NATE certification and a State of background includes employment as a marine engineer on
Georgia Unrestricted Conditioned Air Contracting license. He supertankers in the merchant marine, a production planner
graduated from the University of Georgia magna cum laude at Maine’s Bath Iron Works Shipbuilding, and an engineer-
in 1995 with a bachelor of science degree in education. ing consultant for combined cycle power plant performance
Mr. Stanfield believes that successful educational programs testing throughout the United States as well as in Mexico and
are focused on what the students do. Students start with a South America. In addition to his MBA from the University
strong background in fundamental concepts and theory and of Maine at Orono, Professor Skaves is a registered profes-
then actively apply them to solve real problems. Practice and sional engineer, licensed first-class stationary engineer, and
active application are the keys to students building both con- licensed marine chief engineer. He is currently a member of
fidence and competence. For teaching tips and more, see ASHRAE and AFE.
his HVACR blog at http://hvacrfundamentals.blogspot.com/.

ix
x SeCTIoN 6 AIr-CoNDITIoNING SYSTeMS

Contents

SECTION 1 unit 17 Refrigerants and Their

Properties 246
Fundamentals
unit 18 Special Refrigeration
unit 1 Introduction to Heating, Ventilation, Components 267
Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration 1 unit 19 Plotting the Refrigeration
unit 2 Being a Professional HVACR Cycle 280
Technician 10
unit 3 Safety 18 SECTION 4
unit 4 Hand and Power Tools 31
Refrigeration Practices
unit 5 Fasteners 56
unit 6 Measurements 67 unit 20 Refrigerant Safety 295
unit 21 Refrigerant System Servicing and
Testing Equipment 311
SECTION 2
unit 22 Piping and Tubing 332
HVACR Science unit 23 Soldering and Brazing 353
unit 7 Properties of Matter 78 unit 24 Refrigerant System Piping 380
unit 8 Types of Energy and Their unit 25 Accessing Sealed Refrigeration
Properties 87 Systems 399
unit 9 Temperature and unit 26 Refrigerant Management and the
Thermodynamics 100 EPA 413
unit 10 Pressure and Vacuum 115 unit 27 Refrigerant Leak Testing 438
unit 28 Refrigerant System Evacuation 448
SECTION 3 unit 29 Refrigerant System Charging 466
Refrigeration Systems
and Components SECTION 5
unit 11 Types of Refrigeration Systems 126 HVACR electrical Systems
unit 12 The Refrigeration Cycle 135 and Components
unit 13 Compressors 150 unit 30 Electrical Safety 486
unit 14 Condensers 177 unit 31 Basic Electricity 499
unit 15 Metering Devices 197 unit 32 Alternating Current
unit 16 Evaporators 222 Fundamentals 518

x
 CoNTeNTS xi

unit 33 Electrical Measuring and Test unit 59 Space Heaters 975

Instruments 533 unit 60 Humidifiers 983
unit 34 Electrical Components 550
unit 35 Electric Motors 570 SECTION 8
unit 36 Motor Controls 585 Heat Pump Systems
unit 37 Motor Application and
Troubleshooting 598 unit 61 Electric Heat 990
unit 38 Electrical Diagrams 622 unit 62 Electric Heat Installation 1001
unit 39 Control Systems 647 unit 63 Troubleshooting Electric Heat 1008
unit 40 Communicating Control unit 64 Heat Pump System
Systems 673 Fundamentals 1018
unit 41 Electrical Troubleshooting 687 unit 65 Air-Source Heat Pump
Applications 1030
SECTION 6 unit 66 Geothermal Heat Pumps 1048
unit 67 Heat Pump Installation 1062
Air-Conditioning Systems
unit 68 Troubleshooting Heat Pump
unit 42 Fundamentals of Psychrometrics and Systems 1077
Airflow 698
unit 43 Air Filters 717 SECTION 9
unit 44 Ventilation and System design, Sizing, and layout
Dehumidification 730
unit 45 Residential Air Conditioning 742 unit 69 Basic Building Construction 1091
unit 46 Mini-Split, Multisplit, and Variable unit 70 Green Buildings and Systems 1106
Refrigerant Flow Systems 756 unit 71 Indoor Air Quality 1117
unit 47 Residential Split-System unit 72 Residential Load Calculations 1132
Air-Conditioning Installations 772 unit 73 Duct Design 1161
unit 48 Duct Installation 790 unit 74 Zone Control Systems 1175
unit 49 Troubleshooting Air-Conditioning unit 75 Testing and Balancing Air
Systems 813 Systems 1187

SECTION 7 SECTION 10
Heating Systems Commercial environmental
Systems
unit 50 Principles of Combustion and
Safety 833 unit 76 Commercial Air-Conditioning
unit 51 Gas Furnaces 847 Systems 1200
unit 52 Gas Furnace Controls 864 unit 77 Fans and Air-Handling Units 1214
unit 53 Gas Furnace Installation 885 unit 78 Single-Zone Rooftop Unit
unit 54 Troubleshooting Gas Furnaces 904 Installation 1233
unit 55 Oil-Fired Heating Systems 919 unit 79 Commercial Zoned Systems 1241
unit 56 Oil Furnace and Boiler Service 934 unit 80 Commercial Control Systems 1254
unit 57 Residential Oil Heating unit 81 Chilled-Water Systems 1269
Installation 952 unit 82 Hydronic Heating Systems 1283
unit 58 Troubleshooting Oil Heating unit 83 Boilers and Related Equipment 1301
Systems 964 unit 84 Cooling Towers 1314
xii CoNTeNTS

SECTION 11 SECTION 12
Commercial Refrigeration installation, Maintenance, Service,
Systems and troubleshooting
unit 85 Commercial Refrigeration unit 89 Installation Techniques 1407
Systems 1327
unit 90 Planned Maintenance 1428
unit 86 Supermarket Equipment 1346
unit 91 Refrigeration System Cleanup 1453
unit 87 Ice Machines 1370
unit 92 Troubleshooting 1466
unit 88 Troubleshooting Refrigeration
Systems 1390
Glossary 1481

index 1513
 Unit 1
Introduction to Heating, Ventilation,
Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration
objectives

After completing this unit, you will be able to: 4. explain the importance of having a clean
background.
1. give a brief history of HVACR.
5. list the various types of HVACR jobs and explain what
2. define environmental heating and air conditioning.
they might do.
3. give the advantages of freezing foods quickly.
6. list the HVACR professional organizations.

1.1 introdUction 1.2 History and overview of Hvacr

The abbreviation HVACR is certainly a mouthful, and so it Heating
is not unusual to ask the question, “What does this mean,
and how does it impact me?” However, the answer is not In an attempt to better understand HVACR, let’s break it
so simple, and a standard definition may not explain very down component by component. The H for heating seems
much. This is because the HVACR industry is a complex easy. The history of heating a space by burning wood
network that our entire society relies on more today than starts in our earliest times and continues to the present.
ever before. Just think how your world would change Elaborate systems using firewood heated Roman buildings.
without refrigeration for your food or drinks and without Channels were built underneath the floors to draw heat
air conditioning in your car or classroom. Try to visualize from a fire, thus warming the building and creating the first
how this would affect the greater population, from food central heating systems (Figure 1-2).
distribution networks, to hospital care, to housing for the Wood, peat, and coal remained the primary heating
elderly. As a trained and skilled HVACR technician, you fuels for centuries. Many early buildings had open fire-
can make a positive impact on society. You can contrib- places. But fireplaces are an inefficient way of heating
ute to this growing industry to ensure that systems work because too much of the heat produced is drawn up the
efficiently and safely and are environmentally friendly chimney. Although early seventeenth-century European
(Figure 1-1). masonry-type stoves burned wood safely at high efficiency,

SMOKE

FIRE TRENCH
FLOOR WARMED FROM BELOW
BY FIRE
figure 1-1 Think green! New innovative technologies will
allow some HVACR systems to operate on power supplied by figure 1-2 Romans used fires channeled below floors as early
wind turbines. heating systems.

1
2 section 1 fundamentals

VAPOR

EVAPORATION

WATER

LIQUID

HEAT IN

LIQUID TO VAPOR

figure 1-4 When water evaporates, heat is absorbed. This

change of state is also referred to as a phase change.

air conditioning
The AC stands for air conditioning. Generally this is consid-
figure 1-3 Woodstove.
ered by most people to be a way to cool a space, but as you
will learn, this term encompasses much more. Artificially
cooling the air in a living space dates back to the earliest
the next major step in heating technology in America was centuries. In ancient Greece, large wet woven tapestries
the metal stove. Benjamin Franklin is credited with invent- were hung in natural drafts so that the air flowing through
ing a cast-iron stove that was several times more efficient and around the tapestries was cooled by the evaporating
than any other stove at that time. Many people still use water. As the water evaporated, it would remove heat, just
decorative, efficient stoves to provide much, if not all, of like when you perspire to remain cool (Figure 1-4). Some
their heating needs (Figure 1-3). manufacturers sprayed water in factories for cooling as
However, wood heat is only one alternative, because early as the 1720s. Evaporative cooling is still used exten-
today there are many more choices for heating. Gas heat, sively in residences and businesses throughout the south-
oil heat, electric heat, and solar heating systems are com- western United States, where typical summer conditions
mon. Heat pumps that use a refrigeration system for heat- are very hot and dry.
ing can be very efficient. Geothermal heating systems that Ice was the primary means of cooling air for many
utilize the heat from within the earth are becoming more years. The Romans packed ice and snow between double
popular. New, environment-friendly ideas and efficient de- walls in the emperor’s palaces. John Gorrie patented the
signs are continually being developed, tested, operated, first mechanical air-conditioning system in 1844. His sys-
and maintained by people just like you entering the indus- tem was used to cool sick rooms in hospitals in Florida.
try. So you can see that just the H alone is a large and im- The United States capitol building in Washington, DC, was
portant sector. first air conditioned using ice in 1909. Rumor has it that
when the legislators got really involved in controversial de-
ventilation bates, more ice was required to keep the building cool. The
phrase “tons of air conditioning” we use today came from
Next comes the V for ventilation. Before the invention of
this era in history, when tons of ice were used for cooling
chimneys, fires were burned in the center of a room with
(Figure 1-5).
smoke having to escape through holes in the roof. When
early homes were heated by wood fires, the smoke would
permeate the entire building. Although people were warm, SOLID
the health hazards from this smoke exposure were harm-
ful. As an improvement, early Norman fireplaces in England ICE
were designed to allow the smoke to escape through two
holes in the side of the building. It was obvious that some-
LIQUID
thing needed to be done to improve the air quality.
A properly ventilated building allows for the air to flow
and exchange so that harmful particulates such as those
in smoke are not allowed to accumulate. Fresh air also WATER
HEAT IN
brings oxygen into the space, but it becomes depleted over
time. A simple ventilation system can consist of only a fan
and some minor ductwork for transporting the air. More SOLID TO LIQUID
complex systems circulate air throughout entire buildings
through a vast network of ducts and blowers. figure 1-5 When ice melts, heat is absorbed.
 unit 1 introduction to Heating, Ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration 3

tecH tip

Refrigerant capacity is measured in tons. One ton of ca-

pacity is equivalent to the amount of heat that 2,000 lb
of ice can absorb in one day. The amount of latent heat
required to change 1 ton of ice into 1 ton of water is
288,000 BTU. If this amount is divided by 24 hr per day,
the equivalent is 12,000 BTU/hr.

refrigeration
Finally, the R stands for refrigeration, which is a necessary
component for most air-conditioning systems; however,
refrigeration systems are more commonly considered to
be used for keeping food cold. That is why very often you
may see the abbreviation HVAC, which implies air condi-
tioning only. The broader term HVACR includes both air
conditioning and refrigeration systems.
The first use of refrigeration was for the preservation
of food. Ice was harvested from frozen lakes and stored for figure 1-7 Snowblowers can produce artificial snow by
later use. Sometimes it could be kept all summer long in ice evaporative cooling. (Courtesy of Red River Ski Area)
houses. Ice harvesting remained a flourishing industry well
into the twentieth century. evaporative cooling even when the temperatures on the ski
Archeologists have discovered that the first evidence slopes are above freezing.
of man making ice appeared more than 3,000 years ago, Today, a majority of refrigeration systems use what
about 1,000 bc. Peoples living in northern Egypt, the Middle is referred to as mechanical vapor compression. The me-
East, Pakistan, and India made ice using evaporation. chanical process of compressing a gas to produce cooling
Archeological excavations in these regions have discovered can be traced back to coal mines in England. Large steam-
ice-producing fields that covered several acres. The ice was driven or water-powered compressors were used to force
produced in shallow clay plates, about the size of a saucer. air into the deepest mines so miners could work in a safe
The water in these clay plates wept through the clay. This atmosphere. Over long hours of operation, miners observed
water dampened the small straw mats holding the clay the formation of ice around the air nozzles (Figure 1-8). This
plates in racks a few feet above the ground (Figure 1-6). ice was collected and used for food preservation. The con-
The straw aided evaporative cooling of the water. Under struction of steam-powered compressed-air plants that
the right conditions of temperature and humidity, a thin produced ice soon followed. The first maritime refrigeration
film of ice would form overnight on each clay plate. units were made by putting steam-powered compressors
Producing ice in this way is also the principle be- on sailing ships to make it possible for beef to be shipped
hind modern snow-making equipment. A snow-produc- from Australia to England, starting in 1876.
ing machine like the one in Figure 1-7 can make snow by
Hvacr and the refrigeration cycle Now that you have
a better understanding of what HVACR means, it is easy to
see that it encompasses a broad spectrum of needs and
applications. Although the methods for heating can vary
considerably, the majority of cooling applications are based
on the refrigeration cycle. When ice changes to water, heat

PIPE VALVE ICE AIR

figure 1-6 Ice was first artificially produced to be used for
food preservation more than 3,000 years ago. figure 1-8 Ice forming around an air nozzle.
4 section 1 fundamentals

is absorbed, which makes ice a viable refrigerant. But ice systems today, but instead of using water, other fluids with
is hard to store and takes up a lot of space. Water is easier different properties and lower boiling points, called refrig-
to use because it can be pumped and doesn’t need the in- erants, are now used. This allows for much colder tempera-
sulation that ice requires. When water evaporates to vapor tures, far below freezing. The “refrigeration cycle” therefore
it also absorbs heat, but then the water needs to be re- continually evaporates and condenses refrigerants to ab-
placed, and this uses up a lot of water over time. sorb and then throw away the heat.
If the vapor can be recovered and turned back into water, A compressor is used like a pump to raise the pres-
then this cycle reduces the total amount of water needed sure and circulate the refrigerant through the system
(Figure 1-9). Even so, the major disadvantage with this type of (Figure 1-10). A condenser is used to remove heat from
evaporative cooling is that the lowest temperature that can the refrigerant as it turns into a liquid. An expansion device
be reached is dependent on the properties of water. drops the pressure to allow the refrigerant to change back
Notice that with both ice and water, it is their change of from liquid to vapor in the evaporator. Heat is absorbed in
state that allows for heat to be absorbed. It is this import- the evaporator and then thrown away in the condenser.
ant principle that serves as the basis for most refrigeration The refrigerant does not wear out and circulates around
and around during operation. Most refrigeration systems in
use today operate using this type of cycle.

1.3 today’s Heating, air

conditioning, and refrigeration
“Environmental heating and air conditioning” refers to the
HEAT OUT control of a space’s air temperature, humidity, circulation,
CONDENSATION EVAPORATION
cleanliness, and freshness, and it is used to promote the
comfort, health, and/or productivity of the inhabitants.
Homes, offices, schools, colleges, factories, sporting are-
nas, hotels, cars, trucks, and other vehicles such as aircraft
VAPOR TO LIQUID LIQUID TO VAPOR and spacecraft are heated and cooled. The main purpose
of environmental heating or cooling is to help maintain the
HEAT IN body temperature within its normal range. Generally, the
term air conditioning is used when the space temperature
figure 1-9 Water evaporates to vapor and absorbs heat, and is above 60°F (15°C), and refrigeration is the term used
then the vapor is condensed back to water to release its heat. when the space temperature is below 60°F (15°C).

figure 1-10 The basic COMPRESSOR

refrigeration cycle consists
(RAISES PRESSURE &
of four major components:
compressor, condenser, CIRCULATES REFRIGERANT)
expansion device, and
evaporator.
HIGH PRESSURE VAPOR

CONDENSER HEAT OUT

LOW (VAPOR TURNING
PRESSURE TO LIQUID)
VAPOR

EVAPORATOR
(LIQUID TURNING HIGH
TO VAPOR) PRESSURE
LIQUID
HEAT IN

LOW PRESSURE
LIQUID/VAPOR
EXPANSION DEVICE
(REDUCES PRESSURE)
 unit 1 introduction to Heating, Ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration 5

tecH tip

Without our ability to control the environment, it would

be impossible for us to explore space or the bottom of
the ocean, or even to enjoy the comfort of a transconti-
nental jet ride at 35,000 ft. So, our ability to control our
environment has served both to improve the quality of
life and to enhance our scientific endeavors.

Process heating and cooling are used to aid in manu-

facturing or to keep equipment at a desired temperature.
An area used to process meat or vegetables may be cooled
to help preserve the product. Computer rooms are cooled
so the equipment lasts longer and is able to stay online
due to the heat being removed from the space. Computers
would not operate properly if heat was not absorbed from
the space. Remote pumping stations may be heated to
prevent pipes from freezing. The main purpose of process
heating or cooling is to maintain the temperature of things
or processes within their required range.

tecH tip

An operating room is cooled to aid with the surgery as

well as for the comfort of the patient or surgeon. There-
fore, an operating room is an example of process cooling
even though it may be within the normal air-conditioning
temperature range.

Modern Heating
Central heating of homes and businesses dates back to an-
cient times, but the first commercial warm-air fan-driven
system was marketed in the 1860s. By the 1900s a num- figure 1-11 The patent for the first apparatus for cooling air,
ber of different central warm-air systems were available for invented by Willis Carrier.
residential and commercial applications, and in 1908, the Source: Patent Drawing for W. H. Carrier’s Apparatus for Treating Air, The
essential elements for heating, cooling, humidifying, dehu- National Archives Catalog
midifying, and filtering air were defined.
Today central heating systems can use warm air, hot Conditioned.” Dr. Carrier designed the psychrometric chart
water, steam, electric resistance, or a reverse refrigera- as we know it today. (This chart displays the properties
tion cycle (heat pump). The basic theory for the heat pump of air, such as temperature, humidity, and volume, and is
dates back to 1852. commonly used for many HVAC applications.)
Mass air conditioning of homes began in the late 1950s
Modern air conditioning with window air conditioners. Central residential air condi-
tioning started to become popular in the mid-1960s. Today
The development of modern air conditioning is often cred- most of us cannot imagine living in a home anywhere in the
ited to Dr. Willis Carrier. Dr. Carrier, an engineer, was country that does not have air conditioning.
confronted with a problem facing printers. As paper was
printed with one color, the dampness in the ink caused Modern refrigeration
the paper to stretch slightly, and it was nearly impossi-
ble for the second color to be printed without being mis- Clarence Birdseye made another major contribution to the
aligned. Dr. Carrier determined that a means for controlling industry. He developed the process of freezing foods in
the humidity was necessary and developed the first air- 1922. Today, supermarket freezer displays provide us with
conditioning system for the printing industry. His invention, a variety of food products that would not be possible to
called an “Apparatus for Treating Air,” was patented in 1906 preserve any other way (Figure 1-12). In 2006, a new era
(Figure 1-11). His invention quickly found favor not only for in eating occurred when the American public purchased
dehumidifying but also for cooling. Through the 1940s and more heat-to-eat and thaw-to-eat foods than any other
1950s, businesses would proudly display signs reading “Air type of food.
6 section 1 fundamentals

sizes will obviously vary greatly, depending on the region

of the country you are working in. In addition, there are
many very large homes being built, requiring systems that
could easily be classified as light commercial because of
their size and/or complexity.

tecH tip

To protect the public from potentially dangerous individu-

als, some businesses and/or local and state governments
require criminal background checks on anyone involved
with in-home service work. These checks may go back
25 years or more into an individual’s past. Check with your
local or state governmental department that regulates in-
home service work if you feel there is something in your
past that might affect your ability to work in residential
figure 1-12 Modern refrigeration display cases provide us service. In most states these checks are only required for
with a variety of food products that would not be available in-home service work, so you may still be able to work in
without refrigeration. new construction or in the commercial or industrial areas.

■■ frozen foods Before Clarence Birdseye began com-

mercially freezing food, people had allowed food to commercial air conditioning and Heating
freeze naturally during the winter months as a way
of preserving it for later use. Food frozen this way did The term commercial is used to refer to any system that is
not always taste that good, so the trick was to come used in commercial buildings (for business) that provides
up with a way of freezing food and having it still taste cooling or heating. These systems may be as small as a
good when it was thawed. fraction of a ton in size to several thousand tons in cooling
■■ Quick freezing The process of rapidly freezing food capacity and/or from 1,000 BTU/hr to hundreds of thou-
using air blast, contact, and/or immersion freezing sands of BTU/hr.
was the key to improving the quality and taste of Commercial systems may be operated independent of
thawed frozen foods. The problem with freezing food any other system or be integrated with a building automation
slowly is that when ice crystals form over time, they system. Because of the vast differences in the types of equip-
become much larger. These large, sharp ice crystals ment and system complexity, commercial technicians often
grow through the cell walls of the food, and when specialize in a single type of system or group of systems.
the food thaws, all of the nutrients in the food are
allowed to drain away. Quick freezing causes the ice commercial and industrial refrigeration
crystals to be very small and less likely to penetrate
cell walls, so the food retains nutrients and flavor The terms commercial refrigeration and industrial refrigera-
when it is thawed. tion are applied to retail food and cold-storage equipment and
facilities. Examples of commercial equipment and systems in-
clude refrigeration equipment found in supermarkets, conve-
1.4 eMployMent opportUnities nience stores, restaurants, and other food service establish-
ments. Industrial refrigeration can include long-term storage
The HVACR industry represents one of the largest em- either as cold storage or medium or low-temperature refrig-
ployment occupations in the country. Our industry, for eration systems that are generally larger-scale operations.
example, is one of the largest consumers of electric and
gas utilities in the nation. More electricity and natural gas types of jobs
is consumed producing heating and cooling than for any
other single use. The size of the industry has been grow- There are a variety of occupational specialties offered within
ing steadily since the late 1960s, when residential central the HVACR industry. These occupations range from the basic
systems became popular. The installation and servicing of entry-level helper to the systems designer. Although the
HVACR systems will always be an expanding occupation. work involved with heating, air conditioning, or refrigeration
No one builds a home or business without some type of equipment and systems is similar in theory, there is a signif-
heating and/or cooling system, which requires designing, icant difference between the work done in the areas of resi-
installing, and servicing by skilled and trained technicians. dential, light commercial, commercial, and industrial. These
areas of heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration generally
relate to the size (capacity) and complexity of the system.
residential air conditioning and Heating
However, technicians may find the exact same equipment
Most residential heating systems have a heating capacity used in one home being used in a commercial shop or fac-
of 50,000 to 150,000 BTU/hr. The majority of residential tory. In these cases the distinguishing factor is whether you
air-conditioning systems are 5 tons or less. Both of these are working in someone’s home or in a business.
 unit 1 introduction to Heating, Ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration 7

■■ entry-level helper The entry-level helper (first- ■■ equipment operator Equipment operators are
year apprentice) provides the senior technician with required by local ordinance and state law to be present
assistance installing and servicing equipment. Most anytime large central heating and air-conditioning
medium and large mechanical contracting companies plants are in operation. Their primary responsibility is to
use a number of helpers to assist with the installation ensure the safe and efficient operation of these large
and service of residential and commercial systems. A systems. They must have a good working knowledge
helper may be expected to assist in lifting, carrying, of the system’s mechanical, electrical, and computer
or placing equipment or components. He or she may control systems to carry out their job. They sometimes
also run errands to pick up parts and clean up the need to hold a city or state license to become an
area following installation or service. Helpers receive operator. Equipment operators generally work by
basic safety training, and if they will be driving, they themselves or as part of a small crew. They often are
must have good driving records. required to have good computer skills when buildings
■■ rough-in installer The initial installation process is have computerized building-management systems.
referred to as rough-in. In this process the technician ■■ facilities maintenance personnel Facilities-
(first- through third-year apprentice) will install the maintenance personnel are responsible for planned
refrigerant lines, electrical lines, thermostat and control maintenance and routine service on systems. They
lines, duct boots, and duct run and set the indoor and may work at a single location or have responsibilities
outdoor units. The rough-in technician must have an for multiple locations, such as school systems.
understanding of duct layout, blueprint reading, and Facilities-maintenance personnel typically maintain
basic hand tools and good brazing skills. systems and provide planned maintenance. They may
■■ start-up technician Once the system has been work alone or as part of a crew, depending on the size
installed and all of the components are ready for of the facility. Maintenance personnel may from time
operation, a start-up technician (fourth- and fifth- to time have duties and responsibilities outside of the
year apprentice) will go through the manufacturer’s HVACR trades, such as doing minor electrical plumbing
recommended procedures to initially start a system. and carpentry projects for the upkeep of the building.
Because much of the HVAC system has been field ■■ service manager A service manager is typically
installed, this checkout procedure is essential to a skilled HVACR technician with several years of
ensure safe and efficient operation. The start-up experience. This individual oversees the operation of a
technician records all of the information requested company or maintenance department. He or she must
by the manufacturer’s warranty. Start-up technicians have good management skills, communication skills,
must be skilled with electrical troubleshooting and technical expertise. Service managers typically
and refrigerant charging and have good reading assign jobs to other technicians and employees. They
comprehension and writing skills. must then oversee these individuals’ jobs.
■■ service technician The service technician (fourth- ■■ systems designer For small buildings, contrac-
year apprentice to journeyman) is the individual who tors normally size and select HVAC systems and
provides the system owner with repair and mainte- equipment. There are many industry-standard sizing
nance. Service technicians are the people who must and design guides available from trade associations
be able to diagnose system problems and make the such as the ACCA (Air Conditioning Contractors of
necessary repairs. Service technicians must be skilled America). For larger buildings, mechanical, architec-
in diagnosing electrical problems, refrigerant prob- tural, or building services engineers may be required
lems, and air-distribution problems. by law to design and specify the HVAC systems.
Specialty mechanical contractors will work with the
design plans to build and commission these systems.
tecH tip

Technology has enabled the field tech to stay in close 1.5 trade associations
contact with his service manager. This allows the highly
experienced service managers to provide assistance to With the rapid growth and variety of interests, trade as-
technicians as they come upon new problems. The tech- sociations naturally evolved to represent specific groups.
nician can also call upon the office to research unique The list includes manufacturers, wholesalers, contractors,
problems to determine the best, most efficient way of sheet metal workers, and service organizations. Each is
making the repair. important and makes a valuable contribution to the field.
Space does not permit a detailed examination of all of
these organizations, or all of their activities, but throughout
■■ sales HVACR sales are divided into two major cate- the book many of these associations will be acknowledged
gories: inside sales and outside sales. Inside sales deal as specific subjects are covered.
primarily with system sales to other air-conditioning
contractors. Outside sales may be to both contractors
certifications
and end users. Working in outside sales or consumer
sales requires the technician to have a good under- Many trade associations offer training programs and compe-
standing of cost and value of equipment so that the tency examinations for the industry to help ensure a work-
owner can make an informed choice. force of qualified technicians. In addition, the 1990 Clean
8 section 1 fundamentals

Air Act passed by the United States Congress requires that familiar with the Directory of Certified Refrigerant
anyone who performs maintenance, service, repair, or dis- Recovery/Recycling Equipment, published every March
posal that could be reasonably expected to release refrig- and September by AHRI.
erants must be certified. To become certified, technicians ■■ HVACR equipment certification program. AHRI maintains
are required to pass an Environmental Protection Agency a certification service, which tests a wide variety of
(EPA)–approved test given by an EPA-approved certifying equipment and products to verify the performance de-
organization. Four different types of certifications have scribed by the manufacturer. Certified directories for var-
been developed to address different types of equipment. A ious products are published semiannually and annually.
person meeting the requirements for all four types is issued
a universal certification. This is certification process is fur- AHRI has a full program of educational activities geared
ther described in Unit 26, Refrigerant Management. toward helping the nation’s vocational and technical
schools improve and expand their education and training
programs. Under the direction of AHRI’s education director
air-conditioning, Heating, and and its Education and Training Committee, AHRI serves as
a resource for manufacturers, school instructors, depart-
refrigeration institute (aHri)
ment heads, and guidance counselors. In addition to this
The Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute textbook and its companion materials, AHRI produces the
(AHRI) is a national trade association representing manu- Bibliography of Training Aids, a career brochure, and a pro-
facturers of over 90 percent of U.S.-produced central air- motional video for schools to use to recruit students into
conditioning, gas appliances, and commercial refrigeration HVACR programs. Many schools around the country have
equipment. AHRI was formed in 2007/2008 when ARI (Air adopted the ICE competency exams as final exams for their
Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute) merged with GAMA programs. AHRI’s most recent efforts involve participation
(Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association). ARI, now AHRI, in developing national HVACR competency standards.
was originally formed in 1954 through a merger of two related Having students pass the ICE competency exams and
trade associations and traces its history back to 1903 when it training toward national competency standards will im-
started as the Ice Machine Builders Association of the United prove the quality of installation and service. New HVACR
States. Today AHRI has over 180 companies as members. technicians will be better prepared, resulting in three basic
Many services are provided by AHRI to assist HVACR advantages:
technicians. Some of these services, which would supple-
ment this text, are as follows: ■■ Limited training required for contractors
■■ Limited rework or repeat calls due to error
■■ ICE is an industry competency exam. This test is made ■■ Limited warranty/replacement for manufacturers
available to students of educational institutions to
test their knowledge of fundamental and basic skills The cost of repeat service calls, which is borne by
necessary for entry-level HVACR technician positions. contractors, may be reduced substantially by employing
The information in this text covers the topics in the properly trained technicians. Every new technician receives
AHRI curriculum guide and would assist the student training and serves as an apprentice for a period of time.
in taking this examination. A directory of those who That is essentially a period where contractors pay two peo-
pass the examination is published nationally to assist ple to do one job. A properly trained technician will gener-
prospective employers in identifying job candidates. ally require less training time and function sooner than a
■■ Equipment donations to schools participating in the poorly trained technician.
ICE competency exam. AHRI contacts industry sources In co-sponsorship with AHRI, ASHRAE holds an an-
having no-cost or low-cost equipment available to nual international Air Conditioning Heating Refrigeration
supply a school’s laboratory needs. Exposition, which may draw 30,000 to 50,000 people in
■■ Technician certification program. In accordance with the field. Product exhibits, technical displays, and business
EPA’s enforcement of the Clean Air Act, the sale of seminars highlight the event.
refrigerants is made only to those technicians who have
been certified. AHRI is among the many approved by american society of Heating,
EPA to administer the test for certification. In addition, refrigeration, and air-conditioning
AHRI provides study material to prepare for the test.
engineers (asHrae)
■■ Reclaimer certification program. EPA also requires
certification of any processor of recovered refrigerant The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-
for resale. AHRI is among those assigned by EPA to Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) is an organization started
carry out a certification program for companies that in 1904 as the American Society of Refrigeration Engineers
seek to reclaim refrigerants. Technicians handling (ASRE) with seventy members. Today its membership is
reclaimed refrigerant should become familiar with the composed of thousands of professional engineers and
Directory of Certified Reclaimed Refrigerants, published technicians from all phases of the HVACR industry. ASHRAE
every March and September by AHRI. also creates equipment standards for the industry. Its most
■■ Certification program for equipment used to recover important contribution probably has been a series of four
and recycle refrigerant. AHRI is one of the companies books that have become the reference books of the indus-
approved by EPA to certify equipment used to recover try: HVAC Applications, Refrigeration, Fundamentals, and
and recycle refrigerants. Technicians should become HVAC Systems and Equipment.
 unit 1 introduction to Heating, Ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration 9

tecH tip
Unit 1—sUMMary
Becoming an active participating member in a profes-
Since the beginning of time, people have had a desire to
sional trade association will provide you with an oppor-
control their environment to live and work more comfort-
tunity to continue your HVACR education. The HVACR
ably. That trend will not stop, and that is the good news for
field is such a dynamic and evolving industry that to stay
anyone entering this ever-growing, financially rewarding,
competitive you must continually attend seminars and
and personally satisfying field. HVACR technicians are re-
take classes. This is a field where your success will de-
quired to understand the theories behind designing, install-
pend on your continued education.
ing, and servicing a wide range of systems. This diversity
ensures that each day on the job will be new and unique,
ever changing, and challenging.
american society of Mechanical
engineers (asMe)
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers is an
organization composed of engineers in a wide variety of Unit 1—review QUestions
industries. Among other functions, ASME writes standards
related to safety aspects of pressure vessels. 1. List some of the different ways that homes and buildings may
be heated.

air conditioning contractors of 2. What were some of the primary heating fuels that early civi-
lizations used?
america (acca)
3. When is it believed that ice was first artificially made for food
The Air Conditioning Contractors of America is a service con- storage?
tractor’s association concerned with the education of tech- 4. How did early man make ice?
nicians and service managers with business-improvement
techniques. ACCA provides technician EPA certification. 5. Why did some manufacturers spray water in factories in the
early 1700s?

refrigeration service engineers 6. How did early Romans cool palaces?

society (rses) 7. What do the terms environmental heating and air conditioning
refer to?
The Refrigeration Service Engineers Society is the interna-
8. What does the term process heating and cooling refer to?
tional professional association for all HVACR workers and
is dedicated to education and certification of technicians 9. When did central warm-air systems for residential and com-
in the HVACR industry. RSES offers Specialist Certification mercial applications become well defined?
for senior technicians in eight HVACR areas and has a tech- 10. Who developed what is referred to as modern air conditioning?
nician EPA certification program. RSES chapters conduct 11. When did mass air conditioning of homes with window units
classroom training in technical areas and are a source for begin?
educational printed material and books. 12. Why is it important to freeze foods quickly?
13. Why do some businesses and/or local and state govern-
Hvac excellence ments require criminal background checks for HVACR
HVAC Excellence is a not-for-profit organization that has been workers?
serving the HVACR industry since 1994. The organization’s 14. What size range might a commercial air conditioner fit into?
goal is to improve competency through validation of the tech- 15. Give an example of some of the types of equipment that a
nical education process by offering progressive levels of tech- commercial refrigeration technician might work on.
nician certification through its HVAC Excellence programs.
16. What type of things might an entry-level helper do?
17. Whose job is it to do the initial installation process, such as
service tip install the refrigerant lines, electrical lines, thermostat and
control lines, duct boots, and duct run, as well as setting the
indoor and outdoor units?
The AHRI list of certified equipment is available to any-
one through the Internet. This material is very helpful 18. What skills must a service technician have?
when trying to make a determination of the best equip- 19. What are some of the things that a service manager must be
ment to recommend for customers and their specific able to do?
application needs. On the Web, very often all of the var- 20. What is the ICE exam, and who might take it?
ious pieces of equipment are available.
21. What are some of the RSES’s activities?
 Unit 2
Being a Professional
HVACR Technician
Objectives

After completing this unit, you will be able to: 4. explain the value of taking the Industry Competency
Exam (ICE).
1. list some of the most popular HVACR publications.
5. list the items that help make for a professional
2. explain the importance of professional certifications.
appearance while on the job.
3. list the eleven specialty areas of NATE specialty
6. describe how to develop good communication with
certification.
the customer.

2.1 intrOdUctiOn tech tiP

The air-conditioning and refrigeration industry has more pro-
fessional organizations, trade associations, publications, and Once you enter the profession as an HVACR technician, all
other related organizations when compared to many other costs associated with taking additional classes, purchas-
technical fields. As a student, you should consider becom- ing books, and membership dues may be tax deductible.
ing involved with a student organization such as the student
clubs of ACCA, RSES, or ASHRAE. These will give you an op-
portunity to begin developing extremely important business
and technical contacts in the local HVACR industry, and these
2.2 PUblicatiOns
contacts will serve you very well as you enter the profession. Another excellent way of keeping up with the latest in-
As a professional in the trade, it is to your advantage formation in the HVACR field is by subscribing to one or
to maintain a close relationship with one or more of these more of the HVACR publications (Figure 2-3). Some of these
professional organizations. Each group provides its mem- publications are weekly, while others are monthly. They all
bers with the latest trends and most current technical infor- contain well-written articles specifically addressing HVACR
mation. This gives members a significant edge. Most of the industry concerns. Many of them are written to teach their
organizations provide ongoing technical and business train- readers troubleshooting skills. Their articles are very valu-
ing classes. Many of the classes cover the latest trends in able even to the skilled technician.
equipment, regulations, codes and standards, local building Some of the professional organizations have their
regulations, and business practices. Being able as a member own newsletters that are published and provided to their
to participate in these ongoing educational opportunities members. Some local and state chapters of these organiza-
will keep you at the leading edge of your new profession. tions have additional newsletters that are provided to their
Each of these professional organizations has publica- members.
tions, and many provide the industry with codes and stan-
dards. These publications would be an excellent addition to
your technical library. Having an up-to-date library will help 2.3 PrOfessiOnal certificatiOn
you provide your employer and customers with the best
possible service while making you significantly more valu- Every HVACR technician must become certified under the
able as an employee. HVACR is an ongoing learning process EPA Section 608 regulations. Compliance with these regu-
for even the most skilled technician. lations regarding the management of refrigerants is man-
Figure 2-1 lists a number of these professional associ- datory for everyone in the trade. Following your successful
ations. Most have Web sites, and many have local, regional, completion of any and all of the appropriate levels, it re-
and state chapters that you can become affiliated with. mains your responsibility to comply with any changes in
Many of the HVACR professional organizations have these regulations. As unfair as it may seem, you can be
industrial trade shows. These shows provide excellent op- fined significantly for violating an EPA regulation pertaining
portunities for you to see the various manufacturers’ latest to refrigerants even if that regulation took effect after your
equipment, tools, supplies, and services. Some of the trade successful completion of the certification. In addition, it is
shows are local, others may be regional, some are national, your sole responsibility to remember and follow all of the
and a few are international (Figure 2-2). EPA regulations pertaining to refrigerant management. For

10
 Unit 2 Being a Professional HVaCr teCHniCian 11

figure 2-1 U.S. organizations.

ACCA—Air Conditioning Contractors of America
AFEAS—Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study
AGA—American Gas Association
AHAM—Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers
AMCA—Air Movement & Control Association
ANSI—American National Standards Institute
AHRI—Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute
ARWI—Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Wholesalers International
ASAE—American Society of Association Executives
ASHRAE—American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers
ABC—Associated Builders & Contractors
BOMA International—Building Owners and Managers Association
COBRA—The Association of Cogeneration
CDA—Copper Development Association
COSA—Carbon Monoxide Safety Association
EEI—Edison Electric Institute
EPRI—Electrical Power Research Institute
EHCC—Eastern Heating & Cooling Council
Envirosense Consortium Inc.
EPEE—European Partnership for Energy and the Environment
FMI—The Food Marketing Institute
GEO—Geothermal Exchange Organization
GMA—Grocery Manufacturers of America
Green Mechanical Council
HARDI—Heating, Airconditioning, and Refrigeration Distributors International
HPBA—Hearth, Patio and Barbeque Association
HI—Hydraulic Institute
HRAI—Heating, Refrigerating, & Air-Conditioning Institute of Canada
HVAC Excellence
IDDBA—International Dairy, Deli, Bakery Association
IFPA—International Fresh-Cut Produce Association
IGSHPA—International Ground Source Heat Pump Association
IIAR—International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
IHACI—Institute of Heating and Air Conditioning Industries
ISA—The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society
MCAA—Mechanical Contractors Association of America
MSCA—Mechanical Service Contractors of America
NACS—National Association of Convenience Stores
NADCA—National Air Duct Cleaners Association
NAHB—National Association of Home Builders
NAFEM—National Association of Food Equipment Manufacturers
NAM—National Association of Manufacturers
NATE—North American Technician Excellence Program
NRA—National Restaurant Association
NEMA—National Electrical Manufacturers Association
NFFS—Non-Ferrous Founders' Society
NIPC—National Inhalant Prevention Coalition
PHCC—Plumbing Heating Cooling Contractors Association
PIMA—Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association
PMA—Produce Marketing Association
RACCA—Refrigeration & Air Conditioning Contractors Association
RSES—Refrigeration Service Engineers Society
SMACNA—Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association
SMWIA—Sheet Metal Workers International Association
UL—Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
UA—United Association
12 seCtion 1 fUndamentals

CANMET—Canadian Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology

EPEE—European Partnership for Energy and the Environment
EUROVENT—European Committee of Air Handling & Refrigerating Equipment
ICARMA—International Council of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Manufacturers' Association
globalEDGE
IEA—International Energy Agency
IIAR—International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
IIR—International Institute of Refrigeration
JRAIA—Japan Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Industry Association
LATCO's Tools of the Trade(Latin American international trade sites)
Trade Compass
UNEP—United Nations Environment Programme
USA*Engage
World Bank
WTPF—World Trade Point Federation

figure 2-2 International Organizations.

completed or nearly completed a technical training program.

The Air-Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration (ACHR) This examination is voluntary, but it does provide students
News leaving a training program, whether from high school, trade
American School & University (AS&U) school, or community college, with an opportunity to evaluate
APPLIANCE magazine their knowledge with an industry standardized test.
Appliance Manufacturer The ICE has been developed over the years with input
ASHRAE Journal from manufacturers, trade associations, instructors, and
Buildings other industry experts. This exam can also provide your insti-
Building Design and Construction tution with an overall evaluation of its training program. Upon
Consulting-Specifying Engineer your successful completion of the ICE, your name, along
Contracting Business with your school’s name, is published and made available to
Contractor magazine area contractors who might be looking for new skilled em-
Energy User News ployees. In short, the successful completion of the ICE can
Engineered Systems put you well ahead of other graduates from programs not
Facilities Net participating in the ICE. The ICE is in three parts—Residential
Heating/Piping/AirConditioning (HPAC) Heating and Air Conditioning, Light Commercial Heating and
Japan Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration News Air Conditioning, and Commercial Refrigeration. A good stu-
(JARN) dent will make testing and certification achievement a chal-
Plant Engineering lenge for him- or herself, always setting goals high.
RSES Journal AHRI and its affiliates provide training institutions with
SchoolDesigns.com incentives as encouragement to participate in the ICE by
Skylines directing many of its manufacturing members’ equipment
Supply House Times donation programs toward the schools, institutes, and col-
Western HVACR News leges that participate in the ICE program. These equipment
donations can become an excellent source of the latest
figure 2-3 Publications. equipment you will be seeing in the field.

that reason, it would be a good business practice to occa- 2.5 skills Usa
sionally take a refresher course in EPA rules and regulations.
Skills USA is a vocational industrial club for students in
high schools, trade schools, and community colleges. Skills
2.4 indUstry cOmPetency exam (ice) USA clubs are open to students in all areas of specialty,
including HVACR. The national organization provides local
The Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI); chapters and students with many opportunities to develop
the Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA); Heating, leadership, citizenship, and interpersonal skills that are
Airconditioning, and Refrigeration Distributors International invaluable to the success of individuals in any profession.
(HARDI); the Plumbing, Heating, Cooling Contractors The Skills USA logo is shown in Figure 2-4a.
Association (PHCC); North American Technician Excellence In addition to the opportunities for individual profes-
(NATE); the Partnership for Air-Conditioning, Heating, sional growth, Skills USA sponsors regional, state, national,
Refrigeration Accreditation (PAHRA); and the Refrigeration and international skills competitions. The contestants for
Service Engineers Society (RSES) have established a compe- the HVACR competitions will be tested in the following
tency examination that is designed for students who have areas: written exam, brazing skills, refrigerant component
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 LOW TONE ASSUMED BY HIM ON THIS OCCASION.

On more accounts than one, remarkable,—and not a little

instructive, is the account we have of this last recorded visit: and, in
particular, as to what concerns the reception he experienced from
the ruling powers of the Church.
It is, in some particulars, more especially to be depended upon,—
inasmuch as, at this important meeting, the author of the Acts—if he
is to be believed—was himself present.
The first remarkable circumstance is—that, on this occasion, Paul,
the self-elected Apostle—instead of taking the lead, and introducing
his companions—keeps behind, and is introduced by them: such was
the pliancy, with which—even on this expedition, of invasion and
projected conquest,—an expedition,—undertaken, in spite of
everything that could be done, both on the part of the intended
objects of the conquest, and on the part of his own adherents—such
was the pliancy, with which this man, among whose boasts was that
of being all things to all men, could bend himself to circumstances.
Acts 21:15-18. "And after those days, we took up our carriages, and
went to Jerusalem. There went with us, also, certain of the disciples
of Cæsarea, and brought with them one Mnason of Cyprus, an old
disciple, with whom we should lodge." At Jerusalem, not so much as
a house, to harbour them, could they have been assured of, but for
this old disciple—fellow countryman, of Paul's old patron, the Son of
Consolation, Barnabas. Not even with him could they have been
assured of this token of friendship, had he not either been already of
their party, or detached himself to meet them, and afford them the
assurance: although, at Cæsarea,—from some cause, of which,
while the effect is brought to view, no intimation is given,—they
were fortunate enough to obtain a hospitable reception, Acts 21:8,
at the house of Philip. This, however, be it observed, was not Philip,
the Apostle, whether it may have been Philip, styled here the
Evangelist:—one of the seven trustees, or directors, Acts 6:5, to
whom, with his six colleagues, under the name, so inexpressively
rendered, in the English, by the word Deacons,—the management of
the common fund had, by the suffrages of the disciples, been
committed, must be left to conjecture.
17. "And when we were come to Jerusalem, the brethren," Acts
21:17, "received us gladly." What brethren? The Apostles, or any one
of them? no: The elders? no. Who then?—Who, but such of the
members of the Church, as, notwithstanding the general
repugnancy,—as testified at Tyre, and afterwards, by prophet
Agabus, at Cæsarea,—could, by the influence of the Cypriot Mnason,
or otherwise, be prevailed upon to see them.
And, to whom was it, that this sort of reception, whatsoever it was,
was afforded? Was it to Paul? No: it was to those, who, on other
occasions, were with him; but, with whom, on this occasion, his
prudence forced his pride to submit to be.
Witness the next verse, Acts 21:18; "And the day following," not till
the day following, "Paul went in with us unto James." With them—
with these his attendants—did Paul, then and there, go in:—not they
with him.
At the house of James—mark well, now—who were the persons
present? Answer—"all the elders." But, forasmuch as these elders
were, all of them, present,—notice, within the compass of the two
fragments of two days,—notice, to and by all of them must have
been given and received: for it has just been seen, whether,
between any of them, on the one hand,—and Paul, or, so much as
any one of his attendants, on the other,—there could have been any
such sort of good understanding, as to have produced any the least
personal intercourse, but at, and on, the occasion of the general and
formal meeting:—a meeting, which—as will be seen presently—had,
for its sole object, the imposing upon him, in the event of his
continuance at Jerusalem, an obligation: an obligation—to a man in
his circumstances—it has been seen, of how perilous and repulsive a
nature.
Such, then, was the notice, as to have brought to the place, all the
Elders—All the Elders?—good. But, these Elders—Elders among the
disciples in ordinary,—on an occasion such as this, what were they
in comparison of the Apostles—the only known chosen servants, and
constant companions of Jesus? Well, then, while—at this meeting—
this formally convened meeting—those Elders were, every one of
them, present—what was the number of Apostles present? Answer—
Besides James, not one.
And—why James?—manifestly, because it was at his house, that the
meeting was held.
And—why at his house? Because, on the occasion, and for the
purpose, of the partition treaty,—that treaty, so necessary to the
peace of the Church,—on the one hand; and, to the carrying on of
Paul's scheme of dominion, on the other hand;—James was one, of
the only three, who could ever endure the sight of the self-declared
Apostle: Peter and John, as hath been seen, being the two others:—
and, because, when, for the purpose of investing the meeting, in the
eyes of the disciples at large, with the character of a meeting of the
ruling administrative body—the Apostles,—less than that one, if
there were any, there could not be. This one, James—under the
pressure of the present emergency—prevailed upon himself to be:
and, to be so irksome an intercourse—notwithstanding the
obviousness of the demand for as great a number, as could be
collected, of that primarily influential body—of no other of the
Apostles, could the attendance be obtained: not even of Peter, who,
on a former occasion, had brought himself to endure the hateful
presence.

SECTION 3.

POSTERIOR TO ALL HIS SUPPOSED MIRACLES, HIS SILENCE PROVES

THEM UNREAL.
Now, then, as to miracles. Had Paul, really and truly, ever received
from Jesus, any such preeminent and characteristic appendage and
mark of Apostleship,—here, of all others, was an occasion, on which
it concerned him to make proof of it. Here was an occasion, on
which, with the design, and for the purpose—the palpable, and
almost universally and so strenuously opposed design and purpose—
of constituting himself the superior of the Apostles, he was
presenting himself—though in circumstances of such humiliation—in
the character of an equal, with whom they had treated on equal
terms. Here—in order to impose silence on all gainsayers—here was
the occasion, for his bringing to public view, this most important of
all items in the list of his credentials. The Apostles, to whom—
without any exception, by Jesus, if the Evangelist, Mark 16:15-18, is
to be believed—this power had, previously to his ascension, been
imparted,—these, if any, were the men—not to say the only men—
qualified to form a judgment on the question—whether, by any other
individual, and, more especially, by the individual before them,
namely, by this their self-declared colleague, any such extraordinary
power had, on any, and what, occasion, been exercised or
possessed. Of all imaginable occasions, this was the one, on which
he had most at stake, in the being able to make proof of so
matchless an endowment:—of an endowment, which in the
character of a proof, in support of all his claims, would, in the very
nature of it, have been so perfectly irresistible.
Well, then: this proof of his title—did he use every endeavour, or
make any offer, to produce it? No: not so much did he venture upon,
as, in any the most general terms, to assert, or, so much as
insinuate, the existence of it. According to his own statement, what
was the general description of the tokens brought forward by him,
for the purpose of obtaining acceptance? Were they signs and
wonders? Oh, no! His historiographer, indeed—in that, or any other
such indeterminate, and conveniently ambiguous phrase—his
historiographer, at some twenty or seven-and-twenty years' distance,
might venture, Acts 14:3, to speak of his exploits—of the effects
produced by his exertions: in the like terms, in writing to his
Corinthian disciples, he might, even himself, venture, for once, to
speak of his own exploits.[54] But, before an assembly, so
composed, was this boast, loose, and conveniently ambiguous, as it
was,—in his eyes, too much to venture. Acts 21:19—Behold here the
passage: "And when he had saluted them, he declared
particularly"—what? what—signs and wonders? No: but simply
—"what things God had wrought among the Gentiles by his
ministry."
Had he hazarded so much as the general expression of signs and
wonders—well, and what were these signs and wonders? give us, at
any rate, something by way of a sample of them? In any one of
them, was there anything supernatural? anything—beyond the
success, the extraordinary success—we are to understand, your
exertions were attended with? Questions, to some such effect as
this, which, in an assembly, so composed, had he ventured upon any
such expressions, he could not but have expected to be annoyed
with.
The occurrences which, in the course of it, in the character of
miracles, he has ventured to present to view, will have been seen in
their place and order. Yet,—notwithstanding the mention there
respectively and severally made of them—no mention of them does
he, in the account given by him of the meeting, venture to put in his
leader's mouth. Why? because—forasmuch as, by Paul himself, no
such pretence was ventured to be made—the meeting was too
important, and too notorious, to render it safe to advance any such
matter of fact; the face being false; or, that any such pretensions
were really made.
But, hereupon come two questions.
1. Had any such miracles been really wrought—was it in the nature
of things, that, on this occasion, Paul should have omitted all
mention of them? even so much as the most distant allusion to
them?
2. If any such intimation had really been given, by the historian
himself, is it in the nature of the case, that, on this occasion,—he
having been one of the witnesses, in whose presence they had been
performed,—all mention of such intimation should have been
omitted?
Well, then—suppose that to both these questions, let it but be a
negative answer or the true one, the consequence is plain—no such
miracles were wrought. Yet, in his narrative, has this man—
exhibiting himself, at the same time, in the character of a percipient
witness, in relation to them—ventured to assert the existence, one
after another, of the whole list of these particularized miracles, not
to speak of the cluster of unparticularized ones.

SECTION 4.

ACCUSED BY THE DISCIPLES, HE COMMENCES, AT THE

RECOMMENDATION OF THE APOSTLES, AN EXCULPATORY OATH IN THE
TEMPLE.

Such being in their eyes the danger; now comes their expedient for
the arresting of it. It is an altogether curious one: and among those
persons styled elders—all the elders—to every sincere and pious
Christian it will naturally be matter of no small satisfaction that no
one of the whole fellowship of the Apostles is to be found.
According to the description here given of it, the expedient is of such
a sort, that—but for the occasion on which it is represented as being
proposed,—scarcely would it be possible to divine what is meant;
what it was that was proposed to be done; or, whatever it was, what
could be the use or effect of it?
"Do therefore this," Acts 21:23, continues the speech attributed to
these elders, "do therefore this that we say to thee: we have four
men which have a vow on them:—Them take, and purify thyself with
them, and be at charges with them, that they may shave their
heads: and all may know that those things, whereof they were
informed, are nothing; but that thou thyself also walkest orderly and
keepest the law.—As touching the Gentiles which believe, we have
written and concluded that they observe no such thing, save only
that they keep themselves from things offered to idols, and from
blood and from fornication.—Then Paul," it is added, "took the men,
and the next day purifying himself with them entered into the
temple to signify the accomplishment of the days of purification,
until that an offering should be offered for every one of them."
In the terms of the historian, the matter of the accusation in
question is this: namely, "that thou," speaking to Paul, "teachest all
the Jews which are among the Gentiles to forsake Moses": it then
divides itself into two branches: one is—that "they ought not to
circumcise their children"; the other is—that "they ought not to walk
after the customs":—i. e., conform to any part of the habitual
observances—acts and forbearances together—prescribed by the
Mosaic law.
Such is the accusation: such the act charged upon him, in the
character of an offence:—the teaching of the doctrine in question.
In regard to the question—whether the doctrine he is thus said to
have taught, had really ever been taught by him,—much will depend
upon the difference between simple permission and prohibition: in
English, upon the difference between need not and ought not. If,—in
the doctrine, the teaching of which is thus charged upon him as a
crime,—simple permission was included—if, in speaking of the
converts in question, the saying was—that they need not circumcise
their children—that they need not walk after these customs—this
and no more;—in this case, that the charge, such as it is, was true,
is altogether out of doubt:—if, on the other hand, the act he was
charged with, went so far as to the teaching that they ought not to
circumcise any of their children, or that they ought not to walk after
the customs prescribed in the Mosaic law—on this supposition, the
truth of the charge will at any rate not be quite so clear as in the
other case.
According to the English translation, that which is charged as an
offence, was not committed, unless, in the doctrine taught, a direct
prohibition was contained: to a doctrine importing nothing more
than a simple permission to abstain from the acts and forbearances
in question, the charge would not have any application. Not thus
unambiguous, however, is the Greek original; either by prohibition,
or by ample permission, might the doctrine charged as criminal have
been taught.
Such is the description of the obnoxious practice, with which Paul is
here stated as having been charged: the practice by which the
odium is stated as having been incurred.
But this imaginary guilt, in what view do they mention it as imputed
to him? In this view evidently, viz., that at their recommendation he
may take that course, by which, in their view, he will escape from
the wrath of which he had become the object. The effect thus aimed
at is,—that the indignation of which he is the object, may be made
to cease. How made to cease? in one or other of two ways: for the
nature of the case admits not of any other: either by proving that
that which he had been supposed to have taught, had not in truth
ever been taught by him, and thus, that no such offence as he was
charged with, had, in fact, ever been committed by him; or that, if
any such offence had been committed, the practice recommended
might be accepted as an atonement: or rather as an assurance, that
whatever in his past conduct had given them offence, would not be
repeated by him in future.
When the supposed remedial practice has been explained,—then
immediately after comes, we see, a more particular indication of the
good effects, for the production of which it is recommended. These
are—in the first place, that, whatsoever were the doctrines he was
charged with having taught it, it will be generally known that no
such doctrines were ever taught by him: in the next place, that it will
in like manner be known, that by himself no such habitual offence as
that of an habitual violation of the law in question was committed.
Such are the effects, stated as resulting from his performing the
ceremony, the performance of which was thus recommended to him.
This ceremony we see: and what we see at the same time is—that it
could not be, in the nature of it, productive of any such effects.
Here is a certain doctrine, which he had been charged with having
taught. If the case was, that he had taught it; let him have purified
himself ever so purely, whatsoever was meant by purification,—let
him have purified himself ever so completely, let him have paid ever
so much money, let him have shaved his head ever so close,—by
any, or all of all these supposed meritorious acts, how could that be
caused, not to have happened, which in fact had happened? by what
means could they afford proof of his performance of any ceremony,
other than those very same purification ceremonies themselves?
As to the purpose of furthering the temporal interest of the
individual in question; namely, by removing the load of odium, with
which at that time it seems he was burdened,—how far, in relation to
this object, the expedient promised to be an effectual cure, is more
than at this time we can find any ground for saying: as to any good
purposes of any other kind, that it was not in the nature of it to be
productive of any, may be pronounced without much danger of error.
Here at any rate was a ceremony—a ceremony the object of which
was—to apply, to the purpose of ensuring obsequiousness, the
power of the religious sanction.
The object, to which it was meant to apply that form, comes, it may
be seen, under the general denomination of an oath. An oath is
either assertory or promissory: if it be an oath of the promissory
kind, it is called a vow. An oath which is not a vow cannot respect
anything but what is past: upon that which is past, no human act
can any longer exercise any influence. A vow has respect to
something future—to the future conduct of him by whom the vow is
taken: and to this conduct a man, in and by the taking of the vow,
engages to give the form therein mentioned.
Whatsoever, therefore, these ceremonies were in themselves,—thus
much seems plain enough, respecting the immediate effect they
were designed to answer: namely, either the delivery of a certain
species of evidence, or the entering into an engagement to a certain
effect: the evidence being a denial of the act charged: the
engagement, a promise not to practice any acts of the sort in
question in future.
Whatsoever was the effect looked for, and intended, by the
ceremony,—thus much we know, if the historian is here to be
believed: namely, that, in conformity to the advice, Paul betook
himself to the performance of it.
But, in so doing, thus much also we know: namely, that he
consented to, and betook himself to one of two things: an act of
perjury, if the effect of the ceremony was to convey an assertion,
that he had never taught, that a Jew, on being converted to the
religion of Jesus, need not circumcise his children, or walk after the
Mosaic customs: an act of apostasy, if the effect of it was an
engagement never to teach this same doctrine in future: an act of
apostasy—and for what? only to save himself from the displeasure
entertained towards him on unjust grounds by a set of ill-advised
and inconsistent disciples.
Under the general head of Paul's Doctrines, particular title Faith and
Works, it will be seen what pains he had taken, on so many
occasions, to weed out of men's breasts, Gentiles and Jews together,
all regard for the Mosaic law—to cause them, in the words of the
charge, to forsake Moses. "By the works of the law," says he in his
letter to the Galatians, Gal. 2:16, "by the works of the law shall no
flesh be justified."
In this same letter, and in the same paragraph,—he speaks, of a
speech which he had made, of a reproof which, at Antioch, he had
given to Peter:—given to him, at a point of time long before the time
here in question, namely, that of his last preceding visit—his third
visit to Jerusalem,—this being the fourth. Let us see, once more, on
what occasion, and for what cause, this reproof: we shall thereby be
the better enabled to judge—how far, supposing the ceremony to
have the effect of an assertory oath,—how far that oath can have
been conformable to the truth.
Speaking of Peter, "Time was," he says, "when he did eat with the
Gentiles: but at Antioch, as above, certain persons came from
James": Gal. 2:12, 13, and then it was that "he, Peter, withdrew and
separated himself, fearing them which were of the circumcision.—
And the Jews," continues he, "dissembled likewise with him;
insomuch that Barnabas also was carried away with their
dissimulation." Of his return to Judaism, or at any rate of the
dissimulation which accompanied it, what is the judgment which, if
he is to be believed, he pronounced? Answer, That in so doing "they
walked not uprightly according to the truth of the Gospel."
Thereupon it is, that he charged Peter with inconsistency, and
reproved him for it: "Because," says he, "he was to be blamed." Gal.
2:14. "When I saw that they walked not uprightly according to the
Gospel, I said unto Peter before them all, If thou, being a Jew, livest
after the manner of the Gentiles, and not as do the Jews, why
compellest thou the Gentiles to live as do the Jews?"
Before me lies a book by Thomas Lewis, M. A., in four 8vo volumes,
entitled Origines Hebraicae. In this book, under titles Vow and
Purification, my expectation was, to find some explanation of this
matter: as also of the other vow taken by Paul at Cenchrea, Acts
17:18, in the interval between his third visit to Jerusalem, and this
fourth: but no mention is made of either: nor does anything appear,
by which any light can be reflected upon either.
On the four men, whom, in pursuance of the recommendation in
question, Paul is said to have taken, that he might "purify himself
along with them," the intended effect of the ceremony in question is
said to be—the making or performance of a vow. But, from the
circumstance of its being a vow in their case, it follows not
absolutely that it may not have been an oath—an assertory oath, in
his case.
At Jerusalem, for the taking or performance of a vow, a man was
received into the temple:—a district more extensive by far, it
appears, than the district called Rules of the King's Bench at London:
from the account given by Lewis, as well as by this,—it appears that,
on every such occasion, fees were taken by the priests. As to the
four men here in question—having already, as it is stated, a vow on
them, but nothing as yet done in consequence,—it looks as if it had
been by poverty that they had hitherto been kept from the
accomplishment of their purpose: on which supposition, Paul being
the head of a considerable party, and as such having a command of
money,—part of the recommendation seems to have been—that, to
acquire the reputation of liberality, he should open his purse to these
his proposed companions, and pay their fees.
On the occasion here in question, whatsoever was the purpose and
intended effect of the ceremony, what appears from verse 27, Acts
27, is—that seven days were regarded as necessary for the
accomplishment of it: no mention of this in Lewis.
On this occasion, by the author of the Acts, once more is mentioned
the conciliatory decree of the Apostles and Elders. Still, not a syllable
about it is to be found in any Epistle of Saint Paul, or in any other of
the Apostolical Epistles that have come down to us.
Humanly speaking,—in what motives, in what circumstances, in what
considerations, shall we say, that the causes, final and efficient, of
this temperament—this mezzo termino—this middle course—are to
be found? The answer that presents itself is as follows:
Two stumbling-blocks were to be steered clear of:—the scruples of
the Jewish converts, and the refractoriness of the Gentiles. So far as
regarded abstinence from idolatrous feasts, and from meat with the
whole blood in it, killed and dressed in a manner other than that in
practice among the Jews,—conformity, it was judged, need not be
dispensed of, at the hands of the Gentiles: and, so long as they
would be content with meat killed and dressed after the Jewish
mode,—the Jewish teachers might, without giving offence to their
Jewish converts, have the convenience of partaking of the tables of
the Gentile converts. As to the rest—the endless train of habitual
observances, by which so large a portion of a man's life was
occupied and tormented, neither these permanent plagues, nor the
initiatory plague of circumcision, though the affair of a minute, and
performed once for all, were found endurable: neither upon himself
nor upon his children would a man submit to have it practiced.
After all, if the author of the Acts is to be believed,—it was by the
Jews of Asia, and not by those of Jerusalem, that, at Jerusalem, the
tumult was raised, by which this purification of Paul's was rendered
incomplete, and his stay at Jerusalem cut short: he being removed
for trial to Rome; at which place the history leaves him and
concludes.
Of the behaviour observed by the Jerusalem Christians, on that
occasion—Apostles, Elders, Deacons and ordinary brethren all
together—nothing is said. Yet, of these there were many thousands
on the spot, Acts 21:20: all of them of course informed of the place
—the holy place,—in which, at the recommendation of the Elders,
Paul had stationed himself. By the Jews of Asia were "all the people
on this occasion stirred up," Acts 21:27: yet, among so many
thousands, no protection, nor any endeavour to afford him
protection, for aught that appears, did he experience. Yet Asia it
was, that had been, to the exclusion of Judaea, the theatre of his
labours: from Asia it was, that the train of attendants he brought
with him, were come—were come with him to these brethren—"the
brethren,"—as if it had been said, all the brethren,—by whom,
according to the author of the Acts, they were "received so gladly."
At this period ends all that, on the present occasion, it will be
necessary to say, of this last recorded visit to Jerusalem. Of the two
inconsistent accounts said to have been given by him of his
conversion—one to the Jerusalem mob, the other to King Agrippa—
full notice has been taken under the head of his conversion: of the
miracles ascribed to him at Malta, mention is here made, in the
chapter allotted to the history of his supposed miracles. Of any other
subsequent acts or sayings of his, no notice will require to be taken
in this place. The matter here in question has been—the sort of
relation, stated as having had place, between this self-constituted
Apostle, and those who beyond controversy were constituted such
by, and lived as such with, Jesus himself: and to this have
incidentally been added the causes, which have continually been
presenting themselves, for suspicion, in respect of the verity and
authenticity, or both, of the history, which, under the name of the
Acts of the Apostles, has come down to us, connected by the
operations of the bookbinder, in the same volume with the several
histories of the four Evangelists, and the Epistles—not only of Paul
himself but of others among the Apostles; and with the work styled,
as if in derision, "The Revelations."

SECTION 5.

THE DESIGN OF THIS RECOMMENDATION JUSTIFIED.

But the Apostles—says somebody—what are we to think of the

Apostles? If by Paul a perjury was thus committed, were they not—
all of them who joined in this recommendation—so many suborners
of this same perjury?
The answer will, it is hoped, by most readers at least, have been
anticipated.—Yes or no, if so it be, that it was their expectation that
he would commit it: no, assuredly; if it were their expectation—their
assured expectation—that he would not commit it: that, even in his
person, even after all they had witnessed in him, the union of
profligacy and rashness would never soar to so high a pitch. The
necessity they were under, of ridding themselves of his presence was
extreme:—of ridding themselves—and, what was so much more,
their cause. Stay in the same town, and in the same company with
them, he could not,—without being either their known adversary, or
their known associate. Their known adversary he could not be,
without either continuing himself to be an object of universal horror,
or else rendering them objects of horror, to the whole body of their
disciples. Their associate he could not be, without involving them in
that odium, with which he himself was, by the confession of his own
adherent and historiographer, covered. Under these circumstances,
not to speak of the cause of mankind, for saving themselves and
their cause from destruction,—what course could they take, so
gentle, and at the same time, to all appearance, so surely effectual,
as the proposing to him this test?—a test, which no man could
rationally expect, that any man in his circumstances would take.

SECTION 6.

DRAGGED OUT OF THE TEMPLE BY JEWS OR CHRISTIANS, HE IS SAVED

BY A GENTILE, NAMELY, A ROMAN COMMANDER.

With this occurrence concludes so much of Paul's history, as,—for

the purpose of perfecting the demonstration given, of the disbelief
manifested towards his pretensions to a supernatural intercourse
with the Almighty,—it was found necessary here to anticipate.
In the matter of the chapter—the 13th—in which Paul's supposed
miracles are brought to view,—his history is, as to all those
particulars which seemed necessary to be brought to view for the
purpose of the present inquiry,—deduced to very near the time, at
which the historian of the Acts, having conducted him to Rome,
leaves him there: leaves him there, and with no other notice, than
that of his having, at the time, at which the history closes, passed
two years at that capital, in a sort of ambiguous state between
freedom and confinement: waiting to receive, at the hands of the
constituted authorities, the final determination of his fate.
Meantime, lest anything should be wanting, that could have
contributed to the elucidation on a point of such supreme
importance, follows in the next chapter a concluding and more
particular view of the grounds, on which, on the occasion of his visit
to the temple, the intention of deliberate perjury was found
necessary to be imputed to him.
 FOOTNOTES:
[53] Acts 21:16. "There went with us also certain of the disciples
of Cæsarea, and brought with them one Mnason of Cyprus, an
old disciple, with whom we should lodge."
[54] 2 Cor. 12:12. "Truly the signs of an Apostle were wrought
among you in all patience, in signs, and wonders, and mighty
deeds." Not that, by the words assigns and wonders, when used
by Paul, anything more was meant, than what, but a few years
after, was, according to him, doing, or about to be done, by
Antichrist. 2 Thess. 2:9. "Even him, whose coming is, after the
manner of Satan, with all powers, and signs, and lying wonders."
Lying is, indeed, the adjunct prefixed, in this instance; but, lying
or not lying, if Paul be believed, they failed not to produce the
effect intended by them. Signs and wonders being such equivocal
thing, no great wonder if—writing at Corinth to nobody knows
what disciples of his at Rome, A.D. 58, Rom. 15:18, 19,—he could
venture, if this was venturing, to speak of what he had been
doing in Jerusalem and Illyricum, in the same terms. "For I will
not dare to speak, says he, of any of those things which Christ
has not wrought by me, to make the Gentiles obedient by word
and deed.—Through mighty signs and wonders, by the power of
the Spirit of God; so that from Jerusalem, and round about, unto
Illyricum, I have fully preached the Gospel of Christ."
 CHAPTER XI.
Paul disbelieved continued.—Paul's fourth
Jerusalem Visit continued.—Perjurious
was the Purpose of the exculpatory Oath
commenced by him in the Temple.

SECTION 1.

GENERAL PROOF OF THE PERJURY FROM THE ACTS.

We have seen the indignation produced by Paul's invasion of the

dominion of the Apostles: we have seen it carried to its height, by
his commencement of, and perseverance in, the exculpatory
ceremony, for the purpose of which he made his entrance, and took
up his lodgment in the temple. We have seen the fruits of that same
indignation: we have seen the general result of them. What remains
is—to give a clearer and more explicit conception, than can as yet
have been given, of the cause of it.
This was—neither more nor less, than an universal persuasion—that
the assertion,—to which, on his part, this ceremony had for its
object the attaching the sanction of an oath,—was, to his full
knowledge, false: the oath employed being, in its form, beyond
comparison more impressive, than any that has been known to be at
any time in use, in this or any other country: and that, accordingly,
the confirmation given to the falsehood, in and by means of that
most elaborate and conspicuous ceremony, was an act of perjury: of
perjury, more deliberate and barefaced, than anything, of which, in
these days, any example can have place.
That, on this occasion, the conduct of the self-constituted Apostle
was stained with perjury, is a matter, intimation of which has
unavoidably come to have been already given, in more parts
perhaps of this work than one. But, for a support to a charge, which,
if true, will of itself be so completely destructive of Paul's pretensions
—of all title to respect, at the hands of every professor of the
religion of Jesus—no slight body of evidence could have been
sufficient.
For this purpose, let us, in the first place, bring together the several
elementary positions, proof or explanation of which, may be
regarded as necessary, and at the same time as sufficient, to
warrant, in this case, a verdict of guilty.
To these charges, is immediately subjoined such part of the
evidence, as is furnished, by the account of the matter, as given in
the Acts: in another section will be brought to view the evidence,
furnished by Paul himself, in his Epistles. The evidence from the Acts
is of the circumstantial kind: the evidence from the Epistles is direct.
1. To Paul was imputed as a misdeed, the having recommended the
forsaking of the Mosaic law. Recommended, namely, to such
disciples of his as, having been born and bred under it, were found
by him settled in some Gentile nation. Proof, Acts 21:21, ... "They,"
'the Jews which believe,' ver. 20, "are informed of thee, that thou
teachest all the Jews which are among the Gentiles to forsake
Moses, saying, that they ought not to circumcise their children,
neither to walk after the customs."
2. To a great extent, the imputation was well grounded: for, to a
great extent, it had been his practice, to give the recommendation
thus described. Of this position the proof will follow presently.
3. By Paul, the truth of this imputation was utterly denied: denied by
the opposite denegatory assertion: and, the imputation being as
above well grounded,—in so far as any such denegatory assertion
had been made by him, he had knowingly uttered a wilful falsehood.
4. In proof of the sincerity of this denial, it was proposed to Paul, on
the part of the Apostles and Elders, to give a confirmation of it, by
the performance of a certain appropriate ceremony.
5. The ceremony thus proposed, was one that was universally
understood, to have the effect of attaching, to any assertion,
connected with it for the purpose, the sanction of an oath.
6. Knowing such to be the effect of the ceremony, he gave his
assent to the proposition, and determined, by means of it, to attach
the sanction of an oath to such his denial, as above: and thereby,
the assertion contained in that denial, being, as above, to his
knowledge, false,—to commit, in that extraordinary solemn and
deliberate form and manner, an act of perjury.
7. In pursuance of such determination, he accordingly repaired for
that purpose to the temple and had his abode therein for several
days: the completion of the requisite number being no otherwise
prevented, than by the irruption of the indignant multitude, assured
as they were of his being occupied in the commission of a perjury.
Proof of charges 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Acts 21:23, 24, 26, 27, 28.
23. "We, the Apostles and the Elders, or at least the
Apostle James, ver. 18, have four men, which have a vow
on them;
24. "Them take, and purify thyself with them, and be at
charges with them, that ... all may know that those
things, whereof they were informed concerning thee, are
nothing; but that thou thyself also walkest orderly, and
keepest the law.
26. "Then Paul took the men, and the next day purifying
himself with them entered into the temple, to signify the
accomplishment of the days of purification, until that an
offering should be offered for every one of them.
27. "And when the seven days were almost ended, the
Jews, which were of Asia, when they saw him in the
 temple, stirred up all the people, and laid hands on him.
28. "Crying out, Men of Israel, help; This is the man, that
teacheth all men everywhere against the people, and the
law, and this place: and further brought Greeks also into
the temple; and hath polluted this holy place."

Of the perjuriousness of Paul's intent, a short proof, namely of the

circumstantial kind, is thus already visible, in the indignation excited,
—its intensity, its immorality, and the bitter fruits of it. Will it be said
no? for that the indignation had, for its adequate cause, his being
thought to have spoken slightingly of the law in question—it being
the law of the land,—and that, to this imputation, the ceremony, it
being, as above the performance of a vow, had no reference?
Assuredly no: no such interpretation will be found tenable. True it is,
that, by the persuasion, that he had thus been dealing by the Mosaic
law,—by this persuasion, without need of anything else, the
indignation may well have been produced: but it could only have
been by the knowledge, that, upon his having been called upon to
confess the having so done, or to deny it, he had, in this most
extraordinary and universally conspicuous mode, given continuance
and confirmation to his denial—it could only have been by this
knowledge, that the excitement was raised up to so high a pitch. For,
What was it that the information had charged him with? It was the
forsaking Moses. What was the purpose, for which the
recommendation was given to him—the recommendation to perform
this ceremony? It was the purifying himself, "that all might know"
that the information was groundless. "That those things," say the
Apostles with the Elders to him, "whereof they," the thousands of
Jews which believe, ver. 20, "were informed against thee were
nothing:"—"to purify thyself," says the official translation: more
appositely might it have said to clear thyself: for in that case, the
idea of an imputation would clearly enough, though but implicitly,
have been conveyed: whereas, to some minds, the idea conveyed by
the word purify may perhaps be no other than that of some general
cleansing of the whole character, by means of some physical
process, to which, in so many minds, the psychological effect in
question has, by the influence of artifice on weakness, been
attached.
Such then, namely, the clearing himself of the imputation by so
solemn a confirmation of the denial of it,—such was the purpose, for
which, in the most unequivocal terms, his performance of the
ceremony was recommended: such, therefore, was the purpose for
which it was commenced; such, accordingly, was the purpose for
which it would have been consummated, but for the interruption
which it experienced: experienced not from his hands, but from
hands among which, there seems sufficient reason to believe, were
the hands, if not of the very persons by whom it had been
recommended, at any rate of those who till that time had been in
use to be guided by their influence.
To this interpretation, what objection is there that can be opposed?
If any, it can only be that which to some minds may perhaps be
suggested by the word vow.
But the fact is—this word vow is a mistranslation: the proper word
should have been oath. By an oath everyone understands at first
mention an assertory, not a promissory, declaration: by a vow, a
promissory, not an assertory one. But an assertory declaration, as
every one sees, is the only sort of declaration, that admits of any
application to the case in question. By nothing that, in Paul's
situation, a man could promise to do, in addition to the performance
of the ceremony, could any evidence be given, of a man's having, or
not having, done so and so, in any time past.
That by that which was actually done, that which was essential was
considered as having been done,—is proved, by what is put into
Paul's mouth in relation to this subject, in his defence against the
accusation brought afterwards against him, before the Roman
governor Felix, by the spokesman of the Jewish constituted
authorities, Tertullus. There it is, that, beyond all doubt, what he is
speaking of, is his CLEARANCE, as above: for there also, the word in
the official translation, as well as in the Greek original, is purified: in
the past tense, purified. This being assumed, it follows, as a
necessary consequence, that either in the course of that part, which
at the time of the irruption, was already elapsed of the seven days'
ceremony, in the temple; or, what seems more probable,
antecedently to the commencement of it, a denegatory declaration—
a declaration denying the fact charged in the accusation,—had been
made: for, that the ceremony itself was never accomplished, is what
is expressly stated:—of the term of seven days stated as necessary
to the accomplishment of it, no more than a part, it is said, had
elapsed, when the final interruption of it took place.
To return to the time of Paul's entrance into the temple.
Thus, as hath been seen, stands the matter, even upon the face of
the official English translation. But in verse 26, the word employed in
the Greek original, removes all doubt. "Then," says the translation,
"Paul took the men, and the next day purifying himself with them,
entered into the temple." Purifying himself, in the present tense,
says the translation: and, even this alone taken into consideration,
the purifying process, whatever it was, might be supposed to have
been but commenced before the entrance into the temple, and as
being thus as yet in pendency, waiting the exit out of the temple for
its accomplishment. Thus it is, that, in the translation, the verb is in
the present tense, purifying himself: but, in the Greek original, it is
in the past tense, having purified himself: so that, in the original, the
purification, whatever it may have been, is in express terms stated
as having, even before his entrance into the temple, already
accomplished.
Note that, if the historian is to be believed, he had on this occasion,
the fullest opportunity, of being, in the most particular manner,
acquainted with everything that passed. For, when, as above, the
recommendation was given to Paul, on his appearance before the
Apostle James and the Elders,—he, the historian, was actually
present, "And the day following," says he, Acts 21:18, "Paul went in
with us unto James; and all the Elders were present."
Supposing that the true interpretation,—of what use and effect then,
it may perhaps be asked, was the ceremony, of which the temple
was the theatre? The answer has been already given. It cannot have
been any other than the attaching, to the declaration that had been
made, the sanction, of an oath. Without the ceremony performed in
the temple, the declaration was a declaration not upon oath, and as
such not regarded as sufficient evidence:—evidence, in the shape
which, the historian says, had been actually required for the
purpose: when the ceremony, of which the temple was the theatre,
had been gone through, and the last of the number of days,
required for its accomplishment had been terminated;—then, and
not before, it was regarded as having been converted into the
appropriate and sufficient evidence. Thus it was, that this seven
days' ceremony was no more than an elaborate substitute to the
English ceremony of kissing the book, after hearing the dozen or so
of words pronounced by the official functionary.
On this occasion, the Greek word rendered by the word vow, is a
word which in its ordinary sense was, among Gentiles as well as
Jews, exactly correspondent to our word prayer. But, the idea
denoted by the word prayer, applies in this case with no less
propriety to an assertory oath than to a promissory vow. Directly
and completely, it designates neither. In both cases an address is
made to some supposed supernatural potentate: in cases such as
the present, beseeching him to apply the sanction of punishment to
the praying individual, in the event of a want of sincerity on his part:
in this case, in the event of his not having done that which, on this
occasion, he declares himself to have done, or, what comes to the
same thing, his having done that which he declares himself not to
have done: in the other case, in the event of his not doing that
which he has promised to do, or doing that which he has promised
not to do.[55]
All this while, it is not in a direct way, it may be observed, that this
word vow is employed, and application made of it to Paul's case: not
in speaking of Paul himself in the first instance, but after speaking of
the four other men, whom it is proposed he should take for his
comrades, on his entrance into the temple. "We have four men,"
James and the Elders are made to say, Acts 21:23, 24, "We have
four men which have a vow on them: Them take, and purify thyself
with them ... that ... all may know, that those things, whereof they,"
the multitude, ver. 22, "were informed concerning thee, are
nothing": no otherwise, therefore, than by the case these four men
were in, is the case designated, in which it is proposed to Paul to put
himself.
As to the case these four men were in,—no otherwise than on
account of its connection with the case Paul was in,—is it in anywise
of importance. As probable a supposition as any seems to be—that
of their being in the same case with him: accused, as well as he, of
teaching "Jews to forsake Moses:" for, between their case and his,
no intimation is given of any difference: and, as the "purifying
himself" is what is recommended to him, so is it what they are
stated, as standing eventually engaged to do on their part. If then,
in his instance, purifying himself means—clearing himself of a charge
made against him,—so in their instance must it naturally, not to say
necessarily, have meant—clearing themselves of some charge made
against them. Moreover, when, as above, he is, in the Greek original,
stated as having actually purified himself, before his entrance into
the temple, so are they likewise; for it is "with them," that his
purification is stated as having been performed.
This being assumed, it might not be impossible to find a use for the
word vow, even in its proper sense—its promissory sense: for, what
might be supposed is—that before the entrance into the temple, at
the same time with the denegatory declaration, a vow was made—a
solemn promise—to enter into the temple, and back of the
declaration with the sanction of an oath, by going through the
ceremony. But, forasmuch, as, in the import of the Greek word, no
such idea, as that of a promise, is comprised,—the only use of this
interpretation would be—to save the translators from the imputation
of an impropriety, with which it seems rather more probable that
they stand chargeable.
All this while, of Paul's conduct on this occasion, to what part was it
that the blame belonged?—Surely, not to the endeavour, to wean
men from their attachment to the Mosaic laws: for thus far he copied
Jesus; and in copying did not go against, but only beyond, the great
original. True it is, that, in so doing, he served his own personal and
worldly purposes: not less so, that, in this subserviency, he found
the inducement by which his conduct was determined: for, by how
much stronger men's attachment would continue to be to the dead
lawgiver, by so much, less strong would it be to the living preacher.
But, in so far as a man's conduct is serviceable to mankind at large,
it certainly is not rendered the less serviceable, or the less laudable,
by his being himself included in the number. The blame lay then—
not in teaching men to forsake Moses: for, thus far, instead of being
blame-worthy, there was nothing in his conduct, that did not merit
positive praise. What there was amiss in his conduct—in what, then,
did it consist? Plainly in this, and this alone: namely, that, on being
taxed with having so done,—instead of avowing and justifying it, he
denied it: and, having denied it, scrupled not to add to the falsehood
the aggravation of such extraordinarily deliberate and solemn
perjury, as hath been so plainly visible. And, to what purpose
commit so flagrant a breach of the law of morality? Plainly, to no
other, than the fixing himself in Jerusalem, and persevering in a
project of insane and selfish ambition, which, in spite of the most
urgent remonstrances that could be made by his most devoted
adherents, had brought him thither: for, he had but to depart in
peace, and the Apostles of Jesus would have remained unmolested,
and the peace of Christendom undisturbed.
An article of evidence, that must not be left unnoticed,—is the part
taken, on this occasion, by the historiographer. Nowhere does this
eyewitness take upon himself to declare,—nowhere so much as to
insinuate—that of the charge, thus made upon his hero, there was
anything that was not true: nowhere does he so much as insinuate,
that the declaration by which he says Paul had cleared himself of the
charge, and, as we have seen, before his entrance into the temple
for the purpose of enforcing it by the sanction of an oath,—was
anything short of a downright falsehood. After this, he makes a
defence for Paul before Felix;[56] he makes a defence for Paul before
Festus;[57]
he makes a defence for Paul before Festus and
Agrippa;[58] and, on no one of all those occasions, is the defence
anything to the purpose. He, indeed, makes Paul declare, that he,
Paul, had always been a strict observer of the Mosaic ordinances.
This may have been either true or false: but, true or false, it was
equally foreign to the purpose. Not improbably, it was, in a
considerable degree, true: for if, while he gave to other Jews his
assurance, that the operations in question, burthensome as they
were, were of no use, he himself continued to bear the burthen
notwithstanding,—the persuasiveness of his advice would naturally
be augmented by the manifestation thus given of disinterestedness.
It may accordingly have been true: but, false or true, it was equally
foreign to the purpose: the question was—not what he had done
himself; but what he had recommended it to others to do.
Thus—from everything that appears, by all such persons as had the
best means of information—the charge made upon him was
believed,—let it now be seen, whether we should not be warranted
in saying, known,—to be true.
As to "The Jews of Asia,"—and the mention made of this class of
men, as the instigators of the tumult—can any support be derived
from it, for the inference, that it was by something else in Paul's
conduct, and not by any such perjury as that in question, that the
vent, thus given to the indignation, was produced?[59] No,
assuredly: altogether inconsistent would any such supposition be,
with the main part of the narrative. Whoever were the persons with
whom the manual violence originated;—whatever were the
reproaches cast upon the invader on other grounds;—the purpose—
the sole purpose—for which he entered upon the ceremony, is
rendered as plain as words can make it. It was the clearing himself
of the charge of teaching Jews to forsake Moses: and, supposing the
fact admitted, everything, in the way of justification, being, before
such a tribunal, manifestly inadmissible,—of no such charge was it
possible for him to clear himself, without denying the truth of it. But,
according to the historian, to confirm this denial, by the solemnity,
whatever it was,—was the purpose, and the sole purpose, of it: of
this, the negative assertion, contained in the denial, being untrue,
and, by him who made it, known to be so,—confirming such denial,
by the solemnity,—call it oath—call it vow—call it anything else,—
was committing an act of perjury: and, to believe that such his
denial was false, and yet not believing him guilty of perjury—at any
rate, on the supposition of the accomplishment of the solemnity—
was not possible. How numerous so ever may have been the other
causes of provocation, given by him—how numerous so ever, the
different descriptions of persons to whom they had been given;—no
disproof could, by all of them put together, be given, by this
solemnity, to the denial in question,—supposing it false.
To the present purpose, the only question is—whether, by Paul, on
the occasion in question, an act of perjury was, or was not,
committed? not—what was the cause, whether that, or any other, of
any indignation of which he was the object. Even therefore, might it
be allowed, that a vow, in the sense of which it is
contradistinguished from an oath, was performed by him, or about
to be performed,—still it would not be the less undeniable, that it
was for the purpose of converting the simple declaration into a
declaration upon oath, that he entered upon the solemnity: and that,
therefore, if in the simple declaration there was anything to his
knowledge false, the consequence is—that by his converting it into a
declaration upon oath, he rendered himself guilty of perjury.
The observation, thus applied, to what is said of the "Jews of Asia,"
will be seen to be applicable, and, with equal propriety, to what is
said about his being charged with "bringing Greeks into the temple:"
and, in particular, about his being supposed to have brought in "The
Ephesian Trophimus:" and moreover, what may, in this last case, be
observable, is—that this about the Greeks is expressly stated as
being a further charge, distinct from the main one: nor yet is it so
much as stated, that, by any such importation, to what degree so
ever offensive, any such effect, as that signified by the word
pollution was produced.
Not altogether destitute of probability seems the supposition, that
these two circumstances—about the Jews of Asia, and about
Trophimus—may have been thrown in, by this adherent of Paul's, for
the purpose of throwing a cloud of confusion and obscurity over the
real charge: and if so, the two circumstances, with the addition of
the three different defences, put into the hero's mouth, on the three
several occasions of the endeavour,—must be acknowledged to have
been employed, not altogether without success.
Here then closes that part of the evidence, which, to the purpose of
a judgment, to be passed at this distance of time from the facts,
may be considered as so much circumstantial evidence: in the next
section may be seen that part, which comes under the denomination
of direct evidence.

SECTION 2.

PROOF FROM THE EPISTLES.

We come now to the direct evidence: that evidence—all of it from

Paul's own pen:—all of it from his own Epistles. It consists in those
"teachings to forsake Moses," which will be now furnished, in such
unequivocal terms and such ample abundance, in and by those fruits
of his misty and crafty eloquence:—in the first place, in his letter to
the disciples, which he had made, or hoped to make at Rome:—date
of it, according to the received chronology, about four years anterior
to the time here in question:—in the next place, in two successive
letters to the disciples, whom, it appears, he had made at Corinth:—
both these addresses, set down, as belonging to the same year as
the one to the Romans. Moreover, in his so often mentioned Epistle
to the Galatians, matter of the same tendency is to be found. But,
this last being, according to that same chronology, of a date
posterior by some years to the time, at which the charge of having
preached the sort of doctrine in question was, on the present
occasion, made,—it belongs not to the present question, and is
therefore left unemployed. And, in the same case, is some matter
that might be found in his Epistles to the Thessalonians.
1. First then as to the Mosaic "law and customs," taken in the
aggregate.
On this subject, see in the first place what the oath-taker had said to
his Romans.
Rom 15:14. "I know, and am persuaded by the Lord
Jesus, that there is nothing unclean of itself; but to him
that esteemeth anything to be unclean, to him it is
unclean."—— 17. "For the kingdom of God is not meat
and drink; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in the
Holy Ghost."
Rom 3:20. "By the deeds of the law there shall no flesh be
justified in his, God's sight; for by the law is the
knowledge of sin."
Rom. 3:27, 28, 29, 30, 31. "Where is boasting then? It is
excluded. By what law? of works? Nay; but by the law of
the faith.—— Therefore, we conclude, that a man is
justified by faith without the deeds of the law.—— Is he
the God of the Jews only? is he not also of the Gentiles?
Yes, of the Gentiles also:—— Seeing it is one God, which
shall justify the circumcision by faith, and uncircumcision
through faith.—— Do we then make void the law through
faith? God forbid: yea, we establish the law."
Rom. 10:9. "... if thou shalt confess with thy mouth the
Lord Jesus, and shalt believe in thine heart that God hath
raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved.[60]—— 12.
For there is no difference between the Jew and the Greek:
for the same Lord over all is rich unto all that call upon
him.——For whosoever shall call upon the name of the
Lord shall be saved."[61]
Rom 14:2. "... one believeth that he may eat all things:
another who is weak, eateth herbs.—— Let not him that
eateth despise him that eateth not; and let not him which
eateth not judge him that eateth; for God hath received
him.—— One man esteemeth one day above another:
another esteemeth every day alike.[62]"
1 Cor. 6:12. "All things are lawful unto me, but all things
are not expedient:" or profitable margin, "all things are
lawful for me, but I will not be brought under the power
of any.—— Meats for the belly, and the belly for meats;
but God shall destroy both it and them."
1 Cor. 8:8. "But meat commendeth us not to God: for
neither, if we eat, are we the better; neither if we eat not,
are we the worse.—— Wherefore, if meat make my
brother to offend, I will eat no flesh while the world
standeth, lest I make my brother to offend."
1 Cor. 9:19-23. 19. "For though I be free from all men, yet
have I made myself servant unto all, that I might gain the
more.—— And unto the Jews I became as a Jew, that I
might gain the Jews; to them that are under the law, as
under the law, that I might gain them that are under the
law:—— To them that are without law, as without law,
being not without law to God but under the law to Christ,
that I might gain them that are without law.—— To the
weak became I as weak, that I might gain the weak: I am
made all things to all men, that I might by all means save
some.—— And this I do for the Gospel's sake, that I might
be partaker thereof with you."
2 Cor. 3:12 to 17. "Seeing then that we have such hope,
we use great plainness of speech.—— And not as Moses,
which put a vail over his face, that the children of Israel
 could not steadfastly look to the end of that which is
abolished.—— But their minds were blinded; for until this
day remaineth the same vail untaken away in the reading
of the Old Testament; which vail is done away in Christ.
—— But even unto this day, when Moses is read, the vail
is upon their heart.—— Nevertheless when it shall turn to
the Lord, the vail shall be taken away.—— Now the Lord is
that spirit; and where the spirit of the Lord is, there is
liberty."
Now as to circumcision in particular.
Rom. 2:25, 26, 27, 28, 29. "For circumcision verily
profiteth, if thou keep the law: but if thou be a breaker of
the law, thy circumcision is made uncircumcision.——
Therefore if the uncircumcision keep the righteousness of
the law, shall not his uncircumcision be counted for
circumcision?—— And shall not uncircumcision which is by
nature, if it fulfil the law, judge thee, who by the letter
and circumcision dost transgress the law?——For he is not
a Jew, which is one outwardly, neither is that circumcision
which is outward in the flesh:—— But he is a Jew, which is
one inwardly: and circumcision is that of the heart, in the
spirit, and not in the letter; whose praise is not of men,
but of God."
Rom. 3:1, 2. "What advantages then hath the Jew? or
what profit is there of circumcision?—— Much every way:
chiefly, because that unto them were committed the
oracles of God."
Rom. 4:9, 10, 11, 12. "Cometh this blessedness then upon
the circumcision only, or upon the uncircumcision also? for
we say that faith was reckoned to Abraham for
righteousness.—— How was it then reckoned? when he
was in circumcision, or in uncircumcision. Not in
circumcision, but in uncircumcision.—— And he received
the sign of circumcision, a seal of the righteousness of the
 faith which he had yet being uncircumcised: that he might
be the father of all them that believe, though they be not
circumcised; that righteousness might be imputed unto
them also:—— And the father of circumcision to them who
are not of the circumcision only, but who also walk in the
steps of that faith of our father Abraham, which he had
being yet uncircumcised."
Rom. 15:8. "Now I say that Jesus Christ was a minister of
the circumcision for the truth of God to confirm the
premises made unto the fathers."
1 Cor. 7:18. "Is any man called being circumcised? let him
not become uncircumcised. Is any called in
uncircumcision? let him not be circumcised.——
Circumcision is nothing, and uncircumcision is nothing, but
the keeping of the commandments of God."
From any one individual, who, in either of these distant cities, had
seen any one of these same Epistles,—let it now be seen whether
information of their contents, supposing it credited, would not have
sufficed to produce those effects, the existence of which is so
unquestionable. Not but that the same rashness, which suffered him
to furnish such abundant evidence against himself in those distant
regions, could scarce fail to have given birth to credence in
abundance, of various sorts, and of a character, which, on that
occasion, would be much more impressive.

FOOTNOTES:
[55] On this occasion, supposing the purpose of this ceremony to
be, as here contended, no other than that of applying, to a
declaration concerning a matter of fact, the supernatural penal
sanction, by which it was converted into an oath,—a natural
enough subject of inquiry is—to what cause is to be attributed the
extraordinary length thus given to it?—seven days at the least; to
which, upon examination, would be found virtually added, as
much greater a length of time, as the holy person, to whose
custody the oath-taker consigned himself, might be pleased to
prescribe. Answer, without difficulty,—the affording time and
pretence for the exaction of his surplice fees:—namely, those
established by law,—with the addition of others, to as large an
amount, as the need which the oath-taker had of the
accommodation thus to be afforded to him, could engage him to
submit to. As to the length of time,—in the passage in question,
the translation exhibits some obscurity: nor is it altogether
cleared up by the original. A determinate number of days, to wit,
seven, is indeed mentioned, ver. 27, but immediately before this,
ver. 26, comes a passage, from whence it seems unquestionable,
that, whatever were the time a man had been thus detained, he
was not to be let out, until, over and above what good things it
had been made necessary he should bring in with him, a further
payment, and as it should seem, in a pecuniary shape, had been
made: "to signify," says ver. 26, "the accomplishment of the days
of purification, until that an offering should be offered for every
one of them." "And when the seven days were almost ended,"
continues ver. 27: immediately after which comes the account of
the tumult, by which they were prevented from being quite
ended.
As to the phrase—"to signify the accomplishment of the days,"
what seems to be meant by it is—to make known when the
number requisite for the completion of the train of operations had
been accomplished. But, to make known when that number had
been accomplished, it was previously requisite to make known
when it had commenced: and, for making this known, the act,
probably a public one, of making entrance into the temple, was
employed.
As to the origin, as well as particular nature, of the ceremony,—
though no such word as Nazarite is here employed, on turning to
the Book of Numbers, chapter the sixth, it will be manifest, that
the ceremony here in question is the same as that, by which,
according to the receipt there given, any man whatever, whether,
and any woman also, must be left to conjecture, might be
converted into a Nazarite. Nazarite is from a Hebrew word, which
meant originally neither more nor less than a person separated. A
person consigned himself to the custody of "the priest of the
congregation:" or, as we should now say, the parson of the
parish. The ceremony accomplished, the patient was thereby put
into a state of appropriate sanctity: and, from this
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