APPLR POMACE :

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is one of the most favorite fruits all over the world for the delicious taste
and high nutritional value, ranked fourth in the fresh fruit consumption worldwide (Barreira et al., 2019).
Except for consuming as fresh fruit directly, apple is also a kind of important material in fruit industry,
apple juice concentrate plays an important role at food industry. However, with apple processed
industries developing, an essential issue urgent to be solved is the disposal of the residues originated
from apple processing, who is always called apple pomace (AP).

AP is abundant in lots of moisture and nutritional ingredients, improper treatment of AP would lead to
potential environment pollution for the fetor or generate harmful components. More importantly, the
further use of AP is a promising sustainable trend for valorization of agro-industrial by-products.
Moreover, the recycle of food by-products is a promising way to enhance economic efficiency which is
tied to circular economy, contributing to sustainable development.

Although there are some reviews referring to the application of AP and relevant subjects through
literature search, introducing the functional components and healthy ingredients extracted as
nutraceuticals or additives in food industry (Lyu et al., 2020; Perussello et al., 2017; Rana and Bhushan,
2016), also including effective utilization in others: served as farm-animal food (Čolović et al., 2019; Ajila
et al., 2012) and potential raw materials (Virtanen et al., 2017). Nevertheless, these themes are too
partial to comprehensive, focusing on nutrition, animal food field or simple material field merely, there is
no literature reported the application of AP roundly. This review focused on the analysis and summary of
all current utilization mode of AP, and furtherly to find the limitations and problems in the exploitation of
AP, finally propose a promising mode or strategy for the future study or industrial exploitation of AP.

The desirable characteristic of AP used to compost and add in animal food is could be used as wet AP,
only the emissions produced during transportation are directly linked to this process, thereby reducing
economic cost of drying. The key parameters are therefore the fuel used for drying apple pomace and
the heat used in the processing step (Scherhaufer et al., 2020). Otherwise, the economic efficiency of
high value products extraction is needed to offset drying costs. And high-value products extracted from
AP is the essential technologies, but the new extraction technologies along with the separation and
purification process of high-value components is necessary. Moreover, although solid-state fermentation
to produce high-value products is feasible, the screen of microbiota and preparation of optimal medium
and the mechanism of fermentation are needed to be focused in the future. Anyway, AP is a valuable
and potential resource for the full-components utilization, and the proposed utilization mode of AP is a
promising way to be focused, studied and applied in the future.

RICE FLOUR:

Rice flour is a great substitute for wheat flour, since most wheat flour contains gluten — a protein that
can irritate the digestive system or worse for anyone who is gluten intolerant. Rice flour is a popular
thickening agent because it has the ability to prevent liquid separation. It works great in soups, sauces
and gravies and is often used to make crackers, cakes and dumplings.
As the name suggests, rice flour is a form of flour that’s made from one ingredient in particular – rice.A
fine flour, it’s 100% gluten free and a regular feature in Japanese treats, such as mochi.1 Japanese
cuisine aside, rice flour can be used for many cooking and baking recipes, and happens to work
particularly well as a sauce thickener and for baking.You can get brown or white rice flour.The white
variety is made from polished white rice, while whole grain brown rice is used to make the brown
variety.As well as giving gluten-free baking structure and substance, rice flour works well in gluten baking
because it has a slightly sandy texture.Adding some white rice flour to shortbread makes the shortbread
extra crumbly.While rice flour is also known to give more volume to home-made bread because it
doesn’t contain any gluten.Overall, while not everyone may have heard of it, it’s a widely used and
incredibly popular ingredient!

Rice flour is a type of flour made from finely ground rice grains. It is a common ingredient in many
culinary traditions, especially in Asian cuisine. Rice flour can be produced from various types of rice, such
as white rice, brown rice, glutinous rice (also known as sticky rice), and even specialty varieties like
jasmine or basmati rice

There are two primary types of rice flour:

White Rice Flour: This is made from milling polished white rice grains, which have had the bran and germ
layers removed. It has a neutral, slightly sweet flavor and is commonly used in recipes like rice noodles,
rice cakes, and as a thickening agent in various dishes.

Brown Rice Flour: Brown rice flour is made from whole grain brown rice, including the bran and germ
layers. It has a slightly nuttier flavor and is often considered a healthier option due to its higher fiber
content. It’s used in gluten-free baking and cooking as well

Rice flour is naturally gluten-free, making it a suitable alternative for individuals with celiac disease or
those who follow a gluten-free diet. It is a versatile ingredient used in various dishes, including:

Baking: Rice flour can be used in gluten-free baking for making bread, cakes, cookies, and other baked
goods.

Thickening Agent: It is used as a thickening agent in soups, sauces, and gravies.

Coating: Rice flour is often used as a coating for frying foods like chicken or vegetables to create a crispy
texture.

Desserts: It’s a key ingredient in making various Asian desserts like mochi, rice pudding, and rice cakes.

Noodles: Rice flour is used to make a variety of rice noodles, such as vermicelli, rice sticks, and rice paper
wrappers.

Rice flour can vary in texture, with some being very fine and others coarser. The type of rice and the
milling process used can affect the texture and suitability for specific recipes. When using rice flour, it’s
essential to choose the right type of rice flour for your intended dish and follow recipes that specify the
type of rice flour to ensure the best results.

Benefits of Rice Flour:

Gluten-Free: Rice flour is naturally gluten-free, making it a suitable option for individuals with celiac
disease or gluten sensitivity. It can be used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in a wide range of
recipes.

Easily Digestible: Rice flour is generally considered easy to digest, which can be helpful for individuals
with sensitive stomachs or digestive issues.

Rich in Carbohydrates: Rice flour is a good source of carbohydrates, providing energy for the body.

Low in Fat: It has a low fat content, making it a good choice for those looking to reduce their fat intake.

Versatile: Rice flour is a versatile ingredient that can be used in a variety of dishes, from savory to sweet.
It’s commonly used in Asian, Middle Eastern, and gluten-free cooking.

Thickening Agent: Rice flour can be used as a thickening agent in soups, sauces, and gravies. It imparts a
neutral flavor and smooth texture to dishes.

Gluten-Free Baking: It is widely used in gluten-free baking to make bread, cakes, cookies, and other
baked goods, allowing those with gluten intolerance to enjoy baked treats.

Crispy Coating: Rice flour is excellent for creating a crispy and light coating for fried foods, such as
chicken, shrimp, and vegetables.

Rice Noodles: It’s a key ingredient in making various types of rice noodles, including vermicelli and rice
sticks.

Used in Asian Desserts: Rice flour is an essential component in many Asian desserts, such as mochi, rice
cakes, and rice puddings.

Variety: Different types of rice flour can be used, such as white rice flour, brown rice flour, and glutinous
rice flour, each with its own unique qualities and applications.

Gluten-Free Thickeners: For people who are gluten intolerant or have celiac disease, rice flour is a useful
alternative to wheat flour as a thickener in recipes like gravies, sauces, and pie fillings.

Source of Micronutrients: Rice flour contains various vitamins and minerals, including niacin (B3),
thiamine (B1), magnesium, and iron.

It’s important to note that while rice flour offers these benefits, it’s also a high-carbohydrate food, so
individuals on low-carb or ketogenic diets should use it in moderation. Additionally, the nutritional
content of rice flour can vary depending on the type of rice used (white or brown) and the processing
methods, so it’s a good practice to check product labels for specific nutritional information.
Importance of utilizing food by-products and alternative ingredients in baking.

he usual consumption of bakery products presents certain drawbacks related to their high content of
simple sugars of rapid absorption, high fat content and low amount of dietary fiber, which make them
highly caloric foods. Bakery products, including biscuits, cakes and bread, contain wheat flour as primary
ingredient as it contributes to structure and volume [1,2,3]. According to recent data published by the
World Health Organization (WHO) [4], 13% of the world’s adult population (11% of men and 15% of
women) are clinically obese and 39% of adults aged 18 or older (40% of women and 38% of men) were
found to be overweight. Regarding the child population, 41 million children under five are overweight or
obese. Overweight and obesity are closely related to the increase in the intake of fat-rich high-calorie
foods, as well as to the decrease in physical activity due to the progressively sedentary nature of many
types of work, new transportation means and growing development [5].

In human nutrition, fat is an important ingredient in many foods used to improve product excellence
[6,7]. Unfortunately, obesity and overweight are the main risk factors for noncommunicable illnesses,
such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and some types of cancer. Instead, the excessive consumption
of simple sugars, along with their contribution to caloric intake, is related to the development of dental
caries. Dental diseases are the most prevalent noncommunicable sicknesses in the world and their
treatment consumes between 5% and 10% of healthcare budgets in industrialized countries [4].
Additionally, simple sugars of rapid absorption cause glycemic peaks and the excess sugar can rapidly
become fat in the body [8,9,10].

Sucrose is a very important ingredient in bakery products for its conservation characteristics and a
significant source of energy [11]. Moreover, there is a growing interest in replacing sucrose with
alternative substances, such as low-calorie sweeteners (sucralose, tagatose, maltitol, stevia), in bakery
products [12]. On the other hand, Trans Fatty Acids (TFA) are associated with an increased risk of
coronary heart diseases, affecting inflammation factors and blood lipids [13].

Therefore, the World Health Organization, in its latest report [5], considers it urgent to carry out an
immediate reduction in the extreme consumption of sugars and other fast-absorbing carbohydrates such
as sucrose, as well as an increase in daily physical activity, to curb the tendency towards obesity and type
2 diabetes. Fortunately, consumers are well aware of the glycemic index (GI), caloric and dietary fiber
content of foods. Furthermore, low GI diets have favorable effects on obesity-related sicknesses such as
type 2 diabetes [14,15]. The consumer’s growing interest in healthier and tastier foods makes the food
industry develop new bakery products [16]. Wholegrain foods are essential sources of dietary fiber and
their ingestion has been associated with the prevention of chronic diseases due to their bioactive
properties and health benefits [17,18]. In this sense, the aforementioned report also recommends the
adoption of fiscal measures, such as a tax increase on certain food products and beverages that are rich
in trans fatty acids, saturated fats, free sugars and/or salt, since an increase in the price of these products
results in a decrease in their consumption. Nevertheless, for the food industry, and specifically the
bakery sector, reducing the content of rapidly absorbed sugars along with a reduction in trans fatty acids
and saturated fats is a great challenge if market share is to be maintained without breaking away from
global and European policies.
Baking is the process that transforms dough in bakery products with exceptional sensorial features.
Therefore, the aspect, color of the surface, and flavor of bakery products are the major qualities
evaluated by consumers [19]. The bakery sector accounted for 10.7% of the total turnover of the food
and drink industry in 2012. The sector encompasses more than 150,000 companies, representing 54% of
the total number of firms in the drink and food industry [20]. Cakes or muffins, as well as cookies, are
products consumed by all levels of society, due to their "ready to eat" format, their accessibility in
different varieties, and their reasonable cost. However, the health benefits of these or other bakery
products are questionable. Hence, its reformulation—by modifying the type of fats and carbohydrates
occurring in them—would undoubtedly contribute to improving the quality of the product, and
therefore the diet of its consumers; this also reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, as well as the
appearance of dental caries or problems associated with obesity [21].

In view of the above, the purpose of the present work is to review the most recent studies dealing with
the nutritional improvement of bakery products, carried out by replacing less healthy ingredients such as
fats or sugars. Additionally, other papers related to the substitution of whey and/or egg proteins have
also been mentioned, given the growing interest in products without this type of protein (intolerance
problems).

Due to the evident relationship between diet and health, there is a growing interest in improving the
nutritional profile of most food products, especially those with high sugar and fat contents. Bakery
products are consumed by all sectors of the society regardless of age and income level.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF APPLE POMACE:

Apple pomace is a heterogeneous mixture consisting mainly of skin and flesh (95%), with a tiny
proportion of seeds (2%–4%) and stems (1%) [4,18]. It is a good source of phytochemicals and contain
significant amounts of carbohydrate as well as small amounts of proteins, vitamins and minerals [4]. The
apple pomace carbohydrates consist mainly of insoluble sugars including cellulose (127.9 g/kg DW),
hemicellulose (7.2 to 43.6 g/kg DW) and lignin (15.3 to 23.5 g/kg DW), with simple sugars such as
glucose (22.7%), fructose (23.6%) and galactose (6% to 15%) [23]. In addition to carbohydrates, some
minerals were also determined in apple pomace, such as P (0.07% to 0.076%), Ca (0.06% to 0.1%), Mg
(0.02% to 0.36%) and Fe (31.8 to 38.3 mg/kg, dry weight basis). Apple pomace is also characterized by a
high proportion of polyphenols (31% to 51%), especially cinnamate esters, dihydrochalcones and
flavonols [24]. Furthermore, it has been proven that apple pomace has a broad content of natural
antioxidants such as quercetin glycosides, phloridzin and other phenolic constituents that have strong
antioxidant activity [25,26]. Therefore, apple pomace is of great nutritional value, providing health
benefits. Several studies indicated that apple pomace not only helps in the prevention of constipation
and hypertension but also can scavenge certain harmful substances in the human body such as free
radicals [4]. The existence of these value-added compounds also indicates the potential of apple pomace
being utilized as an ingredient in the food industry.

Use of Apple Pomace as a Functional Ingredient in Food Products

Due to the high content of dietary fiber, phenolic compounds and other nutrients, apple pomace is
regarded as a good functional ingredient to be incorporated in various food products. However, the
addition of apple pomace is reported to cause a decline in certain quality parameters of food products.
Therefore, the addition level of pomace as a functional ingredient is relatively low [17], and these
amounts should be carefully monitored.

3.1. Bakery Products

Various bakery products including bread, cakes and cookies have been consumed by humans for
hundreds of years and are widely accepted [17]. The application of apple pomace in bakery foods is
considered to improve the dietary fiber content and health benefits [27,28]. However, pomace addition
results in a decrease in quality and sensory properties of baked products in the majority of cases
[29,30,31]. Therefore, efforts have been undertaken to evaluate the effects of apple pomace on each
individual bakery product and optimize the utilization level to incorporate.

3.1.1. Bread

Efforts have been made to apply apple pomace as a supplement of dietary fiber in bread making over
the last few decades [17,27,31,32]. A study by Masoodi and Chauhan examined the application of 2%,
5%, 8% and 11% apple pomace in wheat bread making [27]. Their results showed that with the pomace
level increasing from 0% to 11%, the loaf weight increased by 3.1% in the neutralized dough (dough with
acidity-neutralized apple pomace) and by 7% in the un-neutralized one. The loaf volume was observed to
be reduced by 26.6% and 42.8% in neutralized and un-neutralized doughs, respectively. The crust color
and bread hardness were also found to increase with the pomace level. Moreover, although the overall
score of the organoleptic evaluation was gradually decreased, the bread made with 5% pomace was
considered to be acceptable and obtained the highest scores in respect of odor and taste. Similar
findings have been demonstrated in depth by Ktenioudaki et al. (2013), with a particular focus on the
rheological properties of dough [22]. The incorporation of apple pomace to wheat flour was found to
reduce the uniaxial extensibility while raising the biaxial extensional viscosity of dough. It led to the low
volume and dense structure of the bread. Nevertheless, the opposite effect of adding apple pomace on
bread hardness was described by Jannati et al. (2018). They evaluated the quality of Sangak bread (a
traditional Iranian bread) that included apple pomace powder (1% to 7% w/w of flour) [21]. The results
indicated that adding apple pomace can reduce the hardness of bread texture and delayed its staling
progress. They concluded that adding apple pomace at 3% was the most effective. In addition, the
sensory analysis showed that adding less than 3% of the pomace could improve the smell, texture and
overall acceptability of the bread, which is also different from the conclusion of Masoodi and Chauhan
(1998) [27]. Therefore, the application of apple pomace as a functional ingredient in bread making is
feasible. Future studies are required to verify the appropriate proportion of apple pomace in different
types of bread.

According to Sudha et al. (2016), buns containing 15% dehydrated apple pomace and dough conditioners
increased in volume by 30% compared with no conditioner counterparts [31]. These additives included
glycerol monostearate (0.25%), sodium stearoyl lactylate (0.25%), gluten (2%) and α-amylase (1 mg).
Besides volume, the firmness together with overall sensory score of the buns with conditioners and
pomace were also improved.

3.1.2. Sweet Bakery Products (Cakes, Including Scones and Muffins)

Currently, a number of research studies have been done on the use of apple pomace in cakes and other
sweet bakery products in order to enhance their flavor and nutritional values [17,21,30,33]. Masoodi et
al. (2002) reported the application of apple pomace with different proportions (5%, 10% and 15%) in
cake making [33]. They concluded that with the increase of pomace level, the cake volume reduced
dramatically, while the particle size showed an opposite trend. Moreover, remarkable increases were
observed in shrinkage and uniformity index after the addition of apple pomace, but there were no
significant differences between 10% and 15% treatments. Similar results were reported by Sudha et al.
(2007), who increased the addition level of apple pomace up to 30% in cakes [30]. The data revealed that
the volume of cake with 30% pomace decreased by 37% compared with the control. As the added
pomace level increased from 10% to 30%, the density increased accordingly from 0.49 to 0.67 g/cc,
which indicated a harder texture. However, in the organoleptic test, cakes with pomace obtained high
scores in eating quality and overall acceptability, with the exception of 30% treatment which had a lower
evaluation. Owing to the pleasant fruity odor, Sudha et al. (2007) also regarded apple pomace as a
potential flavoring ingredient in cake products, which needs more experiments to implement at the
commercial scale [30].

Moreover, apple pomace has also been reported to be used as a wheat flour substitute in muffins
[28,29]. A more recent study by Sudha et al. (2016) showed that muffins with less than 20% apple
pomace were not only normally symmetrical in shape but also scored highly on sensory tests for color,
taste and texture [31]. However, once the replacement level exceeded 20%, the evaluation of crust and
crumb color showed a significant decrease because it changed from creamier yellow to brown. These
results were in agreement with the findings claimed by Jung et al. (2015) [29]. However, a preference
test carried by Wang and Thomas (1989) demonstrated a superior satisfaction for muffins with 50%
pomace [28]. The overall preference was 79.2% while the nonfortified muffins were only 20.8%. In
addition to flavor improvement, the utilization of apple pomace was proven to increase the total dietary
fiber (TDF), total phenolics content (TPC) and antioxidant activity [28,31]. Furthermore, Reis et al. (2014)
explored the application of apple pomace in scones [34]. They found that incorporation of 20% apple
pomace significantly increased the total flavonoid content (TFC), TPC and proanthocyanidins content
(PAC) of scones by 4-, 3.3- and 3.1-fold, respectively. Therefore, apple pomace can be considered as a
great functional ingredient for improving the health-promoting properties of these types of bakery
foods.

3.1.3. Brittle Bakery Products (Cookies and Crackers)

Similar to cake doughs, cookie doughs are rich in sugars and lipids that may mask bitter taste caused by
the application of apple pomace in the final products [17]. In this case, cookies have a high tolerance for
the addition of apple pomace, with some studies even reporting substitution level as high as 30% [31]. In
a recent study, Lauková et al. (2016) applied hydrated apple pomace powder to partially replace wheat
flour during cookie making [35]. Results showed that with the replacement level increasing from 0% to
15%, the physical properties of cookies such as volume, diameter and porosity declined sharply by 23%,
11% and 25%, respectively. Meanwhile, the fruity flavor of the cookies increased while the grain taste
was reduced after the substitution. The overall satisfaction of fortified cookies was found to decrease in
sensory evaluation, but the acceptance of all the treatments was above 90%. Additionally, according to
Kohajdová et al. (2014), adding 5% of the apple pomace had no significant change in the sensory
properties of cookies, which was consistent with the findings of Toledo et al. (2017) [36,37]. Jung et al.
(2015) prepared cookies with apple pomace flour of 15% and 20% substitution level. With the
incorporation of pomace, cookies were observed to be considerably darker and redder [29]. This finding
is concurrent with other bakery products as well. Furthermore, all of these studies mentioned a falling
tendency in firmness, which became more marked with the increase of apple pomace replacement level.
However, an opposite change in the firmness of apple-pomace-fortified cookies was observed by Sudha
et al. (2016), who applied up to 30% of dehydrated apple pomace in cookies [31]. In addition, a mixture
of glycerol monostearate (0.25%) and sodium stearoyl lactylate (0.25%) was developed as an additive to
alleviate the quality deterioration in cookie caused by the addition of apple pomace [31].

Notably, Alongi et al. (2019) indicated that the addition of apple pomace can reduce the glycemic index
of cookies [38]. As the replacement level increased from 0% to 20%, cookie glycemic index reduced from
70 to 60. As a result, this apple-pomace-enriched product can be ranked as an intermediate glycemic
index food. Moreover, a gluten-free cracker made from brown rice flour and 3%, 6% or 9% of apple
pomace was developed by Mir et al. (2017). It was noted that the incorporation of pomace significantly
increased the content of minerals such as chlorine and potassium, as well as the antioxidant activity; TDF
and TPC were also increased [39]. Therefore, apple pomace can be regarded as a nutritional and
functional ingredient in bakery products. Future studies are recommended to develop various types of
functional baked foods with apple pomace as an ingredient.

Processing and Storage of Apple Pomace:

Methods of drying, dehydrating, and storing apple pomace :

1. Drying Technologies for Apple Pomace:

"Apple and ginger mixed pomace is a by-product that can be valorized by drying. In this study, mixed
pomace was subjected to hot-air drying (HAD) at 45, 62, and 70 °C and stepwise at 45 °C followed by at
62 °C or the reverse, at 62 °C followed by at 45 °C (2.5 mm layer), and microwave drying (MWD) at 100,
180, and 300 W (2.5 mm and 1.5 mm layers) and stepwise at 100 W followed by at 300 W (2.5 mm
layer). The results show that the Crank model well fitted the HAD kinetics, with a water effective
diffusivity (Deff) of 2.28 ± 0.06 × 10−10–4.83 ± 0.16 × 10−10 m²/s and energy of activation of 23.9
kJ/mol. The step approach of drying at 45 °C followed by at 62 °C resulted in a higher Deff than the
reverse approach (drying at 62 °C followed by at 45 °C)" (Keshan et al., 2024).

2. Drying Characteristics of Apple Pomace:

"Moisture content (wb%) ranges from 84.48 to 11.34 at 60 ºC. Dehydration ratio and average drying
rate were ranged from 5.71 to 1.00 and 2.66 to 0.01 respectively. At 70 ºC, moisture content (wb%)
ranges from 84.48 to 6.91. Dehydration ratio and average drying rate were ranged from 6.00 to 1.00 and
2.71 to 0.01 respectively. Moisture content (wb%) ranges from 84.48 to 1.75 at 80 ºC. Dehydration ratio
and average drying rate were ranged from 6.33 to 1.00 and 2.81 to 0.01 respectively" (International
Journal of Chemical Studies, 2024).

3. Apple Pomace as a Functional Ingredient:

"Wang et al. (2019) conducted a study using apple pomace as a natural stabilizer and texturizer in set-
type yoghurt. Various concentrations of apple pomace (0.1%, 0.5% and 1% w/w) were combined with
skim milk and fermented by a mixture of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii
subsp. bulgaricus at 42 °C. Results showed that the addition of 1% pomace led to a dramatically higher
onset pH and shorter time of gelation. Moreover, all fortified yoghurts exhibited improved consistency
and cohesiveness during 28 days of storage" (Wang et al., 2019).

- Transformation of fresh apple pomace into powdered form for use in food products.

"Emerging customized designs to upgrade the functional potential of freeze-dried apple pomace was
used in this study, in order to transform the industrial by-products into ingredients containing probiotics,
for a better and healthier food composition. The freeze-dried apple pomace was analyzed for free and
bounded phenolic contents, highlighting a significant level of caffeic acid (4978.00 ± 900.00 mg/100 g dry
matter (DM)), trans-cinnamic acid (2144.20 ± 37.60 mg/100 g DM) and quercetin 3-β-D-glucoside
(236.60 ± 3.12 mg/100 g DM). The pectin extraction yield was approximatively 24%, with a degree of
esterification of 37.68 ± 1.74%, and a methoxyl content of 5.58 ± 0.88%. The freeze-dried apple pomace
was added in a different ratio as a supplement to cultural medium of Loigolactobacillus bifermentans
MIUG BL 16, suggesting a significant prebiotic effect (p < 0.05) at concentration between 1% and 2%. The
apple pomace was used to design three freeze-dried ingredients containing probiotic, with a high level of
polyphenolic content (6.38 ± 0.14 mg gallic acid equivalents/g DM) and antioxidant activity (42.25 ± 4.58
mMol Trolox/g DM) for the powder containing apple pomace ethanolic extract" (Vasile et al., 2022).

Potential for Long-Term Storage and Commercial Use of Apple Pomace:

"Every year, more than 50 million metric tons of apples are produced, and apple pomace is frequently
discarded as waste in the food industry. Apple pomace, a byproduct of apple juice and cider production,
is used as a sustainable raw material to make valuable products such as nutraceuticals and pectin. Apple
pomace contains a substantial amount of antioxidant compounds, which have been related to several
health advantages. Therefore, valuable components extracted from this byproduct may be used in the
food and pharmaceutical industries. The common and new technologies to obtain valuable products
from apple pomace which has come from production of apple juice or cider. Especially, emphasis of new
and green technique is very important and will contribute the literature. Therefore, this review discussed
apple processing, pectin as a bioactive compound, the extraction methods, current applications of apple
pomace byproducts, and future studies on its potential uses in food" (Veza et al., 2023).

4. *Nutritional Benefits and Functional Properties of Apple Pomace in Food Products*

"Apple pomace is a fruit by-product generated from apple juice processing. The common disposal
methods of apple pomace can cause environmental pollution and even public health hazards. Apple
pomace is rich in nutrients such as carbohydrates, phenolic compounds, dietary fiber, and minerals.
Therefore, apple pomace can be applied directly or after minimal processing as functional ingredients in
various types of food products. For example, apple pomace can improve the dietary fiber content and
health-promoting properties of bakery products, such as bread, sweet bakery products, and brittle
bakery food. Apple pomace can also be incorporated with extruded food and meat products to enhance
their nutritional value. Additionally, the utilization of apple pomace in confectionery products and dairy
food was found to have contributions to the product quality characteristics. Moreover, it can also be
used as a part of the substrate for alcoholic beverage development and edible mushroom cultivation.
Further potential applications as flavoring and stabilizing agents were also apparent. In addition, many
functional bioactive compounds that are extracted from apple pomace, including pectin, phenol, and
fiber, can also be utilized in food products to improve the product quality and nutritional properties"
(Rao et al., 2023).

2. Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Anti-Inflammatory Properties:

"Fruit pomace, a by-product of the fruit industry, includes the skins, seeds, and pulp most commonly
left behind after juice extraction. It is produced in large quantities: apple residues alone generate
approximately 4 million tons of waste annually, which is a serious problem for the processing industry
but also creates opportunities for various applications. Due to, among other properties, their high
content of dietary fiber and polyphenolic compounds, fruit residues are used to design food with
functional features, improving the nutritional value and health-promoting, technological, and sensory
properties of food products. This article presents the health-promoting (antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-
inflammatory, and antibacterial) properties of fruit pomace" (Raczkowska & Serek, 2024).

3.Use in Enhancing the Nutritional Profile of Bakery Products:

"Apple pomace is a significant by-product generated during the making of apple juice. It is frequently
discarded as waste, harming the environment and making it risky for people’s health. The primary goals
of this narrative review are to discuss the composition, functional bioactives, extraction techniques, and
current food applications of apple pomace. Given the immediate positive economic effects, higher yields
from novel extraction techniques were determined to be paramount. In addition to bioactive substances,
apple pomace has a high dietary fiber content that could be utilized in newly created formulations.
Additionally, this pomace can be added to food products to increase their nutritional content and
marketability. For example, adding apple pomace to bread, confectionery, dairy, and meat products has
increased their nutritional value and phytochemical and health-promoting qualities" (Zaky et al., 2024).

4-Rice Flour: Production and Applications in Food Industry

Rice flour is primarily a by-product of rice milling, which involves separating the rice kernel into various
parts: the starchy endosperm, rice bran, germ, and husks. The starchy endosperm is processed into
white rice, while the other components—broken rice, husk, and bran—are used for rice flour production.
These by-products, which were once discarded, are now increasingly being utilized, thus reducing waste
and adding value to the rice milling process (Mukhopadhyay & Siebenmorgen, 2017; Dhankhar, 2014).

1. Production of Rice Flour as a By-Product of Rice Milling

Rice flour production occurs as a by-product of rice milling. As stated by Zhoul, Chen, and Li (2002),
during the rice milling process, rice is separated into its key components: the outer husk is removed, and
the starchy endosperm is processed. This results in the production of broken rice, rice bran, and husk,
which were once considered waste. These by-products, however, are now being processed into rice flour,
offering an alternative source of flour for food products (Mukhopadhyay & Siebenmorgen, 2017).

2. Nutritional Content and Health Benefits of Rice Flour (Protein, Carbohydrates, Fiber)

Rice flour is mainly composed of carbohydrates, providing a significant source of energy. It is also rich in
fiber, particularly in brown rice flour, which retains more of its natural fiber content. This fiber helps to
promote digestive health, supporting regular bowel movements and overall gut health. Additionally, rice
flour is free from gluten, making it a suitable choice for people with gluten sensitivities or celiac disease.
It also has a low glycemic index, which makes it beneficial for individuals managing their blood sugar
levels (Mukhopadhyay & Siebenmorgen, 2017; Zhoul, Chen, & Li, 2002).

3. Importance of Rice Flour in Gluten-Free and Hypoallergenic Products

Rice flour is particularly important in the production of gluten-free and hypoallergenic food products.
According to Kadan and Gracia (2003), rice flour's hypoallergenic properties make it an ideal ingredient
in baby foods, snacks, and other products for individuals with food allergies or sensitivities. It is a
versatile ingredient that can be used in gluten-free baking, such as for making bread, cookies, and
pancakes, offering a safe alternative to wheat flour while providing essential nutrients (Kadan & Gracia,
2003; Mukhopadhyay & Siebenmorgen, 2017).

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