Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Unit III: Protocols And Technologies Behind IOT

IOT Protocols – IPv6, 6LoWPAN, MQTT, CoAP – RFID, Wireless Sensor Networks, BigData Analytics,
Cloud Computing, Embedded Systems.

What is the Internet Protocol (IP)?

 The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing packets of data so
that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination.
 Data traversing the Internet is divided into smaller pieces, called packets.
 IP information is attached to each packet, and this information helps routers to send packets to the
right place.
 Every device or domain that connects to the Internet is assigned an IP address, and as packets are
directed to the IP address attached to them, data arrives where it is needed.
 Once the packets arrive at their destination, they are handled differently depending on which
transport protocol is used in combination with IP. The most common transport protocols are TCP and
UDP.
What is an IP address? How does IP addressing work?

An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to a device or domain that connects to the Internet. Each IP
address is a series of characters, such as '192.168.1.1'. Via DNS(Domain Name System) resolvers, which
translate human-readable domain names into IP addresses, users are able to access websites without
memorizing this complex series of characters.

Each IP packet will contain both the IP address of the device or domain sending the packet and the IP
address of the intended recipient, much like how both the destination address and the return address are
included on a piece of mail

IP packet: IP packets are created by adding an IP header to each packet of data before it is sent on its way.
An IP header is just a series of bits (ones and zeros), and it records several pieces of information about the
packet, including the sending and receiving IP address. IP headers also report:

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 Header length
 Packet length
 Time to live (TTL), or the number of network hops a packet can make before it is discarded
 Which transport protocol is being used (TCP, UDP, etc.)
 In total there are 14 fields for information in IPv4 headers, although one of them is optional.

IPV6:
 The most common version of the Internet Protocol currently is IPv6.
 The well-known IPv6 protocol is being used and deployed more often, especially in mobile phone
markets.
 IP address determines who and where you are in the network of billions of digital devices that are
connected to the Internet.
 It is a network layer protocol that allows communication to take place over the network.
 IPv6 was designed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in December 1998 with the
purpose of superseding IPv4 due to the global exponentially growing internet of users. In this article
we will see IPv6 protocol in detail.

Representation of IPv6
An IPv6 address consists of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by ‘ . ‘ and each Hex
digit representing four bits so the total length of IPv6 is 128 bits. Structure given below.

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The first 48 bits represent Global Routing Prefix. The next 16 bits represent the student ID and the last 64
bits represent the host ID. The first 64 bits represent the network portion and the last 64 bits represent the
interface id.

Global Routing Prefix: The Global Routing Prefix is the portion of an IPv6 address that is used to identify a
specific network or subnet within the larger IPv6 internet. It is assigned by an ISP or a regional internet
registry (RIR).
Student Id: The portion of the address used within an organization to identify subnets. This usually
follows the Global Routing Prefix.
Host Id: The last part of the address, is used to identify a specific host on a network.
Example: 3001:0da8:75a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
Types of IPv6 Address

 Unicast Addresses : Only one interface is specified by the unicast address. A packet moves
from one host to the destination host when it is sent to a unicast address destination.
 Multicast Addresses: It represents a group of IP devices and can only be used as the
destination of a datagram.
 Anycast Addresses: The multicast address and the anycast address are the same. The way the
anycast address varies from other addresses is that it can deliver the same IP address to
several servers or devices. Keep in mind that the hosts do not receive the IP address. Stated
differently, multiple interfaces or a collection of interfaces are assigned an anycast address.
Advantages
 Faster Speeds: IPv6 supports multicast rather than broadcast in IPv4.This feature allows bandwidth-
intensive packet flows (like multimedia streams) to be sent to multiple destinations all at once.
 Stronger Security: IPSecurity, which provides confidentiality, and data integrity, is embedded into
IPv6.
 Routing efficiency

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 Reliability
 Most importantly it’s the final solution for growing nodes in Global-network.
 The device allocates addresses on its own.
 Internet protocol security is used to support security.
 Enable simple aggregation of prefixes allocated to IP networks; this saves bandwidth by enabling the
simultaneous transmission of large data packages.
Disadvantages
 Conversion: Due to widespread present usage of IPv4 it will take a long period to completely shift to
IPv6.
 Communication: IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate directly with each other.
 Not Going Backward Compatibility: IPv6 cannot be executed on IPv4-capable computers because it
is not available on IPv4 systems.
 Conversion Time: One significant drawback of IPv6 is its inability to uniquely identify each device
on the network, which makes the conversion to IPV4 extremely time-consuming.
 Cross-protocol communication is forbidden since there is no way for IPv4 and IPv6 to communicate
with each other.

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6LoWPAN(hence the "6" in the name; "LoWPAN" refers to the low-power wireless personal area network
aspect of the technology. )

6LoWPAN is an IPv6 protocol, and It’s extended from IPv6 over Low Power Personal Area Network.
As the name itself explains the meaning of this protocol is that this protocol works on Wireless Personal Area
Network.
WPAN is a Personal Area Network (PAN) where the interconnected devices are centered around a person’s
workspace and connected through a wireless medium. IPv6 is Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer
protocol that allows communication to take place over the network. It is faster and more reliable and provides
a large number of addresses.
6LoWPAN initially came into existence to overcome the conventional methodologies that were adapted to
transmit information.
But still, it is not so efficient as it only allows for the smaller devices with minimal processing ability to
establish communication using one of the Internet Protocols, i.e., IPv6. It has very low cost, short-range, low
memory usage, and low bit rate. It comprises an Edge Router and Sensor Nodes. Even the smallest of the IoT
devices can now be part of the network, and the information can be transmitted to the outside world as well.
For example, LED Streetlights.

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Basic Requirements of 6LoWPAN

 The device should be having sleep mode in order to support the battery saving.
 Minimal memory requirement.
 Routing overhead should be lowered.

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Features of 6LoWPAN
 It is used with IEEE 802.15,.4 in the 2.4 GHz band.
 Outdoor range: ~200 m (maximum)
 Data rate: 200kbps (maximum)
 Maximum number of nodes: ~100
Advantages of 6LoWPAN
 6LoWPAN is a mesh network that is robust, scalable, and can heal on its own.
 It delivers low-cost and secure communication in IoT devices.
 It uses IPv6 protocol and so it can be directly routed to cloud platforms.
 It offers one-to-many and many-to-one routing.
 In the network, leaf nodes can be in sleep mode for a longer duration of time.
Disadvantages of 6LoWPAN
 It is comparatively less secure than Zigbee.
 It has lesser immunity to interference than that Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
 Without the mesh topology, it supports a short range.
Applications of 6LoWPAN
 It is a wireless sensor network.
 It is used in home-automation,

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 It is used in smart agricultural techniques, and industrial monitoring.

 It is utilised to make IPv6 packet transmission on networks with constrained power and reliability
resources possible.
Security and Interoperability with 6LoWPAN
 Security: 6LoWPAN security is ensured by the AES algorithm, which is a link layer security, and the
transport layer security mechanisms are included as well.
 Interoperability: 6LoWPAN is able to operate with other wireless devices as well which makes it
interoperable in a network.
MQTT
MQTT is a simple, lightweight messaging protocol used to establish communication between multiple
devices. It is a TCP-based protocol relying on the publish-subscribe model. This communication protocol is
suitable for transmitting data between resource-constrained devices having low bandwidth and low power
requirements. Hence this messaging protocol is widely used for communication in the IoT Framework.

Publish-Subscribe Model
This model involves multiple clients interacting with each other, without having any direct connection
established between them. All clients communicate with other clients only via a third party known as a
Broker.

MQTT Client and Broker

Clients publish messages on different topics to brokers. The broker is the central server that receives these
messages and filters them based on their topics. It then sends these messages to respective clients that have
subscribed to those different topics. The heart of any publish/subscribe protocol is the MQTT broker. A
broker can handle up to thousands of concurrently connected MQTT customers, depending on how it is
implemented. All communications must be received by the broker, who will then sort them, ascertain who
subscribed to each one, and deliver the messages to the clients who have subscribed. All persistent
customers’ sessions, including missed messages and subscriptions, are likewise kept by the Broker.

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Characterstics of MQTT
 Lightweight: MQTT is designed to be lightweight, making it suitable for use in aid-restrained
environments inclusive of embedded systems and low-strength devices. The protocol minimizes
bandwidth and processing overhead, enabling green communication even on restricted networks.
 Publish-Subscribe Model: In the publish-subscribe version, clients (publishers) send messages to
subjects, and different clients (subscribers) acquire messages from subjects of interest. This
decoupling of producers and purchasers permits for flexible and dynamic conversation styles.
 Quality of Service (QoS) Levels: MQTT supports exclusive stages of message delivery warranty,
referred to as Quality of Service (QoS). QoS levels range from 0 to 2, providing various stages of
reliability and message transport guarantees, relying at the utility necessities.
 Retained Messages: MQTT lets in agents to store retained messages on topics, making sure that new
subscribers acquire the maximum latest message posted on a subject right now after subscribing. This
characteristic is beneficial for fame updates and configuration settings.
 Last Will and Testament (LWT): MQTT clients can specify a Last Will and Testament message to be
posted by way of the broker in the occasion of an sudden consumer disconnect. This function affords
a mechanism for detecting patron failures and dealing with them gracefully.
 Security: MQTT helps various protection mechanisms, consisting of Transport Layer Security (TLS)
encryption and authentication mechanisms which include username/password and consumer
certificates. These capabilities make certain the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of
messages exchanged over MQTT connections.
Advantages of MQTT
 This model is not restricted to one-to-one communication between clients. Although the publisher
client sends a single message on specific topic, broker sends multiple messages to all different clients
subscribed to that topic. Similarly, messages sent by multiple such publisher clients on multiple
different topics will be sent to all multiple clients subscribed to those topics.

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 Hence one-to-many, many-to-one, as well as many-to-many communication is possible using this

model. Also, clients can publish data and at the same time receive data due to this two-way
communication protocol.
 Hence MQTT is considered to be bi-directional protocol.
 The effective use of remote sensing and control
 Prompt and effective message delivery
 Minimises power consumption, which is beneficial for the linked devices, and maximises network
capacity.
 Data transmission is quick, efficient, and lightweight because MQTT messages have small code
footprint. These control messages have a fixed header of size 2 bytes and payload message up to size
256 megabytes.
Disadvantages of MQTT
 When compared to Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), MQTT has slower send cycles.
 Resource discovery in MQTT is based on flexible topic subscription, while resource discovery in
CoAP is based on a reliable system.
 MQTT lacks encryption. Rather, security encryption is accomplished by TLS/SSL (Transport Layer
Security/Secure Sockets Layer).
 Building an internationally scalable MQTT network is challenging.
What is Topic?
In MQTT, topic is UTF-8 string that the broker uses to filter messages for each individual connected client.
Each topic consists of one or more different topic levels. Each topic level is separated by forward slash also
called topic level separator. Both topics and levels are case-sensitive.

Example of topic –

Here, “home”, “kitchen” and “table” are different levels of topic.

Wildcard is an additional feature used in MQTT to make topics and their levels more flexible and user-
friendly.
1. Single Level: “+”
Single-level wildcard represented by “+” symbol can replace single level in topic.
Example –
If the client wants information about all tables present inside the house, it will subscribe to the topic :

Hence any information published related to tables, inside the kitchen, living room, bedroom, etc, can be
obtained on this topic.

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2. Multi-Level: “#”
Multi-level wildcard represented by “#” symbol can replace multiple levels in topic.
Example –
If a client wants information about all objects present inside the kitchen, living room, bedroom, or any other
room on ground floor, it will subscribe to topic:

Hence any information published on topics related to kitchen items, bedroom items, living room items can
be obtained on this topic. Information up to multiple levels can be obtained in this case.

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CoAP or Constrained Application Protocol

As the name suggests, is an application layer protocol that was introduced by the Internet Engineering Task
Force in the year 2014.
CoAP is designed for the constrained environment. It is a web-based protocol that resembles HTTP. It is also
based on the request-response model. Based on the REST-style architecture, this protocol considers the
various objects in the network as resources.
These resources are uniquely assigned a URI or Uniform Resource Identifier. The data from one resource to
another resource is transferred in the form of CoAP message packets whose format is briefly described later.
The Client requests for some resources and in response to that, the server sends some response over which
the client sends an acknowledgement. Although, some types of CoAP do not involve the receiver sending
acknowledgments for the information received.
Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is an application layer protocol designed for resource-constrained
devices and networks, particularly in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT).
1. Client-Server Model: CoAP model is essentially a client/server model enabling the client to request for
service from server as needed and the server responds to client's request.
2. Resource-Oriented: CoAP treats various objects in the network as resources, each uniquely identified by a
URI (Uniform Resource Identifier). Clients can request information about these resources, and servers
provide responses2.
Methods: CoAP supports several methods similar to HTTP:
GET
POST
DELETE
PUT
3. Asynchronous Messaging: CoAP messages are asynchronous because it uses the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP). Unlike TCP-based protocols, CoAP does not require acknowledgments for every message, which
helps conserve energy in resource-constrained devices.
Energy Efficiency: CoAP is designed to minimize energy consumption while simplifying communication
between clients and devices. It achieves this by managing resources, providing device descriptions, and
supporting mechanisms to determine if a device is powered on or off.
Methods in CoAP
GET - The get method is used to retrieve resource information identified by the request URI. In response to
GET method success a 200(OK) response is sent.
POST - The post method creates a new subordinate resource under the parent URI requested by it to the
server. On successful resource creation on the server, a 201 (Created) response is sent while on failure a 200
(OK) response code is sent.
DELETE - The delete method deletes the resource identified by the requested URI and a 200 (OK) response
code is sent on successful operation.

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PUT - The PUT method updates or creates the resource identified by the request URI with the enclosed
message body. The message body is considered as modified version of a resource if it already exists at the
specified URI otherwise a new resource with that URI is created. A 200 (OK) response is received in former
case whereas a 201 (Created) response is received in later case. If the resource is neither created nor
modified then an error response code is sent.
The most fundamental difference between CoAP and HTTP is that CoAP defines a new method which is not
present in HTTP. This method is called Observe method. The observe method is very similar to the GET
method in addition with an observe option. This alerts the server, to send every update about the resource to
the client. Therefore, upon any change in the resource, the server sends a response to the client. These
responses could either be directly sent individually or they can be piggy-backed.
Message Format of CoAP
CoAP messages are encoded in binary-format or 0/1 format. Like other message formats, CoAP message has
a header and a payload section along with an optional section. The size of CoAP header is 4 bytes or 32 bits.
This size is fixed for every CoAP message. Whereas the other part of message is the optional part which
includes payload and tokens of variable size ranging from 0-8 bytes. The message format of CoAP contains
the following fields:
Version - The size of version field is 2 bits. It represents the version of the CoAP protocol.
Type Code - The size of type field is 2 bits. There are four types of messages namely confirmable, non-
confirmable, acknowledgement and reset represented by the bit patterns 00, 01, 10, 11 respectively.
Option Count - The size of option count field is 4 bits. These 4 bits, means there could be a total of 16
possible options in header.
Code - The size of code field is 8 bits. This indicates whether message is empty, request message or response
message.
Message ID - The size of message ID field is 16 bits. It is used to detect the message duplication and types
of messages.
Tokens [Optional] - The size of tokens field is variable which ranges from 0-8 bytes. It's used to match a
response with request.
Options [Optional] - The options field in CoAP message has a variable size. It defines the type of payload
message.
Payload [Optional] - Similar to options field, the payload field has a variable size. The payload of requests or
of responses is typically a representation of the requested resource or the result of the requested action.

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CoAP Features
 Lightweight and Simple
 RESTful Architecture
 UDP-Based
 Asynchronous Communication
 Low Header Overhead
 Multicast Communication
 Proxy and Caching
Applications of CoAP
 Real Time Monitoring in Grid - Smart cities can monitor the distribution and generation of power
remotely. The CoAP sensors could be embedded inside the transformers and the data could be
transferred over GPRS or 6LowPAN.
 Defense utilities - The armory and tanks are now-a-days fitted with sensors so that information could
be communicated remotely without any interference. The CoAP sensors could detect any intrusion.
This makes them capable to transfer more data even under low bandwidth network.
 Aircraft utilities - The Aircraft sensors and actuators could be connected with other sensors and
communication can take place using smart CoAP based sensors and actuators.
Introduction of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
Definition:
RFID technology has revolutionized how we track and manage assets, inventory, and people. Its
ability to provide real-time data and automate processes makes it invaluable across various sectors.
While there are challenges to overcome, the benefits far outweigh the drawbacks, making RFID a key
component of modern technology infrastructure.
 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a form of wireless communication that incorporates the use
of electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum to uniquely identify an object or person.
 It uses radio frequency to search, identify, track, and communicate with items and people.
It is a method that is used to track or identify an object by radio transmission over the web. Data is digitally
encoded in an RFID tag which might be read by the reader. This device works as a tag or label during which
data is read from tags that are stored in the database through the reader as compared to traditional barcodes
and QR codes. It is often read outside the road of sight either passive or active RFID.
Working Principle of RFID
Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for Automatic Identification and
Data Capture technology which performs object identification and collection and mapping of the data. An
antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for communication between reader
and tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from RFID tag which detects the tag and reads or writes the
data into the tag. It may include one processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.

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Types of RFID
There are many kinds of RFID, each with different properties, but perhaps the most fascinating aspect of RFID
technology is that most RFID tags have neither an electric plug nor a battery. Instead, all of the energy needed
to operate them is supplied in the form of radio waves by RFID readers. This technology is called passive
RFID to distinguish it from the(less common) active RFID in which there is a power source on the tag.
 UHF RHID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ). It is used on shipping pallets and some driver’s licenses.
Readers send signals in the 902-928 MHz band. Tags communicate at distances of several meters by
changing the way they reflect the reader signals; the reader is able to pick up these reflections. This
way of operating is called backscatter.
 HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ). It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in your
passport, credit cards, books, and noncontact payment systems. HF RFID has a short-range, typically
a meter or less because the physical mechanism is based on induction rather than backscatter.
 Passive RFID: Passive RFID tags does not have their own power source. It uses power from the reader.
In this device, RF tags are not attached by a power supply and passive RF tag stored their power. When
it is emitted from active antennas and the RF tag are used specific frequency like 125-134KHZ as low
frequency, 13.56MHZ as a high frequency and 856MHZ to 960MHZ as ultra-high frequency.
o No need embedded power
o Tracking inventory
o Has unique identification number

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o Sensitive for interference

o Semi-passive RFID

 Active RFID: In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a signal and there is
an antenna which receives the data. means, active tag uses a power source like battery. It has it’s own
power source, does not require power from source/reader.
o Embedded power: communication over large distance
o Has unique identifier /identification number
o Use other devices like sensors
o Better than passive tags in the presence of metal
There are also other forms of RFID using other frequencies, such as LF RFID(Low-Frequency RFID), which
was developed before HF RFID and used for tracking.
Features of RFID
 An RFID tag consists of two-part which is an microcircuit and an antenna.
 This tag is covered by protective material which acts as a shield against the outer environment effect.
 This tag may active or passive in which we mainly and widely used passive RFID.
RFID Standards
 ISO 14443
 Components operating at 13.56Mhz
 Power consumption 10mW
 Data throughput is 100 kbps
 Operates at working distance 10 cm
 ISO 15693
 Components operating at 13.56Mhz
 Operating at working distances as high as 1m
 Data throughput few kbps
Application of RFID
RFID technology is versatile and can be applied in numerous fields:
 Inventory Management: RFID helps in tracking inventory in real-time, reducing errors, and
increasing efficiency.
 Asset Tracking: Companies can monitor their assets’ location and status, preventing loss and
optimizing utilization.
 Supply Chain Management: Enhances visibility and accuracy in tracking products throughout the
supply chain.

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 Access Control: Used in security systems for granting or restricting access to buildings, rooms, or
devices.
 Retail: Enables efficient stock management, theft prevention, and improved customer experience
through smart shelves and automated checkouts.
 Healthcare: Used for patient tracking, equipment management, and ensuring the authenticity of
medications.
Advantages of RFID
 Automation: Reduces manual intervention, minimizing errors and increasing operational efficiency.
 Accuracy: Provides precise tracking and data collection.
 Real-time Data: Enables real-time monitoring and decision-making.
 Durability: RFID tags are generally more durable and can withstand harsh environments compared to
barcodes.
 Security: Enhanced data security through encryption and authentication.
 It provides data access and real-time information without taking to much time.
 RFID tags follow the instruction and store a large amount of information.
 The RFID system is non-line of sight nature of the technology.
 It improves the Efficiency, traceability of production.
 In RFID hundred of tags read in a short time.
Disadvantages of RFID
 It takes longer to program RFID Devices.
 RFID intercepted easily even it is Encrypted.
 In an RFID system, there are two or three layers of ordinary household foil to dam the radio wave.
 There is privacy concern about RFID devices anybody can access information about anything.
 Active RFID can costlier due to battery.

WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS:

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Components of WSN In IoT

 Sensor Nodes- Sensors play the vital role of capturing environmental variables.
 Radio Nodes- Radio nodes or master nodes in a Wireless sensor network receive data from the
sensors and forward it to the gateway.
 Access Point or Gateway-It is used to receive the data sent by the radio nodes wirelessly typically
through the internet and send it over the cloud.
 Edge Computing and Data Analysis-The data received by the gateway is analyzed . This data is
further analyzed on the cloud and displayed on IoT mobile application or IoT dashboard.

Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) architecture is structured into three main layers:

 Physical Layer: This layer connects sensor nodes to the base station using technologies like radio
waves, infrared, or Bluetooth. It ensures the physical communication between nodes and the base
station.
 Data Link Layer: Responsible for establishing a reliable connection between sensor nodes and the
base station. It uses protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4 to manage data transmission and ensure
efficient communication within the network.
 Application Layer: Enables sensor nodes to communicate specific data to the base station. It uses
protocols like ZigBee to define how data is formatted, transmitted, and received, supporting various
applications such as environmental monitoring or industrial control.

Wireless Sensor Networks Architecture

Fault Tolerance – Fault tolerance is the ability of the network to work even when there is a break due to
sensor node failures.
Mobility of Nodes – Nodes can be moved anywhere within the sensor field in order to increase the
efficiency of the network.
Scalability – WSN is designed in such a way that it can have thousands of nodes in a network.
Feedback in case of Communication Failure – If a particular node fails to exchange data over the network,
it informs the base station immediately without any delay.
Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks
Internet of Things (IoT)
 Application: In IoT, WSNs interconnect various devices, allowing them to communicate and exchange
data, enhancing automation and efficiency.
 Example: In a smart home, sensors control lighting, heating, and security systems. For instance,
motion sensors can automatically adjust lights and temperature as per the occupants' presence, while
security sensors can detect unusual activities and alert homeowners.
Surveillance and Monitoring for Security, Threat Detection
 Application: WSNs are employed for surveillance to detect and alert against potential security threats
in civilian and military areas.
 Example: In a border security scenario, sensors can be deployed to detect unauthorized entry or
movements. These sensors can detect motion, sound, or thermal changes, alerting security personnel to
potential intrusions.
Environmental Temperature, Humidity, and Air Pressure

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 Application: Sensors are used for monitoring environmental conditions like temperature, humidity,
and air pressure, which are crucial for climate studies and weather forecasting.
 Example: Meteorological stations use wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to collect data on
temperature, humidity, and air pressure in various areas. This aids in precise weather prediction and
accurate climate change research.
Noise Level of the Surrounding
 Application: WSNs measure ambient noise levels in urban or in
Advantages
 Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy, making them a cost-
effective solution for many applications.
 Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired connections, which can be costly
and difficult to install. Wireless communication also enables flexible deployment and
reconfiguration of the network.
 Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to conserve energy, enabling
long-term operation without the need for frequent battery replacements.
 Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing sensors, making
them suitable for a range of applications and environments.
 Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical phenomena in the
environment, providing timely information for decision making and control.
Disadvantages
 Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited, which can be a
challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments with obstacles that obstruct radio
signals.
 Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have limited processing
power and memory, making it difficult to perform complex computations or support advanced
applications.
 Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as eavesdropping, tampering, and
denial of service attacks, which can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability
of data.
 Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to interference from other
wireless devices or radio signals, which can degrade the quality of data transmission.
 Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the need for proper sensor
placement, power management, and network configuration, which can require significant time
and resources.
 while WSNs offer many benefits, they also have limitations and challenges that must be
considered when deploying and using them in real-world applications.
BIG DATA ANALYTICS
How does big data analytics work?
 Analytics solutions glean insights and predict outcomes by analyzing data sets. However, in order for
the data to be successfully analyzed, it must first be stored, organized, and cleaned by a series of
applications in an integrated, step-by-step preparation process:

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 Collect. The data, which comes in structured, semi-structured, and unstructured forms, is collected
from multiple sources across web, mobile, and the cloud. It is then stored in a repository—a data lake
or data warehouse—in preparation to be processed.
 Process. During the processing phase, the stored data is verified, sorted, and filtered, which prepares
it for further use and improves the performance of queries.
 Scrub. After processing, the data is then scrubbed. Conflicts, redundancies, invalid or incomplete
fields, and formatting errors within the data set are corrected and cleaned.
 Analyze. The data is now ready to be analyzed. Analyzing big data is accomplished through tools and
technologies such as data mining, AI, predictive analytics, machine learning, and statistical analysis,
which help define and predict patterns and behaviors in the data.
What is Big Data?
Big Data is the immense and complex volumes of data created every second in our digital world. It’s
characterised by six key attributes: volume, velocity, variety, veracity, value, and variability. This is known
as the six Vs of Big Data.

Volume
Volume is the enormous amount of data generated from various sources like social media, business
transactions, and IoT devices. The scale of data is so large that traditional data processing software is often
inadequate, meaning more sophisticated solutions are needed to analyse the data effectively.

Velocity
Velocity is the speed at which data flows. In our always-connected world, data is produced and processed at
an unprecedented rate. This speed of data flows requires tools that can keep up with this pace, ensuring
timely and relevant insights.

Variety
Variety is the different types of data we encounter. Big Data encompasses structured data (like databases),
unstructured data (like text and images), and semi-structured data (like XML files). This variety makes data
processing and analysis more complex.

Veracity
Veracity is the reliability and accuracy of data. With so much data coming from various sources, ensuring its
quality and consistency is crucial. Veracity challenges involve dealing with biases and abnormalities in data,
requiring sophisticated verification techniques to maintain the integrity of the information.

Value
Value is the usefulness and relevance of the data. Big Data is considered valuable when it’s processed and
analysed in ways that uncover trends, patterns, and metrics that can drive positive outcomes and innovations.

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Variability
Variability is the inconsistency and unpredictability often found in Big Data. This includes the changes in
data flow rates, the diversity of data formats, and the complexity of data sources. The variability of data can
make it more difficult to manage and ensure accuracy.

To process and analyse Big Data, especially in connection with IoT, a range of sophisticated tools are
employed, like machine learning platforms. These tools provide the foundation for making sense of Big
Data, transforming it from raw information into actionable insights that can be used to enhance IoT
applications, improve business strategies, and drive innovation in various sectors.

How does IoT impact Big Data?

IoT impacts Big Data by changing the scope and nature of data collection, processing, and analysis.
Here are the key ways that IoT influences Big Data:

 Increases data volume-IoT devices generate a massive amount of data continuously. This contributes
significantly to the overall volume of Big Data. As more devices get connected to the IoT ecosystem,
the data they produce grows exponentially. This presents opportunities for improved data analysis
and insight, but also challenges for data storage and management.
 Generates a variety of data-IoT devices collect a diverse array of data types, from numerical readings
in industrial machines to audio and video data in smart security systems. This variety adds to the
richness of Big Data, allowing for more valuable insights. It also adds to the complexity of data
processing and analysis, requiring more advanced tools and techniques for effective data integration
and processing.
 Enables real-time analytics-IoT devices, especially IoT devices with 5G Technology, often transmit
data in real-time or near real-time. This high velocity of data generation means that Big Data
analytics must be capable of processing information quickly to extract timely insights. This is crucial
for applications where immediate data analysis is essential, such as in emergency response systems
or real-time traffic monitoring.

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How does Big Data analytics contribute to the optimization of lot systems, and what are the challenges and opportunities it
presents in terms of data processing, storage, and real-time decision-making?

Big Data Analytics in IoT System Optimization

Big Data analytics plays a crucial role in enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of IoT (Internet of
Things) systems by processing vast amounts of data generated by connected devices. This optimization
occurs in various ways:

1. Improved Predictive Maintenance

o By analyzing sensor data, machine learning models can predict equipment failures, reducing
downtime and maintenance costs.
2. Real-time Decision Making
o Streaming analytics enables instant insights, allowing for immediate corrective actions in
industrial automation, healthcare, and smart cities.
3. Enhanced Security and Anomaly Detection
o Big Data analytics helps identify patterns of cyber threats or system anomalies, improving
security and reliability.
4. Resource Optimization
o Helps in energy management (e.g., smart grids), optimizing logistics (e.g., fleet tracking), and
improving resource allocation in industrial IoT.
5. Personalization and Automation

In consumer IoT (smart homes, wearables), data analytics enhances user experience with Challenges
of Big Data in IoT Systems

1. Data Processing Complexity

o The sheer volume, variety, and velocity of IoT-generated data make it difficult to process
efficiently.
o Edge computing is often required to reduce the load on centralized cloud systems.
2. Storage Constraints
o Storing and managing petabytes of structured and unstructured data requires scalable
solutions, such as cloud storage and distributed databases.
3. Latency and Real-time Processing
o Many IoT applications (e.g., autonomous vehicles, healthcare monitoring) require ultra-low
latency, which traditional cloud-based solutions struggle to provide.
4. Security and Privacy Risks
o Data breaches, unauthorized access, and regulatory compliance (GDPR, HIPAA) are major
concerns.
5. Integration and Interoperability
o IoT devices operate on diverse protocols, making seamless data integration and
standardization a challenge.

o learning preferences and automating tasks.

Opportunities in Big Data Analytics for IoT

1. Edge and Fog Computing

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o Processing data closer to the source (on edge devices or fog nodes) reduces latency and bandwidth
usage.
2. AI and Machine Learning Advancements
o Automated anomaly detection, self-learning algorithms, and AI-driven analytics improve decision-
making.
3. Blockchain for Secure Data Transactions
o Decentralized security mechanisms can enhance IoT data integrity and privacy.
4. 5G and Improved Network Infrastructure
o High-speed connectivity will enhance data transmission efficiency and real-time analytics capabilities.
5. Hybrid Cloud Solutions
o A combination of edge, on-premises, and cloud computing provides a balanced approach to storage
and processing.

CLOUD COMPUTING

Explain the key components, models, and service types of cloud computing, and describe how they
collaborate to deliver scalable and flexible computing solutions for both businesses and individuals.

Cloud deployment models

When adopting cloud architecture, there are three different types of cloud deployment models that help
deliver cloud computing services: public cloud, private cloud, and hybrid cloud.
 Public cloud
Public clouds deliver resources, such as compute, storage, network, develop-and-deploy environments,
and applications over the internet. They are owned and run by third-party cloud service providers like
Google Cloud.
 Private cloud
Private clouds are built, run, and used by a single organization, typically located on-premises. They
provide greater control, customization, and data security but come with similar costs and resource
limitations associated with traditional IT environments.
 Hybrid cloud
Environments that mix at least one private computing environment (traditional IT infrastructure or
private cloud, including edge) with one or more public clouds are called hybrid clouds. They allow you
to leverage the resources and services from different computing environments and choose which is the
most optimal for the workload
Within these deployment models, there are four main services: infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform
as a service (PaaS), software as a service (SaaS), and serverless computing.

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1. Key Components of Cloud Computing

1. Infrastructure (Hardware & Virtualization)
o Servers, Storage, and Networking: Cloud data centers host vast amounts of physical
resources.
o Virtualization: Creates virtual instances of computing resources, optimizing hardware
utilization.
2. Platform (Operating Systems & Middleware)
o Cloud Management Software: Controls and orchestrates cloud resources.
o APIs & Middleware: Facilitate application interactions and integrations.
3. Software (Applications & Services)
o Web-based Applications: Cloud-hosted apps such as Google Drive, Microsoft 365.
o Cloud-based Databases: MySQL, AWS RDS, Google Cloud Spanner.
4. Networking
o Internet Connectivity: Enables remote access to cloud resources.
o Load Balancing & Content Delivery Networks (CDN): Optimize performance and
reliability.
5. Security & Compliance
o Identity and Access Management (IAM): Ensures only authorized users access data.
o Encryption & Firewalls: Protect data from breaches and cyberattacks.

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2. Cloud Computing Models

Cloud computing is classified into different deployment models based on how services are provisioned
and accessed:
A. Deployment Models
1. Public Cloud
o Provided by third-party cloud providers (AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud).
o Accessible to multiple users over the internet.
o Cost-effective but shared infrastructure may lead to security concerns.
2. Private Cloud
o Dedicated infrastructure for a single organization.
o Offers better security and control but is more expensive.
3. Hybrid Cloud
o Combines public and private clouds, allowing workload distribution.
o Enables businesses to maintain sensitive data on-premises while utilizing the public cloud for
scalability.
4. Multi-Cloud
o Uses multiple cloud providers to avoid vendor lock-in and enhance redundancy.

B. Cloud Service Models

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
o Provides virtualized computing resources like servers, storage, and networking.
o Example: Amazon EC2, Google Compute Engine, Microsoft Azure Virtual Machines.
o Benefits: Scalability, cost savings, and reduced hardware dependency.
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
o Offers a complete development and deployment environment with tools, frameworks, and
databases.
o Example: Google App Engine, AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Microsoft Azure App Services.
o Benefits: Simplifies development, reduces infrastructure management, and accelerates
deployment.
3. Software as a Service (SaaS)
o Delivers software applications over the internet on a subscription basis.
o Example: Google Workspace, Microsoft 365, Salesforce, Dropbox.
o Benefits: No installation required, automatic updates, and accessibility from any device.

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4. Function as a Service (FaaS) / Serverless Computing

o Runs application code in response to events without managing servers.
o Example: AWS Lambda, Google Cloud Functions, Azure Functions.
o Benefits: Reduces infrastructure complexity and optimizes cost based on actual usage.

3. How These Components and Models Collaborate

 Scalability & Elasticity: Cloud providers automatically allocate or remove resources based on
demand, ensuring optimal performance.
 Cost Efficiency: Businesses only pay for what they use, reducing upfront IT infrastructure costs.
 Security & Compliance: Built-in security frameworks and compliance standards ensure data
protection.
 Global Accessibility: Cloud computing enables businesses and individuals to access applications
from anywhere with an internet connection.
 Integration & Automation: Cloud services integrate with AI, IoT, and DevOps tools to automate
workflows and enhance productivity.
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
Embedded systems are at the heart of the Internet of Things. They provide the intelligence that enables
devices to communicate with each other and with the cloud. The role of embedded systems in the IoT
can be summarized as follows:
 Sensor Integration:
Embedded systems are responsible for integrating sensors into devices. Sensors are used to detect and
measure physical properties such as temperature, pressure, and humidity. These sensors generate data
that is processed by the embedded system and transmitted to other devices or the cloud.
 Communication:
Embedded systems are responsible for communication between devices. This communication can be
wireless or wired, and can use a variety of protocols such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Zigbee. Embedded
systems also handle the routing of data between devices.
 Data Processing:
Embedded systems are responsible for processing the data generated by sensors. This processing can
include filtering, normalization, and aggregation. The processed data is then transmitted to other devices
or the cloud.
 Security:
Embedded systems are responsible for the security of devices in the IoT. This includes securing data
transmission, securing access to devices, and protecting against cyber attacks.
 Power Management:
Embedded systems are responsible for managing the power consumption of devices in the IoT. This
includes managing the power supply, optimizing power usage, and managing battery life.

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Examples of Embedded Systems in the IoT:

There are many examples of embedded systems in the IoT. Some examples include:
 Smart Home Devices:
Embedded systems are used in smart home devices such as thermostats, lighting systems, and security
systems. These devices are capable of communicating with each other and with the cloud, and can be
controlled by a smartphone or other device.
 Medical Devices:
Embedded systems are used in medical devices such as pacemakers, insulin pumps, and blood glucose
monitors. These devices are capable of monitoring the patient’s condition and transmitting data to
healthcare providers.
 Industrial Automation:
Embedded systems are used in industrial automation systems such as assembly lines, robotics, and
process control systems. These systems are capable of monitoring and controlling industrial processes,
improving efficiency and productivity.
Embedded systems are essential to the functioning of the Internet of Things. They provide the
intelligence that enables devices to communicate with each other and with the cloud. Embedded systems
are responsible for sensor integration, communication, data processing, security, and power management.
Examples of embedded systems in the IoT include smart home devices, medical devices, and industrial
automation systems. As the IoT continues to grow, the role of embedded systems will become
increasingly important.
Some Possible Challenges of Embedded Systems in IoT
While embedded systems in IoT offer a host of benefits, they also face several challenges that can affect
their performance and functionality. In this write-up, we will explore some of the possible challenges of
embedded systems in IoT.
1. Power consumption: One of the most significant challenges of embedded systems in IoT is power
consumption. Many of these systems are designed to operate on battery power, making energy
efficiency a critical factor in their design. The system must be optimized to consume minimal power
while still performing its required functions. Additionally, as the number of devices in an IoT
network increases, the power consumption also increases, creating a significant challenge for the
design of the overall IoT ecosystem.
2. Security: Embedded systems in IoT are also vulnerable to security threats. These systems often
collect sensitive data and communicate with other devices, making them an attractive target for
hackers. Ensuring the security of embedded systems requires implementing robust encryption,
authentication, and access control mechanisms. However, as the number of devices in an IoT network
grows, managing the security of each device becomes increasingly complex.
3. Interoperability: Embedded systems in IoT must be interoperable with other devices and systems.
However, achieving interoperability is challenging due to the heterogeneity of devices and
communication protocols used in IoT networks. As a result, developing an interoperable IoT
ecosystem requires careful consideration of the devices and protocols used.
4. Scalability: Another significant challenge for embedded systems in IoT is scalability. As the number
of devices in an IoT network grows, the embedded systems must be designed to scale up to support

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the increased demand. This requires careful consideration of the hardware and software architecture
used in the system, as well as the communication protocols and data management mechanisms.
5. Real-time performance: Many embedded systems in IoT must perform real-time functions, such as
controlling and monitoring devices. Achieving real-time performance requires designing the system
with low-latency communication and processing mechanisms. However, as the number of devices in
an IoT network grows, ensuring real-time performance becomes increasingly challenging.

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