Ethics

(GEC 2203)
UNIT I. Understanding Morality and Moral Standards
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Lesson I. Importance of Rules

Rules - meant to set orders, an accepted guidelines that regulates behavior ensuring order
and preventing chaos.

Why?
- help organize processes from daily tasks to societal governance
- facilitate cooperation, social development and shared moral values
- safeguard weaker societal groups and maintain peace and stability If no rules?
- selfishness and unfairness dominate

Ethics - study of moral values and judgement, focusing on what is right, wrong, good, or
bad. Derived from Greek word "ethos" which means habit/character and influenced by
religion, culture, and philosophy.

BRANCHES OF ETHICS
a. Normative Ethics - defines right and wrong, shaping societal codes of conduct (e.g.,
Golden Rule).
b. Descriptive Ethics - explores how societies perceive morality without judging actions as
right or wrong.
c. Perspective Differences Normative Ethics - focuses on objective morality, descriptive
ethics studies subjective cultural norms.

Why study this?

- deepens knowledge of moral dilemmas and societal values
- enhances reasoning skills and moral judgement
- improves personal conscience, societal responsibility, and decision-making regarding
self-realization and service
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Lesson II. Moral and Nonmoral Standards

Moral Standards - values that society uses to determine right and wrong, they are based on
reasoning and impartial considerations which aims to be universal and apply equally to all
people.

CHARACTERISTICS:
- right and wrong
- impartial
- universal
- emotions

EXAMPLES:
- prohibition on stealing, lying, and killing
- helping your family and group
- returning favors
- being brave
- deferring to superiors

Nonmoral Standards - rules or expectations that guides behavior without considering

ethical or moral implications, they're based on practical or functional norms, such as
societal etiquette or professional protocols.

CHARACTERISTICS:
- personal taste
- practical
- embarrassment

EXAMPLES:
- dress codes
- manners
- game rules

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL AND NONMORAL

- moral are rules that guides behavior on what is right and wrong, while nonmoral are rules
that govern behavior without considering right and wrong.
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Lesson III. Moral Dilemma

Moral Dilemma - a situation or event that questions the morals of a person in a temporary
situation, a person can return to those morals after the event but for the duration of the
event they must choose one moral that over rules another.

"Moral dilemmas are ethical quandaries that present challenges as to which decision to
make at any given moment" — Cassandra J. Smith

TYPES:
1a. Epistemic Moral Dilemma - involve situations wherein two or more moral requirements
conflict with each other and that the moral agent hardly knows which of the conflict moral
requirements takes precedence over that, in other words the moral agent here does not
know which options is morally right or wrong.
2a. Ontological Moral Dilemma - involve situations wherein two or more moral
requirements conflict with each other yet neither of these conflicting moral requirements
overrides each other or neither of them is stronger than the other hence, the moral agent
can hardly choose between the conflicting moral.
3b. Self imposed Moral Dilemma - caused by the moral agent’s wrongdoings.
4b. World imposed Moral Dilemma - certain events in the world place the agent in a
situation of moral conflict.
5c. Obligation Dilemma - situations in which more than one feasible action is obligatory.
6c. Prohibition Dilemma - involves cases in which all feasible actions are forbidden.

STRATEGIES FOR RESOLVING MORAL DILEMMA:

- identify values
- explore options
- seek guidance
- reflect
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Lesson IV. The Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

A. Individual - known as personal dilemma, person must choose if-you-do and if-you-don't-
do situation.
B. Organizational - puzzled posed by dual necessities of a social organization and members
of self interest, this exist between self interest and group interest.
C. Structural - finding a satisfactory system of roles and relationships in an ongoing
universal struggles, this defines problems with clear out solutions.
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Lesson V. Freedom as Foundation of Moral Acts

Freedom is defined in two terms (1) Rationality and (2) Responsibility.
1. Rationality - is the ability to reason and make informed decisions.
2. Responsibility - is the ability to answer for ones actions, taking ownership of their
choices.

THEORIES OF ETHICS:
1. Virtue - focuses on character traits and developing virtues.
2. Deontology - emphasizes following rules and duties, regardless consequences.
3. Consequentialism - judges actions based on their outcomes, prioritizing the greatest
good for the greater number.
PRINCIPLES:
- autonomy
- beneficence
- non maleficence
- justice

LIMITATIONS:
- determinism
- social and cultural influences
- ignorance and lack of information
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Lesson VI. Culture: How it defines Moral Behavior

Culture - is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behaviors.

"Culture is passed on to the next generation by learning, not through the genes or heredity."
— Bringkerhoff (1989)

SOCIOLOGISTS CATEGORIZE INTO:

1. Material Culture - the physical object that a society produces.
2. Non material Culture - consist of language, values, rules, knowledge, and meanings
shared by members of society.

VARIOUS WAYS IN WHICH CULTURE CHANGE:

1. Enculturation - an anthropological term, was coined by J.M. Herskovits Margaret Mead
has, however, was the one who define the term as "the process of learning a culture in all
its uniqueness and particularity." The process of learning from infancy till death, the
components of life on one's culture.
2. Inculturation - refers to the "missiological process in which the gospel is rooted in a
particular culture and the latter is transformed by its introduction to Christianity."
3. Acculturation - the cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to
or borrowing trades from another culture. It is all explained as the emerging of cultures as a
result of prolonged contact.

HOW CULTURE SHAPES MORAL AGENT:

- culture definitely affects the way we evaluate and judge things
- culture effects human behavior not all cultural practices are morally acceptable,
examples are the culture of vengeance and low regard for the African women in
comparison to the African men.
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Lesson VII. Cultural Relativism
Cultural Relativism - the idea that all culture are equally valid and that no single culture is
to superior to another.

PRINCIPLES:
- no universal standard
- cultural context
- respect for difference

CHALLENGING UNIVERSAL MORAL STANDARDS:

- questioning absolutes
- diversity values
- openness to difference

PERSPECTIVE ON MORAL JUDGEMENT:

- moral relativism
- moral universalism
- cultural relativism

IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY:

- ethnographic research
- social diversity
- cross cultural understanding

LIMITATIONS AND CRITIQUE:

- moral relativism
- universal human rights
- cultural imperialism

BALANCED CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND UNIVERSAL HUMAN RIGHTS:

- respect diversity
- universal human rights
- dialogue and understanding
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Lesson VIII. The Filipino Character

FILIPINO WEAKNESSES:
1. Extreme Family Centeredness - excessive concern for family means using one's office
and power to promote family interest and thus factionalism patronage, political dynasties
and the protection of erring family members.
2. Extreme Personalism - "takes things personally" cannot separate objective task from
emotional involvement, because of this the Filipino is uncomfortable with bureaucracy,
with rules and regulations and with standard procedures.
3. Lack of Discipline - a casual attitude toward time and space, manifested in lack of
precision and compulsiveness, important management and procrastination. This often
results in inefficient work systems.
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative - waiting to be told what to do, reliance on others,
complacence, lack of a sense of urgency. To patient and "matiisin", too easily resigned to
his fate, the Filipino is easily oppressed and exploited.
5. Colonial Mentality - lack of patriotism or of an active awareness, appreciation and love of
the Philippines and an actual preference for things foreign.
6. Kanya-kanya syndrome or Talangka Mentality - done by tsismis, intriga, unconstructive
criticism. It is evident in the personal ambition that is completely insensitive to the
common good. This results in the dampening of cooperative and community spirit and in
the trampling upon other's rights.
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Self Reflection - the tendency to be superficial and somewhat
flighty, in the face of serious personal and social problems there is lack of analysis or
reflection and instead of satisfaction with superficial explanations and solutions.
8. Emphasis on Porma rather than Substance - this lack of analysis and emphasis on form
is reinforced by an educational system that is more form than substance.

FILIPINO STRENGTHS:
1. Pakikipagkapwa Tao - Filipinos value deep social connections and treat others with
kindness and respect, they practice bayanihan or community spirit showing concern for
neighbors and friends.
2. Family Orientation - family is at the core of Filipino culture, families remain close knit
often living together across generations and prioritize their loved ones above all.
3. Joy and Humor - Filipinos have light-hearted nature and use humor to cope with life
challenges, making them resilient and positive despite hardships.
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity - Filipinos can adjust to any situations, finding
innovative solutions to problems and making the most out of limited resources.
5. Hardwork and Industry - Filipinos are known for their dedication and strong work ethic,
often going the extra mile in their jobs and responsibilities.
6. Faith and Religiosity - religion is deeply ingrained in Filipino life, with fate serving as a
source of hope and during difficult times.
7. Ability to Survive - Filipinos can endure and recover from hardships whether financial
struggles, natural calamities, or personal crisis.
8. Kami Mentality - one norm of morality in the Philippines is based on "group
centeredness" or "group thinking", one's in group determines for the individual what is right
or wrong.
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Lesson IX. Universal Values

Universal Values - refers to fundamental ethical principles that are recognized and
accepted across different cultures, religions, and societies. These values serve as a
foundation for fostering harmony, understanding, and respect among individuals and
communities worldwide. Essential in guiding human behavior towards a more just, fair, and
harmonious world.

DIFFERENT UNIVERSAL VALUES:

1. Respect - Accord universal value that involves treating others with dignity, honoring their
rights, and acknowledging their perspectives.
2. Equality - the principle that all people, regardless of their race, gender, religion, or social
status, should have the same rights and opportunities.
3. Compassion - the ability to empathize with other's suffering and act to alleviate it.
4. Justice - the concept of fairness and the equitable distribution of resources, rights, and
opportunities. It demands accountability, the protection of human rights, and the
elimination of corruption and exploitation.
5. Peace - often seen as the ultimate goal of many universal values, encompassing both the
absence of violence and the presence of harmony, cooperation, and mutual
understanding.

HOW THESE IMPACTS SOCIETY:

- when universal values are upheld societies become stronger and more united, People
thrive in environment where they are respected, treated equally, and given opportunities to
contribute, this fosters cooperation and celebrates diversity.
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 Questions & Answer Keys
UNIT I.
Lesson I.
1. What is the primary purpose of rules in society?
A. To control people’s freedom
B. To maintain order and fairness
C. To make life more difficult
D. To benefit only the government

2. What could happen if there were no rules in a community?

A. People would be more disciplined
B. There would be peace and stability
C. Chaos and conflicts would arise
D. Everyone would automatically do the right thing

3. Which of the following is an example of a rule that helps ensure safety?

A. Wearing a seatbelt while driving
B. Choosing your own bedtime
C. Eating healthy foods
D. Watching TV after school

4. Why is it important to follow rules in school?

A. To make students afraid of teachers
B. To ensure a safe and organized learning environment
C. To increase homework load
D. To limit students’ creativity

5. How do rules promote fairness in society?

A. By giving more power to some people
B. By ensuring that everyone follows the same standards
C. By allowing people to break laws when necessary
D. By letting people do whatever they want
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Lesson II.
1. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Moral Standard?
a. Impartial
b. right and wrong
c. practical
d. universal
2. Are the values that a society uses to determine what is right and wrong.
a. Moral Standard
b. Non Moral Standard
c. Characteristics of Moral Standard
d. Right and Wrong

3. Which of the following is an example of Moral Standard?

a. manners
b. dress codes
c. returning favors
d. game rules

4. Are rules or expectations that guide behavior without considering ethical or moral
implications.
a. Non-Moral Standard
b. Impartial
c. Moral Standard
d. Practical

5. Which of the following is an example of Non- Moral Standard?

a. right and wrong
b. being brave
c. dress codes
d. deffering to superiors
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Lesson III.
1. What best defines a moral dilemma?
A. A situation where all choices lead to a positive outcome
B. A situation where a person must choose between two conflicting moral obligations
C. A situation where only one choice is available
D. A situation where personal gain is the main priority

2. Which of the following is an example of an obligation dilemma ?

A. A student must choose between helping a friend cheat or reporting them
B. A doctor must decide whether to save one critically ill patient or assist multiple stable
patients
C. A police officer must decide whether to accept a bribe or arrest a criminal
D. A person must choose between following a law or ignoring it for personal benefit
3. In a prohibition dilemma, what is the main issue faced by the decision -maker?
A. All possible actions are forbidden
B. There are too many correct choices
C. There is only one morally right choice
D. The decision has no ethical consequences

4. A soldier is ordered to follow military commands but also feels morally obligated to
protect innocent civilians. What kind of dilemma is this?
A. Prohibition dilemma
B. Obligation dilemma
C. No dilemma at all
D. Personal preference dilemma

5. What is a common way to resolve a moral dilemma?

A. Ignoring the problem until it resolves itself
B. Choosing the option that benefits oneself the most
C. Evaluating the consequences and choosing the lesser evil
D. Always following rules without considering the situation
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Lesson IV.
1. This level of Dilemma exist between self and group interest.
A. Individual
B. Organizational
C. Structural
D. Moral

2. It is known as personal dilemma.

A. Structural
B. Moral
C. Individual
D. Organizational

3. In this level Person must choose if-you-do- and if-you-dont-do- situation.

A. Individual
B. Group
C. Structural
D. Organizational

4. What are the three levels of Moral dilemma?

A. Individual, Moral, Structural
B. Personal, Group, Moral
C. Individual, Organizational, Structural
D. Organizational, Structural, Moral

5. It is a conflict of Moral reasons.

A. Organizational
B. Moral Dilemma
C. Structural
D. Personal
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Lesson V.
1. Which of the following is a central idea in the concept of freedom as the foundation of
moral acts?
A) Freedom allows individuals to choose without any limitations.
B) Freedom is a precondition for responsibility in moral decision-making.
C) Freedom leads to chaos and moral confusion.
D) Freedom is irrelevant to moral actions.

2. According to many ethical theories, what is required for an action to be considered

morally good?
A) The person performing the action must have no freedom of choice.
B) The person must act based on external consequences.
C) The person must freely choose the action with a sense of responsibility.
D) The person must follow societal rules without questioning.

3. Which philosopher is most closely associated with the idea that moral responsibility
requires freedom of will?
A) Aristotle
B) Immanuel Kant
C) Jean-Paul Sartre
D) Karl Marx

4. What does it mean to act freely in a moral sense?

A) Acting without any external constraints or influence.
B) Acting in a way that avoids punishment.
C) Acting according to the laws of society, regardless of personal beliefs.
D) Acting based on emotional impulses without reasoning.

5. In the context of moral philosophy, what role does freedom play in determining the
morality of an action?
A) Freedom is irrelevant; morality is determined solely by consequences.
B) Freedom allows individuals to make choices that are genuinely moral or immoral.
C) Freedom only applies to legal actions, not moral ones.
D) Freedom is only important when there is a clear reward or punishment involved.
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Lesson VI.
1. What is the term used to describe the process of learning a culture from infancy until
death?
A. Acculturation
B. Enculturation
C. Inculturation
D. Assimilation

2. How does culture shape an individual's moral behavior?

A. It determines the individual's thoughts and emotions
B. It affects the way we evaluate and judge actions
C. It has no effect on moral behavior
D. It influences only physical behavior

3. Which of the following is a category of culture that includes physical objects produced
by a society?
A. Non-material Culture
B. Subculture
C. Material Culture
D. Folk Culture

4. What is the process of adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture called?
A. Inculturation
B. Assimilation
C. Acculturation
D. Enculturation

5. Which of the following cultural practices would likely be considered morally

unacceptable in many societies?
A. The culture of vengeance
B. Language development
C. Shared community values
D. Respect for elders
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Lesson VII.
1. It is the idea that all culture are equally valid and that no single culture is superior to
another.
A. Ethics
B. Cultural relativism
C. No universal standard
D. Respect for difference

2. It emphasize the importance of respecting and tolerating difference between culture.

A. Culture difference
B. Cultural relativism
C. Respect for difference
D. Mutual respect

3. It claims that moral judgement are relative to the belief and value of a particular culture.
A. Moral
B. Moral universalism
C. Cultural relativism
D. Moral relativism

4. It encourage an openness to understanding and respecting the ethical perspective of

another culture.
A. Openness to difference
B. respect for difference
C. Diversity of values
D. Ethics

5. It maintains that there are universal moral principles that apply to all culture.
A. Cultural relativism
B. Moral universalism
C. Moral relativism
D. Cultural imperialism
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Lesson VIII.
1. What is a possible negative effect of extreme family-centeredness in politics?
A. Strengthening community relationships.
B. Establishing a fair and open government system.
C. The rise of favoritism and political dynasties.
D. Promoting national unity.
2. What does "extreme personalism" mean in Filipino culture?
A. Easily offended and unable to accept others' opinions.
B. Unable to separate emotions from professional duties.
C. Often relies on others for any task.
D. Always prioritizes personal gain over others

3. What is a common effect of a lack of discipline in the workplace?

A. Improved teamwork and cooperation.
B. Increased efficiency and productivity.
C. Poor time management and procrastination.
D. Stronger commitment to deadlines and schedules.

4. Which Filipino trait reflects the ability to empathize and build harmonious relationships
with others?
A. Bayanihan
B. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
C. Utang na loob
D. Hiya

5. How does strong family orientation benefit Filipino society?

A. It promotes close family ties and mutual support.
B. It encourages complete independence from family.
C. It focuses only on individual success.
D. It discourages social interactions outside the family.
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Lesson IX.
1. Which of the following best describes the importance of universal values?
A. They help maintain cultural differences
B. They promote peaceful coexistence and human dignity
C. They encourage competition among societies
D. They focus only on legal systems

2. What is an example of showing respect?

A. Ignoring someone’s opinion
B. Listening to someone’s perspective without judgment
C. Forcing others to accept your views
D. Avoiding discussions with people from different backgrounds

3. Why is equality important in society?

A. It ensures that only certain groups have privileges
B. It reduces social divisions and promotes fairness
C. It discourages diversity and cultural differences
D. It focuses only on economic success

4. Justice means ensuring that laws and social systems are biased toward certain groups.
A. True
B. False

5. Compassion encourages individuals to act with kindness and empathy, especially during
difficult times.
A. True
B. False
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UNIT II.
Lesson I.
1. What is a moral agent?
a) A person who blindly follows rules
b) A person who acts in accordance with moral standards
c) A person who avoids making decisions
d) A person who never makes mistakes

2. Which of the following is a sufficient condition for moral agency?

a) Having emotions
b) The ability to conform to moral standards
c) Being religious
d) Following social norms

3. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, what is the ultimate end of human actions?
a) Wealth
b) Power
c) Happiness
d) Eternal union with God

4.Which philosopher argued that humans create their own purpose in life?
a) St. Thomas Aquinas
b) Jean-Paul Sartre
c) Aristotle
d) Plato

5. What is the Christian perspective on the ultimate destiny of humanity?

a) Material success
b) Earthly pleasure
c) Eternal happiness of the soul
d) Social recognition
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Lesson II.
1. What is the relationship between moral character and moral behavior?
a) Moral character is unrelated to behavior
b) Moral character makes moral behavior easier
c) Moral behavior has no effect on character
d) Only laws determine moral

2. How is moral character developed?

a) Through repeatedly doing moral acts
b) By memorizing ethical theories
c) By avoiding all difficult moral situations
d) Through punishment

3. What happens when a person lacks moral character?

a) They automatically act morally
b) They find it harder to perform moral acts
c) They always make correct moral decisions
d) They no longer have moral responsibilities

4. Why is it important to develop moral character?

a) It ensures that a person is never punished
b) It makes moral actions easier and more natural
c) It helps a person avoid all moral dilemmas
d) It guarantees success in life

5. What is a defining moment in moral development?

a) A time when a person experiences deep moral reflection and growth
b) A period of confusion and uncertainty
c) A moment when a person follows a crowd
d) A situation where moral choices do not matter
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Lesson III.
1. Which of the following is NOT part of Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development?
a) Pre-conventional
b) Conventional
c) Post-conventional
d) Post-modern

2. At the pre-conventional level, what primarily influences moral decisions?

a) Social approval
b) Personal rewards and punishments
c) Ethical principles
d) Laws and rules

3. What is a characteristic of Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships?

a) Obedience to authority out of fear
b) The belief that rules should never change
c) The desire to be seen as a good person
d) The rejection of all moral principles

4. In which stage do individuals prioritize justice and human rights over laws?
a) Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
b) Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order
c) Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
d) Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment

5. What is the highest stage in Kohlberg’s model of moral development?

a) Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
b) Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order
c) Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
d) Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles