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Comparative Aspects of Circadian Rhythms, 2008: 000-000 ISBN: 978-81-7895-329-8

Editors: María Luisa Fanjul-Moles and Raúl Aguilar Roblero

4 Circadian rhythms in insects

Claudio R. Lazzari and Teresita C. Insausti

Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte, UMR CNRS 6035. Université
François Rabelais, Tours, France

Abstract
The expression of rhythmicity in insects has been
largely documented at the cellular level, in organs, as
changes in the physiology and behaviour of
individuals, as well as in population synchrony.
Circadian rhythms are particularly ubiquitous in
insects and, as in other organisms, have been the best
analysed. Fruit flies, cockroaches, butterflies, honey
bees, and other insects cast much light on the
physiology and molecular basis of the circadian clock.
Insect adaptation and success in the colonisation of
the most diverse environments is also associated with
the temporal organisation of their daily life. In this
Correspondence/Reprint request: Dr. Claudio R. Lazzari, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte
Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université François Rabelais, Avenue Monge – Parc Grandmont, 37200
Tours, France. E-mail: claudio.lazzari@univ-tours.fr
2 Claudio R. Lazzari & Teresita C. Insausti

chapter, we will analyse how circadian rhythms are expressed and

controlled in insects. Classical and recent findings will be discussed from an
adaptive and integrative perspective.

1. Introduction
Insects, like other organisms, evolved in an environment dominated by
daily periodicity. Their presence on the earth for longer than, for example,
vertebrates, allowed selective forces the time for fine tuning in time for several
processes not only at the cell, organ, and individual levels but beyond—at the
population and multitrophic interactions. Their ectothermic condition together
with their small size render insects particularly sensitive to the environmental
temperature, and their high surface-to-volume ratio facilitates water loss.
Additionally, the design of their eyes does not permit, in many cases, sufficient
sensitivity to see at night. These facts, along with others originated in their
corporal and functional design, acted as selection forces to predict changes in
their environment. Thus, it is not surprising that insect life is temporally
strongly and finely organized, and that they express many physiological and
behavioural daily rhythms at many different levels. Chronobiologists some
time ago realized the suitability of insects for experiments and made them one
of their favourite subjects of study. Indeed, insects are closely associated with
the history of the study of biological rhythms. They allowed unravelling many
fundamental questions to persons as Colin Pittendrigh, Jürgen Aschoff, Edwin
Bünning, Tony Lees, and several other personalities in Chronobiology.
This chapter attempts to synthesise some aspects concerning circadian
rhythms in insects which we found particularly relevant in order to provide
readers with an idea regarding their importance in insect biology. For a deeper
discussion of the different issues and to learn about other aspects not treated
herein, we invite the reader to look at the excellent book by David Saunders,
whose third revised edition was published a few years ago (1). It should be
noted here that only true circadian rhythms, i.e. those for which endogenous
control has been shown, will be presented. Other rhythms, among which
endogeneity was not tested or that are under the direct control of external
factors, will be eventually mentioned as functionally associated with
endogenous rhythms.

2. Circadian rhythms in individual insects

2a. Physiological rhythms
Physiological circadian rhythms in insects have been well- documented in
relation to hormone production, particularly hormones controlling post-
embryonic development. The first evidence of rhythmicity obtained from
cytological observations of daily cycles in the appearance of various cells or
Circadian rhythms in insects 3

cell types. Nevertheless, whether a particular rhythm of cellular events was

responsible for any other rhythm remained unknown in the majority of cases.
This limitation became relevant when it was clear that cellular rhythmicity was
the norm rather than the exception (2). Further analysis revealed that, in
addition to their purely endocrine functions, certain hormones, such as the
prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), ecdysteroids, and juvenile hormones
(JHs), the main hormones responsible for insect moult and metamorphosis,
form a key component of the circadian system and may represent the central
timekeeping system (2).
Figure 1 represents the hormonal axis controlling moulting in insects, as
well temporal control and synchronization by light.

Figure 1. Control of the rhythmic release of hormones controlling moult in Rhodnius

prolixus. In insect brain, cells possessing clock-gene cycling expression are entrained
by light (open arrows). These cells regulate the rhythmic release of PTTH
(prothoracicotropic hormone) through the corpora cardiaca (CC). PTTH stimulates and
acts as a Zeitgeber for release of ecdysteroids by prothoracic glands (PG), which also
possess light cycle-entrainable autonomous oscillators. Ecdysteroid action triggers the
rhythmic expression of genes on different tissues. Modified from (2).
4 Claudio R. Lazzari & Teresita C. Insausti

Insect moult involves replacement of the entire exoskeleton by a larger

one. This process, under the control of ecdysteroids, implies deposition of
proteins and chitin (n-acetyl-glucosamine) in the newly formed tegument,
which continues between moults. This deposition takes place in a precise
manner, with chitin fibres organized in layers with different orientations and
thicknesses (3). These layers alternate regularly, giving rise to a lamellate
cuticle, which is deposited during one part of each day, and non-lamellate
cuticle that is formed during the remainder of each day, representing daily
growth layers whose formation is controlled by a circadian clock (4–6).
Other hormones, such as the juvenile hormone (JH), also appear to be
produced in a rhythmic fashion. JH has multiple targets and is concerned with
different physiological processes, such as control of ovarian activity (7) and
control of sensitivity to sexual pheromones in moths (8), eventually inducing
rhythmicity in their expression.
True circadian rhythms in sensory sensitivity to odours have been
revealed at both sensory and behavioural levels. First described in
Drosophila (9) at the peripheral level, this rhythm expresses as a general
variation of the entire antenna’s sensitivity to odours. This rhythm is
expressed even in isolated antennae and appears to be controlled by an
autonomous antennal oscillator (10). A variation in the sensitivity of
antennal chemoreceptors was also verified in the cockroach Leucophaea
maderae (11). As in Drosophila, this variation renders the insect more
sensitive to several odours, probably to all of these. It means that the animal
is more or less sensitive to chemical signals at given moments of the day.
Paradoxically, in both cases maximal sensitivity occurs during resting
periods and not when the animal is active making use of olfactory
information. Different hypotheses have been proposed to explain this (9,11),
but more experimental data are necessary to unravel this paradox.
Interestingly, when behavioural response to a host odour (carbon dioxide)
has been evaluated in blood-sucking bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), no such
paradox occurred. The bugs evinced a narrow temporal window of
responsiveness, but in contrast to the previously described experiences this
window perfectly matched the activity period when the insect searches for
food (12). Furthermore, these bugs evince a bimodal activity pattern. They
search for food at the beginning of the night, and for refuge at dawn. Because
both behaviours are guided by odours (i.e., volatiles released by the host and
aggregation pheromones, respectively), this does not appear as adaptive for
sensitivity to every odour during only a moment each day, as predicted by
results in Drosophila and Leucophaea. Even when both host odours and
pheromones are always present in their habitat, they should only respond to the
odour that is relevant at a particular moment. Further experiments should shed
light on this problem.
Circadian rhythms in insects 5

The example of blood-sucking bugs has interesting consequences beyond

chronobiology. Actually, the chemical ecology of disease vectors is a field in
which much effort is concentrated in order to seek novel tools to control pests.
It is clear from the previously presented examples that the response of an
insect to a given odour will be influenced by temporal matching between the
moment of the experiment and the temporal context in which such an odour is
relevant in nature. Nevertheless, a review (13) of the recent literature
concerning the chemical ecology of insect vectors revealed that this matching
has rarely been taken into account. Thus, chronobiological aspects should form
an integral part of studies in insect olfaction.
An interesting example of both circadian control and integration of
endogenous and exogenous rhythms comprises adaptation to light intensities of
the haematophagous bug Triatoma infestans. The photonegative response of
this species is modulated by a circadian oscillator; bugs trained to light/dark
(LD) cycles and then exposed to light/dark LD, dark/dark, constant dark (DD),
or light/light, constant light (LL) conditions, are always more sensitive to light
during scotophase than during photophase, either real or subjective (14). This
variation in responsiveness is associated with dynamic changes in insects’
eyes. Screening pigments migrate to render the eye more or less sensitive to
light during the night and during the day, respectively. Light/dark adaptation
also falls under the control of a circadian clock in the case of compound eyes
(15), but is completely exogenous in the case of the ocelli (the simple eye of
the adult insect) (Fishbein et al., in preparation). It is noteworthy that both
visual systems work in parallel in this species to mediate negative phototaxis
(oriented light avoidance) (16). The fact that one system is controlled by a
circadian clock and the other directly by external conditions provides the insect
with the ability to predict changes and prepare itself for expected illumination
conditions when these leave their shelters and to react directly to any change in
the actual conditions, rendering the system plastic for adaptation to any
unpredicted situation.
Only a few examples of physiological circadian rhythms have been
presented in this section to illustrate the manner in which they are present in
insects. Further examples can be found in the excellent review by Steel &
Vafopoulou (2).

2b Behavioural rhythms
2bi. Activity patterns
The easiest behavioural rhythm observable in insects comprises the daily
pattern of spontaneous locomotion as representative of activity and resting
periods. It is relatively easy to measure and to test for its endogenous or
exogenous nature. The majority of activity rhythms in individual insects
6 Claudio R. Lazzari & Teresita C. Insausti

possess a strong endogenous component, although they may be, to a variable

extent, modulated by the direct effects of the environment. The pattern of
rhythm varies across species, depending, as in other animals, on specific
adaptation for exploiting particular resources. Therefore, unimodal and
bimodal activity distributions can be observed in both diurnal and nocturnal
insects.
It should be noted that the daily pattern of spontaneous locomotion
represents the summation of all the different activities performed by the
animals. Conversely, not every behavioural activity is carried out at every
moment the insect is in motion (Figure 2). Temporal allocation of each
behaviour represents an adaptation to exploitation of a particular resource, of
the environmental conditions, or even the avoiding of deleterious conditions or
predators. For instance, several haematophagous insects feed at the moment of
the day when their vertebrate hosts are less active. If the host is diurnal, these
insects’ main biting activity is concentrated during the night, and vice-versa.
This minimizes the risk of being detected by the host, which in many cases
may become a predator when active (17,18).

Figure 2. Two examples of temporal allocation of different activities in insects

exhibiting bimodal patterns of spontaneous locomotion. Top panel: Triatoma infestans
(Heteroptera: Reduviidae), a nocturnal insect. Bottom panel: the bimodal diurnal
activity pattern of tse-tse flies. In both cases, different activities follow particular
dynamics along entire activity periods or a part thereof. Data from (18).
Circadian rhythms in insects 7

Insect activity patterns also provide some interesting insights concerning

the adaptive organisation of behavioural and physiological rhythms. For
instance, the ant Cataglyphis habits in the Sahara desert and is one of the
most thermo-tolerant land animals known (19). Their bodies reaches
temperatures >50°C during foraging trips over the desert’s sandy surface at
midday. At this time, predators hide in the shadow to avoid excessive
heating. Each day, foraging activity is preceded by the synthesis and
accumulation of heat-shock proteins, which protect the animal from the
excessive heat (19).
The crepuscular activity of certain insects appears to contain a strong
exogenous component, because the period of day at which activity can occur
is restricted by environmental factors, particularly light intensity. Mating in
the fruit-fly Dacus tryoni occurs at an optimal light intensity of ca 0.8 lux.
Under a constant low light of this intensity, mating followed a circadian
rhythm that free-ran with a period ca 28 h for ca 4 days; nonetheless, under
either DD) or LL conditions mating is strongly depressed (1, 20).
Nevertheless, even under these conditions the endogenous rhythm of
motivation to mate persists for two or three cycles prior to ceasing. Under
natural conditions, given that both high light intensity and darkness suppress
mating, mating activity is restricted to a remarkably short period of 30 min
daily (Figure 3). The adaptive value of limiting mating to dusk is presumably
because this synchronises the sexual behaviour of all individuals in the
population, thereby increasing mating efficiency (1,20).

40 90 30 105

104
85
28 103
Light intensity lumen/sq.ft.
30
Relative humidity (%)

102
Number of matings

Temperature (°C)

80
26 101

20 Matings 75 100
Relative humidity
Temperature 24 10-1
Light intensity
70
10-2
10
22 10-3
65
10-4

0 60 20 10-5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Local time

Figure 3. Mating activity in the fruit-fly Dacus tryoni throughout 1 day under natural
conditions. Changes in relative humidity, temperature, and light intensity are also
shown (modified from [20]).
8 Claudio R. Lazzari & Teresita C. Insausti

2bii. Time-memory (Zeitgedächtnis)

The ability of honey-bees (Apis mellifera) to return to a food source at the
same time each day was known nearly 100 years ago, when the Swiss
naturalist August Forel observed that bees arrived at his breakfast table for
food. Because the bees always came at the same time—even when food was
not present—Forel (21) proposed that bees possess a memory for time
(Zeitgedächtnis) (1). Later, Beling (22) trained bees by offering them a sugar
solution in an artificial feeding set in a certain place at the same time each day.
During subsequent days (the test period), the feeding place was without sugar,
but each visiting bee and its time of arrival was recorded. Beling demonstrated
that bees do indeed return at the same time each day (Figure 4). She also
showed that bees could be trained to come at any time of the day and,
moreover, that they could be trained to come at two or more separate periods
during the day, provided that the interval between two successive training
periods was >2 h (1). The adaptive value of this ability is related to the fact
that different plant species bloom at different times throughout the day and this
is another consequence of the co-evolution plant-pollinator.
The unequivocal test for the endogeneity of bee time-memory came during
the 1950s. Renner (24,25), trained bees to a food source in Paris between 8.15
and 10.15 a.m. local time in a closed chamber under LL and constant
temperature. The bees were then transported overnight to New York and tested
the following day under identical conditions. In this now classical translocation
experiment, the bees had been transported over 76° of longitude, or a difference
18

16

14
Number of visits

12

10

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Local time (hs)

Figure 4. The time-memory (Zeitgedächtnis) of honey-bees. Bees were trained to

collect sugar solution from a feeder at the same time (16–18 h) during several
consecutive days. On the test day, sugar was omitted, but the bees continued to arrive at
the dish at the same time of the day (modified from [22]).
Circadian rhythms in insects 9

of ca 5 h in real local time. If an endogenous circadian rhythm were involved,

bees should have come to the test dish 24 h after the training period; if, on the
other hand, the bees were responding to subtle local influences they should
forage at the same local or sun time. The results showed that the former
alternative was the case: bees came to the feeding dish at 3.00 a.m. Eastern
daylight time, exactly 24 h after their last feeding period in Paris. The
reciprocal experiment involving translocation from New York to Paris yielded
an analogous result (1).

2biii. Learning ability rhythms

Decker and co-workers (25) have recently shown that olfactory learning in
the cockroach Leucophaea maderae is regulated by the circadian system.
Insects were trained and tested at different circadian phases for their
performance in odour discrimination 30 min after training (short-term
memory) or 48 h after training (long-term memory). After differential
conditioning in which one odour was associated with a positive reward (sugar
solution) and another different odour with a negative one (saline solution),
cockroaches conditioned in the early subjective night exhibited a strong
preference for the former and retained the memory for at least 2 days. Animals
trained and tested at other circadian phases demonstrated significant deficits in
performance for both short- and long-term memory. Performance depended on
circadian time (CT) of training, not CT of testing, and results indicate that
memory acquisition rather than retention or recall is modulated by the
circadian system.
The question arises concerning the adaptive value of circadian learning
and memory regulation. In the majority of instances in which circadian
control of memory formation has been demonstrated, humans and other
animals perform better with training during the active phase. Decker and co-
workers proposed that memories are only profitable when formed within the
environmental context in which they will be utilized. Because the
environment is periodic and because cockroaches are active at night and
spend the daytime hidden in dark shelters, little would be gained by forming
memories during the daytime. Memories based on information obtained at a
time and in an environment in which the animal is unlikely to be foraging
could interfere with successful foraging during its normal foraging at night-
time hours (25).

3. Circadian rhythms in insect populations

Some rhythms are not evident at the individual level, but as gated rhythms
in the population. Events such as egg hatching or ecdysis (hatching from the
old exoskeleton) do not occur each day in insects but rather once or a few
10 Claudio R. Lazzari & Teresita C. Insausti

times along the individual life. The timing of this process needs to be quite
precise, because both processes render the animal vulnerable to predators and
expose it to desiccation, in that the novel cuticle is not maintained rigid, nor
fully impermeable. In addition, the novel cuticle must exit the old exoskeleton
over a tiny layer of lubricant fluid. Thus, hatching at the moment when relative
humidity is relatively high would allow individuals to free themselves from the
old cuticle quicker, with water loss minimisation, and more importantly,
avoiding the risk of remaining as a partial or totally prisoner of the old
exoskeleton and eventually dying in the process. On the other hand, short-lived
species such as mayflies are compelled to proceed toward adult life
synchronically, in order to find a mature sexual partner and reproduce in solely
a few hours.
Therefore, processes as early in insect life as egg-hatching express
circadian rhythmicity. This was first demonstrated by Minis and Pittendrigh
(26), who investigated the egg-hatching rhythm in the moth, Pectinophora
gossypiella. At 20°C, egg development lasted ca 9–10 days. Eggs raised in
either LL or DD hatch arythmically, but when raised in (12 h light/12 h dark
(LD 12:12), they exhibited a distinct rhythm during which hatching occurs
immediately after dawn. This rhythm could also be initiated by a single non-
recurrent light or temperature pulse. The rhythm cannot, however, be initiated
until after the midpoint of embryogenesis (132 h from deposition). Because
both light and temperature pulses fail equally in inducing rhythmicity when
applied prior to this period, it appears that the oscillator controlling egg
hatching is not yet functional, rather than this being related to coupling
between the photoreceptive system and the clock (1).
The relationship between rhythmic hatching and environmental conditions
can be illustrated by the bug Triatoma infestans. Larvae and adults of this
species are strongly xerophilic and can be found in dry areas of Argentina in
refuges in which the microenvironment is even drier than that outside.
Paradoxically, and as other insects, egg-hatching success is strongly affected
by low relative humidity values (27). Given that females do not change their
preference for dry places when they oviposite and that eggs are not able to
move to another site, the question arises concerning how they avoid the
deleterious effects of dryness at hatching. As shown in Figure 5, the majority
of eggs hatch at dawn, i.e., during daytime when relative humidity is highest.
Even in the driest areas, an increase in the airs water vapour content occurs and
these insects utilise this moment to hatch. Thus, not only larvae and adults are
able to express hygropreference, but also eggs. In the latter case, however, this
hygropreference is not spatial, as in mobile instars, but temporal. If eggs are
exposed to LD cycles during the first half of the development, egg-hatching
gated rhythm in T. infestans persists under constant darkness, evincing its
circadian nature (28).
Circadian rhythms in insects 11

Figure 5. Rhythm of egg hatching in the haematophagous bug Triatoma infestans. The
majority of eggs hatch at dawn, when the relative humidity of the environment is
highest (modified from [28]).

In some insect species, population rhythms evince the coordinated

expression of endogenous clocks possessing different rhythmicities. Midges of
the genus Clunio (Chironomidae) are found in inter-tidal Atlantic- and Pacific-
shore zones ranging from temperate areas to the Arctic. Clunio marinus lives
on Western Europe’s Atlantic coast, occupying the lowest parts of the inter-
tidal zone, which are exposed solely during times of spring low water. Only
during these times are insects able to emerge (29). The females of this species
are wingless. The males emerge before the females, assist the females in their
own emergence, copulate with these, and subsequently carry them to the larval
habitat. Both sexes are extremely short-lived (<2 h) and oviposition must occur
before the tide rises to cover the larval site (1). Neumann (29–31) showed that
the rhythm of adult emergence in C. marinus is governed by the superposition
of a circadian rhythm that controls pupal eclosion and a semi-lunar rhythm that
determines the beginning of pupation.

4. Interspecific synchrony
Synchronisation of activities among individuals belonging to different
species is a usual phenomenon that allows animals to concentrate efforts on the
search for food at the moment of the day when it is present. Predators seek for
12 Claudio R. Lazzari & Teresita C. Insausti

Figure 6. Synchronisation between the microfilaria migration into the host’s blood
stream and the biting activity of their vectors in different geographic areas. The number
of parasites in the peripheral blood vessels is depicted as a function of time (redrawn
from [34]).

their prey when these are outside their refuges, and honey-bees return to
flowers to collect nectar immediately on their blooming (Zeitgedächtnis).
One of the most interesting cases of synchronisation across species is that of
insect vector-transmitted parasites. C. Pittendrigh (32) emphasized that the
functional significance of the entrainability of self-sustaining oscillators—and in
particular their predictive value and ability of timing under conditions of absence
of adequate sensory input—can be clearly illustrated with the migration of
microfilaria into the circulatory system of their vertebrate hosts. This
displacement of parasites toward peripheral blood vessels is timed to match the
time when the local insect vector (a mosquito) is actively searching for a host to
feed upon (Figure 6). The parasites would lack the capacity to perceive this by
themselves in the presence of vectors. However, host internal cues could provide
parasites with reliable temporal cues that, in turn, are phased to local time by the
host’s circadian system’s entrainment to the light cycle. Migration would be
coupled with the appropriate phase of the parasite’s circadian oscillator, assuring
its presence under the host’s skin when the vector is actively seeking a blood
meal (32). This time differs between both localities and vector species, but
always corresponds with the vector’s feeding time (32–34).

5. Photic and non-photic entrainment

The daily light-dark cycle is undoubtedly the major environmental
synchroniser, or Zeitgeber, with the temperature cycle (a non-photic Zeitgeber)
second in importance. Insects do not appear to be the exception, but several
other non-photic Zeitgeber have been described as evincing their capacity to
employ different kinds of information. Within a natural context, each species
can be more or less exposed to light according to their habitat, and use of
different sensory modalities permits obtaining more reliable temporal information.
Circadian rhythms in insects 13

The ability of insects to colonize very different environments brought

them to habitats with little or no periodicity, such as deep caves, inside logs or
tree trunks, of trees, or even high latitudes where during long periods of light
intensity remain constant. Species living in these places range from arrhythmic
to those possessing well-defined activity rhythms (1), depending on their
contact with the periodic outside.
Certain insects, such as the haematophagous bug T. infestans, are
characterized by spending the majority of their time hidden in dark places and
having a highly developed thermal sense. Do they use light or thermal
environmental cycles as Zeitgeber? Experimental work revealed that, as
expected, they synchronize their activity very rapidly to high/low temperature
cycles in both DD and LL. In addition, a sole transient cycle is necessary to
resynchronize their activity after a 12-h temperature-cycle phase-shift. Given
that a light/cycle requests 3–4 cycles to resynchronize post-inversion, one
might think that temperature and not light is the main cue followed by these
bugs. However, when confronted by the simultaneous presence of both cycles
at different phase-relationships, a dominant light effect becomes evident.
Insects can shift their activity to high- or low- temperature periods, but never
to photophase (17). This demonstrates that it is reliability that makes a
Zeitgeber occupy the highest rank and not the insect’s sensitivity for the
different variables.

6. The circadian clock

The ubiquity of circadian rhythms in insects is expressed in different
forms. One of these is the ability of some organs to continue to express self-
sustained rhythmicity in vitro and isolated from the remainder of the insect.
This is the case of the reproductive organs of certain butterfly species, in which
the descent of spermatozoa from testicles through genital ducts occurs with
daily periodicity (35). In addition, sensory organs, such as compound eyes and
antennae, have revealed the presence of peripheral oscillators that are capable
of maintaining the rhythm of sensitivity (10, 36).
As in mammals, local oscillators are submitted to the control of a central
master clock that synchronises these to assure coordinated work. The paired
master clock of insects is located in each optic lobes of the brain. In a series of
very elegant experiments, Page (37) raised cockroaches in two different light
cycles (LD 11:11, or LD 13:13) that resulted in two groups of insects: one with
a short period (22.7 h) and the other with a long period (24.2 h). These
differences were maintained for at least 5 months in DD. Ablation of both
optic lobes, which resulted in arhythmicity, was then followed by reciprocal
transplantation of optic lobes from short-to long-period insects, and vice-versa.
One to two months later, rhythmicity was restored, revealing that the recipient
14 Claudio R. Lazzari & Teresita C. Insausti

Figure 7. Location and main connectivity of the circadian master clocks in brain of
cockroach, Leucophaea maderae (frontal view). Paired master clocks are located inside
each optic lobe (OL) near medulla (Me) in accessory medullae (AMe). They receive
indirect light input from compound eyes (CE) via lamina (La) and distal tract (DT).
Projections leave the AMe and run to the pars intercerebralis (PI). Both aMe are
connected via optic commissure (OC) fibres. Lo = lobula. Modified from (38).

adopted the donor phase and donor period. Histological examination revealed
that transplanted optic lobes regenerated appropriate connections to brain. This
experiment provided unequivocal evidence that optic lobes contained circadian
pacemakers (1).
Figure 7 represents the master-clock organisation of the cockroach
Leucaphaea maderae as well as main nervous tracts, which synchronize the
two clocks with each other and convey information to different parts of central
nervous system, including pars intercerebralis, in which neurosecretory cells
are involved in hormonal and developmental rhythms, as indicated previously
in this chapter.

7. Photoperiodism and the circadian clock

As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, insects are strongly affected
by the conditions of their environments. Despite that their small size and
ectothermic condition impose important constraints on them, they have
succeeded in conquering many different habitats in nearly every region of the
earth. In the majority of regions, at least one period of the year is too cold, too
hot, or too dry for insects or their food supplies. To overcome this problem,
many insect species have developed specific strategies: either they migrate,
enter into diapause (programmed dormancy state), or change their bodies to
better adapt to these conditions. All three processes take place on a seasonal
basis during a period of the year that varies according to the region. A common
Circadian rhythms in insects 15

characteristic of these processes comprises that these require need the insect to
be able to anticipate the arrival of the deleterious season for preparing its body
for survival during this period. For this, insects react to the variation of the
relation between the length of the day and that of the night, i.e., the
photoperiod. Winter is characterized by short days and long nights and the
reverse for the summer, and by measuring the photoperiod and its variation
along successive days, insects can predict their proximity. Processes controlled
by the photoperiod rely on functional elements for measuring the day length
(or night length), for counting short or long days (to avoid weather
interference) and a third one analyses the direction of the change (shortening or
lengthening of the days). We will discuss here just the first one, i.e. the
measuring of the day length, because it is the only which could be associated
to the circadian system.
Two types of mechanisms have been proposed for measuring the day/night
ratio, either involving or not, a circadian clock. The first, independent of a
circadian mechanism, would work similarly to an hour-glass. Although the
exact mechanism remains elusive, it can be illustrated as the accumulation of a
metabolite that is synthesized during the night and degraded by light. During
long nights, product concentration would reach a given threshold and the day
would be considered as short. Provided that measurement is conducted on a
single-night basis, no circadian component is necessary. Aphids constitute the
main group employing an hour-glass for measuring photoperiodic time and the
model system utilized to uncover its properties.
The second way to measure day or night length is to employ a circadian
clock. Suppose that you wake up at 7 a.m. on a summer day. If you look out
the window, you see daylight outside. However, when winter approaches,
natural light at this time becomes weaker and weaker. Thus, you are not
required to measure all time, but only to observe the correspondence between
external conditions and the inner clock. A mechanism based on this principle
was first proposed by Erwin Bünning and is known as the external coincidence
model (1).
The circadian system may also effect this measurement in a different
manner. Suppose that there are two circadian oscillators, one locked at dusk
and the other at dawn. Each oscillator will experience maximum and minimum
at different moments throughout the day, but their relative phase will vary
according to the day’s length. This model was proposed by Pittendrigh and
differs from the previous one, in that know the coincidence of observing not
between the clock and the outside, but between two internal oscillators:
therefore, this is known as internal coincidence (1).
External and internal coincidence are not the only models proposed to
explain the way different insect species measure day length employing a
16 Claudio R. Lazzari & Teresita C. Insausti

circadian clock. Other circadian system-based mechanisms have been

proposed and are described in detail by Saunders et al. (1).
More recently, whether hour-glass and circadian mechanisms to measure
photoperiodic time are mutually exclusive and non-related has been critically
reviewed by D. Saunders (39). The main conclusion of his work comprises that
there is sufficient evidence to consider the hour-glass of Aphids and other
insects as a heavily damped circadian oscillator.

8. Concluding remarks
Insects have contributed much to unravelling many big questions in
chronobiology and continue highlight many relevant aspects. They are
excellent experimental models, as demonstrated in seminal works conducted
by the pioneers of the study of biological rhythms. They can be easily reared in
the laboratory, have short generation times, and are robust for experimental
surgical manipulation (e.g., ligatures, decapitation, transplantation, parabiosis).
Conversely, chronobiological studies on pest insects can greatly improve our
knowledge concerning their biology, providing basic knowledge on the
temporal organisation of pest life. This information possesses a large applied
value, because it can aid in improving their control by applying control
measures during the time of higher susceptibility, for example, when ecdysis
or hatching take place and the body cuticle is most permeable. We hope that
the information summarised here will encourage biologists to conduct work in
this area.

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