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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY (GS 1)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
GEOMORPHOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................................... 5
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (CDT): ............................................................................................................................... 5
LITHOSPHERIC PLATES / PLATES BOUNDARIES / PLATE TECTONICS........................................................................ 6
COMPARISON: CONTINENTAL DRIFT & SEE FLOOR SPREADING & PLATE TECTONICS ........................................ 9
FOLD MOUNTAIN OROGENY .............................................................................................................................................. 10
LANDFORMS ON EARTH'S SURFACE CREATED BY INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES ................................... 11
EARTH’S MAGNETISM AND POLE REVERSAL ................................................................................................................ 13
SHOULD INDIA HAVE TWO TIME ZONES? ....................................................................................................................... 16
VOLCANISM:........................................................................................................................................................................... 17
HINDUKUSH HIMALAYAN REGION & ITS ECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL IMPORTANCE............................. 19
RIVER MORPHOLOGY .......................................................................................................................................................... 20
DRAINAGE BASIN:................................................................................................................................................................. 21
● ESTUARY VS. DELTA ............................................................................................................................................. 26
INTERLINKING OF RIVERS .................................................................................................................................................. 27
CLIMATOLOGY ......................................................................................................................................................................... 29
INDIAN MONSOON ................................................................................................................................................................ 29
IMPACT OF EL-NINO AND LA-NINA ON INDIAN MONSOON AND ON GLOBAL CLIMATE: ................................... 34
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
POLAR VORTEX; SUDDEN STRATOSPHERIC WARMING(SSW) ................................................................................... 45
TEMPERATURE INVERSION AND ASSOCIATED WEATHER: ........................................................................................ 47
DESERTS: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 48
CYCLONES .............................................................................................................................................................................. 51
AMAZON RAINFORESTS: ..................................................................................................................................................... 55
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE OR WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE OR WARM TEMPERATE
WEST COAST CLIMATE: ....................................................................................................................................................... 57
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ............................................................................................................................................... 60
CRYOSPHERE AND GLOBAL CLIMATE ............................................................................................................................ 71
HOW THE TILT OF EARTH’S AXIS ON ITS ORBITAL PLANE AROUND THE SUN CAUSE: ...................................... 74
EXPLAIN EQUINOX AND SOLSTICE .................................................................................................................................. 77
OCEANOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................................................................... 79
OCEAN BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................ 79
OCEAN CURRENTS ................................................................................................................................................................ 81
IMPORTANCE OF INDIAN OCEAN REGION ...................................................................................................................... 83
NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCE & MANAGEMENT ........................................... 86
LANDSLIDES ...................................................................................................................................................................... 86
AVALANCHE ...................................................................................................................................................................... 87
EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI ............................................................................................................................................ 89
FLOODS ............................................................................................................................................................................... 96
GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD: ............................................................................................................................ 98
URBAN FLOODS/ FLASH FLOODS: .............................................................................................................................. 100
DROUGHTS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 102
FOREST FIRES .................................................................................................................................................................. 105

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HEAT WAVES ................................................................................................................................................................... 108

HEAT DOME: .................................................................................................................................................................... 111
URBAN HEAT ISLAND.................................................................................................................................................... 112
DESERTIFICATION & LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY .................................................................................. 114
WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................................................................................... 118
HAZARD VULNERABILITY OF INDIA ......................................................................................................................... 120
CLIMATE HAZARDS AND VULNERABILITY ATLAS OF INDIA: ............................................................................ 121
ENVIRONMENT & BIOGEOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................. 122
FORESTS ................................................................................................................................................................................ 122
WESTERN GHATS ECOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 123
MANGROVES ........................................................................................................................................................................ 128
CORAL BLEACHING & CORAL RESTORATION ............................................................................................................. 130
FLY ASH UTILIZATION ....................................................................................................................................................... 137
SOIL ORGANIC CARBON .................................................................................................................................................... 139
ISLAND DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................................................................... 143
DECARBONISING TRANSPORT ......................................................................................................................................... 145
ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION ............................................................................................................................................. 148
RESOURCES OF INDIA AND THE WORLD........................................................................................................................ 153
OCEAN RESOURCES ............................................................................................................................................................ 153
OIL & NATURAL GAS .......................................................................................................................................................... 157
SHALE GAS RESERVES, PRODUCTION & POLLUTION ................................................................................................ 159
RARE EARTH MINERALS ................................................................................................................................................... 161
LITHIUM RESERVES ............................................................................................................................................................ 163
RUSSIA’S FAR EAST ............................................................................................................................................................ 165
INDIA’S ARCTIC POTENTIAL ............................................................................................................................................ 167
AFRICA AS NEW GROWTH FRONTIER ............................................................................................................................ 170
INDIAN DEEP SEA FISHERIES- PROSPECTS, ISSUES & CHALLENGES ..................................................................... 173
WATER RESOURCES ........................................................................................................................................................... 175
TRADITIONAL RAINWATER HARVESTING ................................................................................................................... 180
HYDRO POWER POTENTIAL OF NORTH EASTERN REGION ...................................................................................... 181
COAL ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 184
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY: .............................................................................................................................. 188
OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY ................................................................................................................................................ 191
ENERGY CRISIS & RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY .......................................................................................................... 195
CRITICAL METALS AND STRATEGIC METALS: ............................................................................................................ 200
AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................................................................................ 205
INDIAN AGRICULTURE ...................................................................................................................................................... 205
SLASH & BURN FARMING/ JHUM CULTIVATION ......................................................................................................... 207
DRYLAND AGRICULTURE ................................................................................................................................................. 208
PULSES PRODUCTION IN INDIA ....................................................................................................................................... 212
PLANTATION AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................................................... 214
TEA PLANTATION:.......................................................................................................................................................... 217

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COFFEE PLANTATION:................................................................................................................................................... 219

COTTON ............................................................................................................................................................................ 220
AGROFORESTRY .................................................................................................................................................................. 226
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE ......................................................................................................................................... 229
ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING: .............................................................................................................................. 232
POPULATION & SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................ 234
MIGRATION........................................................................................................................................................................... 234
POTENTIAL OF RELIGIOUS TOURISM IN INDIA ........................................................................................................... 238
DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND IN INDIA: ............................................................................................................................. 243
COUNTER URBANISATION-............................................................................................................................................... 245
PREVALENCE OF MENTAL DISORDER IN SOUTH INDIA ............................................................................................ 246
INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS .................................................................................................................................................... 247
LOCATIONAL FACTORS OF INDUSTRIES IN INDIA & THE WORLD ......................................................................... 247
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RAW MATERIAL & INDUSTRIES: HOW GLOBALISATION & TECHNOLOGICAL
ADVANCEMENT IS CHANGING THIS RELATIONSHIP: ................................................................................................ 249
FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY: ....................................................................................................................................... 249
SUGAR INDUSTRY: .............................................................................................................................................................. 251
COTTON TEXTILES:............................................................................................................................................................. 252
JUTE TEXTILES: ................................................................................................................................................................... 254
PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY: ....................................................................................................................................... 254
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY: ........................................................................................................................................... 256
PETROLEUM REFINING: ..................................................................................................................................................... 258
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY-..................................................................................................................................................... 260
FOREST BASED INDUSTRY: TIMBER, PAPER AND PULP INDUSTRY: ...................................................................... 266
ELECTRONIC AND IT INDUSTRY: .................................................................................................................................... 267
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND START UP’S: ........................................................................................................ 268
SOLAR INDUSTRY: .............................................................................................................................................................. 268
FISHING INDUSTRY: ........................................................................................................................................................... 270
FOOTLOOSE INDUSTRIES .................................................................................................................................................. 271
NASHIK AS WINE CAPITAL OF INDIA ............................................................................................................................. 273
MEDIA AND ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY ................................................................................................................... 273
INDUSTRIAL CORRIDORS: ................................................................................................................................................. 275
DEDICATED FREIGHT CORRIDORS ................................................................................................................................. 277

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GEOMORPHOLOGY

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (CDT):

● The evidences of Continental Drift Theory were given by Alfred Wegener in the 1920s.

● All the continents formed a single landmass called PANGEA surrounded by a mega ocean
PANTHALASSA.
● In the MESOZOIC era, 200 million years before present, the Pangea began to split and
drift apart.
● Tethys sea divided Pangea into 2 huge landmasses:
○ Laurasia (North)
○ Gondwanaland (South)
● Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into present day continents.
● Continents drift in two directions:
○ Equatorwards- due to gravity, pole fleeing force, buoyancy.
○ Westwards- due to tidal force.
● Evidences given by Wegener:

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○ Matching of the continents (Jigsaw fit) - South America and Africa especially the
bulge of Brazil fits into the Gulf of Guinea.
○ Similarity in rocks and marine sediments across the continents.
○ Fossil Distribution- Identical species of plants and animals found on either side
of the oceans.
○ Tillite Deposits- are sedimentary rocks formed out of deposits of glaciers. The
Gondwana system of sediments are found in India, Africa, Falkland Island,
Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia.
○ Rich placer deposits of gold are found on the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the
source (gold-bearing veins) is in Brazil, and it is obvious that the gold deposits of
Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by
side.
○ Polar Wandering- The position of poles constantly drifted (due to plate tectonics).
● Criticism of Wegener's Theory:
○ Pole Fleeing force, Tidal force too weak to move continents.
○ Wegener failed to explain why the drift began only in Mesozoic era and not before.
○ The theory doesn’t consider oceans.
○ CDT overshadowed by Sea floor spreading and Plate Tectonics Theory.

LITHOSPHERIC PLATES / PLATES BOUNDARIES / PLATE TECTONICS

• Tectonic Plates are massive slabs of solid rocks comprising both continents and oceans. The
movement and interaction of these plates lead to the formation of new land and oceanic
features.
• The lithosphere is believed to have been broken into fragments that are floating on a ductile
layer called asthenosphere (upper part of the mantle).

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• The movement of these plates is attributed to the convention currents being generated in the
upper mantle.
• Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
• The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying between 5-
100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas.
• The oceanic plates contain mainly the Simatic crust and are relatively thinner, while the
continental plates contain Sialic material and are relatively thicker.
• Lithospheric plates (tectonic plates) vary from minor plates to major plates, continental
plates (Arabian plate) to oceanic plates (Pacific plate), sometimes a combination of both
continental and oceanic plates (Indo-Australian plate).
• The movement of these crustal plates (due to convection currents in the mantle) causes the
formation of various landforms and is the principal cause of all earth movements.
• The margins of the plates are the sites of considerable geologic activity such as seafloor
spreading, volcanic eruptions, crustal deformation, mountain building, and continental drift.
• Major tectonic plates
o Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate – (Surrounded by divergent
boundaries.)
o North American plate – (shifting westwards, velocity 4-5 cm/year. It is half
oceanic—half continental)
o South American plate – (shifting westwards, Half continental — half oceanic. 3-
4 cm/year)
o Pacific plate – (Truly oceanic plate. Shifting NW 2- 3cm/year)
o India-Australia-New Zealand plate
o Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
o Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate – (mostly continental, shifting eastwards.
Velocity -2-3cm/year)

• Reasons for Tectonic Plate Movements:

o Mantle Dynamics: The molten magma rises and spreads laterally, the convection cells
move the overlying plates.

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o Heat released from radioactive decay in the region and residual heat from the deep
mantle.
● Two basic Processes involved:
○ Ridge push:
■ Along divergent boundary (MOR)
■ Magma pushes fractured plates laterally.
○ Slab Pull:
■ Along subduction zones (Trenches)
■ Gravity pulls down underlying plates.
● Type of Plate boundaries:

○ Divergent boundary:
■ Plates pull away from each other.
■ New crust is generated.
■ Ex. Mid Atlantic Ridge where American plate is separated from Eurasian and
African Plate.
○ Features of Divergent boundaries-
■ Mid-ocean ridges
■ rift valleys
■ fissure volcanoes
○ Convergent boundary:
■ One plate dives under another at the subduction zone.
■ Crust is destroyed.
■ Ocean-Ocean(O-O) collision: denser oceanic plate subducted under lighter
oceanic plate. Chain of volcanic archipelagos formed.
■ Ocean-Continental(O-C) collision: Ocean plate subducted under continental
plate. Trenches formed.
■ Continental-Continental(C-C) collision: Fold Mountains and plateaus are
formed with intense folding and faulting, frequent earthquakes.

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○ Transform boundaries:
■ Plates slide horizontally past each other.
■ Crust is neither created nor destroyed.
■ Also called strike-slip boundary.
■ North Anatolian Fault & San Andreas Fault [(Silicon Valley lies dangerously
close to the Faultline) along the western coast of the USA] is the best example
for a transcurrent edge on continents.

Comparison: Continental Drift & See Floor Spreading & Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift Sea Floor Spreading Plate tectonic
Explained Arthur Holmes explained
by Convectional Current Theory
In 1967, McKenzie and
in the 1930s.Based on
Put forward by Alfred Parker suggested the theory of
convection current
Wegener in the 1920s plate tectonics. Morgan later
theory, Harry Hess explained
outlined the theory in 1968
See Floor Spreading in the
1940s
Theory Explains the Movement of
Explains the Movement of Explains the Movement of
Lithospheric plates that include
Continents only Oceanic Plates only
both continents and oceans.
Force for Buoyancy, gravity, pole-
Convection currents in the Convection currents in the
movement fleeing force, tidal
mantle drag crustal plates mantle drag crustal plates
currents, tides,
Evidence Apparent affinity of
physical features, Ocean bottom relief,
Ocean bottom relief,
botanical evidence, fossil Paleomagnetic rocks,
Paleomagnetic rocks,
evidence, Tillite deposits, distribution of earthquakes and
distribution of earthquakes and
placer deposits, rocks of volcanoes, gravitational
volcanoes etc.
same age across different anomalies at trenches, etc.
continents etc.

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Drawbacks Too general with silly and

Doesn’t explain the movement
sometimes illogical ———————
of continental plates
evidence.
Acceptance
Discarded Not complete Most widely accepted

Usefulness Helped in the evolution of

convection current theory Helped in the evolution of plate Helped us understand various
and seafloor spreading tectonics theory geographical features.
theory

FOLD MOUNTAIN OROGENY

Formation of Himalayas:
● The great Himalayas have been formed as a result of the collision between the Indian Plate and
the Eurasian Plate, which began more than 50 million years ago.
● Eighty million years ago, India was approximately 6400 km (3968 miles) south of the Eurasian
plate. Separating the two was the Tethys Sea. The Indo-Australian tectonic plate – containing the
continent of Australia, the Indian subcontinent, and surrounding ocean – was pushed northward
by the convection currents generated in the inner mantle. For millions of years, India made its
way across the sea toward the Eurasian plate.
● As India approached Asia, around 40 million years ago, the Tethys Sea began to shrink and its
seabed slowly pushed upwards. The Tethys Sea disappeared completely around 20 million years
ago and sediments rising from its seabed formed a mountain range. When India and Tibet collided,
the relatively light sedimentary and metamorphic rock that makes up the subcontinent of India
pushed against Tibet, forcing it upwards, and created a massive mountain fold. The Himalayas.
● This process hasn’t stopped. The Indo-Australian plate is still moving toward Eurasia, still
pushing Tibet upwards. Himalayas still continue to rise more than 1 cm a year -- a growth rate
of 10 km in a million years. The highest mountains are only getting higher.
● At present, the movement of India continues to put enormous pressure on the Asian continent. The
net effect of plate-tectonics forces acting on this geologically complicated region is to squeeze parts
of Asia eastward toward the Pacific Ocean. One serious consequence of these processes is a deadly
"domino" effect: tremendous stresses build up within the Earth's crust, which are relieved
periodically by earthquakes along the numerous faults that scar the landscape. Some of the world's
most destructive earthquakes in history are related to continuing tectonic processes that began some
50 million years ago when the Indian and Eurasian continents first met.
Evidence for the rising Himalayas-
○ Today’s satellites that use high precision atomic clocks that can measure accurately even a
small rise of one cm. The heights of various places as determined by satellites indicate that
the Himalayas rise by few centimetres every year. The present rate of uplift of the
Himalayas has been calculated at 5 to 10 cm per year.
○ Due to uplifting, lakes in Tibet are desiccated (lose water) keeping the gravel terraces at
much higher levels above the present water level. This could be possible only in the event
of uplift of the region.

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○ The frequent tectonic activity (occurrence of earthquakes) in the Himalayan region shows
that the Indian plate is moving further northwards and plunging into the Eurasian plate.
○ This means that the Himalayas are still being raised due to compression and have not yet
attained isostatic equilibrium.
○ The Himalayan rivers are in their youthful stage and have been rejuvenated (make or cause
to appear younger) in recent times. This shows that the Himalayan Landmass is rising,
keeping the rivers in youth stage since a long time.
Why fold mountains at the continental margin?
o Fold Mountains are formed due to convergence between two continental plates
(Himalayas, Alps) or between an oceanic and a continental plate (the Rockies, Andes).
o In Continent-Continent (C-C) convergence, oceanic sediments are squeezed and up
thrust between the plates and these squeezed sediments appear as fold mountains along the
plate margins.
o In Continent-Ocean (C-O) convergence, the continental volcanic arc formed along the
continental plate margin is compressed and is uplifted by the colliding oceanic plate giving
rise to fold mountains along the continental plate margin.
Association between the global distribution of Fold Mountains and the earthquakes and
volcanoes-
a) Earthquakes
o In both C-C convergence and C-O convergence, there is the formation of fold
mountains and frequent occurrence of earthquakes.
o This is because of the sudden release of friction between the subducting plate and up
thrust plate.
o In C-C convergence, the denser plate pushes into the less dense plate creating a fault
zone along the margin.
o Further collision leads to the sudden release of energy along this fault zone generating
disastrous earthquakes (shallow-focus earthquakes).
o In C-O regions the subducting oceanic plate grinds against the surrounding denser
medium producing mostly shallow-focus earthquakes, and deep in the subduction
zone deep-focus earthquakes occur.
o Volcanism is observed only in C-O convergence and is almost absent in C-C
convergence.
b) Volcanism
o This is because of the thick continental crust in C-C convergence which prevents the
outflow of magma. Magma here lies stocked within the crust.
o In C-O convergence, metamorphosed sediments and melting of the subducting plate
form magma which escapes to the surface through the less thick continental crust.
Q. How was Himalaya formed? Why is it still growing taller?

LANDFORMS ON EARTH'S SURFACE CREATED BY INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES

● Landforms are constantly created, modified and destroyed.
● Processes of landform formation:

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○ Endogenic: Originates from inside of earth; mainly land building in nature.

○ Exogenic: Originate outside; mainly land wearing in nature.

ENDOGENIC PROCESS EXOGENIC PROCESS

1. Generation due to: Generation due to stress induced in Earth’s

a. Radioactivity material due to forces that come into
b. Rotational/ Tidal friction existence due to the sun's heat.
c. Primordial heat from earth’s origin Processes:
2. Outcome: a. Weathering: Mechanical
a. Create new landforms. disintegration & chemical
b. Diastrophism & Volcanism decomposition of rocks.
3. Diastrophism: b. Mass movement: Transfer of rock
a. Orogenic: Mountain Building; mass debris down the slope under
Horizontal movement. direct influence of gravity.
b. Epeirogenic: Uplift or warping c. Erosion: weathered rock materials
c. Earthquakes transpired by water, wind etc.
d. Plate Tectonics: Horizontal Plate d. Deposition: Consequence of
movement. erosion, on gentle slopes material
4. Volcanism: Movement of molten magma settles.
from earth’s interiors. Landforms by different agents:
a. Intrusive landforms(Plutonic): e. Running Water:
i. Batholith i. V shaped valley
ii. Laccolith ii. Meanders
iii. Phacolith iii. Floodplains
iv. Lopolith iv. Deltas
v. Dyke v. Oxbow lakes
vi. Sill vi. Alluvial fans and cones
b. Extrusive Landforms (Volcanic f. Glaciers:
rocks): i. U shaped valley
i. MOR ii. Cirque
ii. Shield volcano iii. Hanging Valley
iii. Composite volcano iv. Moraines & eskers
iv. Caldera v. Drumlins
v. Cinder cones vi. Outwash plains
g. Wind:
i. Pediplain
ii. Deflation Hollows
iii. Mushroom tablets
iv. Sand dunes
v. Loess
h. Wave Action:
i. Sea cliffs
ii. Terraces
iii. Caves and stacks
iv. Bars, spit and lagoons

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EARTH’S MAGNETISM AND POLE REVERSAL

EARTH’s MAGNETISM
● Earth acts like a spherical magnet surrounded by a magnetic field.
● This magnetic field seems to be generated by a dipole magnet located at the centre of earth.
● Axis of the dipole is at around 11 degree from the axis of rotation.
● This magnetic field saves Earth from solar winds that could strip away the ozone layer of Earth.
Theories of Earth’s magnetism:
● All theories are associated with rotation of earth.
● Most accepted theory is “Dynamo Effect theory” i.e. magnetism associated with the motion
of metallic fluids in the outer core.
● Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis
effect (caused due to the rotation of the earth), gives rise to self-sustaining (Geo-Dynamo like
an electric generator) Earth’s magnetic field.

Factors behind variation in Earth’s magnetic field (both temporal and spatial variations):
● Sunspot cycle: Once in every 11 years when Earth faces sunspot, a region of strong magnetic field.
● Solar activity: Radiations from the sun ionizes the atmosphere of the Earth. It generates current
when Earth rotates, generating a magnetic field.
● UV rays: Daily and annual variation in UV rays ionize Earth’s atmosphere.
● Magnetic Rocks: Cause spatial variations. Ex. magnetite distribution.
● Volcanism: Ex. large basaltic effusions accompanied by change in magnetic field strength.
Auroras:
• Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is
produced by charged particles (solar wind) descending from the planet’s magnetosphere.

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• Positive ions slowly drift westward, and negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a ring current.
This current reduces the magnetic field at the Earth’s surface.
• Some of these particles penetrate the ionosphere and collide with the atoms there.
• This results in an excitation of the oxygen and nitrogen molecular electrons. The molecules get
back to their original state by emitting photons of light which are the aurorae.
• The charged particles follow magnetic field lines which are oriented in and out of our planet and
its atmosphere near the magnetic poles. Therefore, aurorae mostly are seen to occur at high
latitudes.

Geomagnetic storms:
• The varying conditions in the magnetosphere, known as space weather, are largely driven by solar
activity.
• If the solar wind is weak, the magnetosphere expands; while if it is strong, it compresses the
magnetosphere and more of it gets in.
• Periods of intense activity, called geomagnetic storms, can occur when a coronal mass ejection
erupts above the Sun and sends a shock wave through the Solar System. It takes just two days to
reach the Earth.
• At the Earth’s surface, a magnetic storm is seen as a rapid drop in the Earth’s magnetic field
strength.
• Ring Current: Ring current is the name given to the large electric current that circles the Earth
above its equator during magnetic storms.
• Effects
o The ionosphere gets heated and distorted, which means that long-range radio
communication that is dependent upon sub-ionospheric reflection can be difficult.
o Ionospheric expansion can increase satellite drag, and it may become difficult to control
their orbits.
o Geomagnetic storms disrupt satellite communication systems like GPS.
o Astronauts and high-altitude pilots would face high radiation levels.
o Electric power grids would see a high increase in voltage that would cause blackouts.
o Geomagnetic storms disrupt satellite communication systems like GPS.

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Van Allen radiation belt:

• A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate
from the solar wind, that are captured by and held around a planet by that planet’s magnetic
field.
• There are two such concentric tire-shaped regions. The inner belt is 1–2 Earth radii out while
the outer belt is at 4–7 Earth radii.
• By trapping the solar wind, the belts deflect the energetic particles and protect the atmosphere.
• The belts endanger satellites, which must have their sensitive components protected with
adequate shielding if they spend significant time near that zone.
• Spacecraft travelling beyond low Earth orbit enter the zone of radiation of the Van Allen belts.
Beyond the belts, they face additional hazards from cosmic rays and solar particle events.

Pole Reversal: Occasional dramatic events due to above causes when North and south magnetic poles swap
is called Geomagnetic Reversal.
o In Normal Polarity, Earth’s North Magnetic Pole is the South Pole of its Magnetic Field.
o In Reverse Polarity, Earth’s North Magnetic Pole is the North Pole of its Magnetic Field.

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The current location of the Magnetic Poles:

• The North and South Magnetic Poles wander (Polar Shift Theory) due to changes in Earth’s
magnetic field.
• The North Magnetic Pole (86֯ N, 172֯ W) lie to the north of Ellesmere Island in northern Canada
and is rapidly drifting towards Siberia.
• The location of the South Magnetic Pole is currently off the coast of Antarctica and even outside
the Antarctic Circle.
• Scientists suggest that the north magnetic pole migrates about 10 kilometres per year.
• Lately, the speed has accelerated to about 40 kilometres per year and could reach Siberia in a
few decades.
• Since the Earth’s magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, the North and South Magnetic Poles
are not antipodal (a straight line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the centre
of the Earth).
• The Earth’s North and South Magnetic Poles are also known as Magnetic Dip Poles because
of the vertical “dip” of the magnetic field lines at those points.
• That is, if a magnetic compass needle is suspended freely at the magnetic poles then it will
point straight down at the north magnetic pole (south pole of earth’s magnetic field)
and straight up at the south magnetic pole (north pole of earth’s magnetic field).

Should India have two time zones?

INDIA’s TIME ZONES
● Over the years, various citizens and political leaders have debated whether India should have two
separate time zones. The demand is based on the huge difference in daylight times between the
country’s longitudinal extremes, and the costs associated with following the same time zone.
● India extends from 68°7’E to 97°25’E, with the spread of 29° representing almost two hours from
the geographic perspective.
● Indian Standard Time, maintained by CSIR-NPL, is based on a line of longitude that runs through
Mirzapur in UP. At 82°33’E, the line is 82.5° east of Greenwich, or 5.5 hours (5 hours 30
minutes) ahead of UCT(Universal Coordinated Time).
● CSIR-NPL recommended 2 time zones IST-I (UTC + 5.30 h) and IST-II (UTC + 6.30 h) at 89°52’E.
Why two time zones needed:
● North Eastern state: loss of daylight hours by offices, educational institutions etc.
● Higher consumption of electricity due to early sunset.

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Advantages:
● Synchronization of office hours and biological activity with sunrise/ sunset.
● Effective use of daylight hours- Reduce electricity consumption.
● Enhance people’s productivity- circadian rhythm.
● More use of sunlight- more agricultural production.
● Environmental and ecological benefits- ex. Reduce light pollution.
Problems associated with 2 time zones:
● Chaos at the border due to confusion and resettling of clocks at crossing.
● Absence of automated management of railways can lead to accidents.
● Adjusting with multiple time zones is difficult. Administrative integration will become difficult.
● Lack of coordination in essential services ex. Banking.
● Political alienation of the north east.
● Security concerns.
Available Alternatives:
• NIAS (National Institute for Advanced Science) cited that Permanent shift of IST to one hour
will be better than two time zones or DST i.e. 6:30+ UTC to 90 degree east.
• Daylight Saving Time can also be used from April to September.

VOLCANISM:
Vulcanicity/ Volcanism: It is the process through which gases and molten rocks are either extruded on the
Earth’s surface or intruded into the Earth’s crust. Volcanoes are formed as a part of vulcanicity. On Earth,
volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging and most are found
underwater.
Causes of volcanic activities:

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● Increased quantity of magma in the mantle.

● Presence of fissures and cracks allowing magma to erupt.
● Increase in the temperature of magma.
Types of volcanoes:
Based on mode of eruption Based on period of eruption Based on the structure

1. Central Eruption: 1. Active Volcano: 1. Cinder cones:

Explosive and very Constantly eject lava, circular or oval cones, made up
destructive. ashes, fragments. Most of small fragments of lava,
Ex. Hawaii, Stromboli, active volcanoes are found result from eruptions of mostly
Vulean(Italy), Pelee along divergent and small pieces of scoria and
volcano (Caribbean convergent plate pyroclastics that build up
Sea). boundaries. Ex. Mt. Etna around the vent.
2. Fissure Eruption: & Mt. Stromboli. 2. Composite volcano: steep-
a. Linear volcanic 2. Dormant Volcano: No sided volcanoes composed of
vent (long indications for future many layers of volcanic rocks,
fracture/fault). eruptions but suddenly made from high-viscosity lava,
b. Slow upwelling of erupt very violently. Mt. ash and rock debris, these types
magma. Vesuvius (78 AD, then of volcanoes are tall conical
c. Ultramafic- most 1631). mountains.
fluid magma. 3. Extinct Volcano: No 3. Shield volcano: shaped like a
d. Lava spread over indication of future bowl or shield in the middle
the ground surface. eruption. Crater filled with with long gentle slopes made
e. Ex. Deccan lava water and a lake formed. by basaltic lava flows, formed
Plateau. Ex. Hawaiian- Emperor by the eruption of low-viscosity
Seamount chain in north lava, generally do not explode
pacific. catastrophically.
4. Lava Domes: formed when
erupting lava is too thick to
flow and makes a steep-sided
mound as the lava piles up near
the volcanic vent, built by slow
eruptions of highly viscous
lava.

World Distribution of Volcanoes:

● There are about 500 active volcanoes in the world.
● The Circum Pacific Region has the greatest concentration of volcanoes, that's why it is called
Pacific Ring of Fire. It extends along Andes Mountain of S. America to Alaska and from the
Aleutian Mountains to Japan, Philippines, Indonesia to New Zealand.
● The Mid Continental Belt occupies second position with regard to the number of volcanoes. It
runs from Alps in Europe to Asia minor and crossing through Himalayan region joins the circum
Pacific Belt.
● The African Rift Valley Region ranks third. Most of the volcanoes are extinct here. Mt. Cameroon
is the only active volcano which is situated in central west Africa.
● Intraplate volcanoes

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o The intraplate volcanic activities occur within the tectonic plates and they are not
related to the divergence or convergence of these plates. The regions that host active
volcanoes within the surface of the tectonic plates are commonly known as “hotspots.”
o The intraplate volcanoes are mainly formed when the mantle plumes find their way to
the Earth’s surface and spread over in the shape of a mushroom. These plume heads
generally have a diameter of about 500-1000 kms.
o The Hawaiian and Emperor Seamount chains are ideal examples of intraplate
volcanoes.

Q. What is a volcano? Discuss its type with examples. Also discuss distribution of volcanoes
throughout the world.

HINDUKUSH HIMALAYAN REGION & ITS ECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL

IMPORTANCE
Hindukush Himalayan region comprises around 3500 sq. kms over 8 countries i.e. India, Pakistan, Nepal,
China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar.
● It is also referred to as the Third Pole due to extensive permanent snow cover.
● Himalayas act as a natural barrier for most of the South Asian countries as the climatic conditions
and topography of the buffer countries (India, China: Tibet, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bhutan) are
dependent on it. Geologically, Himalayas were formed by the collision of Indo-Australian tectonic
plates. The region gives a strategic value to the Indian Sub-continent which has always been taken
into account as a geopolitical pivot of India along with the Indian Ocean.
Geographical and economic importance:
● It is the source of ten large Asian river systems – the Amu Darya, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong, Yangtse, Yellow River, and Tarim (Dayan).
● Provide Critical Ecosystem Services and serves as the basis of livelihood for millions of people.

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● Act as heat source in summer and heat sink in winter.

● Tibetian Plateau influences Indian Monsoon.
● Hydropower potential in Himalayan Rivers.
● Provides Habitat to diverse groups of flora and fauna. Ex. Tigers, elephants, rhododendrons.
● It holds some of the world’s largest mountain peaks. Ex. Everest, K2, Makalu.
Concerns and challenges:
● Geologically fragile.
● Young and rising mountains are vulnerable to erosion and landslides.
● Climate related disasters, Infrastructure development, Land use change, Urbanisation etc.
● Geopolitical challenges such as border disputes with China, Pakistan, and Nepal.
● The Hindukush Assessment Report by ICIMOD (International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development) says that warming will be at least 0.3 degree higher in the HKH region even if global
warming is limited to 1.5 degree celsius.
Changes in Geomorphological Features:
● Glacier melting: since 1970’s around 15% ice in HKH has disappeared.
● More than 35 % of the glaciers in the region could retreat by 2100, even if the global temperature
rise is capped at 1.5º C.
● Glacier Fragmentation: Splitting of big glaciers into small ones.
● Glacier Mass Discharge: Mass loss at predominant rate for two decades.
● Retreating glaciers causing increased runoff and increased river streamflow.
Consequences of melting glaciers:
● Glacial Lakes outburst floods causing huge casualties and loss of infrastructure.
● Isostatic Rebound/ Glacial Isostasy.
● 30% of springs in the Indian Himalayas dried up: NITI Aayog Report.
● It influences Indian Monsoon System; Intense precipitation leading to flood, landslides etc.
● Habitat loss may increase to 80-87% by 2100 i.e. severe biodiversity loss.
● A global temperature increase of 1.5ºC could mean at least a 1.8ºC temperature rise in the Hindu
Kush Himalayas.
● Sea Level Rise.
Q. Discuss the strategic significance of Siachen Glacier for India. Do you support its demilitarization?
Q. Why is Ladakh strategically important for India?

RIVER MORPHOLOGY
A river or a stream is a body of water flowing in a channel.
● Climate, slope gradient, underlying rock structure influence the evolution of river channels and
riverine landforms.
● Running water acts as an agent of denudation and forms both erosional and depositional features.

Erosional landforms Depositional landforms

1. Valleys-gorges ; Canyons: 1. Alluvial fans: Sediments due to low

a. Gorges are deep U shaped valleys gradients dumped and spread cone shaped
with straight sides with equal deposits. Distributaries of rivers are
width at top and bottom. formed here.

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b. Canyon: A variant of gorge with 2. Delta: Similar to alluvial fans but at

steep steps like side slopes which different locations. These are formed at the
are wide at top and narrow at mouth of the rivers forming the final
bottom. location of depositional activity of the
2. Potholes and plunge pools: river.
a. Potholes: Circular depressions 3. Flood Plains and natural levees:
over rocky bed of hill streams. a. Riverbed forms an active
b. Plunge pools: large deep potholes floodplain. Floodplains above the
at foot of a waterfall. bank of the river are inactive.
3. Incised and entrenched meanders: Very b. Levees are low, linear, parallel
deep and wide meanders cut in hard rocks ridges of coarse deposits along
due to active lateral erosion. river banks.
4. River terraces: Surface marking old 4. Braided Channels: Selective deposition
valleys or floodplains. These may be of coarser material forming central bars. It
paired or unpaired terraces. diverts the flow of river towards banks due
to increased lateral erosion. Ex. Majuli
Riverine Island.
Q. Discuss various types of landforms formed by rivers as agents of erosion.

DRAINAGE BASIN:

• Other terms that are used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment area,
catchment basin, drainage area, river basin, and water basin.
• The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers and the land surface.
• The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the
basin and channelling it to a single point.
• In closed (endorheic) drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin,
known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake (e.g. Lake Aral, also known Aral Sea, Dead
Sea), dry lake (some desert lakes like Lake Chad, Africa), or a point where surface water is lost
underground (sinkholes in Karst landforms).

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Meanders:
● Meanders are loop-like channels that develop over flood and delta plains during the mature phase
of erosion.
● Meanders are not actually landforms but a river channel pattern.
● The meanders may be wavy, horse-shoe type or oxbow type.
● Why are meanders formed?
○ Lateral erosion by river due to very low slope/gradient.
○ Coriolis force acting on water deflecting it.
○ Water exerting pressure on unconsolidated alluvial deposits causes abrasion, plucking and
attrition.
○ Meanders form active deposition on convex banks(Slip off banks) and undercutting on
concave banks(cut-off banks).

Oxbow Lake:
• Sometimes, because of intensive erosion action, the outer curve of a meander gets accentuated to
such an extent that the inner ends of the loop come close enough to get disconnected from the main
channel and exist as independent water bodies called as oxbow lakes.
• These water bodies are converted into swamps in due course of time.

• In the Indo-Gangetic plains, southwards shifting of Ganga has left many oxbow lakes to the north
of the present course of the Ganga.

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Q. How are meanders formed? Give the difference between meanders and braided channels.

Braided Channels:
● A braided channel is one that is divided into smaller channels by temporary islands called eyots.
Braided channels tend to form in rivers that have a significant amount of sedimentary load, a steep
profile and where discharge regularly fluctuates.
● Why do Braided Channels occur?
○ Braided channels occur in rivers with high slope when, threshold level of sediment load or
slope is reached, any slope over this threshold creates a braided stream. Braiding is caused
by fluctuations in discharge levels, low river velocity and also by the stream or river losing.
Braided streams occur in areas where the transported load contains a high amount of coarse
material such as sands and stones.
● How are braided channels formed?
○ When the rain is heavy the streams start moving at a higher velocity.
○ The high velocity carries large amounts of sand and small stones.
○ The sediment starts to block the stream of water, causing lower velocity.
○ Until enough sediment settles on the bed forming “sandbanks” or “shoals” that block the
stream.
○ The stream is split into many streams causing the braided channel shape.

River Delta:
● Delta is a depositional feature of a river formed at the mouth of the river. These are wetlands that
form as rivers empty their water and sediment into another body of water, such as an ocean, lake,
or another river.
● It is a characteristic feature of a river in its senile stage (old).
● How is a delta formed?
○ A river moves more slowly as it nears its mouth, or end. This causes sediment, solid
material carried downstream by currents, to fall to the river bottom.
○ The slowing velocity of the river and the build-up of sediment allows the river to break
from its single channel as it nears its mouth. The river forms a Deltaic lobe.
○ The finest material is deposited beyond the river's mouth. This material is called alluvium
or silt.

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○ As silt builds up, new land is formed. This is the Delta. A Delta extends a river's mouth
into the body of water into which it is emptying.
● Factors Affecting Delta Formation:
○ Climatic conditions
○ Geologic setting
○ Sediment sources in the drainage basin
○ Tectonic stability
○ River slope and flooding characteristics
○ Intensities of depositional and erosional processes
○ Tidal range and offshore energy conditions.
● Types of Deltas: On the basis of the shape, following are various types of Deltas:
○ Arcuate Delta: It is a fan-shaped Delta. A bowed or curved Delta with the convex margin
facing the body of water. Relatively coarse sediments are formed in this type of Delta. The
river activity is balanced with the wind.
Example, the River Nile Delta in Egypt and the Ganges Delta in India. The Ganges–
Brahmaputra Delta, which spans most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India empties into
the Bay of Bengal, is the world's largest delta.
○ Bird’s foot Delta: Named because it forms like a bird foot’s claw. This shape is created
when the waves are weak and the river flow is stronger. They are formed due to deposition
of finer materials by river water.
Deposited alluvial material divides the river into smaller distributaries. Thus, this Delta
rarely occurs along ocean coasts because the waves are often stronger than the river current.
Such Delta is also called finger Delta.
Example, Mississippi river Delta, the USA.
○ Cuspate Deltas: It is formed where sediments are deposited onto a straight shoreline with
strong waves. The waves push the sediments to spread outwardly creating the tooth-like
shape. Example, the Tiber River of Italy.
○ Estuarine Delta: It is formed at the mouth of submerged rivers depositing down the sides
of the estuary. Example, the Seine River of France, the Deltas of Narmada and Tapi
(formerly Tapti) rivers of India.
○ Lacustrine Delta: It is formed when a river flows into a lake. Example, Lough Leanne
river Delta, Ireland. The Selenga River delta in Russia is the largest delta emptying into a
body of fresh water (Lake Baikal).
○ Truncated Delta: Sea waves and ocean currents modify and even destroy Deltas deposited
by the river through their erosional work. Thus, eroded and dissected Deltas are called
truncated Deltas.
○ Abandoned Delta: When the river shifts its mouth, the Delta already made is left
abandoned. Such a Delta is called an abandoned Delta. Example, Yellow river Delta, China
and the Western part of Ganga Delta made by Hoogly river, India.

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● Importance of Deltas:
○ Human civilization: Major ancient civilizations grew along Deltas such as those of the
Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers.
○ Agricultural activities: Delta land is important in agricultural use. These regions are one
of the most agriculturally diverse and productive areas in the world. Example: Cauvery
Delta in India and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta in California.
○ Economic activities: Deltas is a source of sand and gravel, used in highway, building and
infrastructure construction. Some of the world's largest regional economies are located on
Deltas such as Yangtze River Delta in China.
○ Biodiversity hotspot: The river Deltas host some of the most biodiverse systems on the
planet. Example: Sundarbans forests, one of the richest biodiversity hotspots in India.
○ Act as a buffer region: The Deltas region provides a buffer for cyclones, as open land
often stands to weaken the impact of storms as they travel toward larger, more populated
areas. The Mississippi River Delta, for example, buffers the impact of potentially strong
hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico.
● Threats to Delta
○ Dam construction: Extensive River management through the use of dams threatens
Deltas. It reduces the flow of sediment and, thus, the growth of land. The Nile Delta is also
shrinking as a result of the Aswan Dam and other river management techniques.
○ Seawater intrusion: In the Krishna Delta widespread seawater intrusion is transforming
the fresh groundwater to brackish/saline water. The health of the ecosystem and the
wellbeing of the millions of people inhabiting these Deltas are at risk.
○ Pollution: Inadequately treated sewage and fertilizer and other nutrient runoff from
agricultural and urban areas are the causes of eutrophication in the Delta region. Example:
Gulf of Mexico.
○ Climate change: Besides subsidence and sea level rise, more extreme weather events on
Deltas are resulting in more severe floods, longer duration droughts and higher

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temperatures. Climate change seems to be causing higher peak flows and lower low flows
in the Rhine-Meuse and Danube Deltas. The extreme variability of the climate is impacting
its hydrology as is the increasing average and extreme temperatures.
○ Satellite Analysis by the ISRO revealed that in the last ten years, 3.7% of the mangroves
and other forests in sunder bans have disappeared along with 9990 hectares of
landmass due to erosion. It is happening due to the rise in sea level due to erosion.
Ghoramara Island has shrunk by almost half in the past few decades.
● Estuary vs. Delta
o The estuary is an area where saltwater of sea mixes with fresh water of rivers. It is
formed by a tidal bore.
o Delta is a low triangular area of alluvial deposits where a river divides before entering a
larger body of water.

Basis For Estuary Delta

Comparison
Meaning • Estuary refers to the water • Delta connotes a landform that is
body, along the coast, that formed by river-borne sediments
are formed when fresh water deposited at the river mouth when
of river meets salt water of it joins the sea.
ocean.

Rivers • Narmada and Tapi form • Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,

estuary. Cauvery, Ganga and
Brahmaputra form delta.

Shape • Funnel • Triangular

Tide • High tides • Low tides

Region • Region near estuary is not • Deltas are fertile lands.

fertile.

Suitable for • Fishing activity • Agriculture activities

Lagoon-
● A lagoon refers to a shallow body of water that is alienated by a reef or barrier from the larger
body of water, and they are common coastal landforms in different regions around the world.
● There are two types of lagoons
○ Atoll lagoons
○ coastal lagoons.
● An atoll lagoon is normally a circular coral reef or a string of coral islands which surround a
lagoon.
● Atoll lagoons are always much deeper than coastal lagoons and occasionally could have depths of
about 65 feet deep.

Q. What are deltas? Discuss threats to deltas? In this context, discuss why Sundarbans are sinking?

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INTERLINKING OF RIVERS
History of interlinking of rivers in India
• In 1919, Arthur Cotton, the British chief engineer proposed a plan to interlink major rivers in
India to fasten the transport of goods and to address the water shortage issues.
Post-independence, in 1970, Dr. K.L. Rao the former irrigation minister and dam designer
proposed the “National Water Grid” for mitigating the severe water shortages in the South
and regular flooding in the North.
• In 1980, India’s Ministry of Water Resources came out with a report entitled “National
Perspectives for Water Resources Development”. This report split the water development
project into two parts – the Himalayan and Peninsular components.
• In 1982, The National Water Development Agency was established by former Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi.
• In 2014, the Ken-Betwa River Linking Project got cabinet approval.

River Interlinking Project:

• The program for interlinking of major rivers comprises 30 links to share available waters equitably
between different basins and states. The National Perspective Plan for Inter-Linking of rivers has
two components:
o Himalayan Component: 14 Links
o Peninsular Component: 16 links
• The project is being managed by India's National Water Development Agency (NWDA), under
its Ministry of Water Resources.
• The linking of Godavari and Krishna was completed in 2015 under the Pattiseema lift irrigation
project (PLIP).

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Arguments In Favour: Arguments against:

1. The country receives most of its annual 1. High project funding cost. The current
rainfall during the four monsoon months of cost of the project is Rs 11 lakh crore,
June to September. If interlinking of rivers twice the estimate of 2002 which the
is implemented then uneven water flow in
government is putting forward.
different river basins will get balanced.
2. To meet the requirement of about 450 2. Lack of consensus on implementation of
million tonnes of foodgrains per annum to project among the co-basin states as
feed the population of over 1.5 billion in water is a state subject.
2050, the country needs to expand its 3. International Issues involved such as
irrigation potential to 160 million concerns of neighbouring countries. E.g
hectares for all crops by 2050. The Himalayan component calls for
3. . NRLP will transfer excess water from
building dams in Bhutan.
flood-ravaged states to water-scarce
regions. By this, it will provide irrigation 4. It is estimated that the project will involve
to about 35 million hectares in water- construction of big dams which will
scarce western and peninsular regions. affect local ecology. For instance, in the
4. Using connected rivers as navigation is a Ken-Betwa project, the core area of the
cleaner, low carbon footprint form of Panna national park will be submerged.
transport infrastructure. 5. The river interlinking will involve
5. NRLP is also expected to generate
additional hydropower of about 34 GW. pumping the water from Himalayan
6. Past successful examples in India include rivers to the peninsular India which will
Beas-Sutlej link and Periyar-Vaigai link. involve increase of height of water by 1000
7. Will prevent flow of fresh river water m. This will involve huge cost for
into sea. For example, the Godavari- pumping.
Krishna project will lift Godavari waters

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that now flow into the sea, and divert it 6. Lesser flow of fresh water to Bay of Bengal
towards Krishna River. can have regressive impact on monsoons.
7. Increased saline groundwater intrusion,
and putting at the risk the delicate
wetland and estuarine ecology which is
not only aquatic habitats and fisheries.
8. The water surplus in most river basins of
India is during the same period of
monsoons. After the monsoon, even the so-
called water surplus states such as Punjab,
UP, Uttarakhand face water deficits.
Hence, during this period there will be no
surplus left to transfer to peninsular states.

Par-Tapi-Narmada River linking project

• This project was sanctioned in 2010 under the agreement signed between the Central
government, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• The project proposes to transfer water from the water surplus regions of Western Ghats to the
water deficit regions of Saurashtra and Kutch (Gujarat).
• The project includes seven reservoirs proposed in north Maharashtra and south Gujarat which
are Jheri, Mohankavchali, Paikhed, Chasmandva, Chikkar, Dabdar, and Kelwan.
Way Forward:
It has been argued that there is no concept of deficit and surplus. A river has a natural course and for years
it has been following that. The river will carry as much as it can. First we should exhaust all options and
potentials before concluding that river-linking is the best alternative. Exhaust options such as watershed
development, rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, optimising existing infrastructure and cropping
methods. Also, before implementing the proposal on a large scale, a sound scientific and technical
assessment needs to be undertaken to make it techno-economically feasible.

CLIMATOLOGY

INDIAN MONSOON
1.1. MONSOON:
● Monsoons are seasonal winds (Rhythmic wind movements or Periodic Winds) which reverse their
direction with the change of season. In the Indian monsoon winds flow from sea to land during the
summer and from land to sea during winter.
● Although the monsoon is a global phenomenon influenced by a variety of factors not yet completely
understood, the real monsoon rain covers mainly the South Asian region, represented by India,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan and parts of Southeast Asia.
● Phenomenon of Indian monsoon: The mechanism of the Indian monsoon can be understood in
two phases namely, the onset of the South-West Monsoon and retreating monsoon season.

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The onset of the South-West Monsoon: Retreating monsoon season.

1. During the months of October -November,

1. Differential Heating: The differential the south-west monsoon winds become
heating and cooling of land and water weaker and start to retreat from the skies of
create a low pressure on the landmass of North India. This phase of the monsoon is
India and high pressure on the Indian ocean known as the retreating monsoon.
2. The retreating monsoon is marked by
area.
clear skies and rise in temperature.
2. Shifting of ITCZ: This leads to the
3. The land is still moist. Owing to the
shifting of the position of the Inter-
conditions of high temperature and
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in
humidity, the weather becomes rather
summer, over the Ganga plain. The ITCZ
oppressive. This is commonly known as
in this position is often called the Monsoon
the ‘October heat’.
Trough.
4. In the second half of October, the mercury
3. Bending of Winds: The southeast trade
begins to fall rapidly, particularly in
winds of the southern hemisphere cross the
northern India.
equator and start blowing in the southwest
5. The weather in the retreating monsoon is
to the northeast direction under the
dry in north India but it is associated with
influence of Coriolis force. As these winds
rain in the eastern part of the
blow over the warm Indian ocean, they
Peninsula(AP & TN). Here, October and
collect moisture.
November are the rainiest months of the
4. Withdrawal of Westerly Jet Stream: The
year.
shift in the position of the ITCZ is also
6. The widespread rain in this season is
related to the phenomenon of the
associated with the passage of cyclonic
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from depressions which originate over the
its position over the north Indian plain, Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
south of the Himalayas. eastern coast of the southern Peninsula.
5. Onset of Easterly Jet Stream: The These tropical cyclones are very
easterly Jet Stream (Somali Jet) sets in destructive.
7. A bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel
along 15°N latitude only after the western
jet stream has withdrawn itself from the Coast is derived from these depressions
and cyclones.
region. This easterly jet stream is held
8. Unlike the rest of the country, which
responsible for the burst of the monsoon in
India. receives rain in the southwest monsoon
6. Dividing Monsoon into Branches: The season between June and September, the
northeast monsoon is crucial for
monsoon approaches the Indian landmass
farming and water security in the south.
in two branches:
a. The Arabian Sea branch 9. The retreating monsoon brings rainfall in
b. The Bay of Bengal branch: The an uneven amount to different places
across India.
Arakan Hills along the coast of
Myanmar deflect it towards the a. Areas of Heavy rainfall
Indian subcontinent. i. The western part of
Western Ghats (200-
400cm)

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7. Rainfall received from the southwest ii. North-eastern India

monsoons is seasonal in character, which (Assam, Arunachal
occurs between June and September. Pradesh, Sikkim, etc)
b. Areas of low rainfall
i. Karnataka
ii. Gujarat
iii. Maharashtra

● Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall. The
monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are interspersed with rainless intervals.
These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough.

Impact of Monsoons on Indian Economy:

● Positive
○ About 64% of people in India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture
itself is based on monsoon.
○ If monsoon fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those regions where
means of irrigation are not developed.
○ Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
○ Monsoon rain helps recharge dams and reservoirs, which is further used for the
generation of hydro-electric power.
○ Winter rainfall by western disturbances in north India is highly beneficial for Rabi crops.
● Negative
○ Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the country.
○ Sudden monsoon burst creates a problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.
○ In hilly areas sudden rainfall brings landslides which damages natural and physical
infrastructure subsequently disrupting human life economically as well as socially.

Monsoon and India’s cropping pattern:

● The Indian cropping season is classified into two main seasons-(i) Kharif and (ii) Rabi based on
the monsoon.
● The kharif cropping season is from July –October during the south-west monsoon and the Rabi
cropping season is from October-March (winter).
● Rainfed agriculture still accounts for over 92.8 million hectares or 65 percent of the cropped area.
● A large diversity of cropping systems exists under rainfed and dryland areas with an overriding
practice of intercropping. Those areas of India where monsoon activities are less, the cropping
patterns are less diversified.
● For instance, in the rainfall scarce areas of Rajasthan (India), the farmers grow bajra (bulrush
millet), while in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam, which is rain abundant area, rice is the dominant
crop while other crops coexist.

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● Likewise, cotton is grown in Maharashtra and Gujarat which gets less rain, while the moisture rich
soils of western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab are ideally suited for wheat, rice and sugarcane
crops because they get proper monsoon..
● If in a certain year, the monsoon is delayed, then the cropping pattern changes in favour of
short-duration crops like pulses.
● Incessant rains in some parts of the country, and deficit rains in other areas, results in inconsistent
agriculture spread and crop damage in certain locations.

Monsoon Prediction in India:

● British physicist Gilbert Walker, who headed the IMD, designed a statistical weather model –
an empirical way of predicting the weather – based on the relationship between two weather
phenomena.
● In 2014, the IMD started to use numerical models, developed by the US National Centres for
Environmental Prediction to supplement statistical models for long-range forecasting as well.
● The IMD collects weather data like temperature, humidity, wind and precipitation through
679 automatic weather stations, 550 surface observatories, 43 radiosonde or weather balloons, 24
radars and three satellites.
● Currently, highly advanced dynamical models need supercomputers. Prediction models will not
run until proper data about current weather conditions is available.

Factors Responsible for Inaccurate Monsoon Forecast:

● The lack of data due to insufficient monitoring stations.
● Automatic weather stations are of substandard quality.
● There are major data gaps, like those involving dust, aerosols, soil moisture and maritime
conditions are not monitored.
● The models that we have brought from the west have been developed by western scientists to
forecast in their region, little progress has been made in the fine-tuning of weather models to suit
Indian conditions.
● Indian Monsoon System is a complex phenomenon which is still not completely understood.

Recent Indian Initiatives:

It is crucial for farmers (sowing, harvesting, etc.) and policymakers (payment of compensation, minimum
support price, etc.) to know when and for how long the monsoon will remain active over India. For that,
better predictions and timely advisories are needed. To achieve this following initiatives have been taken:
1. Monsoon Mission of India: Ministry of Earth Sciences, launched in 2012, has utilized new
approaches (high resolution, super parameterizations, data assimilation etc.) so that forecast skill
gets quantitatively improved further for forecasting services of India Meteorological Department
(IMD).
Objectives
○ To improve Seasonal and Intra-seasonal Monsoon Forecast
○ To improve Medium Range Forecast.
2. IMD in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) provides district-level
agro-meteorological advisories to farmers through 130 agro-met field units in vernacular

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languages.
These advisories are used for critical farm operations such as:
○ Management of sowing (delayed onset of rains);
○ Changing crop variety (delay in rainfall);
○ Spraying Pesticides for disease control (occurrence of rainfall);
○ Managing Irrigation (Heavy rainfall Forecast).
3. India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides meteorological support to the Central Water
Commission (CWC) for issuing flood warnings.
4. Indo-US expedition: In 2018, The Indian Ocean Research Vessel, 'Sagar Nidhi', set out from
Chennai, as part of an Indo-US expedition seeking to find answers to the vagaries of the Bay of
Bengal-fed southwest monsoon by collecting various data to improve prediction models.
5. The National Supercomputing Mission will fill the necessary gaps in the computing superpower
required to predict timely and accurate monsoon forecasts.

Global Warming and Monsoon:

● A drastic change in the monsoon rainfall intensity, duration, frequency and spatial distribution can
be attributed to climate change.
● More data and reanalysis is needed to get a clear picture on the complete separation of the global
warming impact from natural climate variability (such as El Niño).
● In normal circumstances, when the tropical eastern South Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure,
the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. Such changes in the pressure conditions
over the southern oceans also affect the monsoon.
● But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions. In this case, the eastern Pacific
Ocean has lower pressure compared to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure
conditions is known as the Southern Oscillation or SO.

Does the monsoon have a bearing on India’s water crisis?

● Yes and no. India’s water crisis, according to experts, is due to over-extraction of groundwater
resources and not enough storage of rain water and surface water.
● The Central Water Commission, in its recommendation of how reservoirs should store and release
water assumes that reservoirs will be empty on June 1 and gradually refill over the course of the
monsoon, and be available for the non-monsoon months.
● Given that June contributes only 17cm or about 20% of the monsoon rainfall and is known to
progress in spurts, farmers have already delayed sowing and are relying on crop varieties that grow
relatively quickly.
● Moreover, several farmers plant intensely water-guzzling crops that aren’t suited to their climate
or prevalent water table. While a July rainfall can temporarily alleviate parched ground, it can’t
solve the graver crisis of depleting groundwater and insufficiently charged aquifers.

Shifting rainfall patterns are causing water distress:

● Climate Trends used secondary data to analyse the impact of climate change in shifting rainfall
patterns in India, the repeated droughts and water shortages. Monsoon rain in the country has been
below average in five of the last six years to 2018 and pre-monsoon season--from March to May--
has seen 11% less rainfall in 2018 than the average, for the third consecutive year, the study found.

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● These shifts are part of long-term changes in where and when rain falls in India, driven by climate
change. Some states have seen big changes in annual rainfall. For example, year-round rainfall in
Chhattisgarh has fallen nearly 10%, while it has increased in coastal Karnataka, Punjab and
Haryana, according to the fact-sheet.
● States such as Kerala and Madhya Pradesh received less rainfall during the 2017 monsoon. The
poor monsoons of 2014 and 2015 resulted in severe drought and water shortages in much of the
country, including parts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Telangana, the fact-sheet
said.
● Several states face shortages: Levels in major reservoirs across the country were, as we said, 10%
below the normal at this time of the year.
● In some parts of rural Chhattisgarh, wells have dried-up and people are walking many kilometers
daily to fetch water.
● In Tamil Nadu, major reservoirs are 67% below normal levels--every major reservoir has below-
average levels for this time of year. In 2016-17, the state suffered its worst drought in over a
century.
● Changes in monsoon patterns would make droughts and floods more common in many parts of
India. Droughts are particularly likely to become more frequent in north-western India, Jharkhand,
Odisha and Chhattisgarh, according to a 2013 World Bank study.
● The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna river basin, which serves over 650 million people, is also
likely to experience both droughts and floods more often if temperatures continue to rise.

How the monsoon’s delayed withdrawal from India may cause havoc in Australia:
● The delay in India has had a cascading impact on the summer monsoon for Australia.
● A classic example of ‘blessings’ from an extended weather event in one country turning into a
‘curse’ for another.
● The late Indian southwest monsoon withdrawal is linked to the positive phase of the Indian
Ocean Dipole, characterised by cooler than average sea-surface temperatures in the eastern
Indian Ocean and warmer than average sea-surface temperatures in the west. The negative
phase has the opposite pattern. The resulting change in the gradient of sea-surface temperature
across the ocean basin affects the weather of the surrounding continents.
● The seasonal reliability of the monsoons has been changing in the past few years. What used to be
a steady combination of rains and brightness is giving way to long periods of inadequate rainfall
followed by intense rain; in short – drought and floods.
Way Forward
● Although there are wide variations in weather patterns across India, the monsoon brings some
unifying influences on India. The Indian landscape, its flora and fauna, etc. are highly influenced
by the monsoon. The entire agricultural calendar in India is governed by the monsoon. Due to these
reasons, the monsoon is often a great unifying factor in India.
Q. Describe the phenomenon of Indian Monsoon? How is Indian monsoon predicted. Explain the
impact of Indian monsoon on Indian economy and agriculture system.

IMPACT OF EL-NINO AND LA-NINA ON INDIAN MONSOON AND ON GLOBAL CLIMATE:

Introduction-

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• El Nino and La Nina are complex weather patterns resulting from variations in ocean
temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific Region. They are opposite phases of what is known as
the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
o The ENSO cycle describes the fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and
atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific.
o El Nino and La Nina episodes typically last nine to 12 months, but some prolonged events
may last for years.

El Nino-
• El Nino was first recognized by Peruvian fishermen off the coast of Peru as the appearance of
unusually warm water.
o The Spanish immigrants called it El Nino, meaning “the little boy” in Spanish.
• El Nino soon came to describe irregular and intense climate changes rather than just the warming
of coastal surface waters.
• The El Nino event is not a regular cycle, they are not predictable and occur irregularly at two- to
seven-year intervals.
o The climatologists determined that El Nino occurs simultaneously with the Southern
Oscillation.
▪ The Southern Oscillation is a change in air pressure over the tropical Pacific
Ocean.
• When coastal waters become warmer in the eastern tropical Pacific (El Nino), the atmospheric
pressure above the ocean decreases.
o Climatologists define these linked phenomena as El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

La Nina-
• La Nina means The Little Girl in Spanish. It is also sometimes called El Viejo, anti-El Nino, or
simply "a cold event."
• La Nina events represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures across the east-
central Equatorial Pacific.
o It is indicated by sea-surface temperature decreased by more than 0.9℉ for at least five
successive three-month seasons.
• La Nina event is observed when the water temperature in the Eastern Pacific gets comparatively
colder than normal, as a consequence of which, there is a strong high pressure over the eastern
equatorial Pacific.

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The Conditions of La Nina-

• La Nina is caused by a build-up of cooler-than-normal waters in the tropical Pacific, the area
of the Pacific Ocean between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• La Nina events are also associated with rainier-than-normal conditions over south-eastern
Africa and northern Brazil.
o However, strong La Nina events are associated with catastrophic floods in northern
Australia.
• La Nina is also characterized by higher-than-normal pressure over the central and eastern Pacific.
o This results in decreased cloud production and rainfall in that region.
• Drier-than-normal conditions are observed along the west coast of tropical South America, the
Gulf Coast of the United States, and the pampas region of southern South America.

Impact of El-Nino on global climate-

• Impact on Ocean: El Nino also impacts ocean temperatures, the speed and strength of ocean
currents, the health of coastal fisheries, and local weather from Australia to South America
and beyond.
• Increased Rainfall: Convection above warmer surface waters brings increased precipitation.
o Rainfall increases drastically in South America, contributing to coastal flooding and
erosion.
• Positive impact: It can sometimes have a positive impact too, for example, El Nino reduces the
instances of hurricanes in the Atlantic.
• In South America: As El Nino brings rain to South America, it brings droughts to Indonesia and
Australia.
o These droughts threaten the region’s water supplies, as reservoirs dry and rivers carry less
water. Agriculture, which depends on water for irrigation, is also threatened.
• In Western Pacific: These winds push warm surface water towards the western Pacific, where it
borders Asia and Australia.
o Due to the warm trade winds, the sea surface is normally about 0.5 meter higher and 4-
5° F warmer in Indonesia than Ecuador.

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o The westward movement of warmer waters causes cooler waters to rise up towards the
surface on the coasts of Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. This process is known as upwelling.
▪ Upwelling elevates cold, nutrient-rich water to the euphotic zone, the upper layer
of the ocean.
Impact of La Nina on global climate-
• Europe: In Europe, El Nino reduces the number of autumnal hurricanes.
o La Nina tends to lead to milder winters in Northern Europe (especially UK) and colder
winters in southern/western Europe leading to snow in the Mediterranean region.
• North America: It is continental North America where most of these conditions are felt. The
wider effects include:
o Stronger winds along the equatorial region, especially in the Pacific.
o Favourable conditions for hurricanes in the Caribbean and central Atlantic area.
o Greater instances of tornados in various states of the US.
o South America: La Nina causes drought in the South American countries of Peru and
Ecuador.
▪ It usually has a positive impact on the fishing industry of western South
America.
• Western Pacific: In the western Pacific, La Nina increases the potential for landfall in those
areas most vulnerable to their effects, and especially into continental Asia and China.
o It also leads to heavy floods in Australia.
o There are increased temperatures in Western Pacific, Indian Ocean and off the
Somalian coast.
La Nina in 2010
• The 2010 La Nina event correlates with one of the worst floods in the history of Queensland,
Australia.
• More than 10,000 people were forced to evacuate, and damage from the disaster was estimated
at more than $2 billion.

ENSO and India monsoon-

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• El Nino: Strong El Nino events contribute to weaker monsoons and even droughts in India and
Southeast Asia.
• La Nina: The cold air occupies a larger part of India than the El Nino cold air.
• In the ‘La Nina year’, rainfall associated with the summer monsoon in Southeast Asia tends to
be greater than normal, especially in northwest India and Bangladesh.
o This generally benefits the Indian economy, which depends on the monsoon for agriculture
and industry.
• It usually brings in colder than normal winters in India.
• La Nina influences the Indian subcontinent by piping in cold air from Siberia and South
China, which interacts with the tropical heating to produce a north-south low-pressure system.
• The cold air of La Nina associated with this north-south trough tends to extend much further south
into India.
o This is remarkably different from the more northwest-southeast blast of cold air
associated with El Nino.
o The pressure pattern going north-south means lesser impact of western disturbances.
o The cold temperature can go down as far as Tamil Nadu, but may not affect the North East
that much.

INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE

What is IOD?
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is an atmosphere-ocean coupled phenomenon in the tropical Indian Ocean
characterised by a difference in sea-surface temperatures. The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is the Indian
Ocean counterpart of the Pacific El Niño and La Niña.

2B.2. Characteristics of IOD:

● IOD is the difference between the temperature of eastern (Bay of Bengal) and the western
Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea).
● This temperature difference results in a pressure difference which results in flowing winds between
eastern and western parts of Indian Ocean.
● IOD develops in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in October.
● A ‘positive IOD’ — or simply ‘IOD’ — is associated with cooler than normal sea-surface
temperatures in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and warmer than normal sea-surface
temperatures in the western tropical Indian Ocean.
● The opposite phenomenon is called a ‘negative IOD’, and is characterised by warmer than normal
SSTs in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and cooler than normal SSTs in the western tropical
Indian Ocean

How does it impact the southwest monsoon?

● A positive IOD year sees more than normal rainfall over central India.
● The indicated connection is between below-normal SST in the eastern Indian Ocean and above-
normal rain over central India, and vice versa.
● A negative IOD, on the other hands, complements El NiNo leading to severe drought.
● At the same time, Positive IOD results in more cyclones than usual in Arabian Sea.
● Negative IOD results in stronger than usual cyclogenesis (Formation of Tropical Cyclones) in Bay
of Bengal. Cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea is suppressed during this time.

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The positive IOD has resulted in floods in eastern Africa and bushfires in Australia:
● Heavy downpours have devastated parts of East Africa over the last two months, with the Horn of
Africa seeing up to 300% above average rainfall between October and mid-November 2020.
● Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Somalia and South Sudan have been particularly
badly affected, with flash floods and landslides hitting communities across the region.
● Meanwhile in Australia, record-breaking spring temperatures have helped spark and fan a series of
bushfires across the country.
● About 100 bushfires are raging in the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW), with the most
severe forming into a "mega blaze" north of Sydney.

The effects of the dipole could get worse because of climate change:
● In a 2014 study published in Nature, scientists in Australia, India, China and Japan modelled the
effects of CO2 on extreme Indian Ocean dipoles, such as those in 1961, 1994 and 1997.
● Assuming emissions continue to go up, they projected that the frequency of extreme positive dipole
events would increase this century from one every 17.3 years to one every 6.3 years.
● The countries in the west of the Indian Ocean, so on the African coast, are going to see much, much
more flooding and heavy rainfall relating to these events.
● On the other hand, in the east of the Indian Ocean, islands on the west side of Indonesia are going
to see a greater chance of drought and reduced rainfall.

The El Niño Modoki

● El Niño Modoki is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the tropical Pacific.
● It is different from another coupled phenomenon in the tropical Pacific namely, El Niño.
● Conventional El Niño is characterized by strong anomalous warming in the eastern equatorial
Pacific.
● Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated with strong anomalous warming in the central tropical
Pacific and cooling in the eastern and western tropical Pacific.

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● El Niño Modoki Impacts

o The El Niño Modoki phenomenon is characterized by the anomalously warm central
equatorial Pacific flanked by anomalously cool regions in both west and east.
o Such zonal gradients result in anomalous two-cell Walker Circulation over the
tropical Pacific, with a wet region in the central Pacific.

Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)

• Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is the largest element of the intra-seasonal variability in
the tropical atmosphere.
• Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is an oceanic-atmospheric phenomenon which affects
weather activities across the globe. It brings major fluctuation in tropical weather on weekly to
monthly timescales.
• The MJO can be characterized as an eastward moving ‘pulse’ of cloud and rainfall near the
equator that typically recurs every 30 to 60 days.
• It’s a traversing phenomenon and is most prominent over the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Phases of Madden-Julian Oscillation

• The MJO consists of two parts or phases. Strong MJO activity often dissects the planet into
halves. One half within the enhanced convective phase and the other half in the suppressed
convective phase.
o Enhanced rainfall (or convective) phase: winds at the surface converge, and
the air is pushed up throughout the atmosphere. At the top of the atmosphere,
the winds reverse (i.e., diverge). Such rising air motion in the atmosphere tends to
increase condensation and rainfall.
o Suppressed rainfall phase: winds converge at the top of the atmosphere, forcing
air to sink and, later, to diverge at the surface. As air sinks from high altitudes, it
warms and dries, which suppresses rainfall.
• It is this entire dipole structure, that moves west to east with time in the Tropics, causing more
cloudiness, rainfall, and even storminess in the enhanced convective phase, and more sunshine
and dryness in the suppressed convective phase.

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How Does MJO Affect Indian Monsoon?

• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), El Nino, and MJO are all oceanic and atmospheric phenomena,
which affect weather on a large scale.
• IOD only pertains to the Indian Ocean, but the other two affect weather on a global scale-up to
the mid-latitudes.
• IOD and El Nino remain over their respective positions, while MJO is a traversing
phenomenon.
• The journey of MJO goes through eight phases.
o When it is over the Indian Ocean during the Monsoon season, it brings good rainfall
over the Indian subcontinent.
o On the other hand, when it witnesses a longer cycle and stays over the Pacific
Ocean, MJO brings bad news for the Indian Monsoon.
• It is linked with enhanced and suppressed rainfall activity in the tropics and is very important
for the Indian monsoonal rainfall.
• Periodicity of MJO:
o If it is nearly 30 days then it brings good rainfall during the Monsoon season.
o If it is above 40 days then MJO doesn’t give good showers and could even lead to a
dry Monsoon.
o Shorter the cycle of MJO, better the Indian Monsoon. Simply because it then visits
the Indian Ocean more often during the four-month-long period.
• The presence of MJO over the Pacific Ocean along with an El Nino is detrimental for
Monsoon rains.

Q. What do you understand by Indian Ocean dipole? How does it affect the Indian monsoon and
global weather pattern? How Is it related to forest fires in Australia?

WESTERN DISTURBANCES

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A western disturbance is an extratropical storm originating in the Mediterranean region that brings
sudden winter rain to the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is a non-monsoonal precipitation
pattern driven by the westerlies.
● Extratropical storms are a global phenomena with moisture usually carried in the upper atmosphere,
unlike their tropical counterparts where the moisture is carried in the lower atmosphere. In the case
of the Indian subcontinent, moisture is sometimes shed as rain when the storm system encounters
the Himalayas. Western disturbances are more frequent and strong in the winter season.
● Western disturbances are important for the development of the Rabi crop, which includes the
locally important staple wheat.

Formation:
● Western disturbances originate in the Mediterranean region. A high-pressure area over Ukraine and
neighbourhood consolidates, causing the intrusion of cold air from polar regions towards an area
of relatively warmer air with high moisture. This generates favorable conditions for cyclogenesis
in the upper atmosphere, which promotes the formation of an eastward-moving extratropical
depression. The disturbance moves towards the Indian subcontinent until blocked by the
Himalayas. The western disturbances are embedded in the mid-latitude subtropical westerly jet
stream.

Significance and impact

● Western disturbances, specifically the ones in winter, bring moderate to heavy rain in low-lying
areas and heavy snow to mountainous areas of the Indian Subcontinent.
● They are the cause of most winter and post-monsoon season rainfall across northwest India.

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● Precipitation during the winter season has great importance in agriculture, particularly for the rabi
crops. Wheat among them is one of the most important crops, which helps to meet India's food
security.
● Western disturbances are usually associated with cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and unusual
rain. Excessive precipitation due to western disturbances can cause crop damage, landslides, floods
and avalanches.
● Over the Indo-Gangetic plains, they occasionally bring cold wave conditions and dense fog.
● These conditions remain stable until disturbed by another western disturbance. When western
disturbances move across northwest India before the onset of monsoon, a temporary advancement
of monsoon current appears over the region.

Impact on Indian Economy:

● The rain and snow produced by the Western Disturbances when they encounter Himalayas are very
significant for the Indian economy in two very important ways-
○ It is highly beneficial for rabi crops over northern India and the fruits and orchids over
the Himalayan regions.
○ The precipitation in the form of snowfall in the lower Himalayas sustains the flow of water
in the Himalayan rivers during the summer months and makes them perennial thus
providing water for drinking, irrigation and other uses during summer.
● They cause snowfall and hailstorm in upper reaches of Himalaya in Jammu and Kashmir,
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
● The third pole's climate is being preserved due to these western disturbances. This has an indirect
positive effect on tourism.

Western Disturbances & Monsoon:

● Western disturbances start declining in numbers after winter. During the summer months of April
and May, they move across north India.
● The southwest monsoon current generally progresses from east to west in the northern Himalayan
region, unlike western disturbances which follow a west to east trend in north India with consequent
rise in pressure carrying cold pool of air. This helps in the activation of monsoon in certain parts of
northwest India. It also causes pre-monsoon rainfall especially in northern India.
● The interaction of the monsoon trough with western disturbances may occasionally cause dense
clouding and heavy precipitation. The 2013 Uttarakhand floods, which killed more than 5000
people in a span of 3 days, is said to be a result of one such interaction.

Cloudburst:
• The cloudburst is a localised weather phenomena representing highly concentrated rainfall over a
small area lasting for few hours. This leads to flash floods/ landslides, house collapse, dislocation
of traffic and human casualties on large scale.
• Meteorologists say the rain from a cloudburst is usually of the shower type with a fall rate equal to
or greater than 100 mm (4.94 inches) per hour.
How does it form?

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• Generally cloudbursts are associated with thunderstorms. The air currents rushing upwards in a
rainstorm hold up a large amount of water.
• If these currents suddenly cease, the entire amount of water descends on to a small area with
catastrophic force all of a sudden and causes mass destruction.
• This is due to a rapid condensation of the clouds. They occur most often in desert and mountainous
regions, and in interior regions of continental landmasses.
Prone areas

• They occur most often in desert and mountainous regions, and in interior regions of continental
landmasses.
• The topographical conditions like steep hills favour the formation of these clouds in the
mountainous regions. And also the devastations, as water flowing down the steep slopes bring
debris, boulders and uprooted trees with great velocity damaging any structure that comes in their
way.
• The Chhotanagpur plateau spread across north Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand is the world’s
most vulnerable spot for formation of severest thunderstorms.
• Cloudburst can occur not only in the monsoon seasons but also during March to May which is
known for severe convective weather activities.
Prediction

• The large scale features, which are conducive for occurrence of severe thunderstorms associated
with cloudburst, are predictable two to three days in advance.
• However, the specific location and time of cloud burst can be predicted in NOWCAST mode only,
i.e. a few hours in advance, when the genesis of thunderstorm has already commenced.
• To detect these sudden developments, a Doppler Weather Radar (DWR), a powerful tool for time
and location specific prediction of cloudburst, can be deployed a few hours in advance. Coupled
with satellite imagery this can prove to be useful inputs for extrapolation of cloudbursts anywhere
in India.

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• The stalled system prevented weather systems from being drawn across Russia and the obstacle
acted as a barrier trapping hot air to the south and cold air to the north.
• The consequence of this static mass of hot air was the heatwave that devastated Russia.
• With the jet stream stalled the Sub-Tropical Jet was unable to transit across the Himalayas as it
would do ordinarily, the monsoon cell to the south, fed by warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had
nowhere to go and as a consequence, it deposited vast amounts of rain over Pakistan, Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and this led to extensive flooding.

Q. What do you understand by western Disturbances? Discuss its impact on the economy, Indian
agriculture, tourism and society.

POLAR VORTEX; SUDDEN STRATOSPHERIC WARMING(SSW)

Context:
● The polar vortex is experiencing an unusually long disturbance in 2021 because of a “sudden
stratospheric warming.”
Polar Vortex:
● Vortex means something which moves in a circular motion.
● Polar Vortex is a circular movement of air and wind occurring on both the earth’s pole, i.e. the
North Pole and the South Pole. It always exists near the poles.
● It is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding the poles.
● Boundary of the polar vortex is the boundary between cold polar air and warmer sub tropical air,
defined by polar front jet stream moving West to East.
● A Polar Vortex starts from the upper part of Troposphere and extends into the Stratosphere,
and sometimes it continues up to the Mesosphere.
● The northern hemisphere polar vortex is stronger because the winds in the southern hemisphere
are less effective due to the fact that the southern hemisphere has less land.

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Weakening of polar vortex:

● The Arctic is warming much faster due to global warming. Due to this, the polar Vortex weakens
and starts to lose its near circular shape. Recently, the United States is grappling with extreme cold
with temperature reaching to -30°C in cities like Chicago and Dakota.
● This is caused by a blast of Arctic air, which is a result of a “polar vortex” event.
a. The “breaking off” of a part of vortex as polar jet stream weakens is termed as ‘Polar
Vortex Event’.
b. This polar vortex event affects temperatures in tropical areas as south as Florida (explaining
why sub zero temperatures are observed in some tropical areas).
● Weak polar vortex conditions are happening more frequently now due to:
a. GHG emissions: Amplify arctic warming which leads to melting of snow and lower albedo
and increased absorption of sun’s heat.
b. Rapid arctic warming is diminishing the North-South temperature difference reducing
pressure difference between Arctic and mid latitudes, weakening the jet stream winds.

Sudden Stratospheric Warming (SSW):

● A “sudden stratospheric warming” event took place in early January 2021, according to weather
forecasting models.

What is sudden stratospheric warming (SSW)?

● SSW is a rapid warming (up to about 50 -°C in just a couple of days), between 10 km and 50
km above the earth’s surface.
● Usually a few weeks later, knock-on effects on the jet stream can be seen, which in turn affects
weather lower down (in the troposphere).
● However, the stratospheric sudden warming doesn’t happen every year, and it doesn’t always
affect weather when it does.
● It was first discovered in 1952.
● Sudden stratospheric warming events are a natural atmospheric fluctuation, not caused by
climate change.

How does SSW occur?

● Every year in winter, strong westerly winds called the stratospheric polar vortex circulates around
cold air high over the Arctic in the stratosphere.
● In some years, the winds in the polar vortex temporarily weaken, or even reverse to flow from east
to west.
● The cold air then descends very rapidly in the polar vortex and this causes the temperature in the
stratosphere to rise very rapidly, as much as 50-°C over only a few days; hence the term sudden
stratospheric warming.
● As the cold air from high up in the stratosphere disperses, it can affect the shape of the jet stream
as the cold air sinks from the stratosphere into the troposphere.
● It is this change in the jet stream that causes our weather to change.

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TEMPERATURE INVERSION AND ASSOCIATED WEATHER:

Temperature inversion:
● Temperature inversion, also called thermal inversion is a reversal of the normal behaviour of
decrease of temperature with increasing height in the troposphere.

Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion:

1. Long Winter nights: Loss of heat from the ground should be greater than incoming
radiation.
2. Clear Skies: For instructible escape of radiation.
3. Calm Stable Air: No vertical mixing at lower levels.
4. Slow Movement of air: No transfer or mixing of heat.
5. Snow covered ground surface: Maximum albedo/reflection of insolation.

Types of temperature inversion:

There are four kinds of inversions: ground, turbulence, subsidence, and frontal.
1. A ground inversion (Surface temperature inversion) develops when air is cooled by contact with
a colder surface until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere.
2. A subsidence inversion (Upper surface temperature inversion) develops when a widespread layer
of air descends, gets compressed and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and,
as a result, the lapse rate of temperature is reduced.

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3. A turbulence inversion (Intermontane valley or air drainage type temperature inversion) often
forms when quiescent air overlies turbulent air. Vertical mixing carries heat downward and cools
the upper part of the layer. Cold air slopes down the valley with upper layers relatively warmer.
4. A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft; the
front between the two air masses then has warm air above and cold air below.

Effects on Weather:
● Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility.
● An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below. As a result,
convection produced by the heating of air from below is limited to levels below the inversion.
● Diffusion of dust, smoke, and other air pollutants is likewise limited. In regions where a
pronounced low-level inversion is present, convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce
showers and, at the same time, visibility may be greatly reduced below the inversion.
● Inversions also affect diurnal variations in air temperature. The principal heating of air during
the day is produced by its contact with a land surface that has been heated by the Sun’s radiation.
Heat from the ground is communicated to the air by conduction and convection. Since an inversion
will usually control the upper level to which heat is carried by convection, only a shallow layer of
air will be heated if the inversion is low and large, and the rise in temperature will be great.
● It can cause temperature stability which stops upward/downward movement of air causing no
rain and dry conditions.

DESERTS:

• Deserts are regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation.

• There are mainly two types – hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type and temperate as are
the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi.

Hot Desert Climate-

• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence they
are also called Trade Wind Deserts.
• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between
latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S (Question asked in Previous Mains Exam).
• They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles), Great Australian Desert,
Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
• In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by different names at
different places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
• In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert (rain shadow effect and off-shore trade
winds) is the driest of all deserts with less than 2 cm of rainfall annually.

Mid-Latitude Desert Climate-

• The temperate deserts are rainless because of either continentality or rain-shadow effect. [Gobi
Desert is formed due to continentality and Patagonian Desert due to rain-shadow effect]

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• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateau and are at a considerable distance
from the sea. These are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan, Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of
Central Asia, drier portions of the Great Basin Desert of the western United
States and Patagonian Deserts of Argentina etc.
• The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty
Andes than to continentality.

Desert Climate-
Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts)-
• Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of less than 25 cm.
• Atacama (driest place on earth) has practically no rain at all.
• Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type.
• It ‘bursts’ suddenly and pours continuously for a few hours over small areas.
• The thunderstorm is so violent, and comes so suddenly that it has disastrous consequences on desert
landforms [flash floods].

Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western
side of the continents. Why?
• The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts where
the air is descending, a condition least favorable for precipitation of any kind to take place.
• The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow outside
the desert limits.
• Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative
humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
• There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely low,
decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under
such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus regions of permanent
drought. Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-
coming air. This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls. The desiccating
effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the mean
annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.

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Temperature of Hot deserts-

• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is high around
30°C.
• The highest temperature recorded is 57.77° C in 1922 at A1 Azizia, Libya.
• The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious—a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation, dry
air and a rapid rate of evaporation.
• Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influence and the cooling effect of the cold currents have
much lower temperatures.
• The desert interiors, however, experience much higher summer temperatures and the winter months
are rather cold.
• The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great. Intense insolation by day in a region
of dry air and no clouds causes the temperature to rise with the sun.
• But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses heat very quickly by radiation and the mercury levels
drop.
• High diurnal temperature range is a typical feature of hot deserts. Average diurnal range varies
from 14 to 25° Celsius.
• Frosts may occur at night in winter.

Climatic Conditions in the Mid-Latitude deserts-

• These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea, and are sheltered by the high mountains all
around them. As a result, they are cut off from the rain-bearing winds.
• Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic continental mass and bring light rainfall in
winter. Due to their coldness and elevation, snow falls in winter.
• The annual range of temperature is much greater than that of the hot
deserts. Continentality accounts for these extremes in temperature.
• Winters are often severe, freezing lakes and rivers, and strong cold winds blow all the time. When
the ice thaws in early summer, floods occur in many place

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Desert Vegetation-
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant.
• This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Trees are rare except where there is abundant ground water to support clusters of date palms.
• Along the western coastal deserts washed by cold currents as in the Atacama Desert, support a thin
cover of vegetation.
• Intense evaporation increases the salinity of the soil so that the dissolved salts tend to accumulate
on the surface forming hard pans [Bajada, Palaya].
• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are very deficient in humus.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for
ground water. Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or
needle-shaped to reduce the loss of water through transpiration.
• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they
lie dormant.

Life in the Deserts-

• Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different groups of inhabitants.

Tribe Desert Occupation

Bedouin Arabs Arabia nomadic herdsmen
Tuaregs Sahara nomadic herdsmen
Gobi Mongols Gobi nomadic herdsmen
Bushmen Kalahari primitive hunters and collectors.
Bindibu Australia primitive hunters and collectors.

CYCLONES
WHAT ARE CYCLONES?
● Cyclone, any large system of winds that circulates about a centre of low atmospheric pressure
in a counter clockwise direction north of the Equator and in a clockwise direction to the south.
● The swirling air rises and cools, creating clouds and precipitation.
● There are two types of cyclones: middle latitude (mid-latitude) cyclones and tropical cyclones.
Mid-latitude cyclones are the main cause of winter storms in the middle latitudes. Tropical cyclones
are also known as hurricanes.
● An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone. An anticyclone’s winds rotate clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere around a center of high pressure. Air comes in from above and sinks to the
ground. High pressure centers generally have fair weather.
● Major differences between tropical and temperate cyclones:

TROPICAL CYCLONE TEMPERATE CYCLONE

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ORIGIN Thermal origin- Tropical cyclones Frontal origin (frontogenesis)-

typically form over large bodies of They are formed due to interaction of
relatively warm water. warm and cold air masses.

LATITUDE Confined to 10 – 30 degree N and S of Confined to 35 – 65 degree N and S

the equator. of the equator. They are more
pronounced in the Northern
hemisphere due to greater
temperature contrast owing to large
expanse of landmass.

FORMATION They form only on seas with Temperate cyclones can be formed
temperatures more than 26-27 degree C. on both land and sea
They dissipate on reaching the land.

SEASON Tropical cyclones are seasonal in Temperate cyclones are irregular in

nature, it mostly occurs in late summers nature but they occur more in winters
(Aug – Oct) and few in summers

WIND VELOCITY Wind velocity of tropical cyclones is Wind velocity in temperate cyclones
AND much greater (100 – 250 kmph) (200– is comparatively low. Typical range:
DESTRUCTION 1200 kmph in upper troposphere) 30 – 150 kmph.

Greater destruction due to winds, Less destruction due to winds but

storm surges and torrential rains. more destruction due to flooding.

SHAPE Tropical cyclones are elliptical in The shape of temperate cyclones is

shape. ‘inverted V’.

LIFETIME Tropical cyclones don’t last for more Temperate cyclones may last for 2 to
than a week. 3 weeks.

PATH They generally move from east to west. They move from west to east.

INFLUENCE ON Tropical cyclones affect both the coasts Temperate cyclones bring rains to
INDIA of India but the east coast is a hot spot. north-west India. The associated
instability is called ‘Western
Disturbances’.

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Diagram

How are cyclones classified?

Cyclones are classified on the basis of the wind speed.
● The lowest official classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Depression, which has 3-
minute sustained wind speeds of between 31–49 km/h.
● Deep Depression: If the depression intensifies further then it will become a Deep Depression,
which has speeds of between 50–61 km/h.
● Cyclonic storm: If the Deep Depression develops gale force wind speeds of between 62–88 km/h,
it is called a Cyclonic storm and the IMD assigns a name to it.
● Severe Cyclonic Storm: Severe Cyclonic Storms have storm force wind speeds of between 89–
117 km/h
● Very Severe Cyclonic Storm: Very Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane-force winds of 118–
166 km/h.
● Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm: Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storms have hurricane-force
winds of 166–221 km/h.
● Super Cyclonic Storm: The highest classification used in the North Indian Ocean is a Super
Cyclonic Storm, which have hurricane-force winds of above 222 km/h.

Why are cyclones more common in the Bay of Bengal than in Arabian Sea?
● Both the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea experience cyclonic events, due to their proximity to the
Indian Ocean, where cyclones are a common phenomenon. However, when the two are compared,
the Bay of Bengal sees approximately five times as many cyclones as its Western counterpart. In
addition, cyclones in the Bay are stronger and deadlier.
● The reasons for Bay of Bengal to be cyclone prone:
● Water Temperature
Though both are located in the same latitude band and receive the same amount of solar
radiation from the Sun, the Bay of Bengal is much warmer than the Arabian Sea. It is
observed that the temperature in Bay of Bengal is more suitable for initiating cyclonic

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activity. This may be due to various features such as underwater volcanic activities, that
maintains a constant and desirable water temperature of about 24-27 degree Celsius.
● Geographical features
The geographical features in the Bay of Bengal region are apt for creating a desired effect
of low pressure and high temperature. The water region is surrounded by land in most of
the directions thereby ensuring that heat from the land is continuously transferred to the
water. This phenomenon is not observed in Arabian Sea region.
● Occurrence of ITCZ
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone is formed over the Bay of Bengal region during
the withdrawal of monsoon from Indian subcontinent. The ITCZ becomes a perfect spot
for converging winds and thus creates a cyclonic region.
● Link with Pacific Ocean
Bay of Bengal is linked with the Pacific Ocean through a passageway that facilitates
movement of wind systems. The western Pacific Ocean is a hot bed for cyclonic activities
and some systems are so powerful that it can move into Bay of Bengal region and
subsequently gain power to become cyclones.
● In addition, the Bay receives higher rainfall and constant inflow of fresh water from
the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. This means that the Bay’s surface water keeps
getting refreshed, making it impossible for the warm water to mix with the cooler water
below, making it ideal for a depression. On the other hand, the Arabian Sea receives
stronger winds that help dissipate the heat, and the lack of constant fresh water supply helps
the warm water mix with the cool water, reducing the temperature.

RISING INCIDENCES OF CYCLONES IN THE ARABIAN SEA:

● The Arabian Sea previously experienced fewer severe cyclones than the Bay of Bengal off India's
eastern coast.
● But rising water temperatures because of global warming is changing this trend.
● This is the first time since the start of satellite records in 1980 in India that there have been four
consecutive years of pre-monsoon cyclones in the Arabian Sea.
● According to the India Meteorological Department, the frequency and intensity of cyclonic
activity in the Arabian Sea was the highest it had been in over a century, in 2019.
● One of the reasons that we are seeing more and more storms and cyclones in the tropical regions,
especially regions like Arabian Sea and all, is because of ocean warming, rapid ocean warming.
The Arabian Sea is one of the fastest warming basins across the global oceans.
● Rising sea surface temperatures (SST) in the Arabian Sea are contributing to the formation
of an increased number of cyclones.
● SST in the Arabian Sea rose by a staggering 0.36 degrees Celsius, compared with the baselines
temperatures between 1981 and 2010.

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Q. What are cyclones? How are cyclones classified?

Q. Why are cyclones more common in the Bay of Bengal than in Arabian Sea?

AMAZON RAINFORESTS:
Why is the Amazon Rainforest so important?
● South America’s Amazon contains nearly a third of all the tropical rainforests left on Earth. Despite
covering only around 1% of the planet’s surface, the Amazon is home to 10% of all the wildlife
species.

The importance of the Amazon rainforest for local and global climate:
● Tropical forests and woodlands (e.g., savannas) exchange vast amounts of water and energy with
the atmosphere and are thought to be important in controlling local and regional climates.
● Water released by plants into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration (evaporation and plant
transpiration) and to the ocean by the rivers, influences world climate and the circulation of ocean
currents. This works as a feedback mechanism, as the process also sustains the global climate.
● If we lose the Amazon, we lose a crucial part of the world's life support system: The Amazon
produces up to 20% of the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, cycles water that regulates our
weather.
● Amazon plays a major role in many of the processes that make our planet habitable: water cycles,
weather patterns, and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The rainforest is also home
to more than 30 million people and over 10% of the world's biodiversity.
● The more than 2.5 million square miles of Amazon rainforest are also one of our greatest buffers
against the climate crisis, since the trees absorb carbon dioxide, thereby keeping it out of the
atmosphere.

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● But deforestation threatens all of that. Humans have cut down nearly 20% of the Amazon in the
last 50 years, according to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). If another 20% of the Amazon
disappears, that could trigger a "dieback" scenario in which the forest would dry out and become
a savannah. That process would release billions of tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and
raise global temperatures.

why it is vital to protect the Amazon from further deforestation:

● Rainforests are the lungs of the planet: Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air and replace it
with oxygen. Rainforests like the Amazon act as carbon sinks that offset the carbon dioxide that is
released into the atmosphere.
● Forests have huge significance for global heating: Trees not only absorb carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere, but vast stores of carbon are locked in the trees and soil. A study by Global Forest
Watch found that if tropical tree cover loss continues at this current rate it will be nearly impossible
to keep warming below 2-degrees, let alone the goal of 1.5-degrees.
● The Amazon is home to one million people: The Amazon is also home to many of the indigenous
peoples of South American. This includes people that have never had contact with the outside world
– and their home is on fire.
● The Amazon is the most biodiverse forest on the planet: The Amazon is the world’s largest
tropical forest, spanning nine countries in South America.
● Deforestation is disrupting Earth’s water cycle: New research is proving trees play a crucial role
in regulating the global water cycle. Trees suck up moisture from the soil and release water vapour
in the atmosphere through their leaves. Deforestation in tropical forests in the African Congo basin,
southeast Asia and particularly the Amazon could lead to droughts on the other side of the world.
● Rainforest plants are used for life-saving medicine: More than 60% of anti-cancer drugs
originate from natural sources including rainforest plants, according to research by the International
Journal of Oncology.

Q. Why is the Amazon rainforest so critical for the entire world's climate? Suggest measures to
protect them.

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MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE OR WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE OR

WARM TEMPERATE WEST COAST CLIMATE:
Distribution-
• Entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses, between 30° and 45° north and
south of the equator.
• The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts.
• Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of ‘winter rain climate’, and gives rise to the
name Mediterranean Climate.
• The best developed form of this climatic type is found in central Chile.
• Other Mediterranean regions include
1) California (around San Francisco),
2) the south-western tip of Africa (around Cape Town),
3) southern Australia, and south-west Australia (Swanland).

Mediterranean Climate-
• Clear skies and high temperatures; hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.
o Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm.
o Temperature of warmest month greater than or equal to 10⁰ C.
o Temperature of coldest month is less than 18⁰ C but greater than –3⁰ C
o Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies.
• A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades
o In summer when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the belt of influence of
the Westerlies is shifted a little pole wards. Rain bearing winds are therefore not likely
to reach the Mediterranean lands.
o The prevailing Trade Winds [tropical easterlies] are off-shore and there is practically
no rain.
o Strong winds from inland desert regions pose the risk of wildfires.
• Rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies
o The Mediterranean lands receive most of their precipitation in winter when the Westerlies
shift equator wards.

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o In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-shore Westerlies bring much cyclonic rain
from the Atlantic (Typical to Mediterranean Climate).
o The rain comes in heavy showers and only on a few days with bright sunny periods
between them. This is another characteristic feature of the Mediterranean winter rain.
o Though the downpours are infrequent they are often very torrential and in mountainous
districts, destructive floods occur.

Local winds of the Mediterranean Climate-

• Many local winds, some hot, others cold are common around the Mediterranean Sea.
• Sirocco
o This is a hot, dry dusty wind which originates in the Sahara Desert.
o It is most frequent in spring and normally lasts for only a few days.
o The Sirocco blows outwards in a southerly direction (south to north) from the desert
interiors into the cooler Mediterranean Sea.
o After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the absorption of
the water vapour.
o Its scorching heat withers [To dry up or shrivel from loss of moisture] vegetation and
crops.
o This may be ‘blood rain’ because the wind is carrying the red dust of the Sahara Desert.
• Mistral
o Mistral is a cold wind from the north, rushing down the Rhone valley in violent gusts
between 40 and 80 miles per hour.
o The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the funneling effect in the valley between
the Alps and the Central Massif [Plateau in France].
o A similar type of cold north-easterly wind experienced along the Adriatic coast is called
the Bora.
o Tramontane and Gregale are similar cold winds of the Mediterranean Sea.

Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean Climate-

• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and prolonged
droughts. They are, in short xerophytic [drought tolerant], a word used to describe the drought-
resistant plants in an environment deficient in moisture.

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• Mediterranean evergreen forests

o These are open woodlands with evergreen oaks.
o They are found only in the climatically most favoured regions.
o The trees are normally low, even stunted, with massive trunks, small leathery leaves and a
wide-spreading root system in search of water.
o The cork oaks are specially valued for their thick barks, used for making wine-bottle
corks and for export around the world.
o In Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the evergreen oak.
o The giant redwood is typical of the Californian trees.
• Evergreen coniferous trees
o These include the various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses which have evergreen,
needle-shaped leaves and tall, straight trunks.
• Mediterranean bushes and shrubs
o This is perhaps the most predominant type of Mediterranean vegetation.
• Grass
o Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of the rain comes in the
cool season when growth is slow.
o Even if grasses do survive, they are so wiry [lean, tough] and bunchy that they are not
suitable for animal farming.
o Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in the Mediterranean.

Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate

• Orchard farming
o The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world’s orchard lands.
o A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are
grown.
o The fruit trees have long roots to draw water from considerable depths during the long
summer drought.
o The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits prevents excessive transpiration.
o The long, sunny summer enables the fruits to be ripened and harvested.
o The Mediterranean lands account for 70 per cent of the world’s exports of citrus fruits.
o The olive tree is probably the most typical of all Mediterranean cultivated vegetation.
o Olive oil extracted is a valuable source of cooking oil in a region deficient in animal fat.
o Besides olives, many nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts and almonds are grown
and the nuts picked as fruits or for the chocolate industry.
Crop cultivation and sheep rearing
o Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is the next most popular cereal.
o The mountain pastures, with their cooler climate, support a few sheep, goats and sometimes
cattle.
o Transhumance is widely practiced (moving up and down the hills in search of pastures
according to seasons).
Wine production
o Viticulture is by tradition a Mediterranean occupation.

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o Regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea account for three-quarters of the world’s
production of wine.
o Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go into wine.
o The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen.

Economy-
Net exporter of citric fruits and net importer of dairy products.
o Clear skies in summer and good landscapes encourage tourism [Lot of Indian Songs are
shot here].
o European Mediterranean has many ancient cities and are famous for their health and
pleasure resorts, frequented by millions all-round the year.

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change:

● Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define
Earth's local, regional and global climates.
● While “climate change” and “global warming” are often used interchangeably, global warming—
the recent rise in the global average temperature near the earth’s surface—is just one aspect of
climate change.

EVIDENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

● Earth's climate has changed throughout history. Just in the last 650,000 years there have been
seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with the abrupt end of the last ice age about 11,700
years ago marking the beginning of the modern climate era.
● Global Temperature Rise: The planet's average surface temperature has risen about 2.12 degrees
Fahrenheit (1.18 degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change driven largely by increased
carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere and other human activities. The years 2016 and 2020
are tied for the warmest year on record.
● Warming Ocean: The ocean has absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 100 meters of
ocean showing warming of more than 0.6 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969. Earth stores 90% of the
extra energy in the ocean.
● Shrinking Ice Sheets: The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass while
Antarctica lost about 148 billion tons of ice per year.
● Glacial Retreat: Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world — including in the
Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and Africa.
● Decreased Snow Cover: Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the
Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past five decades and the snow is melting earlier.
● Sea Level Rise: Global sea level rose about 8 inches in the last century. The rate in the last two
decades is nearly double that of the last century.
● Declining Arctic Sea Ice: Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over
the last several decades

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●Extreme Events: The number of record high temperature events has been increasing, while the
number of record low temperature events has been decreasing, since 1950.
● Ocean Acidification: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean
waters has increased by about 30%. This increase is the result of humans emitting more carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the ocean.
THE CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

A) Natural Factors:
There are numerous natural factors that cause the Earth’s climate to change. They affect the climate
over a period of thousands to millions of years.
• Continental Drift: The movement of continents had an impact on climate change due to the
change on the landmass’s physical features and position and the change in water bodies’
position like the change in the follow of ocean currents and winds. The drifting of the landmass
is continued today. The Himalayan range is rising approximately 1 millimetre every year as the
Indian landmass is moving towards the Asian landmass.
• Variation of the Earth’s orbit: The Earth’s orbit has an impact on the sunlight’s seasonal
distribution that is reaching the Earth’s surface.
o A slight change in the Earth’s orbit can lead to variation in distribution across the world.
There are very few changes to the average sunshine.
o However, it causes a high impact on the geographical and seasonal distribution.
o There are three types of orbital variations – variations in Earth’s eccentricity, variations
in the tilt angle of the Earth’s axis of rotation and precession of Earth’s axis.
o These together can cause Milankovitch cycles, which have a huge impact on climate
and are well-known for their connection to the glacial and interglacial periods.
o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change finding showed that the Milankovitch
cycles had influenced the behaviour of ice formation.
• Plate tectonics: Due to the change in the temperature in the core of the Earth, the mantle plumes
and convection currents forced the Earth’s Plates to adjust leading to the rearrangement of the
Earth Plate. This can influence the global and local patterns of climate and atmosphere. The
recent example of the tectonic control on ocean circulation is the formation of the Isthmus of
Panama about 5 million years ago, leading to the prevention of direct mixing of the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans.
• Volcanic Activity: When a volcano erupts, it emits gases and dust particles, causing a partial
block of the Sunrays. This can lead to the cooling of the weather. Though the volcanic activities
last only for a few days, the gases and ashes released by it can last for a long period, leading to
it influencing climate patterns.
• Ocean Currents: The temperature differences of the water influence the climate of the region.
B) Anthropogenic Factors:
Scientists, since the beginning of the 20th century, have studied the impact of climate change caused by
human activities. Global warming, the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s climate
system, is a major aspect of climate change. It is mainly a human-caused increase in global surface
temperature. The anthropogenic factors causing climate change are as follows:

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• Greenhouse Gases: The greenhouse gases absorb heat radiation from the sun. Following the
initiation of the Industrial Revolution, the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere
has increased exponentially. This has led to more absorption and retaining the heat in the
atmosphere. This resulted in an increase in Global Temperature. The greenhouse gases mostly
do not absorb the solar radiation but absorb most of the infrared emitted by the Earth’s surface.
o The main greenhouse gases include
▪ water vapour (the majority of the GHG in the atmosphere but the impact is
less)
▪ Carbon dioxide released due to natural and anthropogenic factors spends more
time in the atmosphere, leading to an increase in its impact. There has been a
30% increase in the concentration of CO2 since the start of the industrial
revolution. Apart from the industrial revolution, deforestation also contributes
to the increase in the CO
▪ Chlorofluorocarbons, used for industrial purposes, especially in refrigerants
and air conditioning, is a man-made compound regulated under the Montreal
Protocol due to their adverse effects on the Ozone layers.
▪ Methane is released due to decomposition of organic matter. It is stronger than
CO2 because of its capacity to absorb more heat.
▪ Nitrous oxide is produced by the agricultural sector, especially in the
production and use of organic fertilizers and while burning fossil fuels.
• Change in the land use pattern: Half of the land-use change is said to have happened during
the industrial era. Most of the forests were replaced by agricultural cropping and grazing of
lands.
o The increased albedo (reflectivity of an object in space) in the snow-covered high
altitude regions due to deforestation led to the cooling of the planet’s surface.
o The lower the albedo, the more of the Sun’s radiation gets absorbed by the planet and
the temperatures will rise.
o If the albedo is higher and the Earth is more reflective, the more of the radiation is
returned to space, leading to the cooling of the planet.
o The tropical deforestation changes the evapotranspiration rates (the amount of water
vapour put in the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration from trees), causes
desertification and affects soil moisture characteristics.
o From the satellite imagery, it is seen that the clearing of forest cover for agriculture and
irrigated farming in arid and semi-arid lands can increase solar energy absorption and
the amount of moisture evaporated into the atmosphere.
• Atmospheric aerosols: Can scatter and absorb the solar and infrared radiation, change
microphysical and chemical properties of the clouds, Solar radiation, when scattered, cools the
planet. On the other hand, when the aerosols absorb solar radiation, it causes an increase in the
temperature of the air instead of allowing the sunlight to be absorbed by the Earth’s surface.
Aerosols can directly affect climate change by absorbing or reflecting solar radiation. They can
also produce indirect effects by modifying the cloud’s formation and properties. They can even
be transported thousands of kilometres away from its source through wind and upper-level
circulation in the atmosphere.

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EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

● Temperatures Will Continue to Rise: Change Will Continue Through This Century and Beyond
because human-induced warming is superimposed on a naturally varying climate, the temperature
rise has not been, and will not be, uniform or smooth across the country or over time.
● Frost-free Season (and Growing Season) will Lengthen: The length of the frost-free season (and
the corresponding growing season) has been increasing nationally since the 1980s affecting
ecosystems and agriculture.
● Changes in Precipitation Pattern: Average precipitation has increased since 1900, but some areas
have had increases greater than the national average, and some areas have had decreases.
● More Droughts and Heat Wave: Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves (periods of
abnormally hot weather lasting days to weeks) everywhere are projected to become more intense,
and cold waves less intense everywhere. Summer temperatures are projected to continue rising, and
a reduction of soil moisture, which exacerbates heat waves.
● Hurricanes and cyclones Will Become Stronger and More Intense: The intensity, frequency
and duration of cyclones have all increased since the early 1980s.
● Sea Level Will Rise 1-8 feet by 2100: Global sea level has risen by about 8 inches since reliable
record keeping began in 1880. It is projected to rise another 1 to 8 feet by 2100. This is the result
of added water from melting land ice and the expansion of seawater as it warms.
Arctic Likely to Become Ice-Free: The Arctic Ocean is expected to become essentially ice free in
summer before mid-century.

WHAT ROLE DOES CLIMATE CHANGE PLAY IN FOREST FIRES?

● Forest fires have been increasing dramatically, as global warming is leading to longer, harsher
droughts and more extreme weather events.
● The smoke and carbon released into the atmosphere from these fires also acts to accelerate
further warming and temperature rise.
● Fires are just one piece of a multi-part climate feedback system — all of which are worsening,
fueling more rapid climate change.
● Increased global emissions lead to higher temperatures, which then create drier, more fire-prone
conditions. With more fires comes more emissions, perpetuating the entire cycle.

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Q. Is climate change responsible for increasing forest fires around the world/ Bush fires in Australia?

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON RAINFALL PATTERNS IN INDIA:

● The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Government of India has recently published a Climate
Change report entitled "Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region" regarding the
impact of human-induced global climate change on the regional climate and monsoon of the Indian
subcontinent, adjoining Indian Ocean and the Himalayas.
● Based on the available climate records, the report documents that the surface air temperature over
India has risen by about 0.7 °C during 1901–2018 which is accompanied with an increase in
atmospheric moisture content. The sea surface temperatures in the tropical Indian Ocean have also
increased by about 1 °C during 1951–2015.
● This has led to a rise in frequency of localized heavy rainfall events, drought and flood occurrences,
and increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones etc. in the last few decades.
○ Five states viz., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Meghalaya and Nagaland have
shown significant decreasing trends in southwest monsoon rainfall during the recent 30
years period(1989-2018).
○ The annual rainfall over these five states along with the states of Arunachal Pradesh and
Himachal Pradesh also show significant decreasing trends.
○ Other states do not show any significant changes in southwest monsoon rainfall during the
same period.
○ Considering district-wise rainfall, there are many districts in the country, which show
significant changes in southwest monsoon and annual rainfall during the recent 30 years
period(1989-2018).

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○ With regard to the frequency of heavy rainfall days, significant increasing trend is observed
over Saurashtra & Kutch, South-eastern parts of Rajasthan, Northern parts of Tamil Nadu,
Northern parts of Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas of Southwest Odisha, many parts of
Chhattisgarh, Southwest Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Manipur & Mizoram, Konkan &
Goa andUttarakhand.

Q. Discuss the impact of climate change on rainfall patterns in Indian and the world.

CLIMATE CHANGE & EXTREME CLIMATE EVENTS:

● 70% of the extreme weather events are more likely caused by human-caused climate change.
Heavily dominated by extreme heat (33%), rainfall or flooding (20%) and drought (17%). Together
they make up more than two-thirds of 70%.
● Heatwaves: climate change has made heat wave events more likely or more severe.
● Heavy rain and flooding: known as “thermodynamic” effects. Higher temperatures mean
warmer seas, higher sea levels and more moisture evaporating into the atmosphere. Human factors,
such as land use and drainage, also play a part in whether heavy rain leads to flooding.
● Drought: India is seeing more extreme weather, with the past decade being warmest and the driest
ever which includes very rare instances of successive droughts in 2014 15 but this period also seen
several instances of short bursts of torrential rain which flooded Mumbai in 2005, Uttarakhand in
2013, Kashmir in 2014, Kerala in 2018.
● Landslide: A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Out of total 3,782 landslides between 2015 and 2022 in India the highest 2239 were reported in
Kerala, followed by West Bengal (376), Tamilnadu (196), Karnataka (194) and Jammu and
Kashmir (184).
● Climate extremes, such as droughts, floods and extreme temperatures, can lead to crop losses and
threaten the livelihoods of agricultural producers and the food security of communities worldwide.
Depending on the crop and ecosystem, weeds, pests, and fungi can also thrive under warmer
temperatures, wetter climates, and increased CO2 levels, and climate change will likely increase
weeds and pests.
Climate change can cause new patterns of pests and diseases to emerge, affecting plants, animals
and humans, and posing new risks for food security, food safety and human health.

Q. What are extreme climate events? Do you think Climate Change is responsible for increasing
incidents of extreme climate events in India?

Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region:

● The Ministry of Earth Sciences’ (MoES) recently released a report titled ‘Assessment of Climate
Change over the Indian Region’. The report highlights the observed and projected changes in
various climatic dimensions over the Indian region, their impacts and various policy actions to deal
with the regional climate change.
● Following are the observed and projected changes in various climatic dimensions over the Indian
region:
1. Average temperature has risen by around 0.7°C during 1901–2018.

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2. Summer monsoon rainfall has declined by 6%, over India between 1951-2015 especially in the
densely populated Indo-Gangetic plains and the Western Ghats.
3. The frequency of localized heavy rain occurrences as well as dry spells has significantly
increased.
4. The area affected by drought has also increased by 1.3% per decade during 1951–2016.
5. Flooding events have increased since 1950, in part due to enhanced occurrence of localized, short-
duration intense rainfall events.
6. Sea-level rise in the North Indian Ocean: It occurred at a rate of 1.06–1.75 mm per year during
1874–2004 and has accelerated to 3.3 mm per year between 1993 and 2017, which is comparable
to the current rate of global mean sea- level rise.
7. The frequency of very severe cyclonic storms (VSCSs) during the post-monsoon season has
increased significantly.
8. The Hindukush Himalayas (HKH) (also known as the ‘Third Pole’) experienced a declining
trend in snowfall and also retreat of glaciers in recent decades. However, parts of the high-
elevation Karakoram Himalayas have, in contrast, experienced increased wintertime precipitation
in association with enhanced amplitude variations of synoptic western disturbances.
9. Food Security: Rising temperatures, heat extremes, floods, droughts and rainfall variability can
disrupt rainfed agricultural food production and adversely impact crop yield.
10. Water Security: Declining trend in snowfall and retreat of glaciers in HKH region may impact the
water supply in the major rivers and streams including the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra.
11. Energy demand: Rising temperatures are likely to increase energy demand for space cooling,
further adding to global warming by increasing GHG emissions.
12. Human Health: Higher temperatures, extreme weather events, and higher climate variability could
elevate risk of heat strokes, cardiovascular and neurological diseases, stress-related disorders and
spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.
13. Biodiversity: Species specially adapted to narrow environmental conditions are likely to be
affected the most.
14. Economy: According to the International Labour Organization, the loss in productivity by 2030
because of heat stress could be the equivalent of India losing 34 million full-time jobs. According
to Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Desertification, land degradation and
drought cost India about 2.5% of gross domestic product in 2014-15.
15. Social issues: Large scale migration induced due to climatic disasters such as droughts, cyclones
and floods.Repeated crop failures add to the burden of already distressed farmers who then resort
to suicides.

Policy recommendations by the report:

1. Make vulnerability assessment central to long-term planning for developing adaptation and
mitigation strategies.
2. Inclusion of detailed, regional-scale climate change risk assessments would help develop region
and sector-specific mitigation and adaptation measures to reduce vulnerability to climate change.
3. Afforestation efforts: It helps to mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration, enhance
resilience to flash floods and landslides by improving soil retention, improve resilience to droughts
by increasing percolation of surface water into the soil, improve resilience of coastal infrastructure
and habitation by reducing coastline erosion due to storm surges and sea-level rise, reduce

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vulnerability to extreme heat by reducing ambient temperatures, and support native wildlife and
biodiversity.
4. Equity and social justice for building climate resilience since the most vulnerable people such
as the poor, the disabled, outdoor labourers and farmers will bear the brunt of climate change
impacts.

8.9. IPCC Reports on Climate Change:

● In 2013 the IPCC in its Fifth Assessment Report has identified that climate change is real and
human activities are the main cause.
○ It highlighted that from 1880 to 2012, the average global temperature increased by 0.85°C.
○ From 1901 to 2010, the global average sea level rose by 19 cm as oceans expanded due to
warming and ice melted.
● In 2018, the IPCC issued a special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C, finding
that limiting global warming to 1.5°C would require rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes
in all aspects of society.
○ It predicts that increases in global mean temperature of less than 1.8 to 5.4 degrees
Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius) above 1990 levels will produce beneficial impacts in
some regions and harmful ones in others.
● A Special Report on Land and climate change focuses on the contribution of land related
activities to global warming.
● ‘The Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate’ underlined the dire
changes taking place in oceans, glaciers, and ice-deposits on land and sea:
○ Ocean Warming:
■ Global ocean has warmed unabated since 1970 and has taken up more than 90%
of the excess heat in the climate system.
■ Since 1993, the rate of ocean warming and marine heatwaves have very likely
doubled in frequency and intensity.
○ Global Mean Sea-Level:
■ Between 2006 and 2015, the global mean sea level recorded an average rise of 3.6
mm per year, which was more than double of 1.4 mm per year recorded in the first
90-year-period of the 20th century.
■ Sea-level rise is not globally uniform and varies regionally. Regional differences,
within 30 % of global mean sea-level rise, result from land ice loss and variations
in ocean warming and circulation
○ The Melting of Glaciers:
■ Between 2006 and 2015, the Greenland ice sheet lost ice-mass at an average rate
of 278 billion tonnes every year (e.g. Okjokull glacier of Iceland), which was
enough to result in a global sea-level rise of 0.8 mm per year. During the same
period, the Antarctic ice sheet lost a mass of 155 billion tonnes on an average every
year.
■ The glaciers in the Himalayas, together lost an average of 220 billion tonnes of ice
every year.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE : ON LAND & FOOD SECURITY, OCEANS

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Climate change on land degradation: Land degradation on climate change:

1. Change in temperature and rainfall: 1. Deforestation and vegetation loss leading

Extreme weather events. to more CO2 emission.
2. Increase wildfires. 2. Livestock rearing, rice farming, peatlands
3. Species Invasion. causing methane emission.
4. Extreme heat reduces photosynthesis. 3. Agriculture and nitrogenous fertilizers
5. Reduction in permafrost. causing N2O emissions.
6. Reduce soil moisture.

Climate change on food security: Impact of food on climate change:

1. Unstable food production. 1. Agricultural expansion leading to more

2. Pests and diseases. land brought under cultivation.
3. Decline in crop yield. 2. Eliminating natural wetlands and forest
4. Reduced nutritional quality of food due to cover.
altered micro/macro nutrients in soil. 3. GHG emission from agriculture.

Impacts of Climate Change on Oceans:

1. Sea level Rise: As per IPCC special report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate
(SROCC), if global temperatures are limited to well-below 2 degree Celsius in 2100, then the rate
of SLR will still increase from around 4mm per year today to 4-9mm/year by 2100.
a. 0.5-0.7% of the world’s land area is at a risk of episodic coastal flooding by 2100,
impacting up to 4% of the population.
b. Almost 3 billion people live within 200 km of the coasts and islands all over the world. A
sea level rise will lead to loss of habitation and hence leads to de-urbanization.
2. Coastal regions and small Island States
a. Coastal communities vulnerable to climate hazards.
b. Floods causing losses to coastal megacities.
c. Alter the size and direction of migration flow.
d. Indonesia is planning to shift its capital from Jakarta, the “world’s fastest-sinking city”
owing to sinking of land by 25 cm per year.
3. Marine life:
a. Marine heatwaves: around the world have doubled in frequency since 1982, becoming
longer-lasting, more intense and more extensive.
b. Change in Salinity, oxygen content and ocean acidification.
c. Surface warming combined with a surge in freshwater runoff entering the top layer of the
oceans is making the oceans more stratified.
d. Ocean Deoxygenation: Growth of Oxygen Minimum zones.
e. Projections of “net primary productivity” declining by 4-11% under a high-emissions
scenario. This may cause a decline of around 15% in the total mass of marine animals by
2100 and up to a 25.5% drop in “maximum catch potential” of fisheries.
f. Coral reefs are particularly threatened: Almost all coral reefs will degrade from their
current state, even if global warming remains below 2 degree Celsius

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4. Extreme events:
a. Increased frequency of tropical cyclones.
b. The strongest El Niño and La Niña events since the pre-industrial have occurred during the
last fifty years. Extreme El Niño events are projected to occur about twice as often in the
21st century compared to the 20th century.
5. Socio Economic Impacts:
a. Decline in fisheries threatening food security. Seafood is an essential contributor to
humanity’s health, as over 4.5bn people in the world obtain more than 15% of their protein
intake from seafood.
b. Species migration and invasion can be a potential for conflicts.
c. It may also significantly affect tourism and recreation through impacts on landscapes (e.g.,
beaches), cultural features etc.
d. Algal bloom, Bacterial growth causing diseases and epidemic.
6. Maritime disputes: With sea-level rise, the baselines from which most maritime zones (defined
under United Nation Convention on Law of Seas (UNCLOS)) are measured will change. As a
consequence, the outer boundary of the zone may also change, retreating landward, which may lead
to maritime disputes.

Efforts to mitigate Climate Change:

GLOBAL EFFORTS: INDIA’S EFFORTS:

● PARIS AGREEMENT & COP 25: The ● Promotion of Renewable Energy:

central aim of the agreement is to ○ Renewable energy targets: Solar
strengthen the global response to the threat Energy (100 GW by 2022), Wind
of climate change by keeping the global Energy (60 GW by 2022) and
temperature rise, in this century, well Small Hydro and Biomass( 15 GW
below 2 degrees Celsius above pre- by 2022)
industrial levels and to pursue efforts to ○ Green Energy Corridor Project
limit the temperature increase even further that aims at synchronizing
to 1.5 degrees Celsius. electricity produced from
● COP 25@Madrid Leaders dubbed the renewable sources
event as “blue COP”, laying out its ○ Faster Adoption and
intention to focus on oceans. Manufacturing of Electric
● COP23@Bonn: Vehicles in India (FAME India)
○ Talanoa Dialogue: a facilitative ● Energy Efficiency measures:
dialogue in 2018, to take stock of ○ Perform Achieve and Trade
the collective efforts of Parties in (PAT)
relation to progress towards the ○ Star Rated Appliances to provide
long-term goal referred to Paris the consumer an informed choice
Agreement. about energy saving.
○ To inform the preparation of ○ Energy Conservation Building
nationally determined Code 2017
contributions (NDCs) was ○ Green Rating for Integrated
launched. Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) to
○ Gender Action Plan: The first recognize energy-efficient
ever Gender Action Plan to the buildings.
UNFCCC was adopted at COP23.

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● Warsaw International Mechanism ○ Zero Defect and Zero Effect

(WIM) on Loss and Damage came into (ZED) to rate Micro, Small and
being in 2013 (COP 19). It acknowledges Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) on
that “loss and damage associated with the quality control and certification for
adverse effects of climate change includes, energy efficiency,
and in some cases involves more than that ● Financial Tools
which can be reduced by adaptation”. ○ Green bonds issued by financial,
● Carbon markets: Paris Agreement non-financial or public entities
contains three separate mechanisms for where the proceeds are used to
“voluntary cooperation” towards climate finance 100 percent green projects
goals: ○ Compensatory Afforestation
○ two based on markets ( called as Management and Planning
Internationally Transferred Authority (CAMPA) Funds for
Mitigation Outcomes (ITMO) promoting afforestation and
and “Sustainable Development regeneration activities.
Mechanism” (SDM) which seeks ○ Framework for Energy Efficient
to replace the CDM Economic Development (FEED)
○ and a third based on “non-market to ease the financing of energy
approaches”to boost “mitigation, efficiency projects.
adaptation, finance, technology ○ India joined the International
transfer and capacity- building”, in Platform on Sustainable Finance
situations where no trade is (IPSF) that acknowledges the
involved.. global nature of financial markets
● Carbon pricing is an instrument that which has the potential to help
captures the external costs of greenhouse finance the transition to a green,
gas (GHG) emissions low carbon and climate resilient
○ Emissions Trading Systems economy.
(ETS): ● Afforestation Measures:
○ carbon tax ○ National Afforestation
○ Other mechanisms to price the Programme for afforestation and
carbon emission reforestation of degraded forests
■ Offset programs and non -forest areas.
■ Results-Based Climate ○ Nagar Van Udyan Yojana: Aims at
Finance ecological rejuvenation of the city
■ Internal carbon pricing forests by creating/ developing at
● CLIMATE FINANCE: established least one city forest in each city.
Financial Mechanisms to provide funds to ● International collaborations:
developing country Parties. ○ International Solar Alliance
○ Global Environment Facility (ISA) to provide a dedicated
(GEF) platform for cooperation among
○ Copenhagen Accord,with a target solar-resource-rich countries.
of mobilizing $100 billion per year ○ REDD+ Reducing emissions to
by 2020 achieve additional carbon
○ Green Climate Fund (GCF) sequestration, emission reduction,
established by parties at COP 16 improve forest based livelihoods,
Cancun. conservation species and
○ Established special funds: improvement of watershed
Special Climate Change Fund hydrology.
(SCCF), the Least Developed ● Adaptation measures:
Countries Fund (LDCF), both

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managed by the GEF; and the ○ National Initiative on Climate

Adaptation Fund (AF) under the Resilient Agriculture to enhance
Kyoto Protocol in 2001. resilience of Indian agriculture to
climate change.
○ Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure (CDRI) aims to
promote resilience of new and
existing infrastructure systems to
climate and disaster risks.
○ National Agroforestry Policy
(NAP) that aims at encouraging
and expanding tree plantation in
complementarity and integrated
manner with crops and livestock.

Response Ahead:
1. Networks of protected areas help maintain ecosystem services and enable future ecosystem-based
adaptation options.
2. Ecosystem management tools such as coral gardening and species relocation.
3. Fisheries management strategies to reduce negative climate change impacts on fisheries, with
benefits for regional economies and livelihoods.
4. Restoration of vegetated coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass
meadows.
5. Integrated water management approaches support water resource management through the
development and optimization of multi-purpose storage and release of water from reservoirs, with
consideration of potentially negative impacts to ecosystems and communities.
6. Climate resilience and sustainable development to promote fair and just climate.
7. Monitoring, sharing of data, information and knowledge and improved context- specific
forecasts, including early warning systems to predict more extreme El Niño/La Niña events,
tropical cyclones, and marine heatwaves etc. help to manage negative impacts from ocean changes.

CRYOSPHERE AND GLOBAL CLIMATE

CRYOSPHERE: Many different kinds of snow and ice, including sea ice, lake and river ice, snow cover,
glaciers, ice caps and sheets, and frozen ground, make up the cryosphere (a word derived from kryos, the
Greek word for cold)—the places on Earth where water exists in solid form. Although most of Earth's
frozen water is found near the poles, snow and ice can actually be found on all seven continents.

Snow and ice are an important part of the global climate system:
● Acting like a highly reflective blanket, the cryosphere protects Earth from getting too warm. Snow
and ice reflect more sunlight than open water or bare ground. The presence or absence of snow and
ice affects heating and cooling over the Earth's surface, influencing the entire planet's energy
balance. Changes in snow and ice cover affect air temperatures, sea levels, ocean currents, and
storm patterns all over the world.

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● Just as changes in the cryosphere can influence climate, changes in climate can also dramatically
alter the Earth's snow- and ice-covered areas. Unlike other substances found on the Earth, snow
and ice exist relatively close to their melting points and can easily change back and forth between
solid and liquid. With just slight variations in Earth's temperature, thousands of square miles of
snow and ice can accumulate or melt, making the cryosphere one of the most powerful indicators
of climate and climate change.
● The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and
Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) states that “over the last decades, global warming has
led to widespread shrinking of the cryosphere, with mass loss from ice sheets and glaciers,
reduction in snow cover, and Arctic sea ice extent and thickness, and increased permafrost
temperatures”.

How does cryosphere affect global climate:

● Albedo: Snow and ice have high albedo. They reflect much of the insolation, which helps in cooling
of the earth. Thus, presence or absence of snow and ice affects the heating and cooling of Earth’s
surface. This influences the entire planet’s energy balance.
● Feedback Loop: Melting ice reduces the reflective surface. And, the ocean and land are darker in
color, they absorb more solar radiation, and then release the heat to the atmosphere. This causes
more warming and so more ice melts. This is known as a feedback loop.
● Storage of Carbon: The permafrost of the polar region has trapped tonnes of carbon inside its soil.
If ‘feedback loop’ aggravates, this carbon will be released in the form of methane- a powerful
greenhouse gas- which will catalyze global warming.
● At polar regions, sea-water is converted into sea ice. As a result, the surrounding water gets
saltier. Saltier water has higher density, it sinks and initiates thermohaline circulation patterns
across the oceans of the world. These Ocean currents act like a conveyor belt, transporting warm
water from the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus,
currents regulate global climate. Some of these currents affect rain and drought situations via the
El-Nino La-Nina effect.
● Melting of the cryosphere affects the volume of water in oceans. Any changes in the water cycle
affects global energy / heat budget, and thereby global climate.

Impact of Climate change on Cryosphere:

● High mountains:
○ High mountains are home to one- tenth of the world’s population.
○ Glaciers will continue to melt even with no further climate change.
○ By the end of the century, glaciers are projected to lose around 33% of their mass compared
to 2015 levels under a high-emissions scenario with the accompanying sea level rise
resulting from these glaciers to be 200mm.
○ Impacts:
i. River runoff: Following a period of increased runoff due to more ice melting, a
turning point known as “peak water” would occur after which runoff declines.
ii. Increase wet snow avalanches.

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iii. Diminish drinking water quality as glaciers hold toxic human derived chemicals.
E.g. DDT, heavy metals, black carbon.
iv. Hydropower at risk due to change in runoff.
v. Threat to habitability and alpine biodiversity.
● Earth’s poles:
○ Arctic Ice declining since 1979. Arctic surface air temperatures over the past two decades
have increased at more than double the global average. This rapid phenomenon is known
as “Arctic amplification” resulting into decreasing albedo.
• Greenland ice sheet is currently losing mass at around twice the rate of its Antarctic
counterpart. Melting in Greenland has increased up to five times greater than the level seen
in preindustrial times becoming the largest terrestrial contributor to global sea level rise
between 2005 and 2016.
○ Antarctic Ice: Warming over western Antarctica. Human induced warming delayed by
southern ocean circulation.
○ Southern Ocean: Around 75% of the global ocean uptake of excess heat during 1870-
1995.
○ Impacts:
i. Phytoplankton bloom which was rarely observed in arctic waters earlier.
ii. Negative effect on arctic species. E.g. Polar cod
iii. Antarctic fishes have narrow thermal tolerance are under threat.
iv. Reduced reliability of permafrost for natural refrigeration.
v. Northern routes are becoming accessible leading to more shipping and marine
accidents, hazards, Invasive species.
vi. Alteration in regional weather: In recent times, high temperatures have been
recorded in the Siberian region, causing a prolonged heatwave, which have been
attributed to absence of sea ice among other factors.
vii. Impact on global climate: In the Arctic, ocean circulation is driven by the sinking
of dense, salty water. Fresh meltwater coming primarily from the Greenland Ice
Sheet could interfere with ocean circulation at high latitudes, slowing it down. Any
changes in ocean circulations can have unpredictable global impacts even in lower
latitudes such as extreme weather events, droughts etc.
viii. Positive feedback cycle (the ice-albedo feedback): Sea ice has higher albedo than
ocean water. Once sea ice begins to melt, a self-reinforcing cycle often begins
whereby as more ice melts and exposes more dark water, the water absorbs more
sunlight and the sun-warmed water then melts more ice.
● Permafrost: It refers to the ground surface which remains frozen for at least 2 consecutive years.
There is twice as much carbon in permafrost than in Earth’s atmosphere.
○ Impacts:
i. A warming climate increases the emission of CO2 and methane as permafrost
thaws, “thus accelerating the pace of climate change”.
ii. By 2100, near surface permafrost area will decrease by 2-66% and 30-99% under
various projections releasing up to as much as 240 GtC (gigatons) of permafrost
carbon as CO2 and methane to the atmosphere with the potential to accelerate
climate change.

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iii.The stimulated plant growth in permafrost areas - from warmer conditions and
CO2 fertilisation could help sequestering new carbon into plant biomass and
increasing carbon inputs into the surface soil.
Q. What is the cryosphere? How do climate and the cryosphere influence each other?

HOW THE TILT OF EARTH’S AXIS ON ITS ORBITAL PLANE AROUND THE SUN CAUSE:
1. Seasons
2. Variation in length of day and night
3. Altitude of midday sun to change at different time of year

How the tilt of Earth’s axis causes seasons-

• As the earth spins on its axis, producing night and day, it also moves about the sun in an elliptical
(elongated circle) orbit that requires about 365 1/4 days to complete.
• The earth's spin axis is tilted with respect to its orbital plane. This is what causes the seasons.
• When the earth's axis points towards the sun, it is summer for that hemisphere.
• When the earth's axis points away, winter can be expected.
• Since the tilt of the axis is 23 1/2 degrees, the North Pole never points directly at the Sun, but
on the summer solstice it points as close as it can, and on the winter solstice as far as it can.
• Midway between these two times, in spring and autumn, the spin axis of the earth points 90
degrees away from the sun.
• This means that on this date, day and night have about the same length: 12 hours each, more or
less.
Why should this tilt of the Earth's axis matter to our weather?
• To understand this, take a piece of paper and a flashlight. Shine the light from the flashlight
straight onto the paper, so you see an illuminated circle.
• All the light from the flashlight is in that circle. Now slowly tilt the paper, so the circle elongates
into an ellipse.
• All the light is still in that ellipse, but the ellipse is spread out over more paper. The density of light
drops.
• In other words, the amount of light per square centimeter drops (the number of square
centimeters increases, while the total amount of light stays the same).
• The same is true on the earth. When the sun is overhead, the light is falling straight on you, and
so more light (and more heat) hit each square centimeter of the ground.
• When the sun is lower in the sky, the light gets more spread out over the surface of the earth,
and less heat (per square centimeter) can be absorbed.
• Since the earth's axis is tilted, the sun is higher when you are on the part of the earth where the
axis points more towards the sun, and lower on the part of the Earth where the axis points away
from the sun.
• For the Northern Hemisphere, the axis points most toward the sun in June (specifically around
June 21), and away from the sun around December 21. This corresponds to the (solWinter and
Summer Solstice. For the Southern Hemisphere, this is reversed.
• For both hemispheres, the earth is 90 degrees away from the sun around March 21 and then
again around September 21. This corresponds to the Fall and Spring Equinox. Everyplace in the
world has about 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night.

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Length of day and night-

• The change between day and night is caused by the rotation of the Earth on its axis.
• If the Earth did not rotate as it does, the day/night cycle would be very different or possibly even
nonexistent.
• The changing lengths of days and nights depends on where you are on Earth and the time of
year.
• Also, daylight hours are affected by the tilt of the Earth's axis and its path around the sun.

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Length of a Rotation-
• A solar day, 24 hours, is the time it takes for the Earth to rotate exactly once so that the sun appears
at the same place in the sky the next day.
• However, the Earth is also moving around the sun, and this movement makes measuring the day
somewhat complicated.
• The actual time of one Earth rotation is a little shorter – about 23 hours and 56 minutes.
• Astronomers discovered this by observing the time it took for a star to appear in the same place in
the sky the following day, and they called this a sidereal day.

Longer and Shorter Days-

• Although a solar day is 24 hours, not every day has 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night.
• Daytime is shorter in winter than in summer. This is because the Earth’s imaginary axis isn’t
straight up and down, it is tilted 23.5 degrees.
• As the Earth moves around the sun during a year, the northern half of the Earth is tilted towards the
sun in the summer, making daytime longer than night.
• In winter, this reverses; the earth tilts away from the sun and nighttime becomes longer.
• In the spring and fall, the tilt is neither toward or away from the sun but somewhere between, so
day and night are more the same at these times of the year.

Length of day at various latitudes-

Altitude of midday sun to change at different time of year-

• The altitude of the midday sun is not same at different time of a year, due to the tilt of earth’s
axis on its orbital plane around the sun.
• Due to the axial tilt, the position of sun changes with the revolution of earth around the sun.

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• During the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere, the sun is closer to the northern
hemisphere. Moreover, the sun is closer to 23.5 degree latitude than the equator. As a result,
the distance between sun and 23.5 degree latitude is less than that of equator.
• Similarly, during the winter solstice, in northern hemisphere, the sun is farther to the 23.5 degree
latitude than that of equator.
• So, the altitude of sun is higher during winter solstice and lower during summer solstice.
• During the equinox, the sun is at equator, so, the altitude is less on equator and more on other
latitudes.
• Same is the case for the southern hemisphere.

EXPLAIN EQUINOX AND SOLSTICE

Introduction-
• Solstice is a Latin word that means ‘stalled sun’. It is a natural phenomenon that occurs twice
every year, once in the summer and again during winter, in each hemisphere of the earth - Summer
and Winter Solstice.

About Summer Solstice:

o It is the longest day and shortest night of the year in the Northern Hemisphere.
o During this, countries in the Northern Hemisphere are nearest to the Sun and the Sun shines
overhead on the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° North).
▪ At latitudes of 23.5° are the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, north and south of
the Equator.
▪ At 66.5° are the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, to the north and south.
▪ Latitudes are a measure of a location’s distance from the Equator.
o During the solstice, the Earth’s axis — around which the planet spins, completing one
turn each day — is tilted in a way that the North Pole is tipped towards the sun and the
South Pole is away from it.
o Typically, this imaginary axis passes right through the middle of the Earth from top to
bottom and is always tilted at 23.5 degrees with respect to the sun.
o At the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets during the solstice.

Winter Solstice:

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• It is the shortest day and longest night of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and is also known
as the ‘first day of winter’ in the Northern Hemisphere as well as ‘Hiemal solstice or Hibernal
solstice’.
• During this, countries in the Northern Hemisphere are farthest from the Sun and the Sun shines
overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° south).
o At latitudes of 23.5° are the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, north and south of the
Equator.
o At 66.5° are the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, to the north and south.
o Latitudes are a measure of a location’s distance from the Equator.
• This situation will be reversed on 21st June, when the Northern Hemisphere will see the
Summer Solstice, the year’s longest day and the Southern Hemisphere will see the year’s shortest
day.
• In Vedic tradition, the northern movement of the Earth on the celestial sphere is implicitly
acknowledged in the Surya Siddhanta, which outlines the Uttarayana (the period between
Makar Sankranti and Karka Sankranti). Hence, Winter Solstice is the first day of
Uttarayana.

Equinox-
• The word equinox is derived from two Latin words – aequus (equal) and nox (night).
• Equinox is a unique phenomenon during which the earth’s day and night are of equal length
resulting in 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night in every part of the earth.
• This is not the case on other days. The earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees because of which
the length of the day and night differs according to the time of year and the region of the earth.
• However, when the earth aligns itself with its orbit around the sun, equinox takes place.
• This phenomenon occurs twice a year, once on March 20 and again on September 23.
• During this time, the sun sits directly above the equator and both Northern and Southern
hemispheres get equal day and night.

Reasons:
• The phenomenon occurs due to the Earth’s axial tilt, or the angle by which the planet is tilted
relative to the Sun.
• The imaginary axis of our planet is not straight up and down but is tilted by 23.5 degrees.
• This is why different regions of the Earth experience different measures of sunlight.

Implications:

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• The days become a little longer at the higher latitudes (those at a distance from the equator)
because it takes the sun longer to rise and set.
• The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with seasons, harvests and livelihood.
Therefore, many cultures celebrate various combinations of the solstices, the equinoxes, and the
midpoints between them, leading to various holidays arising around these events.

OCEANOGRAPHY

OCEAN BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY

Ocean floor is divided into 4 divisions: Continental shelf, Continental slope, Deep Sea/ abyssal Plains,
Oceanic Trenches.

● Continental Shelf:
○ These are extended continental margins.
○ Include shallow seas and Gulfs.
○ Average slope gradient is less than 1 degree
○ Sedimentary deposits; sources of fossil fuel
○ Varying width- Narrow/absent at Chile, West coast of Sumatra OR Largest Siberian Shelf.
○ There are various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin —
■ glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland),
■ coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia),
■ shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta),
■ shelf with dendritic valleys (At the Mouth of Hudson River)
■ shelf along young mountain ranges (Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).

● Continental Slope:
○ Connect continental shelf and continental basin
○ Steep slope 2-5 degree
○ Slope boundary marks the end of the continents.
○ Canyons and trenches present.

● Continental Rise
o The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.
o When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the continental
rise.
o With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal plain.

● Deep Sea Plain/ abyssal Plain:

○ Depth= 3-6 kms.
○ Fine grained sediments; ex. Lay, silt
○ E.g. the Azores, Ascension Island

● Ocean Deeps/ Trenches:

○ Deepest part of the oceans

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○ 3-5 kms deeper than sea plain

○ Active Volcanoes, Earthquakes
○ The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench
with, a depth of more than 11 kilometres.
○ Other ocean deeps –
▪ Mindanao deep (35000 feet)
▪ Tonga trench (31000 feet)
▪ Japanese trench (28000 feet) (all 3 in the Pacific Ocean)

MID OCEANIC RIDGE (MOR) OR SUBMARINE RIDGE:

● Two chains of Mountain Ranges separated by large depressions.
● These are the largest mountain systems on earth.
● Tectonic Origin
● MOR Formation:
○ Sea Floor Spreading
○ Mantle convection at divergent plate boundaries: less dense material rise to form MOR.
○ Ex. Mid Atlantic Ridge separates the North American plate from Eurasian plate.

OTHER OCEAN BOTTOM RELIEF:

● Sea mount:
○ Mountains with pointed summit
○ Volcanic in origin
○ Ex. Emperor seamount- Extension of Hawaiian Island
● Submarine Canyon:
○ Deep Valleys
○ Ex. Grand Canyon Colorado River; Hudson Canyon
● Guyots:
○ Flat topped seamount
○ Gradual subsidence
● Atolls:
○ Ring-shaped coral reef, including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely.
○ Located in warm tropical or subtropical oceans.
○ Coral Islands.

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OCEAN CURRENTS
OCEAN CURRENTS:
● An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of sea water generated by a number of forces
acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and
temperature and salinity differences.
● Ocean currents are primarily horizontal water movements.
● An ocean current flows for great distances and together they create the global conveyor belt, which
plays a dominant role in determining the climate of many of Earth’s regions.
● More specifically, ocean currents influence the temperature of the regions through which they
travel. For example, warm currents traveling along more temperate coasts increase the temperature
of the area by warming the sea breezes that blow over them. Perhaps the most striking example is
the Gulf Stream, which makes northwest Europe much more temperate than any other region at the
same latitude.
• Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
1. primary forces that initiate the movement of water;
2. secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
• The primary forces that influence the currents are:
1. heating by solar energy
2. wind
3. gravity
4. Coriolis force
• The secondary forces that influence the currents are:
1. Temperature difference
2. Salinity difference

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Desert Formation and Ocean Currents

• Major hot deserts are located between 20-30 degree latitudes and on the western side of the
continents-
o The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence
they are also called Trade Wind Deserts.
o The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between
latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S (Question asked in Previous Mains Exam).
o They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles). The next biggest desert
is the Great Australian Desert. The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian
Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
o The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts
where the air is descending, a condition least favorable for precipitation of any kind to take
place.
o The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow
outside the desert limits.
o Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative
humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
o There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely
low, decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per cent in the desert
interiors. Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are
thus regions of permanent drought. Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
o On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling
the on-coming air. This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls.
o The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so
pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.

IMPACT OF OCEAN CURRENTS ON GLOBAL CLIMATE:

● The ocean influences weather and climate by storing solar radiation, distributing heat and moisture
around the globe, and driving weather systems.
● One way that the world’s ocean affects weather and climate is by playing an important role in
keeping our planet warm. The majority of radiation from the sun is absorbed by the ocean,
particularly in tropical waters around the equator, where the ocean acts like a massive, heat-
retaining solar panel.
● It also helps to distribute heat around the globe. Ocean water is constantly evaporating, increasing
the temperature and humidity of the surrounding air to form rain and storms that are then carried
by trade winds. In fact, almost all rain that falls on land starts off in the ocean. The tropics are
particularly rainy because heat absorption, and thus ocean evaporation, is highest in this area.

● Outside of Earth’s equatorial areas, weather patterns are driven largely by ocean currents. Currents
are movements of ocean water in a continuous flow, created largely by surface winds but also partly
by temperature and salinity gradients, Earth’s rotation, and tides. Major current systems typically

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flow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter clockwise in the southern hemisphere, in
circular patterns that often trace the coastlines.
● Ocean currents act much like a conveyor belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the
equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus, ocean currents
regulate global climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching
Earth’s surface. Without currents in the ocean, regional temperatures would be more extreme—
super hot at the equator and frigid toward the poles—and much less of Earth’s land would be
habitable.
● Both warm and cold ocean currents have a very strong influence over climate. Warm currents in
many areas make local climate warmer than the latitude would indicate. The cold currents may
cause only cold fog to appear on the shore, but the amount of condensed moisture is not sufficient
for any agricultural activity, nor it is sufficient to provide moisture to sustain natural vegetation.
This is why we observe deserts or semi-deserts along most of cold currents, especially on the
westerly sides of the continents.
Economic importance of ocean currents:
● Knowledge of surface ocean currents is essential in reducing costs of shipping, since traveling
with them reduces fuel costs.
● In the wind powered sailing-ship era, knowledge of wind patterns and ocean currents was even
more essential. A good example of this is the Agulhas Current (down along eastern Africa),
which long prevented sailors from reaching India.
● In recent times, around-the-world sailing competitors make good use of surface currents to build
and maintain speed.
● Ocean currents can also be used for marine power generation, with areas of Japan, Florida and
Hawaii being considered for test projects.
Q. What are ocean currents? Discuss its impact on global climate with examples.

IMPORTANCE OF INDIAN OCEAN REGION

About Indian Ocean:

● The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean of the world and covers nearly 20% of water surface.
● The strategic importance of Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is ever increasing to the world order in
general and Indian sub-continent in particular.
● A secure IOR is key to ensuring security of India’s national interests. The importance attached
to sea lines of communication (SLOCs) security was first seen in India’s stated aspiration to become
a net security provider in the region.

Strategic Importance of IOR:

● Indian Ocean Region Indian Ocean countries have a long history of trade, culture and military
interaction with the rest of the world.
● The region has 51 coastal and landlocked states, namely 26 Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) states, five
Red Sea states, four Persian Gulf states, Saudi Arabia, France, Britain and 13 landlocked states.
● Four critically important access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of Malacca (Indonesia -Malaysia).

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● Major seaports are: Chennai, Kolkata,Mumbai (India); Colombo (Sri Lanka); Durban, Richards
Bay (South Africa); Jakarta (Indonesia); Melbourne (Australia).
● The region contains 1/3 of the world’s population, 25% of its landmass, 40% of the world’s oil
and gas reserves.

Importance of Indian Ocean Region (IOR) for Indian security:

● Energy security: Nearly 80% of India’s crude oil requirement is imported, which are mostly
routed through the sea. Thus, IOR is very important to keep India’s oil route safe.
● Trade security: More than 80 % of the world’s seaborne trade in oil transits through Indian Ocean.
Today, almost 95% of India’s trade by volume and 68 per cent of trade by value are routed via
the Indian Ocean. Any impediment to flow of commercial traffic would have disastrous
ramifications on her economic objectives.
● Resources: The region is rich in energy resources and minerals such as gold, tin, uranium,
cobalt, nickel, aluminium and cadmium, and also contains abundant fishing resources. Roughly 55
percent of known oil reserves and 40 percent of gas reserves are in the Indian Ocean region.
● Security threats: The Indian Ocean is an area of conflict. Some notable conflict areas are Israel
and Palestine, Iraq, Sudan, Afghanistan, Somalia, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. One of the worst
terrorist attacks in Mumbai was perpetrated by terrorists arriving by sea.
● Piracy: The presence of non-traditional threats like piracy, smuggling, illegal fishing and human
trafficking also present major challenges and hence, a secure Indian Ocean is key to securing India’s
national interests. Multiple cases are reported in the past of drug smuggling near Gujarat coast,
Mumbai coast etc.
● Military Presence: Almost all the world’s major powers have deployed substantial military forces
in the Indian Ocean region. The US 5th Fleet is headquartered in Bahrain, and uses the island
of Diego Garcia as a major air naval base and logistics hub for its Indian Ocean operations. France
maintains a significant presence in the north and southwest Indian Ocean quadrants, with naval
bases in Djibouti, Reunion, and Abu Dhabi.
● China’s aggressive soft power diplomacy has widely been seen as arguably the most important
element in shaping the Indian Ocean strategic environment, transforming the entire region’s
dynamics.
● The increased significance of Indian Ocean Region in the world geopolitics is one of the reasons
behind the "Pivot to Asia" policy of the Obama Administration. The pivot is meant to be a strategic
"rebalancing" of U.S. interests from Europe and the Middle East toward Asia and Pacific.

Regional and sub-regional co-operations in IOR:

● The Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC): The aim of IOR-
ARC is to open the region based on four major components: trade liberalisation, trade and
investment facilitation, economic and technical cooperation, and trade and investment
dialogue. It does not address defence and security cooperation directly as the aim of ‘open and free
trade’ implies maritime security.
● ‘Indian Ocean Naval Symposium’ (IONS): IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase
maritime co-operation, establish a high degree of interoperability, share information among

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navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region to overcome common trans-national
maritime threats and natural disasters, and maintain good order at sea.
● The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): To work towards economic
and social development. Maritime cooperation is not part of the agreement.
● The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN): ASEAN rests on three pillars, namely
an ASEAN security community, an economic community and a socio-cultural community. The
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is the principal forum for security discourse between Asian
states and provides the opportunity to discuss regional security issues and develop cooperative
measures to enhance peace and security in the region.
● The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): To strengthen co-operation in agriculture, trade, industry,
investment and security among its six member states.
● Southern African Development Community (SADC): The SADC Standing Maritime Committee
has the aim of promoting regional peace and prosperity through maritime military co-
operation.
● Indian Ocean Commission (COI): The COI (Commission de l'océan indien in French) is an
intergovernmental organisation created in 1984 with the Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, France
and the Seychelles as members.
● The Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA): The FPDA is a defence relationship based on
a series of bilateral agreements between the UK, New Zealand, Australia, Malaysia and Singapore
dating from 1971. The FPDA makes provision for defence cooperation.

India’s policy of ‘Security and Growth for All in the Region’ (SAGAR) for IOR islands:
● Safeguard land and maritime territories and interests: Enhancing capacities to safeguard land
and maritime territories and interests is a major focus under SAGAR initiative. India has held
multilateral naval exercises called Milan in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands with 16 other
countries and in the Rim of the Pacific Exercise (RIMPAC).
● Deepening economic and security cooperation: The emergence of the Blue Economy promises
a new pillar of prosperity in the region with immense economic and employment potential. It is
important to engage with IOR in Blue Economy initiatives, particularly in the areas of marine bio-
technology, exploration and sustainable exploitation of ocean mineral resources, sustainable fishing
practices, and harnessing of ocean energy.
● Disaster management: Promoting collective action to deal with natural disasters and maritime
threats like piracy, terrorism and emergent non-state actors is a goal under SAGAR. India is
proactive in providing assistance to littoral islands during disaster. The Indian Navy and Air Force
provided 1,000 tonnes of fresh water to Male to help Maldives which is suffering from an acute
drinking water crisis. The Annual Joint HADR exercises, conducted by Indian Navy, help India
to connect with other nations.
● Working towards sustainable regional development through enhanced collaboration: India is
targeting for re-energising economic activity in our islands and our coastal areas. Coastal Economic
Zones being developed under Sagarmala. There is a renewed focus on strengthening marine
research, developing eco-friendly marine industrial technologies, promoting sustainable fisheries
and ensuring the protection of the maritime environment.

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● Engaging with countries: With the aim of building greater trust and promoting respect for
maritime rules, norms and peaceful resolution of disputes. India is working on a range of projects
to improve maritime logistics in Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius and Seychelles. Other initiatives
include the Kaladan transport project leading to Sittwe port in Myanmar, the Trilateral
Highway to Thailand, and the Chabahar port project in Iran.

NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCE & MANAGEMENT

LANDSLIDES

Landslides: Landslides are simply defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope
under the influence of gravity that dislodges earth material. They often take place in conjunction with
earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15 percent
of the land area of our country.
● In the hilly terrain of India including the Himalayas, landslides have been a major and widely spread
natural disaster the often strike life and property and occupy a position of major concern
● Landslides Zonation Mopping is a modern method to identify landslides prone areas and has been
in use in India since 1980s The major parameters that call for evaluation are as follows:
○ Slope-Magnitude, length and Direction
○ Soil thickness
○ Relative relief
○ Land use
○ Drainage- pattern and density
○ Landslide affected population

Causes of Landslides: Landslides can be caused by

● Morphological Causes
○ Ground uplift (volcanic, tectonic etc)
○ Erosion (wind, water)
○ Deposition loading in the slope crest.
○ Vegetation removal (by forest fire, drought etc)
● Physical Causes
○ Prolonged precipitation, heavy spells of rainfall coupled with impeded drainage.
○ Rapid draw- down
○ Earthquake
○ Volcanic eruption
○ Thawing/ Shrink and swell
○ Artesian pressure
● Man- made Causes
○ Excavation (particularly at the toe of slope
○ Loading of slope crest
○ Draw -down (of reservoir)
○ Deforestation
○ Irrigation
○ Mining/ Artificial vibrations

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○ Water impoundment and leakage from utilities

Regions vulnerable to landslides:

● The two regions most vulnerable to landslides are the Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
● The Himalayas mountain belt comprises tectonically unstable younger geological formations
subjected to severe seismic activity.
● The Western Ghats and nilgiris are geologically stable but have uplifted plateau margins influenced
by neo- tectonic activity.
● Compared to Western Ghats region, the slides in the Himalayas region are huge and massive and
in most cases the overburden along with the underlying lithology is displaced during sliding
particularly due to the seismic factor.

Recent Landslide events:

• A large landslide occurred in Noney district of the Indian state of Manipur near
the Tupul railway construction site on the night of 30 June 2022.
• It killed 58 people and three people were missing.
• Eighteen people were injured. Twenty-nine Indian Army personnel and 29 civilians were among
the deceased.

Q. What do you understand about landslides? Which regions of India are more vulnerable to
landslides? Discuss the factors responsible for landslides? Why are landslides common in the
Himalayas?

AVALANCHE
Avalanches are the falling masses of snow and ice that pose a threat to anyone on snowy mountain sides.
● There are various kinds of avalanches:
○ Rock avalanches which consist of large segments of shattered rock.
○ Ice avalanches which typically occur in the vicinity of a glacier.
○ Debris avalanches which contain a variety of unconsolidated materials, such as loose
stones and soil.
● The size of an avalanche can range from a small shifting of loose snow to the displacement of
enormous slabs of snow.
● Avalanches also have been triggered intentionally in warfare to kill enemy troops. In World War I,
during fighting in the Alps on the Austrian-Italian front in December 1916, more than 10,000 troops
were killed in a single day by avalanches triggered by artillery fired onto slopes of unstable snow.

Features of avalanches:
● Avalanches contain three main features:
○ the starting zone
○ the avalanche track
○ the runout zone
● Avalanches launch from the starting zone. That’s often the most unstable part of the stope, and
generally higher on the mountain.

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● Once the avalanche starts to slide, it continues down the avalanche track, the natural path it follows
downhill. After avalanches, large clearings or missing chutes of trees provide clues to an
avalanche’s trajectory.
● The avalanche finally comes to a stop at the bottom of a slope, in the runout zone, where the snow
and debris pile up.

Factors responsible for the Avalanche:

● Heavy Snowfall: When a high rate of snowfall occurred leading to the snow accumulation on the
mountain slopes triggered the weaker layer of snow in the snowpack of unstable areas of the
mountain causes Avalanche.
● Wind Direction The direction of the wind determines the patterns of the snowfall as well snow
accumulation on the mountain slopes. If the strong wind blows, then the upward direction of the
winds might trigger the steep slope which causes an avalanche.
● Layering of Snow: The gradual snowfall creates layer by layer accumulation of snow that
hypersensitive the snowpack. If something catastrophic happens then these layers of snow fall
down that leads to an avalanche.
● Steeper Slopes: An avalanche is also caused by the influence of gravity. If gradual snowfalls
accumulated on the slopes of the mountain then it is prone to rush down the slopes at greater speeds.
● Higher Temperatures: Temperature is one of the important factors for the avalanche because of
high temperature the surface layer of the snowpack gets melted. The accumulated snow will
become highly susceptible to sliding down.
● Earthquakes:It is one of the important factors that triggered the layer of accumulated snowpack
because earthquakes generate seismic waves that cause the ground to vibrate.
● Movements or Vibrations Produced By Machines and Explosives: As we know that the
population is increasing day by day, which requires development activities to meet the population
requirement. During the developmental activities, the terrain vehicles in regions with unstable
layers of snow can dislodge the layers from the surface and cause them to slide down under gravity.
● Deforestation: Deforestation, clearance, or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees
where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Trees and plants always protect land
against natural disasters like floods, tidal waves, strong winds, and also avalanches. Hence, a
developmental activity for economic gains makes the mountain region an avalanche-prone area
more susceptible to deadlier avalanches.
● Winter Sports Activities: Above all the factors, this factor will act like the last nail to trigger steep
slopes or loose snowpack by skiers or other winter sports activities.
● NDMA Guidelines for management of Landslides and Snow Avalanches:

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Q. What are avalanches? Discuss the causes and its geographical distribution in India.

EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI

An earthquake in simple words is the shaking of the earth. It is a natural event. It is caused due to release
of energy, which generates waves that travel in all directions.
● The vibrations called seismic waves are generated from earthquakes that travel through the Earth
and are recorded on instruments called seismographs.
● The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the
location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.
Types of Earthquake and Causes:
1. Fault Zones:
○ The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
○ Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata press
them, the friction locks them together.
○ However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time overcomes the friction. As a
result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one another abruptly.
○ This causes earthquakes in the form of release of energy, and the energy waves travel in
all directions.

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Tectonic Earthquakes:
● The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes.
● Although the Earth looks like a pretty solid place from the surface, it’s actually extremely active
just below the surface.
● The Earth is made of four basic layers (generally three): a solid crust, a hot, nearly solid mantle, a
liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
● Tectonic plates (Lithospheric plates) are constantly shifting as they drift around on the viscous, or
slowly flowing, mantle layer below.
● This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the stresses get too large, it leads to
cracks called faults.
● When tectonic plates move, it also causes movements at the faults. Thus, the slipping of land along
the faultline along convergent, divergent and transform boundaries cause earthquakes.
● The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is called
the hypocentre. The energy waves travelling in different directions reach the surface.
● The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is the first one to experience
the waves. It is a point directly above the focus.
Volcanic Earthquake
● A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic earthquake. However,
these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
● Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection or withdrawal of magma
(molten rock) are called volcano earthquakes.
● These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce large ground cracks. These
earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in spaces where magma is no longer present.
● Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't indicate that the volcano will be erupting but can occur at any
time.
Human Induced Earthquakes
● In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines collapse causing
minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.
● Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices. Such tremors
are called explosion earthquakes.

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● The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir induced
earthquakes.
5. Earthquakes based on the depth of focus
● The earthquakes are divided into three zones: shallow, intermediate, and deep based on their depth
which range between 0 – 700 km.

○ Shallow earthquakes have a focus 0 – 70 km deep.

○ Intermediate earthquakes have a focus 70 – 300 km deep.
○ Deep earthquakes have a focus 300 – 700 km deep.

Distribution of Earthquakes:
● The world's greatest earthquake belt, the circum-Pacific seismic belt, is found along the rim of the
Pacific Ocean, where about 81 percent of our planet's largest earthquakes occur.
○ It is called "Ring of Fire".
○ The belt exists along boundaries of tectonic plates, where plates of mostly oceanic crust
are sinking (or subducting) beneath another plate.
● The Alpine earthquake belt (mid Continental belt) extends from Java to Sumatra through the
Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and out into the Atlantic.
○ This belt accounts for about 17 percent of the world's largest earthquakes, including some
of the most destructive.
● The third prominent belt follows the submerged mid-Atlantic Ridge. The ridge marks where two
tectonic plates are spreading apart (a divergent plate boundary).
○ Most of the mid-Atlantic Ridge is deep underwater and far from human development.

Measurement of Earthquakes:
● The energy from an earthquake travels through Earth in vibrations called seismic waves.

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● A seismometer detects seismic waves below the instrument and records them as a series of zig-
zags.
● The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock. The
magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude relates to the energy released during
the quake. The magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers, 0-10.
● The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale takes into
account the visible damage caused by the event. The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.

Seismic Waves (Earthquake Waves):

● Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by earthquakes or an explosion. They are the energy
that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
● Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.
● Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions
travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
● There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.
○ P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called ‘primary
waves’. The P-waves are similar to sound waves. They travel through gaseous, liquid and
solid materials.
○ S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary waves. An
important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through solid materials.
● The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves called surface
waves. These waves move along the surface.
● The surface waves are the last to report on seismographs. These waves are more destructive. They
cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse.
● Thus, the characteristics of the seismic waves are quite important. It has helped scientists to
understand the structure of the interior of the earth.

Effects of Earthquake:
● Earthquakes are a natural hazard. If a tremor of high magnitude takes place, it can cause heavy
damage to the life and property of people. The following are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:

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○ Ground Shaking
○ Differential ground settlement
○ Land and mudslides
○ Fires
○ Ground lurching
○ Avalanches
○ Ground displacement
○ Floods from dam and levee failures
○ Structural collapse
○ Tsunami
Earthquakes in India:
● India is one of the highly earthquake affected countries because of the presence of technically active
young fold mountains - Himalaya.
● India has been divided into four seismic zones (II, III, IV, and V) based on scientific inputs relating
to seismicity, earthquakes that occurred in the past and tectonic setup of the region.

Tsunami and Its Causes:

● Tsunami meaning "harbour wave" in literal translation comes from the Japanese characters for
harbour ( tsu ) and wave ( name ).
● A tsunami, also called seismic sea waves, is one of the most powerful and destructive natural
forces.
● It is a series of extremely long waves caused by a large and sudden displacement of the ocean
due to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, Landslides, earth objects (e.g., asteroids, comets),

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certain meteorological conditions and nuclear tests etc. When they reach the coast, they can
cause dangerous coastal flooding and powerful currents that can last for several hours or days.

Global distribution of Tsunami:

● Globally, 70% of the confirmed tsunami sources have been in the Pacific Ocean, 9% in the
Caribbean Sea, 15% in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and 6% Indian Ocean. Most
of these Tsunamis were generated by earthquakes.
● Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific ring of fire, particularly along the coast of
Alaska, Philippines, Japan and other islands of South Asia and Southeast Asia including Malaysia,
Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and India etc.

How is a tsunami different from a wind-generated wave?

● Most ocean waves are generated by wind. Tsunamis are not the same as wind waves.
● First of all, they have different sources. Tsunami is caused due to Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic
activity, certain types of weather, near earth objects while wind wave is caused by Winds that blow
across the surface of the ocean.
● Also while wind waves only affect the ocean surface, tsunamis move through the entire water
column, from the ocean surface to the ocean floor.
● Waves can also be described based on their wavelength (horizontal distance between wave crests),
period (time between wave crests), and speed. These characteristics highlight the differences
between wind waves and tsunamis.

Effects of Tsunami:
● The Tsunami of 2004 in the Indian Ocean is one of the devastating natural disasters in the modern
time. It took a toll of nearly 230000 people living on the coasts of Indian Ocean.
● Unfortunately escaping a tsunami is nearly impossible. Hundreds and thousands of people are killed
by tsunamis, most commonly by drowning, electrocution, explosions from gas and collapsing of
buildings etc.
● Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease such as Malaria to spread in the
tsunami-hit areas.

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● Tsunamis not only destroy human life, but also have a devastating effect on animal and plant life
and other natural resources. A tsunami changes the landscape. It uproots trees and plants and
destroys animal habitats.
● There may be nuclear pollution due to radiation resulting from damaged nuclear plants, as it
happened in Fukushima, Japan in March 2011.
● Tsunamis are extremely dangerous to coastal life and coastal property. They produce unusually
strong currents, rapidly flooding the land and causing great damage to coastal property and life.
● Victims of tsunami events often suffer psychological problems such as PTSD (Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder) which can last for days, years or an entire lifetime.
● Poor nations are more prone to large-scale destruction as the infrastructure are not well developed,
and warning systems are not robust or unavailable. Also, their ability to cope with such a massive
disaster remains inadequate.

Tsunami Early Warning System:

● Tsunamis are detected in advance using a tsunami warning system (TWS) and early warnings are
issued to safeguard the life of people.
● It is made up of two equally important components: a network of sensors to detect tsunamis and a
communications infrastructure to issue timely alarms to permit evacuation of the coastal areas.
● India had volunteered to join the International Tsunami Warning System after the December 2004
tsunami disaster. The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) embedded with specific
systems called Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART), established in 2007
at Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Sciences, (INCOIS - ESSO) Hyderabad,
autonomous body under Ministry of Earth Sciences, is up and running to provide tsunami advisories
for the events occurring in the global oceans. It has been recognized as one of the best systems in
the world.

Way forward and recommendations:

Following suggestions can be observed for enhancing India's preparedness for future Tsunami events:-
● Adopting integrated multi-hazard approach with emphasis on cyclone and tsunami risk
mitigation in coastal areas
● Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations.
● Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coastline
● Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for tsunami resistance of all such
buildings as well as appropriate planning, designing, construction of new facilities
● Capacity building programmes and public awareness campaigns should be held at Tsunami prone
areas
● Streamlining the relief distribution system and evacuation plans in Tsunami prone areas
● Components of planning for reconstruction and rehabilitation should be added to disaster
management plans at all levels.
● Emphasis on mental health and to socio-psychological issues during post-disaster period should
be accorded in every plan

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FLOODS

Floods:
● A high water level that overflows the natural banks along any portion of a stream is called a
flood. Thus, Floods are commonly associated with a stream or river.
● A stream floods when its discharge is greater than the capacity of its river channel. Excess water
flows over the river banks and submerges the adjacent land which is usually dry. When it happens,
the channel and the flood plain together allow passage of water.

Causes of Floods:
Natural Causes
● Heavy rainfall and cloud bursts : Heavy concentrated rainfall reduces the capacity of rivers to
accept any more surface run–offs due to rainfall and as result water spills over to adjoining areas.
Cloud bursts are thunderstorms which yield very heavy rains within a short span of time.
● Heavy melting of ice and snow,
● Changes in river systems and large catchment areas,
● Sediment deposition/Silting of river beds,
● The collapse of dams,
● Transgression of sea at the occasion of tropical cyclone, and
● Tsunami in coastal areas and landslides in course of rivers
Man-made/Anthropogenic causes: Unlike other natural disasters, human beings play an important role in
the genesis as well as spread of floods.
● Deforestation – It leads to soil erosion and Landslides. It is responsible for the loss of vegetation
and soils which holds down the soil that acts as a sponge and absorbs most of the water when it
rains. It also leads to silting of river beds.
● Unscientific use of land utilization and bad farming practices – Some farmers have caused soil
and water to flush into the rivers by leaving fields bare. Even choosing the wrong direction to
plough in can cause floods.
● Increased Urbanisation – It has reduced the ability of the land to absorb rainfall through the
introduction of hard impermeable surfaces. This results in an increase in the volume and rate of
surface run-off as less water infiltrates into the ground.

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Consequences of Floods: Floods cause more damage than any other single disaster nowadays.

● Floods are taking thousands of lives and loss of property every year.
● The crops get adversely affected by the temporary loss of the agricultural season and fertile soil
cover.
● It leads to changes in habitats, destruction of habitats, and loss of animals due to drowning.
● Disruption of the lines of rail, road communication, and essential services creating great problems
for the movements of people and goods.
● Spread of water-borne and infectious diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, etc. immediately after
floods.
● Positive consequences : Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every year floods deposit
fertile silt over agricultural fields which are good for the crops. It also recharges the groundwater
table.

Flood distribution in India:

● Floods have been a recurrent phenomenon in India and 12% geographical area is prone to floods.
● State-wise study shows that about 27% of the flood damage in the country is in Bihar, 33% in Uttar
Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and 15% by Punjab and Haryana.
● The major flood areas in India are in the Ganges – Brahmaputra – Meghna Basin which accounts
for nearly 60% of the total river flow of the country.
● Distribution of flood plains –
○ Brahmaputra River Region
○ Ganga River Region
○ North – West River Region
○ Central and Deccan India
● The middle and lower courses of North Indian rivers such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Kosi,
Damodar, Mahanadi, etc. Are prone to floods due to very low gradients. The flat plains do not
have enough gradients for the outlet of drainage.
● Peninsular rivers are mature and have hard rock beds, so they have shallow basins. This makes
them prone to flooding.
● Parts of the Eastern coasts of India are particularly prone to cyclones during October – November.
These cyclones are accompanied by strong winds, storm surges, tidal waves, and torrential rains.

Flood Control Management: The central and State Government have taken the following steps to reduce
the menace of floods:-

● Flood Forecasting- It involves giving prior information regarding the occurrence of floods. It is of
immense help in taking timely action to reduce the loss of human lives, livestock, and movable
properties. The central water commission started flood forecasting in November 1985, when the
first flood forecasting station was established near the old railway bridge of Delhi.
● Reduction in Run-Off- It is one of the very effective methods of flood control. Runoff can be
reduced by inducing and increasing infiltration of the surface water into the ground in the catchment
areas. This can be done by large scale afforestation, especially in the upper catchment areas.
● Construction of Dams- Dams and multi-purpose projects are being constructed across the rivers
to store the surplus water in the reservoirs. A number of such reservoirs were constructed during

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the 1st Five-year plan. In the subsequent plans also, many dams have been constructed to reduce
the run-off and to store and release water under controlled conditions.
● Channel Improvements and Construction of Embankments- The channels of the rivers more
prone to flood are improved by deepening and widening. The water of those rivers is also diverted
into canals. Such embankments have been constructed along the Brahmaputra, Krishna, Godavari,
Gandak, Kosi, and Narmada, Tapi, son, satluj, and their tributaries.
● Flood Plain Zoning- It is also an important step to control floods which are based on information
regarding flood plains, particularly the identification of floodways in relation to land use.

NDMA Guidelines for flood management:

STRUCTURAL NON – STRUCTURAL

● Reservoirs, dams, other water storages ● Flood plain zoning

● Embankments/flood walls ● Flood proofing
● Drainage improvement ● Flood management plans
● Desilting/ dredging of rivers ● Integrated watershed management
● Diversion of flood water
● Afforestation/ catchment area treatment

Government Programmes for Flood management:

● National Flood Control Management Programme, 1954

○ At the national level, the first policy statement on flood control in India was established in
1954. This policy statement envisaged 3 types of flood control measures, namely,
Intermediate, short and long term.
● National Hydrology Project, 2016
○ It is a central sector scheme with 50% of the outlay amount received from the World Bank
loan. This project gathers hydro-meteorological data which will be stored and analyzed on
a real-time basis and can be seamlessly accessed by any user at the State/District/Village
level.

Glacial Lake Outburst Flood:

What is GLOF?
○ A GLOF is a type of outburst flood that occurs when the dam containing a glacial lake
fails. An event similar to a GLOF, where a body of water contained by a glacier melts or
overflows the glacier, is called a jökulhlaup.
○ The dam can consist of glacier ice or a terminal moraine.
○ Failure can happen due to various factors such as:
1. Erosion, a buildup of water pressure
2. Avalanche of rock or heavy snow
3. Earthquake or volcanic eruptions under the ice or

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4. Displacement of water in a glacial lake when a large portion of an adjacent glacier collapses
into it
Possible causes for Chamoli GLOF:
○ Avalanche: An avalanche is falling masses of snow and ice which gathers pace as it comes
down the slope. But an avalanche is unlikely to result in the rise of water of that magnitude,
which Chamoli witnessed.
○ Cloudburst: What happened in Uttarakhand in 2013 was a multi-day cloudburst. It is a
sudden, very heavy rainfall accompanied by a thunderstorm. But it generally happens in
the monsoon. In fact, the season in which such a disaster was witnessed has surprised
experts as there is no immediate trigger that can be pointed to as the reason why water level
rose to that level washing away two hydro projects.
Why always Uttarakhand?
○ Human activities profoundly affect the earth’s climate and mountains are a sensitive
indicator of that effect.
○ The mountain ecosystem is easily disrupted by variations in climate owing to their altitude,
slope and orientation to the sun.
○ As the earth heats up, mountain glaciers melt at unprecedented rates.
Guidelines on Risk Reduction:
○ Identifying Potentially Dangerous Lakes:
■ Potentially dangerous lakes can be identified based on field observations, records
of past events, geomorphologic and geotechnical characteristics of the lake/dam
and surroundings, and other physical conditions.
○ Use of Technology:
■ Promoting use of Synthetic-Aperture Radar imagery (a form of radar that is
used to create two-dimensional images) to automatically detect changes in water
bodies, including new lake formations, during the monsoon months.
■ Methods and protocols could also be developed to allow remote monitoring of
lake bodies from space.
○ Channeling Potential Floods:
■ To manage lakes structurally, the NDMA recommends reducing the volume of
water with methods such as controlled breaching, pumping or siphoning out
water, and making a tunnel through the moraine barrier or under an ice dam.
○ Uniform Codes for Construction Activity:
■ Developing a broad framework for infrastructure development, construction
and excavation in vulnerable zones.
■ There is a need to accept procedures for land use planning in the GLOF prone
areas.
○ Enhancing Early Warning Systems (EWS):
■ The number of implemented and operational GLOF EWS is very small, even at
the global scale.
■ In the Himalayan region, there are at three reported instances (two in Nepal and
one in China) of implementation of sensor- and monitoring-based technical
systems for GLOF early warning.
○ Training Local Manpower:

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■Apart from pressing specialised forces such as National Disaster Response Force
(NDRF), ITBP and the Army, NDMA has emphasised the need for trained local
manpower.
■ It has been observed that over 80% of search and rescue is carried out by the
local community before the intervention of the state machinery and specialised
search and rescue teams.
■ The local teams could also assist in planning and setting up emergency shelters,
distributing relief packages, identifying missing people, and addressing the needs
for food, healthcare, water supply etc.
○ Comprehensive Alarm Systems:
■ Besides classical alarming infrastructure consisting of acoustic alarms by sirens,
modern communication technology using cell and smartphones can complement
or even replace traditional alarming infrastructure.

● Conclusion:
○ The entire State of Uttarakhand is categorised as falling in Zone-IV and V of the earthquake
risk map of India. The potential of the cumulative effect of multiple hydro projects has
turned out to be more environmentally damaging than sustainable.

Urban Floods/ Flash Floods:

● What is urban flooding?
○ Urban flooding is the inundation of property in a built environment, particularly in densely
populated urban areas, caused by intense rainfall (on impermeable surfaces) which exceeds
the capacity of drainage systems.

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● What are Flash floods?

○ Flash floods are sudden surges in water levels during or following an intense spell of rain,
occurring in a short time duration over a localised area.
○ The flood situation worsens in the presence of choked drainage lines or encroachments
obstructing the natural flow of water.
○ This occurs in hilly or sloping lands where heavy rainfall and thunderstorms or cloudbursts
are common.
● Causes of Flash floods:
○ Rapid inundation of geomorphically low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and
basins. It may be caused by heavy rainfall associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane,
tropical storm, or meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields.
○ Dam or Levee Breaks, and/or Mudslides (Debris Flow).
○ In areas on or near volcanoes, flash floods have also occurred after eruptions, when
glaciers have been melted by the intense heat.
○ The intensity of the rainfall, the location and distribution of the rainfall, the land use and
topography, vegetation types and growth/density, soil type, and soil water- content all
determine the Flash Floods.
● Impacts of Urban/Flash Floods:
○ Deterioration of water quality.
○ Loss of life and damage to property.
○ Damage to vital urban infrastructure causing disruptions in transport and power.
○ Risk of epidemics due to exposure to waterborne and vector borne infections.
○ Economic losses due to disruption in industrial activity, supply chains etc.
○ Displacement of population in low lying areas.
○ Accidents and fires due to short circuit
● Recent examples flash floods in India:
○ In the latest incident involving flash floods, Hyderabad city was battered by heavy rain,
resulting in massive flooding. The city recorded 191 mm of rain within the span of a few
hours, the heaviest in 97 years recorded in October 2020, several water bodies in
Telangana’s capital breached danger levels, worsening the overall flood situation. Nearly
70 people lost their lives and many hundreds were displaced from their homes.
○ Solapur, Sangli and Pune districts in Maharashtra also faced similar intense rain and
flooding that claimed over 30 lives and damaged standing kharif crops.
● Government Initiatives on Flash Floods:
○ The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has recently launched the South Asian
Flash Flood Guidance System (FFGS). The model will provide forecasts by computing
likelihood of rainfall and soil moisture levels to warn of possible floods at least six hours
in advance.
● NDMA guidelines on Urban Flooding 2016: It designates Ministry of Urban Development as
the Nodal Ministry for Urban Flooding. Among key provisions of the Guideline are
○ National Hydro-meteorological Network for providing early warning in all urban
centres.
○ Local networks for real-time rainfall data collection with a ‘Local Network Cell’.

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○ Subdivide Cities/ towns on the basis of watersheds

○ Risk assessment with a multi-hazard concept leading to fool proof land use planning.
○ National Urban Information System (NUIS) to cover infrastructure facilities at
community level integrated with socio-economic data.
○ Ward-based inventory of the existing storm water drainage system to be prepared.
○ Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed by March 31 each year.
● Way Forward:
○ Evolve an integrated response to floods: Often these approaches involve both hard
engineering solutions and ecologically sustainable soft solutions.
○ Developing Sponge Cities: The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so
as to hold and use the water which falls upon it. Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which
is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban aquifers.
○ Convergent Approach: These can all be delivered effectively through an urban mission
along the lines of the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT),
National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Smart
Cities Mission.
○ Water Sensitive Urban Design: These methods take into consideration the topography,
types of surfaces (permeable or impervious), natural drainage and leave very less impact
on the environment.

DROUGHTS

Drought:
● Drought is a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability below the normal or expected
amount for a specific period.
● In India, the erratic nature of the summer monsoon with long dry spells and high temperature are
responsible for the drought conditions.
● Drought is a relative phenomenon as the inadequacy is with reference to prevailing agro-climatic
conditions. Aridity is a permanent condition whereas drought is a temporary situation. Arid and
semi-arid regions are more prone to drought.

Types & Causes of Drought:

● Meteorological Drought
○ It is a situation where there is a reduction in rainfall for a specific period below a specific
amount i.e. the actual rainfall in an area is significantly less than the climatologically mean
of that area. According to Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), a drought exists
when the average annual rainfall is less than 75% of the normal.
○ Causes of Meteorological droughts:
■ Lean monsoon and below-average rainfall.
■ Late-onset or early withdrawal of monsoons.
■ Prolonged breaks in Monsoon.
● Hydrological Drought

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○ It is associated with the reduction of water levels. There are 2 types of Hydrological
Droughts
■ Surface water Drought – It is concerned with the drying up of surface water
resources such as rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, tanks, reservoirs, etc.
■ Groundwater Drought – It is associated with the fall in the groundwater level.
○ Causes of Hydrological Drought:
■ Large scale deforestation.
■ Ecologically hazardous mining.
■ Excessive pumping of groundwater.
● Agricultural Drought
○ It occurs when soil moisture goes below the level needed to sustain plant growth. It is
also called the Soil Moisture Drought. The erratic rainfall conditions and inadequate
soil moisture result in crop failures.
○ Causes of Agricultural Droughts:
■ Excessive use of High Yielding Seeds (HYV) as these seeds requires more water
and proper irrigation.
■ Change in cropping pattern. E.g. With the introduction of the green revolution,
we increased our production of wheat and rice. Rice is a water-intensive crop and
growing them in an area where less water is available made the area prone to
agricultural drought.
● Socio-Economic Drought
○ It reflects reduced availability of food and income loss due to crop failure.
● Ecological Drought
○ It occurs when the productivity of the natural ecosystem fails due to a shortage of water
and causes environmental damages like the deaths of cattle, wildlife, and trees in the forest.

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Droughts in India:
● About 30% of the country’s total area is drought-prone affecting 68% of the total sown area.
Severity wise, the years of 1965, 1972, 1979, 1987, 2002, 2009, and 2012 were the most severe
drought years in post-independence India.
● Northwest Region being the arid and semi-arid region of India receives the residual rain from
the monsoon as monsoon time over this region is nearly 2 months. Rajasthan and some parts of the
west-central areas come in this category.
● Other naturally drought-prone areas are the kutch and the Thar desert region which cannot be
fully rectified, what can be done is to reduce the impact by using irrigation methods and crops
suitable for the region.
● Peninsular region- The leeward side (rainshadow region) of the western ghat receives little
rainfall. Also, this area lacks irrigation. Adding to the deficit rainfall the crops which are chosen on
a commercial basis are not suitable for that agro region like cotton and sugarcane in Marathwada
which demand high water availability.

Consequences of Droughts:
● Economic losses:
○ It includes a decline in cultivated areas and a fall in agricultural production, which leads to
the slowing down of secondary and tertiary activities and a decline in purchasing power.
● Environmental Impact:
○ It leads to damages to plant and animal species, wildlife habitat, air and water quality, forest
and range fires, degradation of landscape quality, and soil erosion.
○ Soil moisture, surface run-off, and groundwater table get adversely affected.

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● Impact on society:
○ Migration of people from drought-hit areas to other areas in search of livelihood and food.
○ Farmers suicide. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are the states having
maximum farmer suicides.
○ Disruption of social institutions and increase in social crimes.
○ Scarcity of drinking water, food grains and hence causes famine and starvation.
○ Poor health and spread of diseases like diarrhoea, cholera, and other diseases associated
with malnutrition, a hunger which sometimes causes death.

Drought Management
NDMA guidelines for Drought Management- State and UTs to prepare Drought management plans.
● Regular meetings and review by Crisis Management Groups.
● Operationalize control rooms for drought management.
● Modernise drought assessment- Drought forecast; Early warning system.
● Develop vulnerability profiles for regions, communities, population groups etc.
● Specific Drought Management cells should be created at the state level under SDMA. These
DMCs will be responsible for the preparation of vulnerability maps for their respective states.
● Specific guidelines for use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and real-time
drought-related information that will help in the assessment and early warning.
● Assessment of damage expected will include agricultural production, depletion of water resources,
livestock population, land degradation, and deforestation as well as human health.
● Enhance capacity building.
● Improve compliance regime.

Current challenges in drought management:

● Drought declaration criteria and time differ across states.
● Indicators for intensity assessment/ monitoring differ across states.
● Insufficient use of ICT.
● Inadequate water storage in rainfed areas; lack of check dams.
● Lack of community participation in drought management.
● Low involvement of SHGs/ NGOs and the corporate sector.

Q. What is drought according to IMD? Which regions in India are vulnerable? Discuss the causes
and strategies to manage it.

FOREST FIRES
Context:
● Australia recently battled its largest bushfire on record, while parts of the Arctic, the Amazon
and central Asia have also experienced unusually severe fires. Wildfires in Western USA
(California) are another example. These are examples of the human activities leading to forest fire
turning into disasters of such level which otherwise is a natural phenomenon based on season.
Forest fire:
● These are uncontrolled fires in the forest and wildlands.

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● Forest fires that take place naturally are nature's way of regeneration. It can play a vital role in
keeping the forests healthy, recycling nutrients, helping tree species regenerate, removing invasive
weeds and pathogens, and maintaining habitat for some wildlife.
● For example, it helps in cleaning dead trees and decaying plant matter and clears the forest for new
growth cycles, help add fertility to the soil, while certain tree species like Pine need forest fire
(high temperature to release seeds) for reproduction.
● But such naturally occurring forest fires are just 10 to 15% of total incidents.
● Incidents of human-led fires have increased in recent years which disturb this process and create
havoc for ecosystems as well as cause climate change.

Causes of forest fire:

NATURAL CAUSES: MAN-MADE CAUSES:

1. Lightning & Thunderstorms: These are 1. Smoking: Throwing away the cigarette
the most likely natural causes for forest butts without completely extinguishing it
fires. leads to forest fires.
2. Volcanic eruption: Hot magma expelled 2. Campfires: During camping or outdoor
out flows into nearby fields or lands to start activities people normally leave lit fires or
wildfires. combusting materials unattended which
3. Heat patterns: Increased temperatures due ignite wildfires.
to global warming are making the forests 3. Shifting cultivation practiced by tribal
more vulnerable. Rising atmospheric communities in different parts of the world
temperatures and dryness (low humidity) are also the cause of forest fire.
make favorable circumstances for a fire to 4. Burning Debris: Wastes and trash are on
start. several occasions burned to ashes as a way
4. Naturally the dry season creates a huge fuel of reducing the accumulation of rubbish.
base fuelled by the wind which year-on- This slowly burning debris can potentially
year due to factors like lightning, set anything ablaze and start a wildfire.
5. Fireworks: Fireworks are used by humans
spontaneous combustion etc. cause fire.
for various reasons such as festivals.
However, their explosive nature can start
wildfires.

Impacts of forest fire:

Short-term:
● Environmental catastrophe: Consume vast swaths of bushes, trees, vegetation and animals.
● Toxic gases, flames, smoke inhalation impacting wildlife as well as people.
● Loss of habitat, food for millions of species. Ex- As per IUCN, 137 species from Amazon forest
are lost everyday.
● Rise in health concerns due to smoke in places even thousands of kilometres away.
● Displacement of mammals, birds as well as people will impact local balance and alter the
ecosystem.

Long-term:

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● Large scale fires like in case of Amazon & Australian bush fire creates a long-term impact which
may change its vegetation characteristic itself. According to the Center for International Forestry
Research Indonesia, one of the results of such forest fires can be increased probability of such fire
events in future
● Repeated burns will lead to replacement of rainforest with the pyrophytic grasslands which
need fire to complete the reproduction cycle like that in Savannah forest.
● Biodiversity loss: Rainforests account for 50% of world's biodiversity. Not only does it burn
many of them to death but impacts the functioning of plants and animal species.
● Stress, loss of habitat, territories, shelter and food loss will accelerate the process of extinction of
species. Wildlife with the niche environments with lower populations, including certain types of
frogs and birds, could be wiped out entirely.
● Climate change: With accelerated forest fire it will not only put a break on carbon sequestering
but also releases a huge amount of CO2 in the environment.
● Threatens the food security as well as the economy of the region.
● Impact micro-climate of region by reduced cooling impact, less rainfall and altered vegetation.
● Soil Degradation: Forest soils are loaded with nutrients released from decaying forest debris.
Forest fires kill beneficial soil microorganisms that are responsible for breaking down the soil and
promoting soil microbial activities. The burning of trees and vegetation cover also leaves the soil
bare making it readily vulnerable to soil erosion.
● Destruction of Watersheds: Trees and vegetation cover acts as watershed protectors since
approximately all the water comes from forest-derived water tables. Whenever they burn, the
natural protection systems for water tables, streams, and rivers may be affected.

Forest Fires in India:

● About 21.40% of forest cover in India is prone to fires according to a 2019 report by the Forest
Survey of India that demands urgent action.
● According to the Global Forest Watch, India witnessed 125% increase in forest fires from 2015
to 2017 (Average was 46% for 2005-15).
● The major forest fires in India occur in the tropical dry forests of our country.
● With 70% of forests in India composed of scrub, savanna grassland, dry and moist-deciduous
forests (particularly in A.P, M.P, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha and
Assam) there is always the threat of forest fire.
● Incidents:
○ January 2021 saw prolonged fires in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh (Kullu Valley)
and Nagaland-Manipur border (Dzukou Valley).
○ The Simlipal National Park in Odisha saw a major fire between February-end and early
March 2021.
○ Recent fires also include those in Bandhavgarh Forest Reserve in Madhya Pradesh, and
in sanctuaries for the Asiatic lion and the great Indian bustard in Gujarat.

Importance of Forests:
• Forests play an important role in mitigation and adaptation to climate change.
• They act as a sink, reservoir and source of carbon.
o A healthy forest stores and sequesters more carbon than any other terrestrial ecosystem.

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• In India, with 1.70 lakh villages in close proximity to forests (Census 2011), the livelihood of
several crores of people is dependent on fuelwood, bamboo, fodder, and small timber.

Measures to curb Forest fires:

● Comprehensive Forest fire Policy: For example, India follows “No Fire Forest Policy”. This
strict ban on all types of fires at times prevents necessary fire in dry forests to control invasive
species. The policy should seek to develop based on remote sensing data and there should be space
for natural fires of low intensity, while addressing man-made causes and high intensity fire.
● National Action Plan on Forest Fires 2018 prepared by MOEFCC to minimize forest fires by
informing, enabling and empowering forest fringe communities and incentivizing them to work in
tandem with the State Forest Departments. The plan also intends to substantially reduce the
vulnerability of forests and enhance capabilities of forest personnel and institutions in fighting fires
and swift recovery subsequent to fire incidents.
● Forest Fire Prevention and Management scheme, the only centrally funded program specifically
dedicated to assist the states in dealing with forest fires.
● Fire triangle: Fuel (Dry wood, leaves etc), Oxygen and heat are three must components of fire.
Strategy has to develop based on sustainable management of all three under possible limits. Ex-
Using Water Bomber when heat rises very high as in Australia Strategize management and
response.
● Strong early Warning system: As Forest Survey of India issues warnings based on parameters
like Forest Cover, Forest Type, Climatic Variables (Temperature and Rainfall) and recent fire
incidents over the area. More technology and satellite data needs to be used.
● Addressing Climate change: To prevent increased incidents of fires like in Amazon and
Australian forest the Paris Climate Commitment need to be strictly worked upon to address heat
rise in the fire triangle.
● Response, Rebuild & restoration: Appropriate strategy to contain recurrent small fires after such
fires, afforestation on large scale based on local vegetation and community.
● Community Engagement: Sensitisation of communities should be done to ensure that fire is used
responsibly in a way that promotes forest health, while seeking to avoid damaging and out-of-
control fires.

Way Forward:
Forest fires incidents have increased due to global warming. Destruction of forests is a crisis and needs
immediate action. Forest fires of such scale need a multi-stakeholder and multi-dimensional approach. It
has to be addressed politically (Inter-governmental knowledge, resource and experience sharing), legally
(to prevent man-made fire), socially (Community participation) as well as technologically (Early warning
system, Water Bomber) and environmentally (Addressing climate change).

HEAT WAVES

What is Heat Wave?

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● A heat wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum
temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western and South Central parts of
India.
● Heat waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend till July.
● Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becoming increasingly
frequent globally due to climate change.
● A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days. On some occasions, it can extend up
to seven or ten days. The longest recorded heat wave spell, in recent years, was between 18 – 31
May 2015.

Criteria for Heat Waves:

● The heat wave is considered when the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C
for Plains and at least 30°C for Hilly regions.
● If the normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40°C, then an increase of
5°C to 6°C from the normal temperature is considered to be heat wave condition.
Further, an increase of 7°C or more from the normal temperature is considered as severe heat
wave condition.
● If the normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40°C, then an increase of 4°C to
5°C from the normal temperature is considered to be heat wave condition. Further, an increase
of 6°C or more is considered as severe heat wave condition.
● Additionally, if the actual maximum temperature remains 45°C or more irrespective of normal
maximum temperature, a heat wave is declared.

Favourable conditions for heat wave:

● Transportation / Prevalence of hot dry air over a region.
● Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere.
● Anti-cyclonic flow over the area.
● Clear Skies.

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Factors affecting Heat Wave vulnerability:

● Quality of housing and built environment, local urban geographies, resident lifestyle, income
levels, employment trends, social networks and self- perceptions of risk.
● Unplanned urban growth and development, changes in land use and land cover, densely
populated areas and increasing urban sprawl and unique challenges associated with it such as
Urban Heat Island effect in cities are exacerbating the impact of heatwaves.
● Climate change is driving temperatures higher as well as increasing the frequency and severity of
heat waves in India.

Impact over the country:

● Heatwaves are common over the Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ): Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana,
Chandigarh, Delhi, West Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Vidarbha in
Maharashtra, parts of Gangetic West Bengal, Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, as
categorised by India Meteorological Department.
● However, the regions in the extreme north, northeast and southwestern India are less prone to
heatwaves.

Health Impacts of Heat Waves:

● It causes dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke.
● It also causes fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and
sweating.
● The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely affect people living in
these regions as they cause physiological stress, sometimes resulting in death.
● Reduce work hours and productivity.

Key strategies for Heat Wave Management:

● Early Warning System and Inter-Agency Coordination to alert residents on predicted high and
extreme temperatures.
● Capacity building / training programme for health care professionals at local level to recognize
and respond to heat-related illnesses, particularly during extreme heat events.
● Public Awareness and community outreach: Disseminating public awareness messages on how
to protect against the extreme heat wave through print, electronic and social media and Information,
Education and Communication (IEC) materials such as pamphlets, posters and advertisements and
Television Commercials (TVCs) on Do‟s and Don’ts and treatment measures for heat related
illnesses.
● Collaboration with NGOs and civil society: Collaboration with non-governmental organizations
and civil society organizations to build temporary shelters, wherever necessary, improved water
delivery systems in public areas and other innovative measures to tackle Heat wave conditions.

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Heat apocalypse across Europe in 2022-

• Dozens of towns and regions across Europe reeled under what has been described as a “heat
apocalypse”, which has caused widespread devastation this year.
• Wildfires caused by a combination of extreme heat and dry weather have destroyed 19,000 hectares
of forest in south-western France.
• What is behind the extreme heat waves in Europe?
o Climate change, but exactly how
▪ Scientists are near-unanimous that the heat waves are a result of climate change
caused by human activity.
▪ Global temperatures have already risen by more than 1°C , and studies in the UK
had shown that a one degree rise in temperature raises the probability of the country
witnessing 40°C by ten times.
▪ The rising global temperature, which this year led to deviations above the normal
by as much as 15 degrees in Antarctica, and by more than 3 degrees in the north
pole.
• Major factor: Changes in old wind patterns
o In the case of the US, the record temperatures are being linked to changes in the jet stream
— a narrow band of westerly air currents that circulate several km above the earth’s
surface.
o While a conventionally strong jet stream would bring cooler air from the northern Atlantic,
in recent years the jet stream has weakened and split into two.

Heat Dome:
• Context- Recently, the Pacific Northwest and some parts of Canada recorded temperatures
around 47 degrees, causing a "historic" heat wave.
o This is a result of a phenomenon referred to as a "heat dome".
• A heat dome is effectively what it sounds like - an area of high pressure that parks over a region
like a lid on a pot, trapping heat.
• They are more likely to form during La Niña years like 2021, when waters are cool in the eastern
Pacific and warm in the western Pacific.
• Heat Dome also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit
the ground.

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URBAN HEAT ISLAND

A recent study from IIT Kharagpur called “Anthropogenic forcing exacerbating the urban heat islands
in India” noted that mean daytime temperature of surface urban heat island (UHI Intensity) going up to 2
degrees C for most cities.

What is Urban Heat Island Effect?

● An Urban Heat Island (UHI) is that part of an urban or a metropolitan area that is marked by
remarkably high temperature as compared to its rural counterpart due to excessive human activity.
● The UHI is noticed when both the summer and winter seasons are at their peak.

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Why are these Urban Areas Hotter than Surrounding Suburbs?

● The materials used for pavements, roads and roofs, such as concrete, asphalt (tar) and bricks, have
higher heat capacity and thermal conductivity than rural areas, which have more open space,
trees and grass.
● These materials have low albedo that absorb more solar radiation than the surfaces found in rural
areas.
● Additionally, these materials have different surface radiative properties, which means they emit
energy as thermal radiation or heat.
● Geometric effects are also a cause for UHI. The tall buildings within many urban areas provide
multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which
urban areas are heated. This is called the “urban canyon effect”.
● Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning, industry, and other sources also contributes to
the UHI.
● The lack of evapotranspiration in the city leads to the city experiencing higher temperature than
its Surroundings.

What is the impact of Urban Heat Islands?

● Changes in local climate:
○ Higher Precipitation levels, cloud coverage, fog, presence, humidity levels, and wind
patterns.
○ Increased precipitation and thunderstorm results in Increase in plant growing seasons in
nearby locations. For example, some studies have found that growing areas located around
6.2 miles outside of city limits are extended by an average of 15 days.
● Impact on animals:
○ Migration of animals towards cities. The UHI increases the colonisation of species that like
warm temperatures, such as lizards and geckos.
○ Urban heat islands caused by cities have altered the natural selection process.
● Thermal pollution of neighbouring water bodies:
○ When the heated runoff enters these bodies of water, it goes on to increase their temperature
as well.
○ Thermal pollution has a negative impact on local fish populations, sending them into
thermal shock.
● Human Health:
○ Increased city temperatures can be fatal during summer heatwaves, particularly for senior
citizens.
○ Research has found that urban heat islands not only increase temperatures during heat
waves but also prolong their duration. Extreme temperatures lead to heat cramps,
heatstroke, and heat exhaustion. Heatstroke may cause respiratory distress syndrome,
impaired mobility, or decreased awareness.

Way Forward:
Urban planning should include passive cooling measures and also proper ventilation set up. Also, India's
Cooling Action Plan is a good plan in this direction.

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DESERTIFICATION & LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY

Context:
● India held the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) COP meeting
in 2019. India also became part of the “Bonn Challenge”, a global effort to bring 150 million
hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350
million hectares by 2030.

Land degradation:
● Land degradation is defined as the temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity
of the land, and the diminution of the productive potential, including its major land uses (e.g., rain-
fed arable, irrigation, forests), its farming systems (e.g., smallholder subsistence), and its value as
an economic resource.
● According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), globally 1/3rd
of the area is impacted by land degradation and every year there is loss of 24 billion tons of
fertile soil.

9.3. Desertification: When Land Degradation occurs in dryland areas (arid, semi- arid and sub-humid)
areas, it is called desertification. Desertification generally occurs after a prolonged degradation of land.

Status of land Degradation in India:

● According to Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India, About 29.32% of the Total
Geographical Area of the country is undergoing the process of desertification/land degradation.
● With approximately 69% of Indian land falling under dryland, the land degradation or
desertification is a huge challenge on India’s already scarce land resource (With 2.4% of world
surface area it supports 17% of world population).
● State of India’s Environment 2019 shows that 30% of India’s total geographical area is being
affected by land degradation. 82% of these degraded land lies in just nine states: Rajasthan,

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Maharashtra, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh and
Telangana.

Causes of land Degradation in India:

● Water erosion and Wind erosion: Soil erosion in India due to water erosion is highest at around
71% and 10% for wind erosion.
● Chemical factors: Natural occurrence of alkaline chemicals, movement of subsoil chemicals (e.g.
salinity) to the surface due to water logging, as well as excessive use of fertilizers or industrial
pollutants). Culture of plastic use is another concern.
● Physical factors: waterlogging, over-irrigation, geomorphological changes caused by mining or
other activity)
● Poor agricultural practices such as improper crop rotations; overuse of agrochemicals etc.
Vegetation degradation through activities such as deforestation, shifting cultivation etc.
● Increasing urbanization driven by increasing population pressure has increased diversion of land.
● Overgrazing: On one hand, India has one of the largest numbers of cattle population while on the
other the grazing practices in India are not sustainable.
● Last year, UNCCD published a report that there is a strong nexus between land use and land
degradation leading to drought. This is said to be intrinsically related to the water use due to human
activities.
● The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its report “Climate change and Land”
said that the land degradation is linked to several climate variables, such as temperature,
precipitation, wind, and seasonality.

Impact of Land Degradation:

● Desertification: ISRO’s Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India shows that
desertification increased in most of the states.
● Water Scarcity: The dryland population vulnerable to water stress and drought intensity is
projected to reach 178 million under the most ideal conditions of 1.5 deg-C warming by 2050.
● Agriculture: With around 46% of the Net Sown Area and 45% of work dependence agriculture is
hardest hit due to dependence on land.
● Increasing poverty and ‘Environment refugees’: Most poor in India are dependent on land-based
resources (agriculture, Minor Forest Produce etc) and are highly threatened.
● Economic loss: A study by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) says economic losses from
land degradation and change of land use in 2014-15 stood at 2.54% of India’s GDP.
● Food security: Land Degradation/desertification has created concern over agriculture production
due to reduced land resources, loss of grazing lands (livestock loss), nutritional insecurity due to
drought etc. which threaten food security amidst rising population.
● Climate Change: It is exacerbating climate change events, which in turn, are causing even greater
degradation. For e.g. degraded land loses its capacity to absorb carbon-dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse
gas (GHG) that is the biggest factor in worsening global warming.
● For India, which fares poorly on the Global Hunger Index (94th out of 107) and where 190 million
people go hungry every night, desertification can create huge problems not only food security in
terms of calorie, but also nutrition.

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● Health concerns: Rise in malnutrition cases, respiratory diseases due to dust and threats of
infectious diseases due to population migration.

Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) to counter land degradation:

● UNFCCC in RIO+20 in 2012 gave the idea of the LDN.
● As per the UNCCD definition, LDN is a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources,
necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security, remains stable
or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales.
● LDN is a condition where further land degradation (loss of productivity caused by environmental
or human factors) is prevented and already degraded land can be restored.

9.8. Approach to Land Degradation Neutrality:

Significance of LDN:
● LDN is a shift from current land management policies and practices.
● It is a unique approach that counterbalances the expected loss of productive land with the
recovery of degraded areas.
● It strategically places the measures to conserve, sustainably manage and restore land in the
context of land use planning.
● LDN can prevent Soil erosion, desertification, water scarcity, migration insecurity and income
inequalities caused by land degradation. Thus, it helps in combating the impacts of climate change.
● India has adopted the goal of achieving LDN by 2030 as adopted under Sustainable Development
Goals.

Achieving LDN needs two-pronged strategy based on multi-stakeholder approach, collaboration with
all sectors, national level targets and monitoring.

1. Protect what is left: 2. Fix what has been degraded:

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➢ Sustainable agriculture: Focus on ➢ Aggressive REDD+ strategy which not

increasing productivity of land to meet only focuses on preventing deforestation,
food security through Integrated Farming but also increasing carbon stock through
Mechanism or Zero Budget Natural Afforestation.
Farming. ➢ Appropriate drainage system in
➢ Strong forest laws, its implementation and degraded areas through Check dams, dug-
community participation in protection: channels, distributed canal system to
Along with the legal regulation community reclaim it.
needs to be given responsibility to prevent ➢ Activities to reclaim land and care of
losses like the Amazon forest fire last year. landscape: In situ soil and moisture
Ex- Protection of Khejri tree in Rajasthan conservation measures like terracing,
by the Bishnoi tribe bunding or Afforestation of degraded
➢ Address flood and heavy precipitation forest and non-forest wasteland.
related degradation by watershed ➢ Reorienting Consumption choices of the
management, better drainage and bringing Urban society: Consumption culture
in traditional water conservation needs to give way to an alternative which
practices like Ahar Pynes, Bawari etc. is based on Gandhian idea which says
➢ Shelter belts in arid areas to prevent wind nature has everything for our need but not
erosion. for our greed.
➢ Addressing water logging/over- ➢ Global Technology support through
irrigation by planned drainage system as UNCCD to fund capacity building and
well as the distributed canal system. training in the area.
➢ End perverse incentives like free power ➢ Tackling food security threat due to
for irrigation, subsidy for fertilisers to rich desertification: There has to be focus on
farmers to protect pressure on land. maintaining buffer food stock and better
➢ Banning single use plastic at global level Food provisioning through the PDS has to
to address soil pollution due to plastic. be strengthened through the use of BAPU
(Biometric Authenticated Physical
Uptake).
➢ Agriculture reforms through crop
diversification and importance be given to
the less water-intensive coarse grains.

Delhi Declaration:
● COP-14 to the UNCCD 2019 issued the Delhi Declaration. It committed for ecosystem
restoration, taking action on climate change, private sector engagement, Peace Forest Initiative and
recovery of five million hectares of degraded land in India by 2030. We need to follow this
target to achieve a world which can give gifts safely to our future generation.

Global Land outlook by UNCCD outlines following pathways:

➢ Multifunctional landscape approach.

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➢ Farming for multiple benefits.

➢ Managing the rural-urban interface.
➢ Creating an enabling environment to scale local successes.
➢ Ensure no net loss of healthy and productive land.

WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT
Watershed: Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit draining to a common point by a system of
drains. All lands on earth are part of one watershed or other. Watershed is thus the land and water area,
which contributes runoff to a common point.
Types of Watershed
Watersheds could be classified into a number of groups.. The usually accepted five levels of watershed
delineation based on geographical area of the watershed are the following;
● Macro watershed (> 50,000 Ha)
● Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Ha)
● Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Ha)
● Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Ha)
● Mini watershed (1-100 Ha)

Watershed management involves the judicious use of natural resource with active participation of
institutions, organizations, people’s participation in harmony with the ecosystem.
Components of Watershed Management
The three main components in watershed management are land management, water management and
biomass management.
Land Management
Water Management
Biomass management

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Planning For Watershed Management

• Comprehensive planning for watershed management starts with obtaining suitable maps through
remote sensing techniques.
• Remote sensing provides a synoptic picture of the watershed for the characterization of natural
resources, land, water, vegetation, and inter-relationship between them. Besides mapping natural
resources, satellite imagery can give the estimate of the area covered by major crops, crop
yield, area affected by pests and diseases and drought conditions, if any. The location of
structures like check-dams, farm ponds etc., can also be delineated using satellite imagery pictures.
• Distribution patterns and assessments of the status of material resources can be obtained
from satellite pictures. Comprehensive planning of various activities is then carried out.
Mechanical, agronomical, agro-ecological and forestry measures of soil and rainwater conservation
are then planned and implemented.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT FOR INDIA:
● Help India manage and augment its water resources.
● Sustainable agriculture: MItigate effects of drought and other challenges related to climate change.
● Restoration of degraded soils which is leading to shrinking arable land resource.
● Groundwater Recharge
● Stop distress migration
● Improve the standard of living of the local population which is a key tool for poverty reduction in
rural areas.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES:
● Govt. set up the National Wasteland Development Board in 1985 under the MInistry of
Environment.
○ Traditional water management approach.
○ Focus on micro watershed for planning.

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● Drought prone area programme; Desert Development programme; Integrated wasteland

Development Program
● PM Krishi Sinchayi Yojana
○ To restore ecological balance
○ Conserve Degraded Natural Resources(soil, vegetative cover and water)
IMPACT OF MICRO WATERSHEDS ON ARID AND SEMI ARID REGIONS:
Micro-watershed management became inevitable for the development in drought-prone and semi-arid
regions that could sort out the problem of water scarcity and drought. It could help in the following way.
● It may help in moisture conservation measures like the contour bunds to resist the runoff flowing
down the slope by an embankment and the overall land development.
● The block plantations, horticultural development program will increase the green cover of the
region as well as enhance the groundwater recharge rate.
● It helps to hold the sloping land into different parts of the level to enable cultivation.
● It leads to restoration and the improvement of common property.
● It enables smart management of less water-dependent cropping practices that also suits the agro-
climatic conditions of the region.
● Desiltation of water tanks, resource management improves the water availability for drinking and
irrigation.
Case Study
• On July 27, 2016, rain for only two hours paralyzed the life in Gurgram (Gurgaon), with deep
waterlogging. The main cause of this tragedy was ill-conceived planning. In the planning of
Gurgram, Watershed Planning was ignored.
• The Firozpur-Jhikra-Delhi ridge forms the western boundary and the Delhi ridge forms the
eastern boundary of this watershed. The natural drainage pattern of the city comprises of large
depression and streams, tending to cover inland instead of flowing into the Yamuna.
• The Delhi-Jaipur Highway No. 8 crosses several watersheds almost in the middle and blocks the
natural drainage pattern from south to north. Thus, the unscientific planning of National Highway
No. 8 is largely responsible for the Gurgram tragedy. It is thus, important to incorporate the
watershed approach in the planning of a city.

Q. In what way micro-watershed Development projects help in water conservation in drought prone
and semi-arid regions of India.

HAZARD VULNERABILITY OF INDIA

Hazard vulnerability of India
● India is vulnerable to natural and man–made disasters.
● About 60% of the land mass is prone to earthquakes.
● Over 40 million hectares (about 8%) is prone to floods.
● 68% of the area is susceptible to Drought.
● The 8000 Kms coastline is prone to cyclones/high wind velocity.
● Coastal States/UTs are vulnerable to Tsunamis.

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● Hilly terrain is prone to landslides/avalanches/ cloudbursts

● Man-made disasters – fire, terrorist activities using conventional weapons or nuclear, biological
and chemical materials; industrial accidents etc.

Urban Areas Vulnerability to disasters:

● According to the World Bank, By 2050, cyclones and earthquakes in urban areas will double in
frequency.
● High population density leading to migration and slum development with poor quality of buildings.
● Increasing concretisation prevents discharge of water to ground causing floods and disappearance
of water bodies causing droughts.
● Industrial and chemical disasters. ex. Bhopal gas tragedy. Vizag Gas leak 2020.
● Reduced tree cover causing urban heat islands and change in micro climate, pollution, reduced
work hours.
Measures to prevent urban disaster vulnerability:
● Survey and retrofitting of old buildings.
● Adopting targets under SDG and sendai framework.
● New Urban agenda: Sustainable, equitable, safe, inclusive, resilient future for all.
● Schemes like SMART Cities Mission, AMRUT and PM AWAS for affordable and sustainable
housing.
● Building codes: Hazard resilient building codes (ECBC-R).
● National Afforestation Programme based on Miyawaki principle.
● Alternate finance. Ex. Natural Disaster bonds; Municipal bonds.

CLIMATE HAZARDS AND VULNERABILITY ATLAS OF INDIA:

• The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) launched India’s 1st Climate Hazards and
Vulnerability Atlas.
About The Climate Hazards and Vulnerability Atlas of India.
• It is developed by the scientists at the Climate Research and Services (CRS) office of the India
Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune.
• It is based on 14 extreme weather events and the risks they pose to the local population,
livelihoods and economy of each district.
o The atlas features extreme rainfall, drought, coldwave, heatwave, dust storms, hail storms,
thunderstorms, cyclones, snowfall, lightning, winds and fog.
• The hazards and vulnerability values have been calculated utilising the Met department’s
historical climate data.
• Each weather phenomenon’s month-wise hazard levels posed to the respective district has been
enlisted in this one-of-its-kind atlas.
o In all, 640 maps are available in the online atlas.

Q. India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number of disasters. Draw the vulnerability
profile of India.

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ENVIRONMENT & BIOGEOGRAPHY

FORESTS

Forests in India: As per Indian State of Forests Report (ISFR 2019), Total forest cover in the country is
21.67%.

● Forest is the second largest land use after agriculture.

TYPES OF FORESTS : SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION & ECONOMIC USE

● Tropical Evergreen and semi evergreen forests:
○ Western slopes of western Ghats; NE Hill Region; Andaman & NIcobar Island.
○ Well Stratified: Shrubs, creepers, short trees, tall trees.
○ Ex. Rosewood, mahogany, ebony, rubber, bamboo
○ Economic use: Hard and durable timber, railway construction, rubber industry.
● Tropical Deciduous/ Monsoon Forests:
○ Most widespread.
○ Moist Deciduous
■ 100-200 cms rainfall
■ NE Hills, Eastern slopes of Western ghats, Odisha
■ Ex. teak, sal, shisham,mahua, amla
○ Dry Deciduous
■ 70- 100 cms rainfall
■ Peninsula; Plains of UP & Bihar
■ Tendu; palas; amaltas; bel; khair
○ Economic Use: Timber; Recreation; agroforestry; medicine; wildlife conservation; bidi
making etc.
● Tropical Thorn Forest:
○ Semi arid areas of SW Punjab; Haryana; Rajasthan; Gujarat; MP; UP
○ Rainfall less than 5 cm
○ Ex. Babool, ber, Neem, Khejri
○ Economic Use: Agroforestry; medicine; handicrafts; livelihood to poor and tribals.
● Montane Forests:

NORTHERN MOUNTAIN FOREST SOUTHERN MOUNTAIN FOREST

1. Succession of vegetation from tropical 1. Peninsula- western ghats, Vindhyas,

to tundra. Nilgiris.
2. E.x. Hilly areas of WB, UK, NE states. 2. Closer to the tropics, only 1500 m
above sea level.
3. Temperate forest in shola, satpura,
maikal

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Economic Use: Deodar construction activity; cinar and walnut- kashmir handicrafts; livelihood to
tribes- gujjar, bakarwals, bhotiyas, gaddi.

● Littoral and Swamps/ Wetlands forests:

○ Deccan (RJ, GJ, Gulf of kutch); Delta wetlands(Chilika lake); Gangetic marshes;
Brahmaputra marshes; Mangroves of Island arcs; Andaman & NIcobar Islands.
○ Economic Use: Biodiversity; Wildlife conservation; Tourism.

Why resource rich forested areas are hotbeds of Maoist movements in India.
● Forest war: Naxalism started as a movement against land alienation. Today it has become a
popular movement against natural resource alienation, particularly forests.
● Large areas of densely forested regions in the country are controlled by Naxalites.Naxalites use the
growing alienation of tribal people against forest laws to gain ground.
● They secure tribal rights over non- timber forest produce and dispense quick justice -- at gunpoint.
Sadly, the victims of Naxal violence are invariably the custodians of our forests -- forest guards.
● On one side is the elected government, which with its misplaced regulations has never addressed
people's needs. On the other, is a band of armed people knocking on people's doors to solve their
problems instantly -- at gunpoint. Caught between the warring groups, the people prefer the latter.
● "The parallel government is fast, accessible and gives people access to their livelihood sources. For
example, courts in the Naxalite-affected areas of Jharkhand have witnessed a drop in the number
of cases -- from 2,400 in 1996 to 1,600 in 1997.

Q. There are various types of forests found in the Indian subcontinent. Comment

WESTERN GHATS ECOLOGY

Western Ghats: Importance:
● The Western Ghats is an extensive region spanning over six states.
● It is the home of many endangered plants and animals.
● Western Ghats host India’s richest wilderness in 13 national parks and several sanctuaries.
● Recognised by UNESCO as one of the world’s eight most important biodiversity hotspots, these
forested hills are also sourcing numerous rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.

Geology of Western Ghats:

▪ There are two views regarding the Geology of the Western Ghats.
o The mountains of the Western Ghats are Block Mountains formed due to the down
warping of a part of land into the Arabian Sea.
o The mountains of the Western Ghats are not true mountains, but are the faulted edge of the
Deccan Plateau.

Basic Topography:
▪ Geographical Extent:

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o The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north, go south
past Goa, through Karnataka and into Kerala and Tamil Nadu end at Kanyakumari
embracing Indian ocean.
o A chain of mountains runs parallel to India’s western coast, approximately 30-50 km
inland.
o These mountains cover an area of around 140,000 km² in a 1,600 km long stretch.
▪ Mountain Ranges:
o The Niligiri ranges southeast of Mysore in Karnataka, meet the Shevaroys (Servarayan
range) and Tirumala range farther east, linking the Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats.
o The peak of Anamudi in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats, as well as the
highest peak in India outside the Himalayas
o Famous hill station: This range is home to many hill stations like Matheran, Lonavala-
Khandala, Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Amboli Ghat, Kudremukh and Kodagu.
▪ Rivers:
o West flowing: The rivers that originate in Western Ghats and flow towards west are
Periyar, Bharathappuzha, Netravati, Sharavathi, Mandovi etc.
• The west flowing rivers of Western Ghats are fast-moving, owing to the short
distance travelled and steeper gradient.
• This makes Western Ghats more useful in terms of production of hydroelectricity.
The steep
o East flowing: The rivers that originate in Western Ghats and flow towards east
include three major rivers viz. Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri, and many smaller/tributary
rivers such as Tunga, Bhadra, Bhima, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Hemavathi, Kabini.
• These east flowing rivers are comparatively slower moving and eventually merge
into larger rivers such as the Kaveri and Krishna.
▪ Climate and Vegetation:
o The forests of the site include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial tropical
evergreen forests anywhere and are home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna,
bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species.
o The high montane forest ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather pattern.
• The Ghats act as a key barrier, intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that
sweep in from the south-west during late summer.
o The western slopes have tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests marked
predominantly by Rosewood, Mahogany, Cedar etc.
• These slopes appear green in almost all parts of the year.
• No time is fixed when these trees would shade their leaves.
o The eastern slopes of the Western Ghats have dry as well as moist deciduous
forests marked predominantly by Teak, Sal, Shisham, Sandalwood trees.
▪ Wildlife:
o The Nilgiri marten, brown palm civet, stripe-necked mongoose, Indian brown mongoose,
small Indian civet and leopard cat are the small carnivores living in the forests of the
Western Ghats.

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o Many species are endemic, such as the Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) and the lion-
tailed macaque (Macaca silenus).
o At least 325 globally threatened (IUCN Red Data List) species occur in the Western
Ghats.
• The globally threatened flora and fauna in the Western Ghats are represented by
229 plant species, 31 mammal species, 15 bird species, 43 amphibian species, 5
reptile species and 1 fish species.
▪ Protected Areas:
o Western Ghats is home to India’s two biosphere reserves, 13 National parks, several
wildlife sanctuaries and many Reserve Forests.
o The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve forms the largest contiguous protected area in the Western
Ghats.
• It comprised the evergreen forests of Nagarahole, deciduous forests of Bandipur
National Park and Nugu in Karnataka and adjoining regions of Wayanad and
Mudumalai National Park in the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
o The Silent Valley National Park in Kerala is among the last tracts of virgin tropical
evergreen forest in India.

Significance of Western Ghats:

▪ Hydrological:
o The Western Ghats feeds a large number of perennial rivers of peninsular India including
the three major eastward-flowing rivers Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.
o The peninsular Indian states that receive most of their water supply from rivers originating
in the Western Ghats.
▪ Climate:
o The mountains of the Western Ghats influence the Indian monsoon weather patterns that
mediate the warm tropical climate of the region
• The Ghats act as a key barrier, intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that
blow from the south-west during late summer.
o The Western Ghats play a significant and important ecological function in sequestration of
atmospheric CO2 and hence have an important role in climate change.
• It is estimated that they neutralize around 4 million tonnes of carbon every year-
around 10% of emissions neutralised by all Indian forests.
▪ Biodiversity:
o Western Ghats along with its geographical extension in the wet zone of Sri Lanka are now
also considered one of the eight‚ hottest hotspots‛ of biodiversity
o The Western Ghats contain exceptional levels of plant and animal diversity and endemicity.
▪ Economic:
o The Western Ghats are rich in iron, manganese and bauxite ores.
o The forests of Western Ghats are an important source of timber and support a large number
of forest-based industries such as paper, plywood, poly-fibres and matchwood.
o In parts of their ranges Pepper and cardamom, which are native to the evergreen forests of
the Western Ghats have been taken up as plantation crops on a large scale.

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• Other large scale plantations include tea, coffee, oil palm and rubber.
▪ Home to Indigenous Tribes:
o The indigenous people of the Western Ghats, including the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal
Groups, constitute 44.2% of the tribal population of 6.95% of Karnataka.
o The Western Ghats are also home to a sizable population of communities like Gowlis,
Kunbis, Halakki Vakkala, Kare Vakkala, Kunbi, and Kulvadi Marathi.
o The communities have been deriving sustenance from the forest by collecting non-timber
forest produce (NTFP).
▪ Tourism and Pilgrimage Centre:
o There are a number of tourist centres that have sprung up in the Western Ghats; example:
Ooty, Thekkady WS etc.
o There have been important pilgrimage centres in the region- prominent amongst these
being Sabarimalai in Kerala, Madeveshwaramalai in Karnataka and Mahabaleshwar in
Maharashtra.

Threats to Western Ghats:

• Mining: The mining activities have grown rapidly especially in Goa and often in violation of all
laws, resulting in serious environmental damage and social disruption.
o Sand mining has emerged as a major threat in Kerala.
o Unsustainable mining has increased vulnerability to landslides, damaged water sources and
agriculture, thus negatively affected the livelihoods of the people living in those areas
• Extraction of Forest Produce: Human communities living within and adjacent to protected areas
in the Western Ghats are often dependent on extraction of NTFPs to meet a diversity of subsistence
and commercial needs.
o With rising population and changing consumption patterns, sustainability of NTFP is a
critical issue.
• Livestock Grazing: Livestock grazing within and bordering protected areas by high densities of
livestock (cattle and goats) is a serious problem causing habitat degradation across the Western
Ghats.
• Human-wildlife Conflict: Given that the Western Ghats exists within an intensely human-
dominated landscape, human-wildlife conflicts are a common phenomenon.
• Hunting: Illegal local hunting driven by tradition or demand for wild meat is pervasive across the
Western Ghats.
o Hunters employ guns as well as a wide array of traditional methods such as poisoning,
snaring and trapping.
o Wild meat is a nonessential part of the diet of hunters who frequently have access to
alternative sources of animal protein.
• Plantations: Agroforestry systems in the Western Ghats are today dominated by tea, coffee, rubber
and monocultures of various species, including the recently introduced oil palm.
o Large-scale planting of coffee in the Western Ghats began in 1854 when the British
established themselves in Kodagu.

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o Over the years, plantations of cash crops have displaced extensive patches of natural forests
throughout the Western Ghats and are frequently associated with encroachment of
surrounding forest areas.
• Encroachment by Human Settlements: Human settlements where legal and/or traditional rights
of land ownership occur both within and outside protected areas all across the Western Ghats and
represent a significant landscape level threat.
• Hydropower Projects: Large dam projects in Western Ghats have resulted in environmental and
social disruption despite cost benefit analyses and environmental impact assessments being done
by the government and companies
• Deforestation: Conversion of forest land into agricultural land or for commercial purposes like
tourism, illegal logging for timber have had significant negative effects on biodiversity.
• Climate Change: The changes in land use and deforestation have led to big variations in the
duration and intensity of rainfalls.
o Climate change has been considered as a cause of floods in many regions in the recent past.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests of India set up in March 2010 an expert panel (Gadgil
commission) to find a strategy for conserving these Ghats.

Madhav Gadgil Committee Report on the Kasturirangan committee on the Western Ghats
Western Ghats

1. Kasturirangan committee was constituted

1. Gadgil Commission, an environmental to examine the WGEEP report. The
research commission named after its committee is often called HLWG – 10
chairman Madhav Gadgil. The member high-level working group headed
commission is formally known as Western by Kasturirangan
Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP). 2. Instead of the total area of Western Ghats,
The commission submitted the report to the only 37% (i.e. 60,000 sq. km.) of the total
Government of India in August 2011. area be brought under ESA under
2. WGEEP designated the entire hill range Kasturirangan report.
as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). 3. A complete ban on mining, quarrying and
3. The report has classified Western Ghats sand mining in ESA.
into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) 1, 4. Distinguished between cultural ( human
2 and 3. settlements, agricultural fields and
4. ESZ-1 being of high priority, almost all plantations) and natural landscape .
developmental activities (mining, thermal 5. Current mining areas in the ESA should be
power plants etc) were restricted in it. No phased out within the next five years, or at
new dams based on large-scale storage the time of expiry of mining lease,
be permitted in ESZ 1. whichever is earlier.
5. Gadgil Committee recommended a bottom 6. No thermal power be allowed and
to top approach (right from Gram sabhas) hydropower projects are allowed only after
rather than a top to bottom approach and detailed study.

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decentralization and more powers to local 7. Red industries, i.e. which are highly
authorities. polluting, to be strictly banned in these
6. The commission recommended the areas.
constitution of a Western Ghats Ecology 8. The Kasturirangan report on the Western
Authority (WGEA), as a statutory Ghats has made several pro-farmer
authority under the Ministry of recommendations, including the exclusion
Environment and Forests, with the of inhabited regions and plantations from
powers under Section 3 of the Environment the purview of ecologically sensitive areas
(Protection) Act, 1986. (ESAs).
7. Criticisms of Madhav Gadgil Report 9. Criticisms of Kasturirangan committee
● The major criticism was that it was more Report
environment-friendly and not in tune with ● The Kasturirangan panel used remote
the ground realities. sensing and aerial survey methods for
● Recommendations were cited as zonal demarcation of land in the Western
impractical to implement. Ghats. The usage of such techniques,
● Gadgil report has asked for a complete eco- without examining the ground reality, has
sensitive cover for the Western Ghats caused many errors in the report.
which hamper different states on energy ● The power is vested with the bureaucrats
and development fronts. and forest officials and not with gram
● There was a criticism against the sabhas.
constitution of a new body called WGEA. ● Many fear that the farmers would get
States insist that protection can be given evicted if the Kasturirangan Committee
under existing laws. report is implemented. Under this report,
● The Gadgil report doesn’t give a solution the mining and quarrying lobbies are
for revenue losses due to the expected to flourish.
implementation of its recommendations. ● The use of “erroneous method” had caused
● Gadgil report is against dams in the inclusion of many villages under
Western Ghats, which is a crucial blow on Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA)
the ailing power sector. Considering the though there were only rubber plantations
growing energy needs of India, critics and no forest land!
argue that this recommendation cannot be ● Kasturirangan report included ecologically
taken. non-sensitive areas under ESA, and left out
many ecologically sensitive areas!

Q. Discuss the significance of Western Ghats in the light of a report of Western Ghat Ecological
Panel.

MANGROVES
Mangroves are littoral plant formations of tropical and subtropical coastlines growing below high tide
level.

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Characteristics of mangrove:
● Evergreen plants
● Located best on sandy beaches.
● Physiological adaptation to salinity stress.
● Pneumatophores (blind roots) and stilt roots.
● Eg. Rhizophora (prop roots down); Avicenna (roots up from the mud).
● Leaves are thick and contain salt secreting glands.

Mangrove profile in India:

● Mangroves of sunderbans are the largest single block of tidal holophytic in the world.
● Bhitarkanika mangroves (Odisha) is the second largest in the Indian subcontinent.
● Godavari krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
● Mangroves of Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are degraded mainly due to construction of aquaculture
ponds. And salt pans.
● On the west coast of India, mangroves are mostly scrubby and degraded along Maharashtra , Goa
and Karnataka coast.
● Gulf of Kutch and Kori creek.

Importance of mangroves:
● Stabilize the coastal shores and breeding ground for fishes.
● Reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
● Protects coasts from Tsunami, hurricanes, cyclones.
● Enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
● Supports numerous flora fauna and wildlife.

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● Supply wood, firewood, medicinal plants, and food to local people.

● Employment opportunities to local communities.

Threat to mangroves:
● Conversion of area for agricultural purposes, fuel, fodder, mining, oil spills, aquaculture, use of
chemical pesticides, and fertilisers and industrial purposes.
Q. Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal
ecology.

CORAL BLEACHING & CORAL RESTORATION

Status of corals:
● A survey has found record sea temperatures had caused the third mass bleaching of the 2,300-
kilometre Great Barrier Reef system in just five years.
● The United Nations has reported that:
○ 70% of the Earth's coral reefs are threatened,
○ 20% have been destroyed with no hope for recovery,
○ 24% are under imminent risk of collapse, and
○ an additional 26% are at risk due to longer-term threats.
● If stern measures to bring down the greenhouse gas emission levels are not adopted urgently, then
Australia’s Great Barrier Reef might be in danger of coral bleaching as frequently as every two
years by 2034.
● Hawaii became the first U.S. state to put curbs on the sale of sunscreens containing oxybenzone
and octinoxate, which can cause coral bleaching.

What are Corals?

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● Corals are invertebrate animals belonging to a large group of colourful and fascinating animals
called Cnidaria.
● Corals are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps. These polyps have
microscopic algae called zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
● The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship.
● They are also called the “rainforests of the seas”.
● There are 2 types of corals:
○ Hard, shallow-water corals—the kind that build reefs.
○ Soft corals and deep water corals that live in dark cold waters.

Growth conditions for Coral Reefs

1. Temperature of water between 23°C to 25°C.
2. An average salinity between 27% to 40%.
3. Shallow water having a depth less than 50 m.

What is Coral Bleaching?

● When corals face stress by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they
expel the symbiotic algae zooxanthellae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely
white. This phenomenon is called coral bleaching.
● The pale white colour is of the translucent tissues of calcium carbonate which are visible due to the
loss of pigment producing zooxanthellae.
● Coral bleaching has occurred in the Caribbean, Indian, and Pacific oceans on a regular basis.

Causes of Coral Bleaching?

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● Extreme climate conditions: High temperature of water leads to the declination of these corals as
they cannot survive in high temperature. El Nino elevates the sea temperature and destroys coral
reefs.
● Ocean Acidification: Due to rise in carbon dioxide levels, oceans absorb more carbon dioxide.
This increases the acidity of ocean water and inhibits the corals ability to create calcareous
skeletons, which is essential for their survival.
● Solar radiation and ultraviolet radiation: Changes in tropical weather patterns result in less
cloud cover and more radiations which induce coral bleaching.
● Infectious Diseases: Penetration of bacterium like vibrio shiloi inhibits photosynthesis of
zooxanthellae. These bacteria become more potent with elevated sea temperatures.
● Pollution: Increased nutrient concentrations affect corals by promoting phytoplankton growth,
which in turn supports increased numbers of organisms that compete with coral for space.
● Increased Sedimentation: Land clearing and coastal construction result in high rates of erosion
which can
○ smother corals when particles settle out (sedimentation),
○ reducing light availability (turbidity) and
○ reduce coral photosynthesis and growth.
● Anthropogenic factors: Overfishing, pollution from agricultural and industrial runoff, coastal area
development, coral mining etc. also adversely impact corals.

Consequences:
● Disturb the entire food chain: Changes in coral communities can affect the species that depend
on them, such as the fish and invertebrates that rely on live coral for food, shelter.
● Declines in genetic and species diversity may occur when corals die as a result of bleaching.
● Coral reefs protect coastlines by absorbing constant wave energy from the ocean, thereby
protecting people living near the coast from increased storm damage, erosion and flooding.
● Bleached and degraded reefs can discourage tourism, which can affect the local economy.
● Coral bleaching can cause large shifts in fish communities resulting in reduced catches for fishers,
which in turn impacts food supply and associated economic activities.

Measures taken for Coral Restoration:

GLOBAL MEASURES MEASURES TAKEN IN INDIA

● International Coral Reef Initiative ● Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) and

(ICRI): An informal partnership between National Coastal Zone Management
Nations and organizations which strives to Authority and State Coastal Zone
preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems Management Authority to protect coral
around the world. reefs.
● Chapter 17 of “Agenda 21” specifically ● Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction
addresses the protection and sustainable system (COMAPS), Land Ocean

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development of the marine and coastal Interactions in Coastal zones (LOICZ) and
environment within the context of the Integrated Coastal and Marine Area
United Nations Convention on the Law of Management (ICMAM) to protect coral
the Sea (UNCLOS). reefs.
● UN Environment World Conservation ● Coral Bleaching Alert System (CBAS):
Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC): It by INCOIS, uses the satellite derived Sea
works with scientists and policy makers Surface Temperature (SST) to assess the
worldwide to place biodiversity at the heart thermal stress accumulated in the coral
of environment and development environment.
decisionmaking to enable enlightened ● Coral Reef Recovery Project, a joint
choices for people and the planet. venture of Wildlife Trust of India and the
Gujarat Forest Department, supported by
Tata Chemicals Limited (TCL).
○ In Mithapur, the project envisions
the creation of a model PPP coral
ecosystem of international
standards to restore degraded reefs
through activities including coral
transplantation.
● ReefWatch India- An NGO, has taken up
two projects Re(ef)Build and Re(ef)Grow
to conserve the reefs.

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Way Forward:
● Solutions for protecting the future for coral must transcend social, economic and cultural
boundaries.
● Promoting sustainable fishing and providing opportunities for ecotourism can help conserve
corals.
● There is a need to minimize the use of chemically enhanced fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides,
and herbicides and harmful industrial waste which are non-degradable and harm corals.
● Taking all possible measures to prevent actions that worsen global warming since Climate
change is the greatest global threat to coral reef ecosystems.

SAND MINING

SAND:
● MInor mineral.
● Buffer against strong tidal waves.
● Sand acts as an aquifer.
● Natural carpet on river bottom.

Sand Mining:
● Sand mining is a practice that is used to extract sand, mainly through open pit mining.
● Main sources of sand are agricultural fields, riverbeds and floodplains, coastal and marine sand,
lakes and reservoirs.
● It is also done on beaches, inland dunes and dredged from ocean beds and river beds.
● Under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act), sand is a
minor mineral and sand mining is regulated by the respective state governments and empowers
state governments to frame rules to prevent illegal mining, transportation and storage of minerals
(both major minerals and minor minerals).
● Illegal sand mining is posing the biggest threat to the last of the wild and breeding ghariyals
left. Found in maximum strength in National Chambal Sanctuary running across three states- UP,
MP and Rajasthan, gharials are losing out to human interference.

Issues with sand mining:

● Desert sand and sea sand are not suitable for construction which makes river-sand a highly
demanded mineral.
● Higher prices of sand in many cities due to non-availability, and absence of robust monitoring
mechanism or regulation by the Government. This leads to illegal sand mining.
● Mixing of low-quality sand with usable sand leading to construction of weak buildings.
● Loss of revenue for exchequer due to cartelization among mining companies during auction.

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CONSEQUENCES OF SAND MINING:

● Downstream erosion- deepening of rivers and estuaries.
● Enlargement of river mouths
● Affects local groundwater
● Reduce light penetration
● Reduce primary production
● Environmental Consequences:
○ Change river course; increase river erosion
○ Illegal dredging- robbing
○ Groundwater depletion- ex. Papagani catchment area (KN)
○ Impact habitat of microorganisms
○ Damage to roads and bridges

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○ Threat to agriculture
○ Damage to coastal ecosystem
○ Saline water intrusion
● Economic consequences: Loss of employment, revenue and livelihood.

Importance of sustainable sand mining:

● To ensure the conservation of the river equilibrium and its natural environment by protection &
restoration of the ecological system.
● To ensure there is no obstruction to the river flow, water transport and restoring the riparian
habitats.
● To avoid pollution of river water leading to water quality deterioration.
● To prevent groundwater pollution by prohibiting sand mining on fissures where it works as filter
prior to ground water recharge.

MEASURES:
● Alternatives like m-sand (from stone crushing plants) and glass sand can be used.
● Use of fly ash for construction
● Guidelines for sustainable sand mining:
○ Demarcate where to mine and where to prohibit mining.
○ Sustainable mining.
○ District level EIA Authority under District Collector
○ Use of Scientific tools.
○ Real time data on sand mining.

Steps taken by government to Promote Sustainable Mining:

● The Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC) has released the Enforcement
& Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining (EMGSM-2020). This Guideline is supplemental to
the existing SSMG-2016 and these two guidelines implemented in sync with each other.
● Mining Surveillance System (MSS): Ministry of Mines, through the Indian Bureau of Mines
(IBM), has developed the MSS to use the space technology to check illegal mining.
● Mining Tenement System (MTS): It will facilitate end to end national scale accounting of all the
minerals produced in the country through automation from the pithead to its end use, reducing the
scope for illegal mining.
● Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY): funds collected under District
Mineral Foundations (DMF) are utilised for the welfare and development of the mining affected
areas.
● Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining (EMGSM-2020)
○ All districts to prepare a comprehensive mining plan and identify and define the mining
and no mining zones considering environmental and social factors.
○ Mining depth should be restricted to 3 meters.
○ No riverbed mining operation allowed in monsoon period.

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○ Abandoned stream channels on the floodplains should be preferred rather than active
channels and their deltas and floodplains.
○ Annual audit of each mining lease shall be carried out.
○ It suggested the use of technology such as drones, mobile application and/or bar code
scanners etc. for checking illegal mining, reserves estimation, quantity estimation, land use
monitoring.
○ District Level Task Force (DLTF) under the Chairmanship of District
Magistrate/Collector to keep regular watch.

FLY ASH UTILIZATION

Context:
● National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) has recently developed an infrastructure to transport
fly ash from power plants in bulk to cement plants, at a cheaper cost. This development is in line
with NTPC's commitment towards 100% utilization of fly ash from power plants. At present, 63%
of the fly ash is being utilised in India.

What is Fly Ash?

● Fly ash is the end product of combustion during the process of power generation in the coal-based
thermal power plants.
○ It is called fly ash because it is transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases.
○ It is collected from the exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters.
● Fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), ferric
oxide (Fe2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO).
● It resembles Portland cement but is chemically different and exhibits cementitious properties.
● It is used in concrete and cement products, road base, metal recovery, and mineral filler among
others.

Environmental Concerns Associated with Fly Ash:

● Fly ash particles are toxic air pollutants. They can trigger heart disease, cancer, respiratory diseases
and stroke. Fly ash gets easily ingested through respiration, which causes many diseases such as
asthma, neurological disorders.
● It also pollutes the soil, and affects the root development system of trees.
● It becomes airborne, and gets transported to a radius of 10 to 20 kms. It can settle on water and
other surfaces. It can also contaminate water and soil systems.
● A large quantity of fly ash dumped into poorly designed and maintained ash ponds. About a billion
tonnes of this toxic ash lie dumped in these ponds, polluting land, air, and water.
● All the heavy metals found in fly ash—nickel, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, lead, a large amount
of PM 2.5 and black carbon (BC), etc—are toxic in nature. They leech into the surrounding soil
and can enter food-chains.
● Fly ash settles on leaves and crops and reduces crop productivity.
● There is a reduction in recharging of groundwater due to fly ash filled mine voids.

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● Reduces visibility by creating dense fog in the winter season.

Government Initiatives for Optimum Utilization of Fly Ash:

● A 2016 notification by Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC) on fly
ash utilization mandates:
○ Increase in mandatory jurisdiction of area of application from 100 kms to 300 kms.
○ TPS should provide fly ash at the rate of Re 1 per tonne and bear the full transportation
cost upto 300 km to such units.
○ Mandatory use of fly ash based products in all government schemes e.g.PM National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, PM Gramin Sadak Yojana, Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan etc.
○ The existing Red Clay Brick kilns located within 300 km shall be converted into fly
ash based bricks or blocks or tiles manufacturing units within one year from the
publication of notification.
● FLY ASH UTILISATION 2018 expands its scope to include new bio-based ash resources and
their expanding relevance for multiple applications, such as road construction and agriculture and
will also bring focus on SLAGS (e.g. blast furnace, steel slags) and their co-existence with ashes.
● GST rates on fly ash and its products have been reduced to 5%.
● ASH TRACK Mobile App has been launched by the Ministry of Power for better management
of fly ash produced by thermal power plants.
● Ash-parks, for promoting fly ash-based product manufacturing units, and awareness programme
for utilisation of fly ash and its products have been conducted.
● Central Electricity Authority (CEA) on behalf of Ministry of Power has been monitoring since
1996-97 the fly ash generation and its utilization in the country at local/lignite based thermal power
stations.
● Fly Ash Notification 2021:
o Fly Ash Notification 2021 was issued under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
▪ Prohibiting dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from coal or lignite based
thermal power plants on land or into water bodies, the Centre has made it
mandatory for such plants to ensure 100% utilization of ash in an eco-friendly
manner, and introduced for the first time a penalty regime for non-compliance
based on 'polluter pays' principle.
▪ Under new rules, the non-compliant power plants will be imposed with an
environmental compensation of Rs 1,000 per tonne on unutilised ash during the
end of every financial year.
o The Notification holds the CPCB and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) /
Pollution Control Committees (PCC) responsible for monitoring the effective
implementation of mandates under it.
o The Notification mandates the individual thermal power plant to upload monthly
information regarding ash generation and utilisation on its web portal.
• The National Green Tribunal (NGT) directed the constitution of a ‘Fly Ash Management and
Utilisation Mission.

Fly Ash Utilization Benefits:

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● Fly ash is proven resource material for many applications of construction and industries e.g.
manufacturing of portland cement, road embankment construction, fly ash bricks, concrete dams
like GHATGHAR DAM etc.
● Prevent contamination of Water resources through erosion, runoff, discharge from coal ash
ponds etc.
● Helps restrict usage of top soil for manufacturing of bricks and prevent soil erosion.
● Usage in agriculture: For acidic soil as a soil conditioner and helps in improving some important
physicochemical properties of the soil such as hydraulic conductivity, bulk density, porosity, water
holding capacity etc.

Way Forward:
● Proper management of fly ash is important for not only the environment but for us also as the ash
produced by the power plants occupies a lot of land space.
● Maharashtra has become the first state to adopt Fly Ash Utilization Policy, paving way for
prosperity by generating “waste to wealth”, and environment protection.
● “Fly Ash Mission of Government of India” is a slow but steady start, the pace of which needs to
be ramped up.
● Induction of ‘Fly Ash’ as a subject in academic curriculum of Engineering and Architecture may
be introduced.

SOIL ORGANIC CARBON

Context:
● The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)’s Committee on Science and
Technology release a report which emphasises the importance of soil organic carbon (SOC) in
preventing land degradation and desertification.

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What is Soil Organic Carbon?

● Soil organic carbon is an important soil property.
● Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the carbon associated with soil organic matter (SOM) together
with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.
● SOM comprises the remains of plants and animals in the soil at various stages of decomposition,
along with the microbial biomass and several by-products of complex biotic metabolic processes.
● It affects many soil properties such as hydrology, structure, and habitat and tends to be
concentrated in the topsoil.

Forms of soil organic carbon:

● Soil organic carbon is a complex mixture of organic compounds at different stages of
decomposition. Because different forms of carbon behave differently, they are often grouped into
three distinct pools:
Labile pool
Slow pool
Inert pool.
1. Labile carbon includes fresh plant and animal material and micro-organisms which are easily
decomposed.
2. The slow pool includes well-decomposed organic materials called humus.
3. The inert pool is the soil carbon fraction that is old, resistant to further breakdown and in the last
stage of decomposition. Soils differ not only in total soil organic carbon but also in the composition
of the different organic carbon pools.
● It is our aim to maximise the amount of slow pool and inert pool carbon as this will maximise soil
condition, health and stability.

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Why is soil organic carbon important?

The nature and quantity of organic carbon in the soil affects a wide range of physical, chemical and
biological soil properties.

1. Soil nutrients. Decomposition of organic materials in the soil releases soil nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus etc.
2. Soil structure. Soil organic carbon promotes good soil structure by binding soil particles together
in stable aggregates. Improved structure aids aeration, water holding capacity, etc.
3. Soil biology. Organic matter and organic carbon in the soil are a food source for a range of soil
organisms and so enhance soil biodiversity and biological health. A wide range of organisms in the
soil also helps release nutrients and create pores and can help protect against crop diseases.
4. Soil protection. Adequate soil carbon reduces the severity and costs of natural phenomena (eg
drought, flood, and disease) and can contribute to farm production and increasing soil organic
carbon is valuable for a range of soil health, sustainability and production benefits.
Climate. Rainfall and temperature have by far the strongest influence on soil organic matter levels. Soil
organic matter content is usually higher where rainfall is higher and temperatures are cooler. Soil organic
matter tends to decompose more rapidly in warmer soils.
1. Soil type. Soils that are naturally more fertile will tend to have higher organic matter contents due
to the greater amount of both living and dead organic matter (biomass) that can be produced. Soils
high in clay will tend to retain more soil organic matter than sandy soils.
2. Soil moisture. Moist soils tend to have more carbon than their drier counterparts. Waterlogged
soils or soils in wet depressions will tend to have more carbon.
3. Soil aeration. Soils that are better aerated tend to lose carbon more rapidly.
4. Topography. Soils at the bottom of slopes will usually have higher organic matter levels because
these areas are generally wetter and have higher clay contents. Poorly drained areas also have much
slower rates of organic matter decomposition and higher organic matter contents.
5. Plant productivity. The greater the plant growth, the more organic matter is made available to the
soil. The hardier the plant is, the slower the decomposition rate and hence the higher the soil organic
matter levels.
6. Management effects. Land-use and land management practices can also influence the amount of
organic matter in the soil. Land management affects soil carbon due to the balance of carbon inputs
against outputs (ie. how much organic matter is produced, how much is removed from the site).

Measures to improve Soil organic Carbon:

SOC is one of the three global indicators of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN). Hence, predicting,
monitoring change & protecting SOC is vital to achieving LDN targets.

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Advancing sustainable development goals through management of soil health:

#Goal Objective Impact of soil health

1 No poverty Increase farm income

2 End hunger Enhance quantity and quality of food

3 Good health Produce nutritious food

5 Gender equality Improve crop productivity of women farmers

6 Clean water and Improve water quality

sanitation

8 Economic growth An engine of economic development

10 Reduce inequalities Enhance and sustain farm productivity

12 Responsible Reduce input of water, nutrients and energy by decreasing losses

consumption

13 Climate action Sequester C and mitigate climate change

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15 Life on land Increase activity and species diversity of soil biota

Conclusion:
The 2015 Status of the World’s Soil Resources report highlights that more carbon resides in soil than in
the atmosphere and all plant life combined. However, roughly 33% of the world’s soils are degraded,
which has led to large losses of SOC. Capturing carbon in the soil helps improve soil health and
productivity, stabilize the global carbon cycle, and ultimately help to mitigate climate change.

ISLAND DEVELOPMENT

NITI Aayog’s Great Nicobar Development plan:

● NITI Aayog’s Great Nicobar Development plan aims to promote the holistic development of
Greater Nicobar. Based on that, the Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife
(NBWL) denotified the entire Galathea Bay Wildlife Sanctuary for building port and other
related infrastructure.

About Great Nicobar Island:

● Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands of India. The island of
Sumatra is located 180 km to the south of Great Nicobar.
● The island is home to one of the most primitive tribes of India — the Shompens.

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● The island includes the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve (GNBR) comprising the Galathea
National Park and the Campbell Bay National Park.
● Indira Point in the Great Nicobar Island is the southernmost point of India’s territory.

Great Nicobar Development plan

● Phase 1 of the plan will cover:
○ 22 sq. km. airport complex,
○ Transshipment port (TSP) at South Bay
○ Parallel-to-the-coast mass rapid transport system and
○ Free trade zone and warehousing complex on the southwestern coast.
● Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO) will be the nodal
agency for the implementation of the Great Nicobar Development plan.

Significance of the Great Nicobar Development plan

1. Job opportunities for locals: The plan involves the creation of infrastructure (ports, airports, etc.).
This will help in creating satisfactory jobs for the locals.
2. Economic Development: It will help in creating tourism prospects in the region. This will aid the
income generation in the region.
3. Connectivity: The development of world-class infrastructure will help in improving inter-island
connectivity. Thereby, improving governance and boosting export potential.
4. Social Benefits: It would further create affordable state-of-the-art facilities for healthcare, quality
education, and adequate air, sea and web infrastructure.
○ It will facilitate the delivery of e-governance services such as telemedicine and tele-
education, as a part of the Digital India initiative.
5. Strategic benefit: The Nicobar island located in proximity to the strait of Malacca. This demands
the creation of robust infrastructure for meeting geopolitical interests in the region.
○ The islands are also home to India’s only tri-services command – the Andaman and
Nicobar Command (ANC).
○ The command holds immense relevance due to rising Chinese aggression in the Indo-
Pacific region.

Concerns with the Great Nicobar Development plan

1. Threat to biodiversity: Any construction in the region threatens the survival of certain important
organisms. Such as,
○ The beaches at the mouth of the river Galathea in South Bay are among the most prominent
nesting sites of Giant leatherback turtles.
○ Similarly, 90% of the Nicobar megapode’s nesting sites are within a distance of 30 m from
the shore.
2. Jeopardizing environment for economics: Galathea sanctuary lies in Coastal Regulation Zone
(CRZ)-I (the zone with maximum protection). But still, a slew of high-value projects got
precedence over the pristine biodiversity.

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3. Neglecting tribal rights: The proposed project areas are important grounds for the hunter-gatherer
nomadic community especially Shompen. Initiation of work would make large forest areas
inaccessible and useless for the Shompen.
4. Geological volatility: Andaman & Nicobar Islands are located in seismic zone V. Furthermore,
The Andaman & Nicobar observe frequent storms and cyclones. This can easily destroy constructed
structures.
○ For instance, In 2004 Tsunami caused a 3-4 metre land subsidence. This is the reason for
the submergence of a lighthouse located at Indira point.
5. Undermining international obligations: The Galathea Bay Wildlife Sanctuary forms part of a
UNESCO World Heritage Site. So preservation of this pristine biodiversity is an International
Obligation of India.
6. Information Deficit: The rationale, process of creation, and other relevant provisions of the plan
are still not publicly available.

Suggestions
1. It must be carried out with due regard to tribal rights. This would involve proper adherence to
policies like the Shompen Policy of 2015.
○ The Shompen Policy of 2015 calls for giving priority to tribal rights over large scale
development proposals.
2. Any construction under the Great Nicobar Development plan should involve a proper
Environment impact assessment (as mandated by the Environment Protection Act 1986).
3. Construction of infrastructure should be done using eco-friendly practices like strict adherence to
GRIHA code for building construction.
4. NITI Aayog and the agencies participating in planning should maintain transparency in data.
The government should release the data on the rationale, the process of creation, consulted groups
etc. in public domain. This will give a holistic view to critics and supporters.
5. India should enhance Cooperation with countries like Japan, South Korea etc. This will help in
developing successful island development models.

DECARBONISING TRANSPORT

India’s Transport Sector:

● India has the world’s second-largest road network, which contributes to maximum GHG
emissions among all means of transportation.
● With increasing urbanisation, the sales of vehicles is increasing rapidly. It is projected that the total
number of vehicles will be doubled by 2030.
● Therefore, the transition to a decarbonisation path for the transport sector in India is essential to
achieving the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement for 2050

Decarbonising Transport:
● NITI Aayog in collaboration with International Transport Forum (ITF) has launched the
“Decarbonising Transport in India” project, with the intention to develop a pathway towards a
low-carbon transport system for India.

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● The India project is carried out as a part of the International Transport Forum’s “Decarbonising
Transport” initiative. It is part of the “Decarbonising Transport in Emerging Economies”
(DTEE) family of projects, which supports transport decarbonisation across different world
regions.
● The project will design a tailor-made transport emissions assessment framework for India.
● It will provide the government with a detailed understanding of current and future transport activity
and the related CO2 emissions as a basis for their decision-making.
● Financing climate actions in transport.
● Offering policy recommendations on electric vehicle (EV) demand and supply policies etc.

Benefits:
● The programme will help to promote electric mobility in India.
● It will also support the development of policies and regulations to promote electric vehicle charging
infrastructure.

Measures to achieve decarbonisation in transport sector:

● Transit oriented development (TOD) increasing the accessibility on short-to medium distances
that enable the use of public transit, walking and cycling.
● Emerging trends such as work from home, e-commerce etc. incentivising people to travel less.
● Make the use of CO2 and energy intensive modes less attractive, e.g. reduced and more expensive
parking space; high taxes on fuel and polluting vehicles, promoting electric vehicles etc.
● Improving energy savings Infrastructure: This includes escalators, lifts, building insulation,
heating, cooling, cogeneration, lighting, etc. Another example is the increasingly popular
production of renewable electricity from photovoltaic panels installed on roofs of maintenance and
parking/stabling facilities when tax or investment incentives are available.
● Other policies such as increasing commercial speed and reliability for public modes of
transport, such as priority at traffic lights and reserved corridors/lanes such as Dedicated Freight
Corridors.

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Government initiatives for decarbonising transport:

Roads 1. National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP).
2. Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric vehicles in India
(FAME India).
3. National Policy on Biofuels, 2018
4. Bharatmala Project.
5. BS VI norms.
6. Promoting public transports such as metro rail & Transit Oriented
Development.
7. H-CNG fuel based public transport.

Railways 1. Dedicated freight corridors.

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2. Railway Electrification.
3. Improving energy efficiency of locomotives & trains and green certification
for installations/stations.
4. It is all set to transform itself as 'Net Zero' Carbon Emission Mass
Transportation Network by 2030.

Airways 1. AAI has outlined a series of initiatives to check depletion of ozone layer and
emissions through improved air navigation service (ANS) procedures:
a. Route optimisation.
b. Upgrading of surveillance infrastructure.
c. Blended bio-jet fuel experiment.
d. Upper airspace harmonisation.
e. Collaborative environmental initiatives

Waterways 1. National Waterways.

2. Sagarmala Pariyojana.
3. Ro-Ro ferry services.
4. LNG propelled vessels.

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
Context:
● The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) proclaimed 2021–2030 as the Decade on
Ecosystem Restoration.
What is Ecosystem Restoration (ER)?
● It is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or
destroyed.
● The concept has gained importance due to the unprecedented pace of degradation of world’s
landscapes and ecosystems because of over-exploitation of natural resources.
● Restoration activities may be designed to replicate a pre-disturbed ecosystem or to create a new
ecosystem where it had not previously occurred.
● It involves practices such as restoring vegetation, planting native trees, clearing invasive species,
regenerative (perennial) agriculture, agroforestry etc.

Why is there a need for ecosystem restoration?

Terrestrial Ecosystems: Aquatic Ecosystems:

1. Declining land fertility: About 20% of the 1. Decline in wetland areas: Around 70
planet’s land area has seen a decline in percent of wetlands have been lost over the
productivity with fertility losses linked to last century, leading to biodiversity losses
erosion, soil depletion and pollution. This and acute water shortages.
affects vegetation. 2. Marine ecosystems: Climate change and
2. Declining Forest Cover: World’s forest human activities has led to:
area decreased from 31.6% of global land

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area in 1990 to 30.6% in 2015 and around a. Rise in Dead zones around major
70 million hectares of forests has been lost river deltas which affect fishing
since 2000. This has led to reduction in industry.
carbon sink and loss of habitat for a wide b. Coral reefs are projected to decline
variety of species. by a further 70 to 90 percent at a
3. Land degradation causes loss of more than temperature increase of 1.5
10 percent of annual global GDP. degrees Celsius.
3. 20 to 50 percent of global blue carbon
ecosystems have already been converted or
degraded.

What are the Benefits associated with Ecosystem Restoration?

● ER can help achieve International commitments & targets under agreements such as 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Paris Climate Agreement, Aichi Biodiversity Targets
etc.
● Climate change mitigation: Restoration could also remove 13 to 26 gigatons of greenhouse gases
from the atmosphere through healthy ecosystems such as forests, mangroves and peatlands.
● Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting and restoring ecosystems can help save the 1 million
animal and plant species currently threatened with extinction.
● Poverty Alleviation: Restoring 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030 can present
a boost to rural economies worth US$9 trillion in ecosystem services.
● Food security: Healthy soils can store more nutrients and produce higher quality plants.
● Enhanced tourism: through revival of natural landscapes.
● It can prevent conflict and migration triggered by environmental degradation.

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● Reviving coastal and marine biodiversity hotspots on Earth: These ecosystems also provide
storm protection, fisheries and carbon storage.

Challenges associated with ecosystem restoration:

● Time taking process: ER needs continuous and long-term efforts to generate desired results.
● High initial financial Investment: It will take around $ 800 billion to restore 350 million hectares
of land.
● Lack of coordination: Usually ecosystems do not confer to geographical boundaries and thus
international coordination is a necessity for restoration efforts.
● Poor understanding of ecosystem characteristics: ER without conducting proper research and
study of specific ecosystems can have undesirable results and cause further degradation.

UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration:

The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration aims to:
● massively scale up the restoration of degraded and destroyed ecosystems as a proven measure
to fight the climate crisis and enhance food security, water supply and biodiversity.
● Showcase successful government-led and private initiatives to halt ecosystem degradation and
restore degraded ecosystems.
● Enhance knowledge exchange to implement restoration at scale.
● Create links between ecosystem restoration and businesses interested in sustainable production
and impact investment.
● It includes forests, grasslands, croplands, wetlands, savannahs, inland water, coastal and marine
ecosystems, and even urban environments.
● On land, restoration of at least 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030 is targeted.
● UN Environment and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) will lead the
implementation.
● This endeavour builds on regional efforts such as:
○ o Initiative 20×20 in Latin America that aims to restore 20 million hectares of degraded
land by 2020,
○ AFR100 African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative that aims to bring 100 million
hectares of degraded land under restoration by 2030.

COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION
What is Compensatory Afforestation?
● The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 requires that non-forest land, equal to the size of the forest
being “diverted”, is afforested.
● Compensatory afforestation is defined as afforestation done in lieu of the diversion of forest
land for non-forest use.
● To compensate for the loss in the interim, the law requires that the Net Present Value (NPV) of
the diverted forest is calculated for a period of 50 years, and recovered from the “user agency”
that is “diverting” the forests.
Need for Compensatory Afforestation:
● India State of Forest Report(ISFR), 2019 stated that The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.56% of
the geographical area of the country.

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●For the past two decades concern for climate change and sustainable development is the talk over
all major international platforms but on the other side there is increasing deforestation, forest fires,
encroachments etc.
Compensatory Afforestation (CA) process in India:
● The Supreme Court of India in 2002 (TN Godavarman case) had ordered for the creation of
CAMPA fund.
● CAMPA was established in 2004 to manage the Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF)
● After the CAG report of 2013 where it was mentioned that CAMPA funds are going unutilised The
government enacted Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act 2016 to provide a proper
institutional mechanism for compensatory afforestation matters.
● National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India and State
Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state was created
● The State Funds will receive 90% of the payments while the National Fund will receive the
remaining 10%.
● The project proponent identifies land for CA and also pays the current economic value of the
diverted forest land ‘Net Present Value’. This money which is transferred to the forest department
gets collected in the Compensatory Afforestation Fund.
● The forest department then undertakes appropriate plantation work on that land, which grows into
forests over time.

Issues with the Act:

● Compromising community forest rights: The land identified for compensatory afforestation
would be under forest department’s jurisdiction thus, having adverse consequences for the hard-
won rights of tribals and forest dwellers.

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● Scarcity of land as land is a limited resource, and is required for multiple purposes, such as
agriculture, industry, etc. The problem is compounded by unclear land titles.
● A High Level Committee on Environment Laws observed that quality of forest cover has declined
between 1951 and 2014, with poor quality of compensatory afforestation plantations being one of
the reasons behind the decline.
● Lack of monitoring mechanism for expenditure from funds.
● Inadequate Capacity of state forest departments for planning and implementation. Still
utilisation of 90% of funds depend on it.
● .Artificial vs original: Natural ecosystems take thousands of years to develop over a place. Raising
artificial plantations elsewhere such as those along the flanks of railway lines, highways, and so on
can’t be supposed to have the same biodiversity value as the original ones. Often, they have a poor
survival rate.
● Also, computing the appropriate Net Present Value of a forest is a challenge.
● Poor survival rate of plantations raised under compensatory afforestation also raises serious
questions about their effectiveness.

Way forward:
An ecosystems approach with focus on climate justice and the rights and role of local communities is the
need of the hour. It should also address biodiversity and poverty effectively and challenge the underlying
causes of deforestation directly, resolving governance, poverty and land tenure issues.

OZONE LAYER RECOVERY

Context:
Recently the EU’s Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) announced that a hole in the
Arctic ozone layer, believed to be the biggest reported, has closed. Earlier A UN study ‘Scientific
Assessment of Ozone Depletion, has shown that the ozone layer is recovering at a rate of 1-3% per decade.
Ozone Layer:
● The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of the Earth’s stratosphere that absorbs most of the
Sun’s Ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Roughly 10 km to 40 km up in the atmosphere (the layer called
the stratosphere), the ozone layer is sunscreen, shielding Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

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What is ozone hole?

● The ‘ozone hole’ is not really a hole — it refers to a region in the stratosphere where the
concentration of ozone becomes extremely low in certain months.
● The ozone hole is a region of depleted layers of ozone above the Arctic & Antarctic region.
● Each spring over Antarctica, atmospheric ozone is destroyed by chemical processes. This creates
the ozone hole, which occurs because of special meteorological and chemical conditions that exist
in that region.
Factors responsible for the depletion of ozone:
● Manufactured chemicals deplete the ozone layer. The release of chlorine from CFCs
(Chlorofluorocarbons) destroys the ozone. CFCs are released by products such as hairsprays, old
refrigerators etc.
What healed the hole in the Ozone this year?
● The ozone hole’s closing was because of a phenomenon called the polar vortex, and not because
of reduced pollution levels due to Covid-19 lockdowns around the world.
● The hole in the North Pole’s ozone layer, which was first detected in February, had since reached
a maximum extension of around 1 million sq km.
How long will it take for complete recovery?
● As per UN study ‘Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2018, The Northern Hemisphere
and mid-latitude ozone is predicted to recover by around 2030, followed by the Southern
Hemisphere around 2050, and polar regions by 2060.
Measures taken:
● The IMO (International Maritime Organisation) mandated that cargo ships must not use fuel
that has sulphur content any higher than 0.5%. This will be implemented from 1st January
2020 as this is one of the many environmental-related issues that is associated with the shipping
industry.
● The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was signed in 1985 under which
UN member countries recognized the importance of curbing damage to the ozone layer. Montreal
Protocol to further the goals of the Vienna Convention.
● Efforts on an Individual level can be as follows:
● Avoid Using Pesticides
● Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
● The Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited

RESOURCES OF INDIA AND THE WORLD

OCEAN RESOURCES
Oceans cover 70 percent of Earth’s surface, host a vast variety of geological processes responsible
for the formation and concentration of mineral resources, and are the ultimate repository of many materials
eroded or dissolved from the land surface. Hence, oceans contain vast quantities of materials that presently
serve as major resources for humans.
Resources in the ocean:
• Classified in to two broad categories –

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BIOTIC RESOURCES ABIOTIC RESOURCES

• Biotic means alive and Abiotic means Mineral Reserves
non-living. 1. Mineral dissolved in sea-water
• Biotic resources of the seas 1. Salt
include fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, 2. Bromine
corals, reptiles and mammals etc. 3. Magnesium
1. Planktons 4. Gold
• Plankton are the diverse collection of 5. Zinc
organisms found in water that are 6. Uranium
unable to propel themselves against a 7. Thorium
current. 2. Continental Shelf and Slope Deposits
o Phytoplanktons– floating and • Sulphur – associated with marine
drifting micro plants. volcanism. Ex. Gulf of Mexico – a rich
o Autotrophs source of sulphur
o E.g.- algae and diatoms • Magnetite reserves are found along
o Zooplanktons– floating and the circum pacific volcanic belt.
drifting micro animals. • monazite sand (source of thorium) at
2. Nektons Kerala coast
• Nekton (or swimmers) is living • Gold (Alaska)
organisms that are able to swim and • Zircon (Brazil, Australia)
• Diamond (South Africa)
move independently of currents at
• Calcium-– Peruvian coast rich deposits
various depths of seas and oceans. E.g.- of calcium and phosphate
• Fishes- • Sand and gravel – significant building
o pelagic materials widely found on beds of
o demersal continental shelves
• mammals- • Fishes are rich in nitrate and phosphate,
• dolphin
high protein, medicinal use
• Pearls
• Blue whale
3. Deep ocean bottom deposits
Fishes • Manganese nodules– It comprises
• Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of several minerals like nickel, copper,
ocean or lake waters – being neither cobalt, lead, zinc, etc.
close to the bottom nor near the shore • The maximum percentage of Iron and
• Demersal fish that live on or near the Manganese.
• Cobalt-rich marine deposits associated
bottom.
with seamounts and guyots.
3. Benthos- • Phosphate-in form of phosphoritic
• Benthos is the community of organisms modules on shallow seabeds.
that live on, in, or near the seabed, also • Polymetallic nodules
known as the benthic zone. This • Polymetallic nodules are rounded
community lives in from tidal pools accretions of manganese and iron
along the foreshore, out to the hydroxides that cover vast areas of
continental shelf, and the seafloor but are most abundant
then down to the abyssal depths. on abyssal plains
• Benthos –
1. mobile • Energy reserves
2. immobile Renewable, OTEC, Wave, Tidal, Wind,
Non-Renewable, Gas hydrates, Mineral
oil and Natural gas

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Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) –

• Ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) uses the temperature difference
between a cooler deep and warmer
shallow or surface seawaters to run a
heat engine and produce useful work,
usually in the form of electricity.
• However, since the temperature
differential is small, the thermal
efficiency is low, making its economic
feasibility a challenge.
Wave Energy –
• Wave energy is produced when
electricity generators are placed on the
surface of the ocean. The energy
provided is most often used in
desalination plants, power plants, and
water pumps. Energy output is
determined by wave height, wave speed,
wavelength, and water density.
Tidal energy –
• Tidal energy is produced through the use
of tidal energy generators.
• Large underwater turbines are placed in
areas with high tidal movements and are
designed to capture the kinetic motion of
ocean tides in order to produce
electricity.
Offshore Wind energy –
• Offshore wind power or offshore wind
energy refers to the construction of wind
farms in bodies of water to generate
electricity from wind. Stronger wind
speeds are available offshore compared
to on land, so offshore wind power’s
contribution in terms of electricity
supplied is higher.

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How Deep sea mining can affect ocean resources:

● Life on the ocean beds moves at a glacial pace. Sediment accumulates at a rate of 1 millimetre
every millennium. With such a slow rate of growth, areas disturbed by deep-sea mining would be
unlikely to recover on a reasonable timescale.
● It is also likely possible that the extraction of resources on a large scale from the ocean beds may
result in the disturbance in the water cycle. In turn affecting the climate of the Earth.
● Species such as whales, tuna and sharks could be affected by noise, vibrations and light pollution
caused by mining equipment and surface vessels, as well as potential leaks and spills of fuel and
toxic products.

Measures: A better understanding of the deep sea is necessary to guide mitigation strategies and proper
enforcement of regulations in order to limit the environmental impacts of mining activities.
● Comprehensive baseline studies are needed to understand what species live in the deep sea, how
they live, and how they could be affected by mining activities.
● More funds are needed for training and educational programmes focused on improving our
understanding of the deep sea.
● High-quality environmental assessments are needed to assess the full range, extent and duration of
environmental damage from deep-sea mining operations.
● The repair, recycling and reuse of products should be encouraged to help reduce the demand for
raw materials from the deep sea.

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● The ISA is operating with the dual mandate of promoting the development of deep-sea minerals
whilst ensuring that this development is not harmful to the environment.

Q. Critically evaluate the various resources of the oceans which can be harnessed to meet the resource
crisis in the world.

OIL & NATURAL GAS

Geographical Distribution of Oil and Natural Gas Deposits
● Hydrocarbons - oil and gas - are at present the most important energy fuels.
● Together they account for more than 60 % of the world-wide total primary energy supply.
International Energy Agencies (e.g. IEA 2005) predicted a further increase of oil and gas demand.
● There is a geographical mismatch between resource location and demand that will continue to
increase in the future.
● About 70 % of global conventional oil and natural gas reserves are concentrated inside a so-called
Strategic Ellipse stretching from the Middle East to the North of West Siberia.
● Oil is of extreme importance for transportation, heat production and the chemical industry whereas
natural gas is primarily of importance for heat and electricity production as well as for chemical
industry.
● The availability of fuels, taking into account their uneven worldwide distribution, can be broken
down into the following elements:
○ Geological availability,
○ Technical availability,
○ Availability of transportation,
○ Political availability.
Oil Reserves:
● The regional distribution of conventional crude oil reserves is very uneven. Inside the so -called
Strategic Ellipse is located about 71 % of global reserves. About 62 % of global reserves are in
the Middle East, about 13 % in North and South America, and about 10 % in the CIS countries.
● OPEC has about 73 % of global reserves (of which 61 % is in the Persian Gulf region), OECD
about 8 %, leaving about 17 % for the rest of the world.

Natural Gas Reserves, production and consumption:

● Natural gas accounts for about 24 % of primary energy consumption, after crude oil and hard coal.
Its share has increased in the last several years. This trend is expected to continue in the future.
● The regional distribution, like for crude oil, is very uneven. Inside a so called Strategic Ellipse is
located about 69 % of global reserves. About 41 % of global reserves are in the Middle East, about
32 % in the CIS countries and about 8 % in Africa.
● OPEC has about 50 % of global reserves (of which 40 % is located in the Persian Gulf region),
OECD about 9 % .
● The three counties with major gas reserves Russia, Iran and Qatar dispose of more than a half of
global gas reserves.
● Figure : Strategic Ellipse and countries with natural gas reserves >1 T.m³

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● India, the world's third biggest oil importer and consumer, imports about 84% of its overall crude
needs with over 60% of that coming from Middle Eastern countries, which are typically cheaper
than those from the West

Factors that explain why diversification of energy sources is a good idea for India:
1. Growing price competitiveness: Energy alternatives such as gas, fossil fuels etc. collectively pose
a risk for power plant operators, along with end users, with their price volatility. While the natural
gas prices fluctuate from one state to another, the fluctuation of fossil fuel rates also appears from
time to time. But the renewable energy sector has witnessed tremendous advancement in the whole
value chain, especially the technology leap enabled by innovation along with immense potential to
drive down the prices of renewables rapidly.
2. Renewable energy is a safe bet for the long run: The average wind or solar farm is built for up
to 25 to 30 years of operation, which is even longer in case of hydro power plants. Consequently,
renewables have the capacity to continue generating electricity maintaining its efficiency that
further boosts competitiveness.
3. Energy security: While oil and gas sources are limited to certain regions of the world, renewable
energy is available everywhere and is domestic. Not only does it offer security of energy supply
but also reduces dependence on imported sources.
4. India is better placed for energy diversification: With various factors giving the renewable
energy segment a push, India now has a great opportunity ahead to shape its energy mix.
Contributing factors like supportive government policies, coupled with incentives and
infrastructure and investment promotions are being taken, to serve the social and economic growth
of the country through renewable energies.
5. Another important factor in favor of renewable energy is the lack of fiscal support from the
government. Therefore, an investor with capital can fund more projects across regions to diversify
resource-based risks.

Challenges for India: Despite these growth opportunities the segment is dealing with a bunch of challenges
like:
● grid integration
● counterparty risk,
● cost of finance,
● imbalance costs
● market creation has not been easy
● but with the rising awareness of environmental, economic and social benefits, public opinion has
been positive.
In a nutshell, diversification of energy supply is a great way to strengthen the energy security of any nation.
In order to attain a long term, sustainable energy strategy that protects the power supply from market
fluctuations, a diversified portfolio of energy could prove to be an asset. As the saying goes ‘never put all
your eggs in one basket’ and the power sector is not an exception.

Q. Discuss the distribution of oil and natural gas in the world. Make a case for diversification of
India’s oil basket.

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SHALE GAS RESERVES, PRODUCTION & POLLUTION

What is shale gas?
● Shale gas is natural gas, one of several forms of unconventional gas (also known as methane or
CH4).
● Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that can be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas.
● Shale gas is trapped within the pores of this sedimentary rock in three ways:
1.Free gas: The gas is within the rock pores and natural fractures.
2.Adsorbed gas: The gas is adsorbed on organic materials and clay.
3.Dissolved gas: The gas is dissolved in the organic materials.
● The Energy Information Administration of the USA predicts that by 2030, shale gas will meet 14%
of the world’s gas needs.
● China is estimated to have the world's largest reserves of shale gas.

How is shale gas produced?

● The United States, Canada, China, and Argentina are currently the only four countries in the
world that are producing commercial volumes of either natural gas from shale formations.
● Shale Gas is produced through a method known as hydraulic fracturing, most popularly known
as fracking.
● Shale gas reserves are usually distributed horizontally rather than vertically.

Shale Gas Reserves in India:

As per the NITI Aayog Report, India has 96 Trillion Cubic feet of recoverable Shale gas resources.

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India has identified six basins as areas for shale gas exploration:
● Cambay (Gujarat),
● Assam-Arakan (North East),
● Gondwana (Central India),
● Krishna Godavari onshore (East Coast),
● Cauvery onshore, and
● Indo-Gangetic basins.

Major challenges of shale gas exploration in India:

The Energy & Resource Institute (TERI) has raised certain concerns related to exploration of shale gas
in its report “Look Before You Leap” which discusses following major challenges:
1. Water Scarcity in India: Impact on availability of water for other purposes, since fracking requires
a huge quantity of water. This can be further supported by the report of 'India water portal’ which
points out that in the next 12– 15 years, while the consumption of water will increase by over 50
per cent, the supply will increase by only 5 to 10 per cent.
2. Environmental Concerns: The pumping of deadly hydrochloric acid and carcinogens into the
shale formations to release the gas pollute the groundwater.
3. Land Acquisition: Acquisition of huge tracts of land would pose not only legal challenges but
would also lead to displacement of large number of people.
4. Shale gas wells leak substantial amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
3.5. Way Forward:
Shale gas can be a solution for the rising energy requirements for a fast-growing economy like India.
Utilisation of domestic shale gas can support India’s growing energy demands besides reducing dependence
on expensive energy imports. However, the government needs to comprehensively regulate the fracking
process for developing sustainable shale gas exploration resources in India.

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RARE EARTH MINERALS

Rare Earth Minerals:
● The rare earth minerals (REM) are a set of seventeen metallic elements. These include the fifteen
lanthanides on the periodic table in addition to scandium and yttrium that show similar physical
and chemical properties to the lanthanides.
● The REMs have unique catalytic, metallurgical, nuclear, electrical, magnetic and luminescent
properties.
● While named ‘rare earth’, they are in fact not that rare and are relatively abundant in the Earth’s
crust

Strategic importance of REMs:

● They have distinctive electrical, metallurgical, catalytic, nuclear, magnetic and luminescent
properties.
● They are strategically very important due to their use of emerging and diverse technologies that
cater to the needs of current society.
● Its usage range from daily use (e.g., lighter flints, glass polishing mediums, car alternators) to high-
end technology (lasers, magnets, batteries, fiber-optic telecommunication cables).
● Even futuristic technologies need these REMs (For example high-temperature superconductivity,
safe storage and transport of hydrogen for a post-hydrocarbon economy, environmental global
warming and energy efficiency issues).
● The global demand for REMs has increased significantly in line with its expansion into high-end
technology, environment, and economic areas.
● They are extremely important for many modern technologies, including consumer electronics,
computers, and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, health care,
environmental mitigation, national defense, etc.
● Due to their unique magnetic, luminescent, and electrochemical properties, they help in
technologies perform with reduced weight, reduced emissions, and energy consumption; therefore
give them greater efficiency, performance, miniaturization, speed, durability, and thermal stability.

Applications of REMs in various fields:

● Electronics: Television screens, computers, cell phones, silicon chips, monitor displays, long-life
rechargeable batteries, camera lenses, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), compact fluorescent lamps
(CFLs), baggage scanners, marine propulsion systems.
● Defense Sector: Rare earth elements play an essential role in our national defense. The military
uses night-vision goggles, precision-guided weapons, communications equipment, GPS equipment,
batteries, and other defense electronics.
● Renewable Energy: Solar panels, Hybrid automobiles, wind turbines, next-generation
rechargeable batteries, bio-fuel catalysts.
● Manufacturing: High strength magnets, metal alloys, stress gauges, ceramic pigments, colorants
in glassware, chemical oxidizing agent, polishing powders, plastics creation, as additives for
strengthening other metals, automotive catalytic converters
● Medical Science: Portable x-ray machines, x-ray tubes, magnetic resonance imagery (MRI)
contrast agents, nuclear medicine imaging, cancer treatment applications, and for genetic screening
tests, medical and dental lasers.

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● Technology: Lasers, optical glass, fiber optics, masers, radar detection devices, nuclear fuel rods,
mercury-vapor lamps, highly reflective glass, computer memory, nuclear batteries, high-
temperature superconductors.
● These are used for air pollution control, illuminated screens on electronic devices, and the
polishing of optical-quality glass.
What is the rare earth dilemma?
● The extraction of REMs is one of the most environmentally negative and toxic generating of all
mining practices.
● Disproportionate rare earth mining has resulted in landslides, clogged rivers, environmental
pollution emergencies and even major accidents and disasters, causing great damage to people’s
safety and health and the ecological environment.
● China produces tens of millions of tons of wastewater every year while extracting rare earth
minerals.
● Therefore, it’s a dilemma whether we really have a better lifestyle using these materials in emerging
technologies or we are polluting our environment in the process too much!

India & REM:

● The ‘Make in India’ program whose goal is to make India a manufacturing economy will need
REMs in huge amounts.
● Although India is among the top five nations with reserves of rare-earth minerals, there is no
required technology to extract in an environmentally sustainable way. There is a need to develop
suitable technologies, promote Research and Development to tap the REM.

World Distribution of REM:

● REM reserves worldwide total 140 million tonnes. They are distributed mainly in China (55
million tonnes), the United States (13 million tonnes), India (3.1 million tonnes), Australia (2.1
million tonnes), Brazil (2.2 million tonnes), Malaysia (30,000 tonnes), Russia, Egypt, Canada,
South Africa and other countries.

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Q. What are rare earth metals? Discuss its geographical distribution and its strategic significance.

LITHIUM RESERVES

About Lithium:
● Lithium is a key component in green energy storage technologies and is rapidly becoming a metal
of crucial importance.
● It is a chemical element with the symbol Li.
● It is a soft, silvery-white metal.
● Under standard conditions, it is the lightest metal and the lightest solid element.
● It is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in mineral oil.
● It is an alkali metal and a rare metal.

Lithium Uses:
● Lithium is a versatile metal, with a wide range of uses. Its applications vary from its use, in the
form of lithium carbonate, as a medication to treat mental illness to its use in the manufacture of
lightweight alloys for the aeronautics industry. the main industrial uses of lithium.
● Lithium metal is used to make useful alloys. For example, with lead to make ‘white metal’
bearings for motor engines, with aluminium to make aircraft parts, and with magnesium to
make armour plates.
● Glass and Ceramics: For a long time, the principal use of lithium ore was in glasses, glass
ceramics, porcelain enamels, fritted glazes, raw glazes, and refractories. The glass and ceramics
industries are still major consumers of lithium.
● Butyllithium is used in both polymer and pharmaceutical industries as an intermediate.

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● Lithium as a Lubricant: Lithium grease is waterproof, capable of maintaining its viscosity for a
long time, has an extremely low melting point, high mechanical strength, and high thermal
resistance.
● Lithium in Warfare: Both stable isotopes of lithium 6Li and 7Li are used in the production of
nuclear weapons.
● Lithium Batteries: LIB advantages include high energy density, low self-discharge rate, long life
cycle, no memory effect, low maintenance, fast charging, and low weight.
● Lithium has become the new 'white gold' as the demand for high performing rechargeable
batteries is rising.

Global Lithium Reserves: Lithium is found in the Environment in water, soil, brines, minerals etc. The
aluminium silicate, spodumene, is the most commonly available economic lithium-bearing mineral.
World’s Lithium Reserves World’s Lithium Production

Country Reserves Country Production

● Chile 47% ● Australia 43%
● China 20% ● Chile 33%
● Australia 17% ● Argentina 13%
● Argentina 13% ● China 7%

Lithium Reserves in Karnataka:

● The survey shows presence of 1,600 tonnes of lithium resources in the igneous rocks of the
Margalla-Allapatna region of Karnataka’s Mandya district.
● Other Potential Sites:
○ The major mica belts in Rajasthan, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh.
○ Pegmatite (igneous rocks) belts in Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
○ Brines of Sambhar and Pachpadra in Rajasthan, and Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat.
Benefits of Domestic Exploration:
● Reducing Import Bill:
○ India currently imports all its lithium needs. Over 165 crore lithium batteries are
estimated to have been imported into India between 2016-17 and 2019-20, at an estimated
import bill of upwards of USD 3.3 billion.
● Reducing Overdependence on China:
○ China is a major source of lithium-ion energy storage products being imported into the
country.

Extraction Method:
• Lithium can be extracted in different ways, depending on the type of the deposit .
o Solar evaporation of large brine pools.
▪ A brine pool is a volume of brine collected in a seafloor depression.

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➢ For example: Brines of Sambhar and Pachpadra in Rajasthan.

o Hard-rock extraction of the ore (a metal-bearing mineral).
➢ For example: rock mining at Mandya.

Q. Discuss the importance of lithium mineral and its distribution in the world.

RUSSIA’S FAR EAST

India’s views on Russia’s new Far East Policy:
● India views Russia’s new Far East policy as both a geopolitical and geo-economic opportunity.
● Indian business should look beyond oil and gas and explore new opportunities in farming, mineral
exploration, manufacturing and shipping.
● The Russian Far East can also become a manufacturing base for Indian exporters seeking to tap the
markets of North-east Asia.
● Russia’s ‘pivot to the East’ and India’s move from ‘Look East’ to ‘Act East’ have created a new
framework for closer India-Russia geo-economic and geopolitical relations.
● As a labour-surplus and energy deficient economy, India can benefit from access to land (farming
and food) and energy resources in the Russian Far East.
● As a labour-deficit economy, Russia can benefit from Indian in-migration, which does not pose any
long-term strategic challenge in the manner that an influx from neighbouring regions could.
● At the St Petersburg Economic Forum 2017 India was a special guest. Addressing the Forum,
Prime Minister Narendra Modi emphasised that India-Russia relations were based on trust and,
would gain in strength in an ever-changing world.
● In September 2017, the then Indian foreign minister Sushma Swaraj led a high-level business
delegation to the meeting of the EEF in Vladivostok and committed India to closer economic
cooperation with the Russian Far East.

Indian Industries in the Region

• Indian firms have invested over $7 billion in taking stake in Russian oil and gas fields. ONGC
Videsh in 2001 acquired a 20 per cent stake in Sakhalin-1 oil and gas field in Far East Russia.
• OVL later bought Imperial Energy, which has fields in Siberia, as also stakes in Vankor oilfield in
eastern Siberia.
• IOC and its partners have picked up 29.9 per cent stake in a separate Taas-Yuryakh oilfield in East
Siberia.

Strategic and economic importance of Russia’s Far East:

1. Gateway to East Asia: India’s ties with the Russian Far East could help cement Indo-Russian
relations as well as bolster its ties with Central Asia and East Asia. It would connect India to East
Asia, especially Japan.
2. Economic opportunities: The region occupying 40 percent of Russia’s total territory is rich in
natural resources, particularly diamonds, gold, oil, natural gas, coal, timber, silver, platinum, tin,
lead, and zinc. It also has rich fishing grounds. The region is economically undeveloped, lacks good
infrastructure and communications.

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3. Employment opportunities: A lack of manpower is one of the main problems faced by the Far
East and Indian professionals like doctors, engineers and teachers can help in the region’s
development. Presence of Indian manpower will also help in balancing Russian concerns over
Chinese migration into the region. Further, India, one of the largest importers of timber, can find
ample resources in the region. Japan and South Korea have also been investing and New Delhi may
explore areas of joint collaboration.
4. Strategic importance: The Russian Far East is at the forefront of geopolitics centred on the Indo-
Pacific and is key in pivot to Asia. The region borders the Chinese provinces of is one of the longest
in the world. Presence in these areas will help to tackle China economically and strategically.
5. Energy Resources: The area's rich hydrocarbon reserves in the region throw up immense
opportunities for Indian companies. ONGC Videsh has already invested in the Sakhalin-1 project
and its terminal is acknowledged as the best in Russia. India is set to get gas from Gazprom that
will probably be liquefied at a plant near Vladivostok.
6. Small scale industries: For India, there is immense potential for mid-sized and small businesses
who should be assisted to overcome language and cultural barriers so that they successfully adopt
local business practices. The large diamond reserves in the region should be a magnet for the Indian
diamond cutting and polishing industry, which is already facing tough competition in Africa from
the Chinese.
7. Manufacturing industries: Infrastructure, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture development are also
areas of opportunity for Indian business and labour. Tele-medicine and long distance education are
other areas where Indian companies can make a mark. It would also help in increasing India’s
exports.
8. It is in this context that the Chennai-Vladivostok sea route development has been proposed.

Impact of cooperation between the Russian Far East and India:

Russian Far East is characterized by a huge geographic landscape that is very sparsely populated. It is a
backward region of Russia. Russia is keen to invest and accelerate economic growth in its Far East which
is closer to dynamic Asian economies.
1. India’s Interest in Arctic Region:
○ India looks forward to cooperating with Russia in the Arctic. India has been following the
developments in the Arctic region with interest and is also ready to play a significant role
in the Arctic Council.
○ Given access to the Northern Sea Route or Arctic Sea Route to Europe which will be the
shortest sea route to Northern Europe for India.
2. Russian Far East has a shortage of manpower. India can emerge as an exporter of skilled
manpower in the region.
3. Agriculture and lumbering:
○ Being very sparsely populated and as global warming leads to increasing farming time in
the region, Russia’s Far East can emerge as one of the most promising areas where farming
can be extended in the future.
○ Also, the region has extensive forest resources which can provide softwood for
supplementing India’s timber demands.
4. Diamonds:

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○ India is one of the most important diamond processing, cutting and polishing centres in the
world. Russian Far East is one of the main regions where diamonds are mined in the world.
5. Oil and Gas:
○ Russia is a reliable supplier of energy resources to the Indian market. Last year, about 2.3
million tonnes of oil, almost 550,000 tonnes of petroleum products and 4.5 million tonnes
of coal were delivered to India. A substantial part of Russian hydrocarbon exports in sent
to India from Russia’s Far East.
○ Indian partners own 20% in the Sakhalin-1 project. Russia has invited Indian companies to
join other promising projects such as Far Eastern LNG and LNG-2.
6. Mining
○ The region has extensive areas and mineral resources such as Coking Coal which India has
a very limited quantity of.
7. Tourism
○ Several Indian companies have been successfully set up in the Far East region, such as M/s
KGK in Vladivostok in the field of diamond cutting and M/s Tata Power in Krutogorovo
in Kamchatka in coal mining.

Q. Assess the geo economic and geo strategic importance of Russia’s Far East region. How climate
change is impacting the region.

INDIA’S ARCTIC POTENTIAL

Context:
● The Arctic is evolving as the new geopolitical conflict on global scenario. As the Arctic region
witnesses an unprecedented rate of ice-melt because of global warming, new routes are being
opened, paving the way for untapped hydrocarbon and mineral resources to be exploited.
What benefits does it offer to India and where do we stand in the race to Arctic resources?
● While India has been active in the Arctic for over ten years, it has not fully made use of its Observer
status, and it must give new energy to its activities in the region. Unlike the Antarctic, however,
the Arctic is not considered a ‘global commons’ and the principle of sovereignty prevents
external players from exacting significant gains in the region. Arctic contains approximately 13%
of the world’s undiscovered oil resources, 30% of its undiscovered natural gas resources, and 20%
of its undiscovered natural gas. India, being the fourth-largest energy consumer in the world,
can explore the hydrocarbon potential of this region. Tangible efforts have been made by India in
terms of scientific research and other projects and investments.
● India opened Himadri, it's only research station in the region in 2008.
● In July 2018, India displayed an increasing commitment to Arctic research when its National
Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research was renamed the National Centre for Polar and
Oceanic Research(NCPOR).
● India and Norway’s bilateral research cooperation is realised in the Norwegian Programme for
Research Cooperation with India (INDNOR).
● NCPOR has signed a contract with FESCO Transportation Group for access to the company’s
icebreaker vessel which will be utilised both for general cargo deliveries to Antarctic stations and
scientific activities in the Arctic region.

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● Generally, India is seen to have taken the lead among Asian Observer states placing more weight
on environmental and scientific rather than the economic potential of the region. Support for
such focus is certainly strengthened by the fact that the importance of agriculture to the Indian
economy and its dependence on monsoons, along with its long coast-line with a high population
make the country extremely vulnerable to climate change.
● By involvement in the research in the region, countries like India will be able to understand the
dynamics of glaciers melting, which it will be able to use in the regional problem of glaciers
melting in the Himalayas.
● India may extract out of its position at the Arctic Council and existing activities in the region the
ability to strengthen its international presence.
● India’s Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) Videsh Ltd. holds a 26-per cent stake in
Russia’s Vankorneft and a 20-per cent stake in the Sakhalin-I project.
●

Challenges:
● In the absence of an official Arctic policy, India’s Arctic research objectives are centred on placing
more weight on environmental and scientific aspects rather than the economic potential of the
region.
● While China, Japan and South Korea may benefit considerably from such connectivity with the
region, and more specifically Russia. India, for its part, is not as strategically located to extract
similar commercial advantages.
● The Arctic has enough hydrocarbons to cater to India’s energy needs, but India does not have
sufficient technical capability to undertake Arctic exploration.
India's Arctic Policy

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• Recently, the Ministry of Earth Science has unveiled India's Arctic Policy, titled 'India and the
Arctic: building a partnership for sustainable development'.
• Major Provisions of India's Arctic Policy:
o Six Central Pillars:
▪ Science and research.
▪ Environmental protection.
▪ Economic and human development.
▪ Transportation and connectivity.
▪ Governance and international cooperation.
▪ National capacity building.
• Objectives:
o It aims to strengthen national capabilities and competencies in science and exploration,
climate and environmental protection, maritime and economic cooperation with the Arctic
region.
o It seeks to strengthen institutional and human resource capacities within the
government and academic, research and business institutions through inter-ministerial
coordination in pursuit of India’s interests in the Arctic.
o It seeks to enhance understanding of the impact of climate change in the Arctic
region on India’s climate, economic and energy security.
o It aims to promote better analysis, prediction and coordinated policymaking on the
implications of ice melting in the Arctic on India’s economic, military and strategic
interests related to global shipping routes, energy security and exploitation of mineral
wealth.
o It seeks to study the linkages between polar regions and the Himalayas and deepen the
cooperation between India and the countries of the Arctic region under various Arctic
forums, drawing expertise from scientific and traditional knowledge.
o The policy also seeks to increase India’s participation in the Arctic Council and
improve understanding of the complex governance structures in the Arctic, relevant
international laws and geopolitics of the region.
Way Forward:
● India should remain engaged with the leading organisations like the Arctic Council where many
important decisions on the future of the Arctic region will be taken. Decisions regarding Arctic can
have direct or indirect impact on India.
● Equally, collaboration with Arctic countries outside the Arctic region may also align with
broader Arctic aims as in the case of the Indian Navy.
● India can learn from South Korea’s active Observer participation in working groups and the
encouragement it offers its researchers to participate in such frameworks.
● Today, when the Arctic is growing both in environmental and geopolitical relevance, it would be
unwise for India to ignore the importance of the region. India should utilise the meaningful
platform provided by developments in the Arctic region to display its competence in areas outside
of its immediate neighbourhood.

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AFRICA AS NEW GROWTH FRONTIER

Africa First: Global Growth’s New Frontier:
● The African continent is often described as “the new frontier” for global growth.
● Indeed, most of the African countries have experienced high rates of economic growth in the last
decade, and five of the world’s fastest growing countries are in Africa.
● The continent has also made substantial progress in terms of peace and security, and democratic
processes have grown stronger.
● Africa has about 600 million hectares of arable land and the world’s youngest and fastest
growing population— together, these provide an ideal base for sustained, long-term growth.

Factors promoting growth:

● Unlike in the past, African governments now have the agency to chart out their own development
pathways. Agenda 2063, the continental framework for socio-economic transformation, lies at the
heart of Africa’s vision for the future.
● The first ten year implementation plan has identified the following priority areas: continental
free trade area; integrated high-speed rail network; African passport; silencing the guns by
2020; and free movement of people.
● The continental free trade area presents a huge opportunity to alter the current trade paradigms by
allowing African countries to restructure their economies to support industrialisation and value
addition within Africa through regional value chains.

Why is the African Continent Important?

• Natural Resources- The continent is enriched in mines and minerals such as diamonds, gold,
platinum, and a variety of other forestry products abound in the continent, which is vital to the rest
of the globe.
• Human Resources - The continent is endowed with people who can toil under the scorching sun.
This continent has long attracted conquerors due to its natural and human riches.
• Strategic Location - The continent is strategically located between the Indian Ocean and the
Atlantic Ocean.
• Economic Growth- In 2019, the continent’s economic growth is expected to be 3.2 percent.
According to the World Bank, it also has six of the world’s fastest-growing economies.

Challenges
● Although Africa is well-positioned to be the growth pole for the world economy, there is a high
risk that extreme poverty will be concentrated in Africa by 2050.
● Africa will not be able to reap its demographic dividend if it fails to invest in human resources.
This is particularly important in the context of the fourth industrial revolution which requires a
highly skilled workforce.
● Job Creation will be a key challenge for African governments because high growth in the last
decade has largely been led by commodity exports.
● There is a need to de-risk private investment and augment the capacity of the private sector to
invest in Africa.

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● Although the pockets of conflicts have reduced remarkably and democracy has taken stronger roots
in Africa, the real challenge lies in converting elections into impactful leaderships. In a nutshell,
long-term peace and accountable governments hold the key to African development.

Measures that can be taken

● First, developed countries will have to meet their aid commitment of 0.7 percent of gross national
income per year.
● Second, African countries must be treated as equal partners in development, and not as mere
recipients of aid.
● Third, new types of development partnerships need to be forged. India and UK’s partnership in
Africa is a good example of triangular cooperation in Africa.

India’s Role:
● India has a longstanding development partnership with Africa but the scale of its operations in the
continent has expanded tremendously since the early 2000s.
● India is helping build critical infrastructure in Africa through the EXIM Bank’s concessional lines
of credit.
● One of the most successful Indian projects is a hydropower project in Rwanda which used to be
highly power-deficient. The hydro project built by India now covers 25 percent of Rwanda’s power
requirements.

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● Indian projects are purely demand-driven and capacity building is a key component of India’s
development cooperation.
Opportunities In India-Africa Relations:
▪ Addressing Food security: Agriculture and food security can also be a fulcrum for deepening ties.
o Africa has a major chunk of the world’s arable land but produces a very small percentage
of the global agri-output.
o India has proven expertise in the agriculture sector, being the top producer of much
agricultural produce.
o Thereby, India and Africa both can cooperate in ensuring food and nutritional security for
each other.
▪ Becoming Voice of Developing World: Just as India and Africa fought colonialism together, both
can now collaborate together for a just, representative and democratic global order that has a voice
for around one-third of humanity that lives in Africa and India.
▪ Combating Neo-Colonialism: China has been actively pursuing Chequebook and donation
diplomacy in Africa.
o However, Chinese investment is seen as neo-colonial in nature as it focuses on money,
political influence, hard-infrastructure projects and resource extraction.
o India’s approach, on the other hand, is one that focuses on building local capacities and an
equal partnership with Africans and not merely with African elites concerned.
o In this context, though Africa has been actively engaged with China, it wants India to act
as a balancer and net security provider.
▪ Enabling Strategic Convergence: Under the recent Quad Plus initiative whereby the countries
(US, India, Japan and Australia have recently engaged other countries such as South Korea,
Vietnam, New Zealand, Israel and Brazil) exchanged views and proposed cooperation with select
African countries about the Indian Ocean.
o Both India and Japan share a common interest in forging a partnership for Africa’s
development through the Asia-Africa Growth corridor.
o In this context, India can leverage its global status to establish Africa on the strategic map
of global politics.
▪ Preventing Global Rivalries: In recent years, several global economic players have strengthened
their engagement with African states, with an eye to rising economic opportunities, including in
energy, mining, infrastructure and connectivity.
o As global engagement in Africa increases, India and Africa can ensure that Africa does not
once again turn into a theatre of rival ambitions.
▪ Defence
o Defence is becoming a new area of collaboration
o In February 2020, India hosted the African Defence Ministers’ Conclave
o India has the potential to increase its defence exports to Africa
o African delegations have become more apparent at Indian defence fairs such as Defence
Expo and Aero India in recent years
o At Defence Expo 2020, the defense ministers and representatives of 50 African countries
signed the Lucknow Declaration with the Indian defense minister to recognize similar
security problems such as terrorism, extremism, piracy, and human trafficking.

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China Factor
• In Africa, there is a rivalry between India and China. In terms of trade, China and Africa have a
$220 billion trade surplus.
• China’s first overseas military post was in Djibouti.
• There should be more connectivity and face-to-face contact, which is critical for the development
of relationships.
• For example, random attacks against African nationals in India have been a source of worry; such
instances should be treated with zero tolerance in India.
• Ultimately, just as India and Africa collaborated to combat colonialism, both sides should
collaborate to construct a just, representational, and egalitarian world order that grants a voice to
one-third of humanity.

Q. Why has Africa been tipped as the’ next growth frontier’? How does India see its place in the
economic space of rising natural resource rich Africa?

INDIAN DEEP SEA FISHERIES- PROSPECTS, ISSUES & CHALLENGES

Deep Sea Fisheries:
● According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Deep-sea fisheries are those that take
place at great depths and many deep-sea fisheries take place in waters beyond national jurisdiction
(such as the Exclusive Economic Zone [EEZ]), that is in the high seas.
● In recent years, the deep sea fishery resources have become the iconic last frontier for the expansion
and in forefront of marine fisheries.

Fisheries Sector in India:

● Among the total world fish production India contributes more than 4 percent.
● India is the largest country in the Indian Ocean region comprising a coastline of 8129 km.
● India is the world’s second-largest fish producer with exports worth more than Rs 47,000
crore.
● Fisheries are the country’s single-largest agriculture export, with a growth rate of 6 to 10 per
cent in the past five years.
● Its significance is underscored by the fact that the growth rate of the farm sector in the same period
is around 2.5 per cent.
● It has a marine fisher population of 3.5 million; 10.5 million people are engaged in inland fishery
and fish farming.
● Indian marine fish harvest mostly centers around coastal waters up to 100 meters depth and about
90 per cent of the catch comes from up to 50 m.
● The fishery in India is confined to shallow inshore waters.

Prospects of Deep Sea Fishing in India:

● In India the coastal fishery sector is now facing challenges like the sustainability, resources
conservation and management;

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● therefore, there is an urgent need for looking forward the unexploited or least exploited resources
so as to meet demand towards the nutritional security of the country
● Moreover, there is an ample scope for increasing production by venturing into deeper waters of the
EEZ, which holds a potential of 1.7 million tonnes of underexploited and unexploited fin fishes and
shellfishes (ICAR,2011).
● This indicates the amount of opportunity available with us for development of this sector is huge.

Issues/ Challenges of deep sea fishing in India:

The following are the issues which require immediate attention while conceiving the idea of developing the
deep-sea fishery sector.
1. Sound and Suitable Deep sea Fishing Policy:
2. Unorganized marketing system: The existing marketing system in India does not have any
forward or backward linkages.
3. Strengthening data on the deep sea the resources : there is no time series data. Few institutes
like FSI and CMLRI which conducts surveys do have scattered data which need to be made
available to the public domain.
4. Higher Capital Investment and Recurring cost: In general terms the deep-sea fishing is
expensive compared to the coastal trawling operations.
5. Non availability of skilled manpower: In India, when the deep sea fishing sector is not organized
this is well known that there will be no or adequate manpower with technical competency. Almost
all the deep sea boat owners who surveyed felt that the longer duration of fishing in this sector is a
major limiting factor for non availability of Skilled man power.
6. Intrinsic life history traits of deep sea fishes: Deep-sea fishes in general have longer life, slower
growth, late maturity and less egg laying capacity. Moreover, large pelagics are migratory in nature
and are not confined to one area. They are prone to Environmental fluctuations. Therefore, the
deep-sea resources demand a precautionary approach to ensure its sustainability before the
resources are commercially exploited.
7. Lack of awareness among the consumers and low market acceptability: Deep sea fishes are of
typical colors due to their habitat which makes them unpopular among the consumers due to lack
of awareness. Moreover the Indian consumers are God believers and they have social stigma.
8. Technology gap for exploitation: The technology includes catch limits determination, minimum
discard oriented gears and suitable utilization and value addition.
9. National security: After the Mumbai terror attack during 2008, the security concerns of the country
have been a million dollar challenge to the security forces and the Union Govt. This issue needs
adequate deliberation and it should be addressed while developing or inducting a deep-sea fishing
fleet.
10. Compliance of International guidelines: International guidelines and codes though are mostly
voluntary and it is more of an instrument of reference to help the states in formulating and also
implementing the appropriate measures for the management of deep-sea fisheries in the high seas.

CONCLUSION

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● While there is enormous potential for the exploitation of oceanic larger pelagic from the pelagic
region of deeper waters and non-conventional resources,it is essential to develop value-added
products for domestic and export markets.
● It is also essential to create awareness on the edible qualities and the nutrient values of the non-
conventional resources among the public so as to generate a free market for many such deep sea
resources.
● Research and development programmes should be strengthened through projects on exploratory
deep sea surveys for pelagic, meso-pelagic and bathypelagic resources and their tropic and
population dynamics.

Q. Discuss the potential of Deep Sea fishing India. Why is India lagging in it?

WATER RESOURCES
Water Resources of India:
● Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe.
● Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it but fresh water constitutes only
about 3 percent of the total water. In fact, a very small proportion of fresh water is effectively
available for human use.
● India accounts for about 2.45 percent of the world's surface area, 4 percent of the world’s water
resources and about 16 percent of world’s population.
● The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The
availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this only
60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses.
Surface Water Resources:
● There are four major sources of surface water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks.
● The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km. However,
due to topographical, hydrological and other constraints, only about 32 per cent of the available
surface water can be utilised.

Groundwater Resources:

● The total replenishable groundwater resources in the country are about 432 cubic km.
● Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins, have about 46 per cent of the total replenishable groundwater
resources.
● The level of groundwater utilisation is relatively high in the river basins lying in north-western
region and parts of south India.
● The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil
Nadu. However, there are States like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc., which utilise only a small
proportion of their groundwater potentials.

Water Demand and Utilisation:

● India has traditionally been an agrarian economy, and about two-third of its population have been
dependent on agriculture.
● In fact, India’s water demand at present is dominated by irrigational needs.

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● Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilisation, it accounts for 89 per
cent of the surface water and 92 per cent of the groundwater utilisation.
● The share of the industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5
percent of the ground-water.
● The share of the domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as compared
to groundwater.

Emerging Water Problems / Status of Water Stress in India

● The per capita availability of water is dwindling day by day due to increase in population.
● Deterioration of Water Quality: The available water resources are also getting polluted with
industrial, agricultural and domestic effluents, and this, in turn, is further limiting the availability
of usable water resources.
● Receding water table: Reports from Bihar suggest that the water table there has fallen by several
feet of late. Well, over half of the districts in the state are facing or expected to be facing severe
groundwater over-exploitation.
● Suboptimal utilization of water infrastructure: Given suboptimal command area development
and distribution of water in ill-maintained (and uncovered) canals, leads to the suboptimal
utilization of water infrastructure and often results in heavy soil erosion and siltation.
● Monsoon: A recent report by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) shows a ‘significant’ drop in
rainfall in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal over the past three decades, and rising variability
in the monsoons nationwide.
○ Geological factors like steep slopes contribute to the lesser usability of the rainwater.

Status of Water Stress in India:

● India is moving towards water crisis fast:
○ Water stress condition: Per capita availability below 1700 Cubic Meters
○ Water Crisis: Below 1000 cubic metre
● According to a recent report by NITI Aayog, about three-fourth of the households in the country
don't have drinking water at their premises.
● With nearly 70% of water being contaminated, India is placed at 120th amongst 122 countries in
the Water Quality Index.
● It's a fact that water is a state subject and its optimal utilization and management lies
predominantly within the domain of the states.
● India tops the list of countries with the most number of people living with water scarcity.
● As many as one billion people in India live in areas with physical water scarcity, of which 600
million are in areas of high to extreme water stress.
● Approximately 330 million people from 302 districts were affected by droughts in 2016.
● Over 21% of the country’s diseases are water related. In 2015, India lost over 1 lakh children
under the age of five to diarrheal diseases.
● By 2030, India’s water demand is projected to be twice the available supply, implying severe
water scarcity for hundreds of millions of people and an eventual ~6% loss in the country’s GDP.
● As per a report by NITI Aayog, Bengaluru will soon be among one of the 11 cities in the world
to run out of ground water.

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○ The report also states that the ‘Day Zero’ will hit Bengaluru and 20 other major cities
(including Delhi) in India by the year 2020 affecting an estimated 100 million people.
○ Day Zero is a situation when taps in a region start running dry. It is a situation when there
will be no water in the taps and the use of water will become restricted for vital services
only.
● A recent report by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) shows a ‘significant’ drop in rainfall
in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal over the past three decades, and rising variability in the
monsoons nationwide.
○ Also, the hydrological conditions vary widely across regions. While some are drought-
prone, others witness recurring floods.

Groundwater Crisis:
● This crisis is also reflected in NITI Aayog’s “Composite Water Management Index” (CWMI),
which held that 21 Indian cities, including Delhi, Chennai and Bengaluru, will run out of
groundwater. It also noted that not only there is a quantitative crunch but 70% of India's water
resources are contaminated.
● India is the world’s largest user of groundwater, where groundwater contributes to more than
60% of the country’s irrigation resources.
● The over-extraction of groundwater is non-renewable since recharge rates are less than
extraction rates and replenishing this resource can take thousands of years. Its over-exploitation
is contributing to “the worst water crisis” in India’s history - as stated by NITI Aayog.

Water Crisis in Himalayan Region:

● Eight towns in the Himalayan region of Bangladesh, Nepal, India and Pakistan were nearly 20%-
70% deficient in their water supply.
○ The places surveyed are extremely dependent on springs (ranging between 50% and
100%) for their water, and three-fourths were in urban areas.
● Although only 3% of the total Hindu Kush Himalayan population lives in larger cities and 8% in
smaller towns, projections show that over 50% of the population will be living in cities by 2050.
Under current trends, the demand-supply gap may double by 2050.
● Factors responsible:
○ Climate change
○ Unplanned urbanisation
○ Encroachment and degradation of natural water bodies (springs, ponds, lakes, canals, and
rivers).

Disappearance of traditional water systems.

Causes of overall water crisis (groundwater + Surface Water):

Demand Side issues: Supply side issues:

● Population Pressure: Evident in declining ● Waste water not reused: India generates
per capita availability (2011- 1543 Cubic 61,948 million litres a day (MLD) sewage

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metres). daily, while only 23,277 MLD is treated.

● Water-intensive cropping: Agriculture ● Mismanagement of Water resources:
using greater than 85% of water available. Standard level of water not stored in
E.g. Sugarcane growing in water-stressed reservoirs based on seasons.
areas of Maharashtra ● Over-exploitation of GW Surface water
● Urbanisation, Industrialization: Even being polluted, choked (Mithi river in
though its water use share is low, it has Mumbai) and run-offs to sea without being
been increasing at an unprecedented level. efficiently utilized. In the last four
E.g. Rising water crisis each year in cities decades, about 85% of the total addition to
like Bangalore irrigation has come from groundwater.

Other Causes:

● Policy Issues: Groundwater is used to cultivate water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane
(promoted by Green revolution) in rain deficit states like Punjab and Maharashtra respectively.
○ State procurement policy and subsidized electricity in Punjab make it profitable for farmers
to produce rice. Similarly, farmers in Maharashtra cultivate sugarcane because they are
assured procurement.
● No Reliable Data: Water data is often unreliable, and is collected using outdated techniques and
methodologies.
○ There is no single water database for the country. In 2016, the standing committee on water
resources of the Indian parliament finally recommended having a national groundwater
database that could be updated every two years. However, not much has been done in this
regard.
● Climate change induced variability: Increased El-nino events, reduced and unpredictability of
rainfall has complicated water use and management.
● Eutrophication, oil spills impacting water usage in backwaters, lagoons in coastal areas.
● Poor Water Treatment Plants: Barely 2% of our urban areas have both sewerage systems and
sewage treatment plants.
○ India's urban centers produce over 40,000 million litres of sewage daily, but only about a
fifth undergoes treatment.

Steps Taken by The Government

● MGNREGA for water conservation:

○ The huge workforce employed under the MGNREGA(Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act) has enabled the government to introduce water conservation
as a project under the Act.
○ The government aims to improve groundwater harvesting and build water conservation and
storage mechanisms through MGNREGA.
● Jal Kranti Abhiyan:
○ The Jal Gram Scheme under the Jal Kranti Abhiyan is aimed at developing two model
villages in water-starved areas to lead the other villages towards water conservation and
preservation.
● National Water Mission:

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○The Government of India has launched the National Water Mission with the objective of
conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring more equitable distribution both
across and within states through integrated water resources development and management.
○ One of the objectives of the Mission is to increase the water use efficiency by 20%.
● National Rural Drinking Water Programme:
○ It seeks to provide every rural person with adequate safe water for drinking, cooking and
other basic domestic needs on a sustainable basis.
● NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index:
○ With the objective of achieving effective utilization of water, NITI Aayog has developed
the Composite Water Management Index.
○ The index revolves around issues ranging from water scarcity and related morass like
deaths due to lack of access to safe water, its projected increase in demand over the years
and finding ways for its effective conservation.
● Jal Shakti Ministry and Jal Jeevan Mission:
○ The efforts like the formation of Jal Shakti Ministry (to tackle water issues holistically)
and the goal to provide piped water to all rural households by 2024, under the Jal Jeevan
mission, are steps in the right direction.
● Atal Bhujal Yojana: the Jal Shakti Ministry has recently launched Atal Bhujal Yojana which
aims at improving groundwater management. It is a World Bank-funded, central sector scheme
aimed at improving groundwater management and restoring the health of the country’s aquifers.
○ The scheme will be implemented in seven states — Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh which are over-exploited and
water-stressed areas of the country.
○ The Atal Bhujal Yojana seeks to revive village-level Water User Associations (WUAs).
The scheme will strengthen the financial state of the WUAs, including allowing these
bodies to retain a significant portion of irrigation fees.
Way Forward

● Rational pricing of water can be put to practice, keeping in mind the affordability of the
population in the country. People tend to neglect the importance of water conservation because in
most places it is free of cost or charged nominally.
● Along with this, reuse, reduction and recycling of water should be promoted.
● River rejuvenation ought to be a policy priority of the Centre and state governments.
● There is a need to leverage Information Technology to revamp water-related data systems, which
seem to be sorely lacking in coverage, efficiency or robustness.
● Conservation agriculture i.e. farming practices adapted to the requirements of crops and local
conditions. Cultivation of less water-intensive crops like pulses, millets and oilseeds should be
encouraged in water-stressed regions.
● Decentralised approach, with a key focus on water conservation, source sustainability, storage
and reuse wherever possible. A participatory approach is needed in water governance.
● Rainwater harvesting should be incorporated into urban planning.
● Need to emphasis on behavioural change, differentiating of potable and non-potable water usage
by the citizenry will go a long way in bringing a Jan Andolan

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● There is a need to leverage Information Technology and GIS to revamp water-related data
systems.
● Need to emphasis on behavioural change in water usage by the citizenry will go a long way in
bringing a Jan Andolan
Q. India is well endowed with fresh water resources. Critically examine why it still suffers from water
scarcity.

Q. The effective management of land and water resources will drastically reduce the human miseries.
Explain

TRADITIONAL RAINWATER HARVESTING

Water Harvesting in Indian History:

● Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra gives an extensive account of dams and bunds that were built for irrigation
during the Mauryan Empire by Chandragupta Maurya.
● Large-scale development of lakes and well irrigation are seen during the time of the Pandya, Chera
and Chola dynasties in South India. Ex. Chola Lakes.
● King Bhoja of Bhopal built the largest artificial lake (65,000 acres) in India, fed by streams and
springs, originally called Bada Talab and now Bhojtal.
● Rajatarangini by Kalhana describes a well- maintained irrigation system in Kashmir.

Examples of Traditional Water Management Techniques Still in Use Today

● Northern India
○ Kuls/Kuhls (Himachal Pradesh):
■ Long channels are mainly found in Himachal Pradesh and in some parts of Jammu
and Kashmir. The kul begins at the glacier and leads into a circular tank from
where, when water is needed to irrigate the fields, a trickle of water is let out. This
distribution is regulated by the villagers (Araghatta).
○ Johads (Rajasthan and Haryana)
■ Johads are small earthen check dams that hold rainwater, aiding groundwater
recharge and slow percolation to the underground aquifer.
● Southern India
○ Kovil Kulam (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala)
■ The tanks vary in size and shape with corridors and long flights of steps
surrounding them. Intricate inlet channels bring water from a stream or river and
outlets carry away the excess water.
○ Surangas (Western Ghats)
■ These horizontal structures are tunnel-like wells that use gravitational force for
extraction of groundwater and then collect it into a storage tank. This is then used
for irrigation.
○ Eri (Tamil Nadu)
■ One of the oldest water conservation systems in India, it is still widely used across
the state. Eris are fed through channels that divert river water, or rain-fed ones.

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They are usually interconnected to balance the water in case of excess or scarce
supply.
● Eastern India
○ Ahar Pynes (South Bihar)
■ Ahar is a catchment basin supported on three sides and built at the end of a canal
or structures called pynes. The process starts from the river, the water then goes to
pynes and eventually lands up in an ahar.
● Western India
○ Virdas (Banni grassland, a part of Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat)
■ Built by the nomadic Maldhari people. These unique structures are shallow
wells,dug in depressions to collect rainwater, which separate freshwater from
saltwater as groundwater is mostly saline.
■ Kunds/Kundis (Bikaner, Jaisalmer region, West Rajasthan and parts of
Gujarat)
● Normally they are round and have a cover that looks like the lid of a
saucepan. They are built to hold rainwater for drinking and domestic use.
It is lined with lime and ash that act as disinfectants, and a wire mesh is
used at the opening to prevent debris from falling in.
● North-East India: The north-eastern region is one of the most ethnically diverse regions in India.
Diverse indigenous water harvesting systems are prevalent here. Systems are designed with local
materials making it sustainable and easy to maintain.
○ Bamboo drip system (Meghalaya)
■ This two-hundred-year-old ingenious system uses local bamboo pipes of varying
length and diameter to divert perennial spring water. It is still used by the tribal
farmers of Khasi and Jaintia Hills to irrigate black pepper cultivation.
○ Zabo (Nagaland): A centuries-old system that combines forest, land and water
management with agriculture. When rain falls on terraced hill slopes, the run-off collects
in ponds in the middle terrace. The runoff then passes through slopes where cattle is reared
and finally reaches the paddy fields at the foothills
○
Q. Discuss the traditional rainwater harvesting systems in different regions of India

HYDRO POWER POTENTIAL OF NORTH EASTERN REGION

North East Region has huge potential for Hydro Power generation:

● India’s Northeastern states, with their mountainous topography and perennial streams, have the
largest hydropower potential in all of India.
● Together, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and
Tripura account for almost 40 percent of the total hydropower potential of the country.
● The Northeast has frequently been called the “Future Powerhouse” of India.
● In 2001, the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) conducted a preliminary study of the hydroelectric
potential of various river basins in India, ranking the Brahmaputra basin the highest.
Constraints in Hydroelectricity Projects in the Northeast:

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● Fund Constraints: Normally, the developers of the Projects prepare the project reports taking
debt-equity ratio as 70:30. Many a time, they are unable to get creditors because of the bad
reputation of the region itself.
● Lack of Clearance: The delays in environmental and forest clearances have been cited as one of
the major reasons for apprehensions and entry barriers.
● Geological Issues: India’s Northeast is one of the six most seismically active regions in the world.
The lack of proper historical cataloguing of earthquakes, poor knowledge of ground motion post-
earthquake, and the variation of spectral acceleration can lead to incorrect assessments.
● Land-Acquisition Issues: Land acquisition for the Projects is a very cumbersome exercise. Many
of the projects become unviable because of the exorbitant land acquisition costs.
● Sediment management: The Brahmaputra and Meghna systems (the main river systems in the
Northeast region), together with the Ganga system, are the largest carriers of sediment in the world.
Sediment accumulation in the reservoirs of large hydroelectric projects can diminish their life
expectancy.
● Transboundary river management: In the case of Northeastern states, the majority of the projects
are being built on basins that are shared between India and Bangladesh. The projects developed by
India (the upstream country) creates panic concerning water scarcity and ecological distress in the
lower riparian Bangladesh, e.g. the hydroelectric projects on Teesta, some rivers in Tripura, or the
proposed Tipaimukh dam

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● Law and order issues: The North Eastern Region has a dubious history on the law and order front.
This greatly hampers all kinds of development work. For any Project to go on smoothly, it is very
essential to have a sense of security among the people executing the project.

In the year 2017, a Committee was constituted to deliberate upon and make recommendations for proper
management of water resources in the North Eastern Region.The committee recommended:
1. There should be a realistic assessment of hydropower potential in the region. The huge amount
of water in the Brahmaputra and other rivers should not be the sole parameter for the assessment.
2. The cost-benefit analysis should not avoid taking into account the cost of biodiversity loss, natural
habitat destruction and livelihood loss.
3. Small Hydro-Power Projects need to be preferred over the large ones to ensure minimal damage
to the ecology and the livelihood of the people.
4. While going for Environment Impact Assessment, the rigour demanded of the exercise should
not be compromised with.
5. It has quite often been observed that the compensation given to the landowners is frittered away
on immediate consumption needs. Proper counselling may be carried out to advise how best to
invest/utilize the compensation money for creating assets for sustainable livelihood.
6. Reclaiming of the adjacent land by suitable methods needs to be carried out to ensure the
maintenance of ecological balance.
7. The local traditional economy should be integrated with the economic benefits arising out of the
project.
Q. North East Region has huge potential for Hydro Power generation, however it remains untapped
even after 15 years of ambitious plan to harness it. Discuss the reasons for this state. Also examine
potential of community managed mini hydro projects in the region.

COAL
Distribution of Coal in India

Distribution of Gondwana Coal in India Distribution of Tertiary Coal In India

● Gondwana coal fields (250 million years ● Tertiary coal fields (15 – 60 million years
old). old).
● Found exclusively in Peninsular India. ● Found in the North Eastern Region.
● Gondwana coal makes up to 98 per cent of ● Coal generally has low carbon and high
the total reserves and 99 per cent of the percentage of moisture and Sulphur.
production of coal in India. ● Mainly confined to the extra-Peninsula
● Gondwana coal forms India’s (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
metallurgical grade as well as superior Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh
quality coal. etc.)
● Coking as well as non-coking and ● Important areas of Tertiary coal include
bituminous as well as sub-bituminous coal parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal
are obtained from Gondwana coal fields. Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of

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● Anthracite is generally not found in the Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and
Gondwana coal fields. Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
● Top 5 States in terms of total coal reserves Kerala,(Tertiary Peat).
in India are: Jharkhand > Odisha > ● Tamil Nadu and the union territory of
Chhattisgarh > West Bengal > Madhya Pondicherry also bear tertiary coal
Pradesh. reserves. (Tertiary Lignite).

Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal

Coking Coal or Metallurgical Coal Thermal Coal or Non-Coking Coal or Steaming

coal

● High carbon content, less moisture, less ● Sulphur content is high and hence cannot
sulphur, less ash. be used in iron and steel industry.
● Sulphur is not good for iron and steel ● Creating coke using this coal is not
industry economical.
● Used to create coke. ● Thermal coal is used to generate power.
● Coke is produced by heating bituminous ● Major producers: China, Australia, USA,
coal without air to extremely high Russia.
temperatures. ● Major exporters: Australia, South Africa.
● Coking coal is an essential ingredient in
steel production.
● Major producers: Australia, Canada,
United States.
● Major exporters: Australia, Canada, United
States.
● India also imports coking coal.

Coal Reserves in India by State:

state Reserves in billion tonne % of total reserves

JHARKHAND 80.71 26.76

ODISHA 75.07 24.89
CHHATTISGARH 52.53 17.42
WEST BENGAL 31.31 10.38
MADHYA PRADESH 25.67 8.51

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ANDHRA PRADESH 22.48 7.45

MAHARASHTRA 10.98 3.64
OTHERS 2.81 0.95

Problems of Coal Mining in India

● The distribution of coal is uneven.
● High ash content and low caloric value.
● Large percentage of coal is taken out from underground mines. (Very few open cast mines).
Selective mining leading to large scale wastage of raw coal.
● Unscientific method of extraction of coal.
● Heavy losses due to fires in the mines.
● Pilferage at several stages also adds to losses – bad transportation infrastructure.
● Serious problem of environmental pollution. High ash, moisture, more smoke.
● Safety measures against environmental pollution are very costly. Clean coal technology is a
Complex technology.
● Misuse of good quality coal for burning into transport and industries.
● Delayed environment and forest clearances: Environment ministry in past has classified
ecological sensitive areas in ‘Go and No Go areas’ and there was total prohibition on mining in no
go areas.
● Land Acquisition problems.
● Allocation process was arbitrary, discretionary and non-transparent.

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● Till now, the PSU, Coal India was the only commercial miner in the country for more than four
decades which has shown monopolistic tendencies in the sector. Monopoly in the mining sector
was incapable of meeting domestic demands.
● Low productivity of Coal India is still a concern.
● Expansion in power generation in India has been largely based on state financing i.e many coal
power plants in India are constructed through massive debt financing from state-owned banks.
○ It shows that international investment in coal generation assets in India has been very less.

Coal Sector Reforms/ What is commercial mining?

● Commercial mining allows the private sector to mine coal commercially without placing any end-
use restrictions. The private firms have the option of either gasification of the coal or exporting it.
● They can also use it in their own end-use plants or sell them in the markets. The government expects
more than Rs 33,000 crore of capital investments over the next five to seven years in the sector.
● Further, with 100 per cent foreign direct investment allowed in the coal sector, global companies
can also participate in the auctions. The complete freedom to decide on sale, pricing, and captive
utilisation is expected to attract many private sector firms to participate in the auction process.
● The government expects these steps will generate employment and reduce India’s import bill.

Why is it a transformative reform?

● Over the years, our coal imports have been steadily rising to meet our domestic demand. In the
wake of recent disruption of global supply chains and India’s call for self-reliance, it is imperative
that we allow our private sector to mine coal in India and for India. With nationalised coal mines
failing to meet our demand, commercial coal mining is the only panacea for India to get rid of coal
imports, achieve energy security and reduce import bills.
● Commercial mining licences with regulatory oversight and monitoring will facilitate employment
opportunities for tribal communities and local populations.
● The revenues of states are bound to receive a substantial jump when commercial mining starts in
these states
● Entry of private sector in the coal sector has immense forward and backward linkages. The
backward linkage of transportation and physical infrastructure is bound to create clusters of growth.
In forward linkage, sectors such as cement, fertilisers, steel, and aluminium will bolster tremendous
growth.
● The entry of the latest global mining technology, management and competition is bound to
revamp the sector from inside.
● For many, the blanket objection is the adverse impact on the environment. They should realise that
India continues to import coal. At least when we are mining coal within the country, we can take
all the necessary precautions.
Q. Discuss the distribution of coal in India. How has this distribution impacted the distribution of
industries in India in the last 100 years? Examine issues related to coal mining in India.

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RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY:

About Renewable Energy:
● India’s renewable power capacity is the fourth largest in the world and is growing at the fastest
speed among all major countries.
● 38% of India’s installed electricity generation is from renewable sources (136 GW out of 373
GW).
● In the Paris agreement India has committed to the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution
target of achieving 40% of its total electricity generation from non-fossil sources by 2030.
● The country is aiming for an even more ambitious target of 57% of the total electricity capacity
from renewable sources by 2027 in the Central Electricity Authority’s strategy blueprint.
● According to the 2027 blueprint, India aims to have 275 GW from renewable energy, 72 GW of
hydroelectricity, 15 GW of nuclear energy and nearly 100 GW from “other zero emission” sources.
● India announced that it will be more than doubling its renewable energy target from 175GW by
2022 to 450GW of renewable energy by the same year

Why Renewable Energy?

● Sustainable Energy: Energy generated from renewable sources will be cleaner and greener and
more sustainable.
● Helps conserve the nation's natural resources.
● Energy Security: Providing 24*7 power supply to 100% of the households, sustainable form of
transports are some of the goals that can only be achieved through sustainable power that comes
from renewables.
● Employment opportunities: Inclusion of a newer technology simply means more employment
opportunities for the working population of the country.
● Market assurance: From the economy point of view, renewable sources provide the market and
revenue assurance which no other resources can provide.

India increasing share of renewable energy:

● India has an installed renewable energy capacity of 89 GW ( Industry Outlook Report 2020). It
included 38.12 GW capacity of wind power, 36.05 GW of solar capacity, 10.31 GW of biopower
and 4.74 GW of small hydro power capacity.
● According to the report, compiled by the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), the World
Institute of Sustainable Energy (WISE) and the Indian Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association
(IWTMA), India could see around 5 GW new wind capacity installed every year to 2020,
attracting around $16.5 billion of annual investment.
● Factors responsible:
1. Pradhan Mantri- Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan: PM- KUSUM aims to
provide financial and water security to farmers through harnessing solar energy capacities of
25,750 MW by 2022. Solarisation of water pumps is a step in distributed power providing at the
doorstep of the consumer.
2. PLI Scheme: The Production Linked Incentive Scheme (PLI) scheme proposes a financial
incentive to boost domestic manufacturing and attract large investments in the electronics value
chain including electronic components and semiconductor packaging.

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3. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy on its website also hosts Akshay Urja Portal and
India Renewable Idea Exchange (IRIX) Portal. IRIX is a platform that promotes the exchange
of ideas among energy conscious Indians and the Global community.
4. Waiver of inter-state transmission charges for the sale of solar and wind power, the renewable
purchase obligation (RPO) trajectories for states.
5. Permitting FDI in the renewable sector has accelerated the progress.
6. Most renewable power generation companies in India are committed to selling their power to
consumers—mostly discoms under the long-term Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs).
7. The CERC approved trading of renewable energy contracts under Green Term Ahead Market
(GTAM) on the energy exchange. The green market will ultimately encourage green generators to
adopt multiple models of sale and trading.

Initiatives has India Taken to Facilitate Renewable Energy Transition:

• In 2019 India announced that it would take up its installed capacity of renewable energy to 450
GW by 2030.
o At CoP26, India committed 50% of its total power generation from Renewable Energy.
• The Production Linked Incentive Scheme (PLI) scheme is another initiative of the Government
of India with respect to enhancing the manufacturing sector for the production of raw materials for
renewable energy.
• The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy on its website also hosts Akshay Urja
Portal and India Renewable Idea Exchange (IRIX) Portal.
o IRIX is a platform that promotes the exchange of ideas among energy conscious Indians
and the Global community.
• India’s decision to achieve ‘net zero’ by 2070 has been hailed globally as a game changer. The
country has made reasonable progress by reaching nearly 110 GW of RE by the end of March
2022.
o It has also committed $35 billion of the $122 billion in energy-related funding to
renewables, almost twice the amount allotted to fossil fuels.

Economic Significance of Renewable Energy:

• Renewables form a vital component of green recovery, especially in a fast-developing country
like India.
o The renewable sector is not just competitive economically, but also holds immense
potential for job creation since clean energy technologies such as solar are far more
labour intensive than conventional energy sources.
• It has been estimated that in reaching its goal of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy sources by
2030, India could create as many as 3.4 million new clean energy jobs providing employment
to over a million people.
o This is expected to come largely from Distributed RE, which will create opportunities
for local employment.
• Such efforts might also encourage the start of new ventures, and help scale up domestic
businesses.

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• India also has the potential to become a manufacturing hub for upcoming technologies like
green hydrogen and energy storage.
• From the economy point of view, renewable sources provide the market and revenue
assurance which no other resources can provide.

Wind power
● The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in
the last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or
the US, domestic policy support for wind power has led India to become the country with the fourth
largest installed wind power capacity in the world.
● The installed capacity of wind power in India is 34,293 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
● Wind power accounts for 10% of India's total installed power capacity.
● India has set an ambitious target to generate 60,000 MW of electricity from wind power by 2022.
● The Indian Government's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy announced a new wind-solar
hybrid policy in May 2018. This means that the same piece of land will be used to house both
wind farms and solar panels.
● The National Institute of Wind Energy, (NIWE) located at Chennai is an autonomous R&D
institution under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy established to serve as a technical
focal point for orderly development of Wind Power deployment.
● India has a strong manufacturing base in wind power with 20 manufactures of 53 different wind
turbine models of international quality up to 3 MW in size with exports to Europe, the United States
and other countries.

Key Issues With Renewable Power Generation:

1. Regional Concentration of Renewable Energy Potential: Because Renewable Energy is
location-specific and not evenly distributed, there are problems on scaling up grid connected
renewable power.
2. Insufficiency and High cost of Evacuation Infrastructure: Utilisation of variable Renewable
Energy requires a robust transmission infrastructure from remotely located generating plants to the
load centers. This requires infrastructure such as roads etc as well as land for installation.
3. Financial Barriers: Renewable Energy technologies require large initial capital investment.
These technologies need to be supported until technology breakthroughs and market volumes
generated are able to bring the tariff down at the grid parity level.
4. Low Penetration of Renewables for Urban and Industrial Applications.
5. Policy Interventions to Incentivize Creation of Financeable Business Models for Off-grid
Renewable Sector: Off-grid renewable sector is much more competitive with conventional power
as it avoids investment in transmission to remote locations. E.g. Rice Husk gasifiers based
electricity generation is one such model.

India’s Key Focus for Next Five Years:

1. India has a twin challenge of providing more energy as well as cleaner energy to the masses in
India. It should focus on getting into the manufacturing of the solar panels under the Atma Nirbhar

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Bharat initiative as the demand is to create jobs as well as supply decentralised energy to all the
households in India.
2. Hydrogen based Fuel Cell Vehicles: Hydrogen in technology is likely to change the landscape of
renewables, shifting towards Hydrogen Based FCV is another area of focus. These are the most
suitable options when it comes to shifting towards renewable sources of energy, that’s where we
need to work upon.
3. Methanol based economy: Looking for other alternatives such as methanol based economy and
biomass. Bio-CNG vehicles with 20% blending in petrol is also a target the government has been
chasing. Fuels produced from biomass have a high calorific value and are cleaner than traditional
biomass.
4. Grid Integration: It is the practice of developing efficient ways to deliver variable renewable
energy (RE) to the grid.
5. Identifying the demands which are in tune with the characteristics of the renewables, focussing on
characteristics of renewables mainly solar and wind and considering their variability as strength
rather than weakness.

Way Forward:
● A well planned road map is needed, for which NITI Aayog is coming up with Energy Vision 2035
to achieve India's clean energy goals.
● Renewable sources of energy are expected to replace fossil fuels by 2050. India should be working
on areas like investment in infrastructure, capacity building and better integration of renewable
energy.
● Diversified energy mix is what India needs to focus on, no doubt solar and wind have a lot of
potential, Hydrogen would be a game changer in Indian energy transition space.

Q. Discuss the potential of renewable sources of energy, especially wind energy in India.

OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY

Introduction:
• India is blessed with a coastline of about 7600 km surrounded by water on three sides and has
good prospects of harnessing offshore wind energy.
• Considering this, the Government had notified the National offshore wind energy policy
2015. As per the policy, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy will act as the nodal Ministry.
• MNRE will work in close coordination with other government entities for Development and Use
of Maritime Space within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the country and shall be
responsible for overall monitoring of offshore wind energy development in the country.
• National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai will be the nodal agency to carryout
resource assessment, surveys and studies in EEZ, demarcate blocks and facilitate developers
for setting up offshore wind energy farms.

What is Offshore wind energy-

• Wind energy today typically comes in two different “types”: onshore wind farms which are large
installations of wind turbines located on land, and offshore wind farms which are installations
located in bodies of water.

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• Offshore wind energy refers to the deployment of wind farms inside the water bodies. They utilise
the sea winds to generate electricity. These wind farms either use fixed-foundation turbines or
floating wind turbines.
o A fixed-foundation turbine is built in shallow water, whereas a floating wind turbine
is built in deeper waters where its foundation is anchored in the seabed. Floating wind
farms are still in their infancy.
• Offshore wind farms must be at least 200 nautical miles from the shore and 50 feet deep in the
ocean.
• Offshore wind turbines produce electricity which is returned to shore through cables buried in the
ocean floor.

Need for Offshore wind energy-

• The precious land resources required for onshore wind projects are gradually becoming a major
constraint.
• With exhaustion of best windy sites, we expect upward movements of market determined tariffs
for onshore wind energy in future.
• Offshore wind power offers a plausible alternative in such a scenario.
• Absence of any obstruction in the sea offers much better quality of wind and its conversion to
electrical energy.

Status of Wind Energy in India:

• India’s electricity generation from wind reached 39.2 gigawatts (GW) a year in March 2021. An
addition of another 20 GW over the next five years is expected to happen soon.
• The compound annual growth rate for wind generation has been 11.39% between 2010 and
2020, and for installed capacity, it has been 8.78%.

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Potential of Offshore wind energy in India-

• Ministry set a target of 5.0 GW of offshore wind installations by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030 which
has been issued to give confidence to the project developers in India market.
• The wind resources assessment carried out by the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE)
gives total wind energy potential at 302 GW at 100 meter and 695.50 GW at 120 meter hub
height.
• Out of the total estimated potential more than 95% of commercially exploitable wind resources
are concentrated in seven states viz- Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
• Offshore wind turbines are much larger in size (in range of 5 to 10 MW per turbine) as against
2-3 MW of an onshore wind turbine.
• While, the cost per MW for offshore turbines are higher because of stronger structures and
foundations needed in marine environment, the desirable tariffs can be achieved on account of
higher efficiencies of these turbines after development of the ecosystem.

Global scenario-
• Globally offshore wind is about two decades old history with the first offshore wind turbine in
Denmark in 1991 which has been decommissioned in 2017.
• As of now the total installation is about 35.3 GW in 18 different countries of which important
ones are- UK (10428 MW), China (9996 MW), Germany (7689 MW), Denmark (1701 MW),
The Netherlands (2611 MW), Belgium (2261 MW), Sweden (192 MW).
• Capacity additions in last four years stands at 57% of the total capacity out of which 6358 MW
commissioned in 2020, 4679 MW in 2019, 4792 MW in 2018 and 4495 MW in 2017.

Challenges:
o Higher Installation Cost:
▪ Local substructure manufacturers, installations vessels and trained workers are
lacking in India.
▪ Offshore wind turbines require stronger structures and foundations than onshore
wind farms. This can cause higher installation costs.
o Higher Maintenance Cost:

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▪ The action of waves and even high winds, particularly during storms or
hurricanes, can damage wind turbines. Eventually, offshore wind farms require
maintenance that is more costly and difficult to perform.
▪ Offshore wind tariffs in India are expected to range between Rs 7-9 per unit,
compared to Rs 2.8-2.9 per unit for onshore wind.

Policies related to Wind Energy:

• National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy: The main objective of the National Wind-Solar Hybrid
Policy, 2018 is to provide a framework for promotion of large grid connected wind-solar PV
hybrid systems for optimal and efficient utilization of wind and solar resources, transmission
infrastructure and land.
• National Offshore Wind Energy Policy 2015: The National Offshore wind energy policy was
notified in October 2015 with an objective to develop the offshore wind energy in the Indian
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) along the Indian coastline of 7600 km.

Government initiatives-
• First Offshore Wind Power project in India (FOWPI)
• Is another project getting implemented from December, 2015 by a consortium led by
COWI and supported by European Union with an objective to provide assistance up to
the stage of Pre-Financial-Investment-Decision (Pre-FiT) and provide general assistance
for capacity building of Indian stakeholders within offshore wind sector.

• The first 1.0 GW offshore Wind Energy Project-

• The first offshore wind energy project of 1.0 GW capacity was planned in the identified
zone-B off the coast of Gujarat in order to bring the economy of scale and localization
of necessary ecosystem for offshore wind energy sector.

• Facilitating Offshore Wind Energy in India (FOWIND)-

• Is a project implemented from December 2013 to March 2018 by a consortium led by
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) and supported by European Union (EU) to
assist India on its offshore wind power development and in turn contribute to India’s
transition towards use of clean technologies in the power sector.
• The project focused on the States of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu for identification of
potential zones for development through techno-commercial analysis and preliminary
resource assessment.

• Offshore Wind Resource Assessment through LiDAR-

• The offshore wind energy potential estimation carried out through satellite data needs to
be validated through actual ground measurements in order to make the data bankable.
• Ministry has decided to launch a measurement campaign deploying Light Detection
and Ranging (LiDARs) at the identified zones off the coast of Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu.
• One LiDAR was commissioned in November 2017 for Offshore Wind Resource
assessment in identified zone-B off the coast of Gujarat nearly 25 km away from the
port of Pipavav.

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• As per the report, the annual average wind speed at the locations is observed to be 7.52
m/s at 100m hub height.

. Way Forward
• Renewable purchase obligation (RPO): Power distribution companies, open access consumers
and captive users can purchase clean energy as part of their total electricity consumption through a
renewable purchase obligation.
• Lower taxes: In India, the GST Law exempts electricity and power sales from GST. In contrast,
wind power generation companies cannot claim input tax credits when they pay GST to
purchase goods and/or services for setting up the project.
• Feed-in tariff: Discoms can adopt feed-in tariff (FiT) regulations and make offshore wind power
procurement mandatory. FiT can be tailored to suit each offshore wind project. FiT can be used to
promote offshore wind power in the early stages of development until it becomes economically
viable.
• Deemed generation provision: Offshore wind projects need to be protected against curtailment
concerns because of the inability of State Load Dispatch Centres (SLDCs) to absorb large
quantities of power that may be generated. For this, the offshore wind can be given a “deemed
generation provision”.

ENERGY CRISIS & RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY

Context:
● Recently due to high International Crude Oil Prices, Current Account Deficit (CAD) inflated
because of higher cost of oil import, raising concerns about long term economic stability in India,
highlighting importance of energy security. On account of rising CAD, Indian Rupee touched
its lowest.
Energy security:
● It is defined as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price.
● Short-term energy security focuses on the ability of the energy system to respond promptly to
sudden changes in the supply-demand balance.

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● Long-term energy security deals with timely investments to supply energy in line with economic
developments and environmental needs.
Significance of Energy security:
● India imports 80 percent of its oil needs and is the third largest oil consumer in the entire world.
● India’s energy consumption is expected to grow 4.5 percent every year for the next 25 years.
● India aims to become a leading global economic power which will fuel energy needs for providing
infrastructure, provisioning of basic necessities, developing human skill, employment generation
and manufacturing abilities.
● India’s economic fortunes continue to be tied to the sharply fluctuating international price of oil.
Challenges for India’s Energy Security Policy Challenges:
● Economic growth: With an aim to become a $5 trillion economy, India’s industry needs more
electricity.
a. As per the estimates of Government of India (GoI), to ensure a sustained 8% growth of the
economy, by 2031-32 India needs to increase its primary energy supply by three to four
times and its electricity generation by five to six times of the 2003-04 levels.
● Accessibility Challenge:
a. Presently, 304 million Indians do not have access to electricity and around 500 million
Indians are dependent on solid biomass for cooking.
b. The household sector is one of the largest consumers of energy in India. It is responsible
for about 45% of the total primary energy use.
c. In rural areas, biomass accounts for 90% of total primary fuel consumption for cooking.
● Economic challenges:
a. Rising fuel subsidies, rising CAD creates difficult conditions for economy.
b. Inadequate domestic supplies of Coal, oil and natural gas forcing the country to increase
its import bill.
● Urbanisation: With increasing urbanisation and government plans to develop smart cities, it
requires more clean energy.
a. Further unplanned urbanisation, urban sprawls reduce efficient energy and water use
leading to water and energy wastage.
b. This is challenge to ensure efficient urban planning securing India’s energy
● Infrastructure: India lacks transportation infrastructure for making energy accessible e.g.
pipelines can be a useful way to boost the total supply of gas in the country. Gas will play a major
role in Indian energy mix because it can be used effectively in several demand sectors.
● Skill related challenges: Lack of skilled manpower and poorly developed infrastructure for
developing conventional and unconventional energy.
● External Challenges:
a. Failure to attract international investment in domestic hydrocarbon exploration e.g.
NELP failed to attract the interest of large international energy corporations.
b. India seeks to achieve its energy security through multiple partners e.g. Indo-US nuclear
deal, Oil import from Middle East etc. However, in recent times due to conflict among
India’s energy partners e.g. USA and Iran; India had to reduce oil import from Iran.
c. China’s One Belt One Road initiative can give China a definitive advantage if any
conflict ensues between countries, by disturbing India’s access to energy.

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d. Failure to get onboard all interested parties in IPI (Iran-Pakistan-India) gas pipeline and
TAPI (Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India) gas pipeline for assured supply
of natural gas.
Measures to enhance energy security:
● Improving electricity plant efficiency and shift toward solar and wind energy. India already has
a robust target that 40 percent of its power supply will come from renewable sources by 2030,
under the Paris Agreement on climate change.
● There is a need to focus on technological options for improving energy efficiency in the industry,
power generation and commercial buildings, and promoting renewable energy technologies in
different end-use sectors.
● A green growth economy is the need of the hour. The Union Cabinet had approved the launch of
Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) for ensuring 24×7 power supply.
● Increasing accessibility to clean energy: India has already committed to bring electricity to every
household by 2022. To bring clean fuel in rural areas the Pradhan Mantri Ujjawala Yojana, should
be complemented by: Setting up of biomass pelletising units; and distribution of ‘ efficient biomass
chullahs’.
● The potential non-conventional energy sources must be explored and researched to make them
technologically economical and accessible, like geothermal energy, tidal energy etc.
● A renewable energy capacity of 100 GW should be achieved by 2020-21 so as to contribute to the
achievement of 175 GW target by 2022.
● To enhance vehicle fuel efficiency gains, the auto fuel quality should be upgraded to BS VI norms.
Government’s Initiatives:
● Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) intends to minimize government's
discretion in decision making, reduce disputes, reduce administrative delays and introduce concept
of revenue sharing, freedom of marketing to stimulate growth in the oil and gas sector in India.
● India has also built its strategic petroleum reserves in order to meet any supply shocks due to any
external exigencies like wars, natural disasters etc. Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Ltd, a
special purpose vehicle under the Oil and Gas Ministry, has constructed three strategic petroleum
reserves in huge underground rock caverns at Visakhapatnam on the East Coast, and at
Mangalore and Padur on the West Coast.
● The INDIA ENERGY SECURITY SCENARIOS, 2047(IESS) has been developed as an energy
scenario building tool. The guiding ambition of this is to develop energy pathways leading up to
the year 2047, comprising of likely energy demand and supply scenarios.
● India’s Energy diplomacy:
a. The Indo-US Nuclear deal opened new vistas for India in the field of Nuclear energy
facilitating cutting edge technology and nuclear fuel.
b. India is setting up a web of energy relationships in the extended neighborhood covering
Myanmar, Vietnam in the east, with Central Asian countries like Kazakhstan and Gulf
countries in the west.
Impact of various Energy Efficiency Interventions in India:
● Adoption of energy efficiency schemes/ programmes have led to overall electricity savings to the
tune of 9.39% of the net electricity consumption.
● The PAT scheme contributed to 57.72% of the total energy savings, while UJALA accounted for
36.26% of the total energy saving from all major interventions carried out during the FY18-19.

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● Overall, various energy efficiency measures have translated into savings worth INR 89,122 crores
(approximately) and contributed in reducing 151.74 Million Tonnes of CO2 emission.

GLOBAL GRID INITIATIVE- ONE SUN, ONE WORLD, ONE GRID (GGI-OSOWOG)
INITIATIVE:

Introduction:
• GGI-OSOWOG was conceived in 2018 to develop global interconnected solar energy systems.
o Under the International Solar Alliance, India announced the launch of the Green Grids
Initiative — One Sun, One World, One Grid (GGI-OSOWOG) in partnership with the
United Kingdom.
Objectives:
• The vision behind the OSOWOG is ‘The Sun Never Sets’ and is a constant at some geographical
location, globally, at any given point of time.
• The initiative aims to build a framework for global cooperation on the effective utilisation of
renewable resources and to help ensure that clean and efficient energy is a reliable option for all
nations to meet their energy requirements by 2030.
• This project aspires to harness the sun’s energy and build a global interconnected electricity
grid to accelerate the transition to renewable energy.
• The initiative is expected to connect more than 80 countries across a large geographical
area, with varying levels of sunlight. A transitional system will enable countries with low levels of
sunlight to obtain energy from areas with an excess of it.
• Stages of Grid Connection:
o The interconnection of the Indian grids with the Middle East, South Asia and Southeast
Asian (MESASEA) grids.
o MESASEA grids' interconnection with the African power grid.
o Finally, global interconnectivity.

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Importance of GGI-OSOWOG:
• It will bring more technical, financial and research cooperation to help facilitate cross-border
renewable energy transfer projects, which will give OSOWOG its global infrastructure.
• It will also create a depth of organizational scale, spanning national governments, international
financial and technical organisations, legislators, power system operators and knowledge
leaders, to accelerate the construction of the new infrastructure needed for a world powered
by clean energy.
• It will enable a faster leap towards a global ecosystem of interconnected renewables that are
shared for mutual benefit and global sustainability.
• It will provide momentum, and a pool of investment towards low-carbon, innovative solar
projects, and bring together skilled workers for a solar-powered economic recovery. It can also
propel investment and create millions of new green jobs.
• It will lead to reduced project costs, higher efficiencies and increased asset utilization for all
the participating entities.
• It will result in economic benefits, positively impact poverty alleviation and support in
mitigating water, sanitation, food and other socio-economic challenges.
• Allow national renewable energy management centres in India to grow as regional and global
management centres.
Challenges:
• Documentation of GGI does not comment on improving the efficiency of the existing solar
energy infrastructure in the country.
• The majority of the solar energy infrastructure is located in desert regions, which brings dust
deposits on panels.
o A layer of dust decreases solar power conversion efficiency by 40%.
• Solar energy technologies such as batteries and panels use energy-intensive raw materials and
several chemicals and heavy metals that need to be handled and disposed of correctly.
• It does not define strategies to recycle and repurpose existing infrastructure, which can be an
exciting avenue to view through the circular economy lens.
• Solar panels generally have a lifespan of 25 years, after which they have to be retired since they
lose their efficiency.

Opportunities:
• Being a thermal energy-dependent country, India faces severe electricity shortages in many
areas due to heatwaves (when demand increases) and coal shortages.
o GGI can transform the traditional energy system by replacing thermal power plants
with solar energy, making India more resilient against extreme weather conditions and
less dependent on fossil fuels.
• Solar energy has been improving the lives of millions of people in rural India, enabling them to
carry out activities and improving their standard of living in an environmentally friendly manner.
o An example of this is the implementation of solar-powered agriculture pumps (PM-
KUSUM) to extract groundwater, which are more environmentally friendly than
traditional diesel ones.
• The number of diesel pumps in India is 10 million.

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•It is estimated that the replacement of 1 million diesel pumps with solar-powered
pumps can improve agricultural output by Rs 30,000 crore, while also mitigating
diesel usage.
o The implementation of GGI can enhance the quality of life of rural communities in
many other areas like access to electronic gadgets, clean drinking water, among others.

Way Forward:
• Environmental costs of solar power, efficiency issues, energy losses due to conversion and transfer,
and the problem of waste management are barriers that need to be addressed urgently by the
implementing bodies.
• In India, the implementation of GGI comes at an increased environmental cost due to waste
disposal issues.
o These obstacles need to be worked around by developing specific systems to reuse and
recycle existing infrastructure.
• To make the initiative a success in India, there needs to be a careful consideration of the
initiative's costs and the benefits.
o Its modifications need to be planned in ways that suit the country's requirements and
resource capabilities.
• Institution building is key to fulfilling the ambitions of a multi-country grid project.
o In this context, ISA (International Solar Alliance) can act as an independent
supranational institution to take decisions about how the grid should be run and conflicts
settled.

CRITICAL METALS AND STRATEGIC METALS:

Introduction- Strategic and critical metals are the key to the advancement in next-generation
manufacturing and green energy.

Strategic metals-
• A metal is strategic if it is essential to a State’s economic policy (security, defence, energy policy,
etc.).
• Metal may also be considered strategic for a particular company or industry (e.g. aerospace,
defence, automotive, electronics & ICT, renewable energies, nuclear, etc.).
• For example- Iron is a strategic metal for the Iron and Steel industries, but iron is not a critical
metal, as it is abundantly present in India as well as in the world.

Critical metals-
• Critical minerals are elements that are the building blocks of essential modern-day technologies
and are at risk of supply chain disruptions.
• A metal is deemed critical if difficulties with the metal’s supply could have negative industrial or
economic impacts.
• In most international studies the criticality of metal (as of any mineral) is judged on two criteria:
supply-side risk (geological, technical, geographical, economic, geopolitical), and economic

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importance which reflects the vulnerability of the economy to potential shortage or supply
interruption creating a surge in prices.
• According to Raphaël Danino-Perraud - In short, critical metals are metals associated with
supply chain pressures, in terms of both supply and demand.
• For the US National Research Council and the European Commission, metal or mineral is critical
when it is “both essential in use and potentially subject to supply constraints.

Example: The criticality of copper in the energy transition-

• As part of the ANR’s (French National Research Agency) GENERATE project(4), IFPen and
IRIS (French Institute for International and Strategic Relations) have conducted a prospective
study on the criticality of copper to the energy and transport sectors.
• This is designed to assess the impact of the availability of copper in the energy transition, given the
significance of copper content in low-carbon technologies compared with conventional
technologies.
• It was found that whatever the scenario considered (two climate scenarios – one at 2ºC and the
other at 4ºC – and two mobility scenarios), copper production capacity will have to increase
considerably. This is obviously not without consequence.
• So for example Chile – which is one of the biggest producers but also facing severe water stress
– is studying the possibility of using seawater rather than freshwater for its ore concentration
operations.
• While an interesting idea from the perspective of preserving water resources, it is less attractive
in terms of environmental impact.
• This is because it would not only involve transporting seawater to the mine sites – which are often
located at high altitudes – but would additionally entail desalination of the water, resulting in
higher energy consumption and increased brine discharge.
• This example illustrates that in addition to the risks to the supply of a given raw material, and its
economic and technical importance, criticality studies must also consider a third aspect: the
impact of the raw material’s production on health and the environment.
• It makes little sense for energy transition solutions to run counter to the protection of the
environment.

The Indian Scenario-

• The Indian Critical Minerals Strategy has identified 49 minerals that will be vital for India’s
future economic growth.

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Presence of critical metals in India-

Type of strategic metal Region

1. Beryllium Jharkhand, Odisha
2. Tin West Bengal
3. Tungsten Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
4. Cobalt Odisha
5. Gallium Odisha

Recent development-
• Recently, India and Australia decided to strengthen their partnership in the field of projects and
supply chains for critical minerals.
• Australia confirmed that it would commit USD 5.8 million to the three-year India-Australia
Critical Minerals Investment Partnership.

Significance of India Australia Partnership-

• Reduction in Emissions & Essential Demand: Australia has the resources to help India fulfill its
ambitions to lower emissions and meet the growing demand for critical minerals to help India’s
space and defense industries, and the manufacture of solar panels, batteries, and electric vehicles.
• Expanding Global Trade: India’s strong interest and support for a bilateral partnership will help
advance critical minerals projects in Australia while diversifying global supply chains.

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• The Path to Achieve Clean Energy: India is among the fastest-growing economies in the world
and there is huge scope for collaboration in the mineral sector. Technology transfer, knowledge-
sharing, and investment in critical minerals like lithium and cobalt are strategic to achieving clean
energy ambitions.

China’s Monopoly:
o China has over time acquired global domination of critical metals, even at one point, it
produced 90% of the critical metals the world needs.
o Today, however, it has come down to around 60%, and the remaining is produced by
other countries, including the Quad (Australia, India, Japan, and United States).
o Since 2010, when China curbed shipments of critical metals to Japan, the US, and Europe,
production units have come up in Australia, and the US along with smaller units in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America.
o Even so, the dominant share of processed critical metals lies with China.

• Heavy dependence on China (India and the World):

o India has the world’s fifth-largest reserves of rare earth elements, nearly twice as much
as Australia, but it imports most of its rare earth needs in finished form from China.
o In 2019, the US imported 80% of its rare earth minerals from China while the European
Union gets 98% of its supply from China.

Why are these Metals Considered a Critical Source?

• Increased Dependency:
o As countries around the world scale up their transition toward clean energy and a digital
economy, these critical resources are key to the ecosystem that fuels this change.
▪ Any supply shock can severely imperil the economy and strategic autonomy of a
country over-dependent on others to procure critical minerals.
• Low Availability:
o These supply risks exist due to rare availability, growing demand and complex processing
value chain. Many times, the complex supply chain can be disrupted by hostile regimes, or
due to politically unstable regions.

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• Increasing Demand:
o According to the United States (US) Government, as the world transitions to a clean energy
economy, global demand for these critical minerals is set to rapidly increase by 400-600%
over the next several decades, and, for minerals such as lithium and graphite used in EV
batteries, demand will increase by even more as much as 4,000%.
▪ They are critical as the world is fast shifting from a fossil fuel-intensive to a
mineral-intensive energy system.

SIGNIFICANCE OF STRATEGIC AND CRITICAL METALS-

• As countries around the world scale up their transition toward clean energy and a digital economy,
these critical resources are key to the ecosystem that fuels this change.
• Any supply shock can severely imperil the economy and strategic autonomy of a country over-
dependent on others to procure critical minerals.

SIGNIFICANCE FOR INDIA-

• The industrial and manufacturing industry plays an indispensable role; moreover, minerals play a
vital role in sustaining this strategic industry.
• Metals and minerals such as uranium, tin, cobalt, lithium, germanium, gallium, and tungsten are
considered strategic because their substitutes are limited in India.
• Twelve critical metals could play an important role in the success of the ‘Make in India’
program for use in aerospace, automobiles, cameras, defense, entertainment systems, laptops,
medical imaging, nuclear energy, and smartphones.
• These critical minerals would also play a role in nurturing the domestic manufacturing capacity
to support the government’s low-carbon plans, such as the 100GW solar target, faster adoption
and manufacturing of hybrid and electric vehicles, and the national domestic efficient lighting
program.
• India has set up KABIL or the Khanij Bidesh India Limited to ensure the mineral security of the
nation.
• They have distinctive electrical, metallurgical, catalytic, nuclear, magnetic, and luminescent
properties.
• Its usage range from daily use (e.g., lighter flints, glass polishing mediums, car alternators) to high-
end technology (lasers, magnets, batteries, fiber-optic telecommunication cables).

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• Even futuristic technologies need these critical and strategic metals. For example high-
temperature superconductivity, safe storage and transport of hydrogen for a post-hydrocarbon
economy, environmental global warming, and energy efficiency issues.
• Due to their unique magnetic, luminescent, and electrochemical properties, they help
technologies perform with reduced weight, reduced emissions, and energy consumption;
therefore giving them greater efficiency, performance, miniaturization, speed, durability, and
thermal stability.

Way Forward-
• India needs to create a new Department for Strategic and critical minerals (DSCM), which
would play the role of a regulator and enabler for businesses in this space.
o Currently, the mining and processing of critical metals have been largely concentrated in
the hands of IREL (India) Limited, a PSU under the department of atomic energy.
o Its progress and capacity to produce critical metals, while growing slowly, is nowhere
close to international critical and rare earth minerals conglomerates.
• Indian companies can be encouraged to form such junior exploration businesses in the Indian
Ocean Region to prospect for strategic and critical metals and feed value-added products into
the Indian market.
o Most governments in this region have mining and exploration-friendly policies and
welcome investment. India has strong historical, cultural, business, and Diaspora links in
this region that has developed over centuries of trade and migration.
• India can also coordinate with other agencies to partner directly with groupings such as the Quad,
building up a strategic reserve as a buffer against global supply crises.

Agriculture

INDIAN AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is defined as the art, science and business of producing crops and livestock for economic
purpose.

Importance of Agriculture in India:

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● Around Two third of the livelihood of the Indian population is directly or indirectly dependent on
Agriculture.
● Agricultural sector accounts for 15% of the export earnings and 14%-17% of India’s GDP.
● Agricultural sector provides raw material for various industries such as textiles, sugar mills, Jute,
Apparel and other agro based industries etc.
● Sustainable Agricultural production is important for the food security of the large Indian
population.
● Allied sectors in agriculture involve- horticulture, animal husbandry, dairy, fishing etc. Agriculture
and allied sector plays vital role in providing nutrition and livelihood to the huge population in
India.

Salient features of Indian Agriculture

● Subsistence agriculture: The type of agriculture in India is mostly Subsistence agriculture. In
Subsistence agriculture the agricultural produce is for self-consumption only.
● Commercial agriculture: Large-scale commercial agriculture is also practiced in India, such as
tea plantations in Assam, coffee in Karnataka, coconut in Kerala, etc. where large agricultural
produce is sold in the market by the firms for making profits.
● Monsoon dependent: Due to lack of irrigation facilities Two-third of Indian agriculture is
dependent on monsoon rains.
● Predominance of food crops: In order to feed a large population and predominance of subsistence
agriculture, food crops are mainly grown in order to keep with the food security demands of the
huge Indian population.
● Mechanization: After the Green Revolution, there has been an increasing trend in the use of
machines in farm operations. Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, River valleys of Andhra,
and Tamil Nadu are major agriculturally mechanized areas in India.
● Variety of crops: India is blessed with the production of different varieties of crops in different
regions. For eg., hilly areas are suitable for tea cultivation, plains for rice cultivation
● Since the land resource in India is limited the pressure of increasing population on agriculture is
increasing day by day.

Cropping Seasons in India

● There are three distinct crop seasons in the country, namely Kharif, rabi, and Zaid.

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SLASH & BURN FARMING/ JHUM CULTIVATION

Shifting Cultivation
● Shifting cultivation, locally called 'Jhum', is a widely practiced system of crop cultivation among
the indigenous communities of Northeast India. The practice, also known as slash-and-burn
agriculture, is when farmers clear land by slashing vegetation and burning forests and woodlands
to create clear land for agricultural purposes.
● Shifting cultivation is practiced in northeastern states of India, Chotanagpur plateau of
Jharkhand, M.P., and in Hilly areas of the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, and the Eastern
Ghats.
● This provides a very easy and very fast method of the preparation of the land for agriculture.
● The bush and the weeds can be removed easily. The burning of waste materials provide needed
nutrients for the cultivation.
● Because of cutting of forests and trees, this practice leads to soil erosion and may also affect the
course of rivers.
● It is known by different names in different parts of the country.
● It is jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland; Pamlou
in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
● Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ agriculture is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central America,
‘Conuco’ in Venezuela, ‘Roca’ in Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’ in Indonesia,
‘Ray’ in Vietnam.
● In India, this primitive form of cultivation is called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh,
‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha, ‘Kumari’
in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan
belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand.
Ecological Problems due to shifting cultivation:
● Jhum is the most serious problem leading to degradation of forests.
● Damage to the soil level and fauna.
● The continuous process of forest degradation in the hilly parts of the north eastern states may result
in the less average rainfall.
● Increase in temperature is affecting human life and ecology.
● The destruction of forest for jhum cultivation is leading to scanty rainfall and uncertainty in the
monsoon rainfall.
● Jhum may lead to climate change and the problem of water crisis.

Why the Need to Manage Shifting Cultivation?

● Managing shifting cultivation areas is fundamental to agricultural development in northeast (NE)
India and an important element of the Act East Policy.
● The Forest Survey of India’s (FSI, 2015) reports over the years continue to attribute large scale
deforestation and loss of forest cover in NE India to shifting cultivation.
○ There is an urgent need to update data on the area under shifting cultivation as well as
the total population still involved with the practice.
● There is a need to blend traditional knowledge on resource use and management with modern
scientific approaches to improve the productivity of existing practices through locally acceptable
technological interventions.

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● Access to credit for shifting cultivators is denied because they are unable to offer shifting
cultivation land as collateral for loans in the absence of land titles. Credit guidelines should be
amended to allow group guarantee for loans instead of land title deeds in these areas.
● State agencies like agricultural marketing, forest development corporations of concerned states
should take steps to formalize, promote and organize marketing of products from shifting
cultivation.
● Shifting cultivation lands fall under the purview of agriculture during the cultivation phase, but
come under Forests during the fallow phase – the same piece of land under two subjects at
different time periods. This ambiguity needs to be addressed.
○ All government departments should consider jhum land as a distinct land use, with an
exceptionally long fallow phase.
○ Shifting cultivation fallows must be legally perceived and categorized as ‘regenerating
fallows’, which may, if given sufficient time, regenerate into secondary forests.

Government Initiatives:
● A recent NITI Aayog publication on shifting cultivation has recommended that the Ministry of
Agriculture should take up a “mission on shifting cultivation” to ensure inter-ministerial
convergence.
● The report titled "Shifting Cultivation: Towards a Transformational Approach" is prepared
by one of the five thematic working groups set up by NITI Aayog in 2017 which aims to encourage
well-being of the people in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR).

Alternative to Jhum Cultivation:

● The SALT approach (Sloping Agriculture Land Technology) when suitably adapted to the local
conditions has the potential to offer the hill tribes with an alternative method of agriculture, which
while being climate smart, will also provide the farmers with a means of sustainable livelihoods.
● A pilot SALT project has been initiated in village Aben of Manipur state during the 2017 monsoon
season.

Q. What do you understand about jhum cultivation?

Q. What is slash and burn farming? Discuss its geographical distribution in India. What impacts it
has on the ecology .Critically examine.

DRYLAND AGRICULTURE

Dryland Farming:
● It is practiced in regions receiving low rainfall, like Rajasthan, some parts of Gujarat and
Maharashtra, etc.
● Dry land agriculture is the agriculture which limits the crop growth to a part of the year due to lack
of sufficient moisture.
● 68 per cent of the cultivated area in Indian agriculture comes under dryland, which contributes
about 44 per cent of the total food production and plays a critical role in India’s food security. A
vast majority of the small scale farmers depend on the dry regions for their livelihood.

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● Dry regions are economically fragile regions which are highly vulnerable to environmental stress
and shocks. Degraded soils with low water holding capacities along with multiple nutrient
deficiencies and depleting ground water table contributes to low crop yields and further leading to
land degradation.
● Crops like Peas, millets, grams, and other drought-resistant crops or varieties can be grown.

Regions of Dryland Farming and the crop grown in those areas-

Characteristics of dryland agriculture in India:

● Rainfall: The most important contributing character in the drylands is low rainfall which is
unevenly distributed, highly erratic and uncertain. The crop production in drylands is mainly
dependent on the frequency and intensity of rainfall making it less productive.
● Soil: The major causes for land degradation include the chemical degradation of soil, loss of soil
structure and texture, loss of natural vegetation leading to soil erosion. .
● Occurrence of drought: The extensive climatic hazards are seen in drylands as the soils are weak
and can be subjected to environmental stress to a higher level, leading to further land degradation.
Drought is a common scenario in drylands as water availability is less further leading to low
productivity.
● Extensive agriculture: Prevalence of monocropping extensively makes farm lands lack nutrients
and result in reduction of yield.
● Crops grown: The crops grown in a particular region will be similar and are not much remunerative
compared to the major crops like rice and wheat. When similar crops are grown, all mature at the
same time and a large quantity of produce will reach the market leading to glut in the markets. This
situation is severely exploited by the traders and the middlemen in the markets. The issue of
marketing turns out to be a big problem in dryland agriculture.
● Poor economy of farmers: Economic status and living of farmers is low in drylands, due to the
less choice of the crops that are grown in these areas.

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Need for Dryland Agriculture in India

• India has 1/3rd of its geographical area is under humid conditions, while 2/3rd is subhumid
or arid conditions. Thus, dryland agriculture occupies larger land than the wet agriculture.
• It supports 40% of the population and occupies 66% of land. The ratio needs to be rectified, by
increasing the productivity of these region
• For the balanced development of country, dryland agriculture must be emphasized.
• Dryland agriculture is based on the industrial crops e.g. cotton, groundnut, oilseeds, pulses,
tobacco. For development of agro processing industries and to make Indian agriculture more
export- oriented greater emphasis on dryland agriculture is inevitable.
• Agriculture has forwarded and backward linkages with industry and thus, if industrial crops are
produced in greater quantum, meso-scale, household, cottage industries could be developed in rural
areas and rural dev processes can be propelled. It will also result in industrialisation and bring about
economic growth in the country.
• Dryland agriculture mostly produces hardy and nutritious crops eg. Jowar, bajra, ragi, pulses,
oilseeds, cottonseeds, sunflower, safflower. Thus, the nutrition / malnutrition problems in poor
areas can be fought with the help of dryland agriculture.
• Dryland agriculture involves cash cropping, E.g. Jatropha cultivation can reduce the magnitude
of petroleum crisis since liquid produced by it can be added to petroleum products without
reducing the efficiency.
• Dryland agriculture has the potential to produce fodder and cattle feed. Thus, it can help in white
revolution. Also, here the pasture lands are more extensive and cattle breeds have greater per-
capital yield.
• Sheep-raising has greater prospect in semi-arid areas.

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Problems of dryland farming :

● Soil and moisture problems : Soils are highly diverse in the drylands of India. In semiarid regions,
the alfisols and vertisols predominate, whereas in river basins inceptisols and entisols(alluvial soils)
are seen and in desert regions, aridisols. Crops grown in alfisols are subjected to severe drought
stress, whereas those grown in vertisols have less severity to drought, due to its better water holding
capacity.
● Environmental changes of water logging and salinity: Soil degradation has a close link with
water logging and salinity problems. Irrigation salinity has a major impact on dryland crops. Over
irrigation, poor drainage, improper irrigation for damaged soils etc. are the major causes for water
logging and salinity.These environmental changes result in reduction of yields and abandonment
of lands.
● Dietary habits and nutritional characteristics of crops grown : The choices of the crops that are
to be grown in drylands are very limited. Oilseeds pulses and coarse grains like bajra are grown in
drylands. Since the dryland crops are not very remunerative leading to an economic imbalance.

Probable solutions :
● Agronomic approaches : The primary objective to dryland farming is to preserve the soil and
water, in order to achieve maximum productivity. Agronomic approaches are developed based on
the land terrain concerned. Management of such areas can be achieved by stabilizing the soils by
forestry and pasture, with regulated grazing. The land can be further developed by contour bunding
and terracing.
● Engineering approaches : Various engineering approaches are utilized for conservation of soil
and water by the collection of excess rainwater, regulation of runoff, managing evaporation and
seepage losses.
● Breeding aspects : The new plant types are to be developed which possess all the necessary
characters for the drylands. The particular ideotype should have short duration of growth, extensive
root growth, basic modifications necessary for growing in drylands and drought tolerance,
moderate tillering to reduce competition, resistance to pests and diseases, efficient photosynthetic
machinery to convert more inputs into yields
● Innovation in technology transfer : The technologies developed must be on a watershed basis
with people’s participation. Methodologies should be developed to initiate and encourage farmers’
participation in dryland agriculture. Grass root level extension is to be the prime criteria.

Conclusion : There is no one solution for dryland farming to make it more productive. Dryland farming
must be an integrated approach of all the systems. Each dry environment is distinct in its own; solutions
developed should be based on the basic needs of the local conditions prevailing in that region.Soil, water
and all the natural resources are never taken for granted, these resources when utilized in a judicious manner
gives maximum output.

Q.What is dryland agriculture? Discuss the ecological and economic challenges of dry land
agriculture.

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PULSES PRODUCTION IN INDIA

About Pulses:
● Pulses are consumed as Dal, which is a cheap source of plant protein.
● These are consumed because of body building properties having presence of various amino acids.
● These also have medicinal properties.
● A number of pulse crops are grown in India and world. Among the crops, major ones are Gram,
Pigeonpea, Lentil, Field Peas etc.

Important Major Pulses Growing Zones / States in India

● The major contributors of pulses production are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh.

Climatic Requirement:
● Pulse crops are cultivated in Kharif, Rabi and Zaid seasons of the Agricultural year.
● Rabi crops require mild cold climate during sowing period, during vegetative to pod development
cold climate and during maturity / harvesting warm climate. Eg. Black gram.
● Similarly, Kharif pulse crops require a warm climate throughout their life from sowing to
harvesting. E.g. Green gram.

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Despite being a leader in pulse production India imports pulses:

● Global production of pulses in 2014 was around 80 million tonnes. India is the world leader, with
25% share of world production in pulses. Since, pulse is a rich source of protein and main protein
source for the poor section of society in India, demand overshoots the supply of pulses.
● Primary reason for less supply is the low productivity of pulses. Average farm yield of pulses in
India (800 kg/ ha) is 3 times less than the US average (2000 kg/ ha).
● Following are the main reasons for low productivity:
○ Subsistence farming in India
○ More focus on cereal crops e.g. wheat, rice
○ Pulses are mainly grown on drylands and rainfed area without any irrigation support.
○ Pulses do not have MSP support as provided to crops such as wheat, rice etc.
○ Low level of mechanization and technology support.
○ Smaller size of farms
○ Less investment in irrigation facilities (only 15% for pulses as against 80%-90% for wheat/
rice) and HYV of seeds
○ Heavy weed infestation, blue bull and pod borers cause substantial damage (30%) to
standing crop
○ Pulses are grown by resource poor farmers and treated as secondary crops with finest
productivity to staple cereals and other cash crops. As a consequence, pulses are generally
deprived of essential inputs, due care and latest technologies.

Government initiatives:
● Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna was launched under which states can undertake Pulses
Development Programmes
● Integrated scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM) in 14 major pulses
growing states
● Pulses were brought under the ambit of the Technology Mission of the Ministry’s Department of
Agriculture & Cooperation.
● Programmes like Accelerated Pulses Production Programme and Pulses and Oilseeds villages.
● PM-AASHA for the procurement of pulses and oilseeds.
● Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana' promises security of income to farmers despite natural
vagaries at a very nominal premium.
● Similarly, e-NAM, a pan India electronic trading platform assures high income to farmers through
a transparent process.
● 'Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana' is continuously expanding irrigation facilities to newer
areas and also helping increase irrigation efficiency by introduction of micro-irrigation techniques.
● A comprehensive and nation-wide soil health card scheme is helping farmers to increase land
fertility and productivity.
● All these schemes, initiatives, programmes and activities are helping India more towards self
sufficiency in pulses and oilseeds.
● To attain self-sufficiency in the production of pulses, the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
Welfare has formulated a special Kharif strategy for implementation in the ensuing Kharif 2021
season. A detailed plan for both area expansion and productivity enhancement for Tur, Moong
and Urad has been formulated.

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Q. Discuss the geographical distribution of pulses in India.

Q. Despite being a leader in pulse production India imports pulses. Discuss the reasons for this
anomaly. How can India become self-sufficient in pulses?

PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
Plantation Agriculture:
● It is a type of agriculture which involves growing and processing of a single cash crop purely
meant for sale.
● Rubber, tea, coffee, spices, coconut and fruits are some of the important crops which come under
the category of plantation agriculture.
● It is capital intensive and demands good managerial ability, technical know-how,
sophisticated machinery, fertilizers, irrigation, and transport facilities. Plantation agriculture
is export-oriented agriculture.

Features :
● It is a single crop farming practised on a large area.
● Crops are mainly grown for the market
● It is both labour intensive and capital intensive.
● It needs vast estates, managerial ability, technical know-how, sophisticated machinery, fertilisers,
good transport facilities and a factory for processing.
● It has an interface of agriculture and Industry.
● This type of agriculture has developed in areas of north-eastern India, Sub-Himalayan region,
West Bengal and Nilgiri.
● Developed networks of transport and communi-cation connecting the plantation processing
industries and markets play an important role in the development of plantations.

Why the current model of Plantation is unsustainable?

Plantation agriculture is characterised by features like large estates or plantations, high capital investment,
single crop specialisation, labour intensive etc., but it adversely affects the environment. For example:
• The biggest negative impact is due to the change in land use.

o Over the 150-200 years, the forest was cleared to develop commercial crops, and that too
dominated by mono-cropping.
o This has lead to the loss of productivity and biodiversity of the region.
o Further, the plantations are converted into resorts, health cities or housing complexes.
• The plantation is India is motivated by the Green Revolution, which heavily relies on the use of
inorganic fertilizers.
o This leads to problems like deterioration of soil fertility, water pollution due to run-off etc.
• These negative effects further get aggravated due to heavy rains, floods and landslides- fallouts of
climate change.

How to make plantations sustainable?

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• For environmentally sustainable agriculture in India, a new approach based on the prudent
application of inputs and optimal use of Nitrate Reductase can be utilized.
• Rather than planting community selling land to real estate developers, the plantation sector can take
up pisciculture.
o For Pisciculture, mini earthen dams can be created. These earthen dams can be a source of
additional income to the planters.
o Since the regions in India dominated by plantations are located in the seismologically
disturbed area.
o So for the construction of permission from the India Meteorological Department (IMD)
has to be taken.
• Precision Farming techniques like drip irrigation and fertigation, along with the use of technologies
like artificial intelligence should be used in plantation.

Q. What is plantation agriculture? What are its salient features? Discuss with example from India.

Palm Oil Plantations:

● Palm Oil Cultivation:
○ Oil palm crop is one of the highest oil yielding crops among all perennial crops.
○ This oil palm is considered as golden palm due to its high yielding capacity. In India, oil
palm crop provides the excellent substitute for importing the oil.
○ Major Oil Palm Production States in India:- Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam, Kerala,
Gujarat, Goa, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Tripura, West Bengal and some areas of Andaman.
○ Indonesia and Malaysia are the two major palm oil producers globally, producing nearly
85 per cent of the global output.
● Advantages of Oil Palm Cultivation:
○ Oil palm yields highest edible oil among the other oil crops.
○ Farmers can expect high returns which results in an uplift of economic status.
○ Palm oil substitutes import of edible oil by saving valuable foreign exchange.
○ Palm is generally the cheapest commodity vegetable oil and also the cheapest oil to produce
and refine globally.
○ Oil palm is among the most productive and profitable of tropical crops for biofuel
production.
● India's Scenario
○ India spends over $10 billion on imports of edible oil every year, and this bill is only next
to the one incurred on crude oil and gold imports.
○ Palm oil imports constitute nearly 75 percent of the total edible oil imports.
○ The Government of India has been trying to reduce its dependence on imported edible oils,
by encouraging farmers to take up palm cultivation.
○ In 1992, the Oil Palm Development Programme (OPDP) was launched. This was followed
by an “Oil Palm Area Expansion” (OPAE) programme in 2011-12
○ The government also allowed 100 per cent FDI in palm oil plantations
○ Top 5 Palm Oil Producer states in India 2022- Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
○ Oil palm in India’s northeast

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■ India is pushing for palm cultivation in the north-eastern states of Assam, Mizoram
and Arunachal Pradesh to increase production of oil, a commodity that costs the
country millions in imports annually.
■ While expanding oil palm in India’s northeast will serve the larger purpose of oil
security, experts fear that organised plantations may harm biodiversity in the
region.
○ Ecology at stake
■ Oil palm is a long-term monoculture crop, replacing shifting cultivation landscapes
with oil palm will definitely be detrimental to biodiversity.
■ oil palm requires major chemical inputs, that will increase pollution, especially
water pollution
■ oil palm will destroy forests, and is likely to alter social structure and dynamics on
tribal communities, enhancing socio-economic inequalities

National Edible Oil Mission – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP):

GOI launched a ₹11,000 crore National Edible Oil Mission – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP) on 9th August
2021.
Aim: To bring down India’s dependence on imported edible oils.
National Edible Oil Mission – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP)
• This is a long-waited step for oil palm growth in India and towards the fulfilment of the
‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ vision in edible oil.
• The government of India launched a ₹11,000 crore National Edible Oil Mission-Oil
Palm (NMEO-OP) to achieve self-reliance in edible oils.
• The NMEO-OP aims are:
o to reduce India’s edible oil import dependence from 60% to 45% by 2024-25, by
focusing on domestic edible oil production.
o The target is to scale up production of Palm oil from the current 10.5 million tonnes to 18
million tonnes, a 70% growth target.
o The special focus under it will be given to India’s north-eastern states and also
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, due to their conducive weather conditions for the
growth of Palm.
o Oil palm farmers will be given financial assistance and will also
receive remuneration under a price and viability formula.
o this mission will also focus on expanding the cultivation of our other traditional oilseed
crops

● Impacts of the palm oil industry

○ Impact on Environment:
■ More and more environmentalists are opposing the rapid expansion of palm
plantations at the cost of rainforests.
■ Deforestation for palm oil production also contributes significantly to climate
change.

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■ The removal of the native forests often involves the burning of invaluable timber
and remaining forest undergrowth, emitting immense quantities of smoke into the
atmosphere.
■ Large areas of tropical forests and other ecosystems have been cleared to make
room for vast monoculture oil palm plantations – destroying critical habitat for
many endangered species, including rhinos, elephants and tigers
○ Social impacts
■ Displacement of rural farmers can lead them to move on to new areas of untouched
forest to clear land for farming.
■ Deforestation destroys essential ecosystem services like the provision of clean
water and fertile soils, leading to the loss of farming and other livelihood
opportunities, such as fishing and hunting for food.
■ Uncontrolled burning for plantation expansion can have widespread health and
socio-economic impacts.
■ The expansion of plantations has lead to the eviction of forest-dwelling peoples.

Q. What do you understand about plantation agriculture? Explain with a case study of palm oil.

TEA PLANTATION:
Conditions Required for Tea Plantation:
● moderately hot and humid climate
● Moderate to high rainfall.
● temperature within 13°C and 28-32°C is conducive for the growth of tea. Temperature above 32°C
is unfavourable for optimum photosynthesis.
● Acidic Soil with around 4.5-5.5 pH is most suitable for Tea.
● In India, the temperature in winters is around or below 12°C and there is hardly any growth during
this period. This is called Winter Dormancy.

Tea Production in India:

● India is the world's second largest tea producer after China.
● India’s estimated tea production was 900 million kilograms, which accounts for around 23-24% of
global tea production.

Important Tea Producing Areas of India:

● India is the largest producer and consumer of black tea in the world. Tea is grown in 16 states in
India. Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala account for about 95 per cent of total tea
production.
● The Largest state with area under Tea Plantations in India is Assam.
● India’s major Tea Producing Districts/ Areas are as follows:
○ Assam: Darrang, Goalpara, Kamrup, Lakhimpur , Dibrugarh, Nowgong, Sibsagar, Cachar
, Karbi Anglong , North Cachar
○ West Bengal : Darjeeling, Terai (west Dinajpur), Doors (Cooch Bihar) .
○ Tamil Nadu: Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Coimbatore , Nilgiris

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○ Kerala: Cannanore, Palghat, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Trichur, Trivandrum, Quilon,

Kottayam, Ernakulam, Idukki, Wynaad
○ Karnataka: Chikmagalur, Coorg, Hassan

Why the tea gardens did not succeed beyond the Darjeeling area in Shiwaliks:
● The British planters had developed tea gardens all along the Shivaliks and Lesser Himalayas from
Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in effect they did not succeed beyond the Darjeeling area.
● The areas where tea plantation succeeded included the regions located in monsoon belt – Assam,
West Bengal and the foot hills of the Himalayas in the North and the moist slopes and the plateaus
of the Western Ghats in the south. Not much success was received in other areas such as Himachal
Pradesh, Ranchi, Doon valley etc.
● The geographical factors which favoured tea cultivation in Darjeeling are- cool climate,deep clayey
soil permitting terrace farming,year round rains,low gradient,etc .
● While cool climate and low gradient were also available in some areas of western Shivaliks but
absence of deep clayey soil and lack of year round rains led to the failure of tea plantations there.
● The rainfall, temperature and humidity needed by tea were not available in Himachal Pradesh
and Dehradun although soil in Dehradun is equivalent to that of Assam.
● Tea needs relatively low temperature for its growth, but not very low, that can adversely affect
cultivation of tea. For example, the Kangra valley lies in the foothills of the Himalayas and the
climate here is too cold.
● Additionally, tea requires high rainfall of around 150-250 cm along with well drained slopes.
● The combination of all these factors exists in the areas of North East, Assam and areas near
Darjeeling; as well as in Nilgiri hills.

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● Moreover economic factors like presence of cheap labour through bonded labourers permitted
by Plantation Act which brought labourers to work on plantations from Bihar and Bengal
also favoured the spread of tea cultivation in Darjeeling.
● Also relatively better transport facilities and proximity to ports in Bengal also favoured tea
plantations in Darjeeling .
Reasons of Decline of Tea Export:
● US Sanctions on Iran:
○ Exports to Iran, which was once a big buyer of Indian tea, was lower due to the sanctions
by the U.S.
● Non-Availability of Containers:
○ The other prime reason is non-availability of shipping containers which have become
very expensive during the Covid times.
● Availability of Low-Cost Varieties:
○ Due to the availability of low-cost varieties in the global market and amid trade
restrictions in countries that have traditionally been strong importers.
● Low Prices of Other Tea:
○ Indian exports have suffered in the last two-three years due to very low prices of Kenyan
and Sri Lankan tea.
○ Kenyan tea auction price average is much less than the Indian auction average.
● Domestic Consumption:
○ About 80% of it produced in India is sold for domestic consumption, as per a 2018
'Executive Summary of Study on Domestic Consumption of Tea' published by the Tea
Board.
● Stopping Exports to Pakistan:
○ Exports to Pakistan, a major market for Indian tea, have also stopped since the last three
years following escalation of tension between the two countries.
● Pandemic-Induced Economy:
○ The corona virus-induced economy has resulted in several commodities’ low production
and imbalance mechanisms of the Indian economy. This has impacted exports of India’s
tea along with other significant reasons.

Q. Discuss the condition required for tea plantation. On a map of India elaborate the areas under
Tea Plantation. The British planters had developed tea gardens all along the Shivaliks and Lesser
Himalayas from Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in effect they did not succeed beyond the Darjeeling
area. Explain.

COFFEE PLANTATION:
Conditions for Growth:
● hot and humid climate with temperature varying between 15°C and 28 °C.
● rainfall from 150 to 250 cm.
● It does not tolerate frost, snowfall, high temperature above 30°C and strong sun shine and is
generally grown under shady trees.
● Prolonged drought is also injurious to coffee.
● Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of the berries.

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● Stagnant water is harmful and this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600
metres above sea level.
● Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed to strong afternoon
sun and the south- west monsoon winds.
● Well drained, rich friable loams containing a good deal of humus and minerals like iron and
calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation.
● Coffee cultivation requires plenty of cheap and skilled labour for various operations including
sowing, transplanting, pruning, plucking, drying, grading and packing of coffee.
Production and Distribution:
● India produces about 2.5 percent of the world's coffee on almost the same percentage of coffee
plantations.
● Thus India is an insignificant producer of coffee and stands nowhere when compared with Brazil
(25%), Columbia (15%) and Indonesia (7%).
● Coffee Arabica and Coffee Robusta are the two main varieties of coffee grown in India
accounting for 49 per cent and 51 per cent of area respectively under coffee.
● The restricted agro-climatic conditions have forced the coffee plantations to confine themselves to
small areas in south India comprising hill areas around Nilgiris.
● Almost the entire production is shared by three states namely Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu.
● Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for about 70 per cent of total coffee production and
60 percent of the area under coffee in India.

Q. What are the geographical conditions required for plantation of coffee in India? Discuss the
distribution of coffee plantations in India.

COTTON

Conditions of Growth:
● Cotton is the crop of tropical and subtropical areas and requires uniformly high temperatures
varying between 21°C and 30°C.
● Frost is enemy number one of the cotton plant and it is grown in areas having at least 210 frost
free days in a year.
● The modest requirement of water can be met by an average annual rainfall of 50- 100 cm.
● About 80 per cent of the total irrigated area under cotton is in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and
Rajasthan.
● Moist weather and heavy rainfall at the time of boll-opening and picking are detrimental to cotton
as the plant becomes vulnerable to pests and diseases.
● High amounts of rainfall in the beginning and sunny and dry weather at ripening time are very
useful for a good crop.
● Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
● In the peninsular part of India, it is sown upto October and harvested between January and May
because there is no danger of winter frost in these areas. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown both as a kharif
and as a rabi crop.

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● Cotton cultivation is closely related to deep black soils (regur) of the Deccan and the Malwa
Plateaus and those of Gujarat. It also grows well in alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga Plain and
red and laterite soils of the peninsular regions.
● Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil. Therefore, regular application of manures and
fertilizers to the soils is very necessary.
● Black Lava Soil: The parent rock (volcanic rock) is ideal for growing cotton because:
○ It has the capacity to hold moisture.
○ They are rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
○ This soil is also known as black cotton soil (or Regur soil),
○ They develop deep cracks during hot weather, which help in the proper aeration of the soil.
Production:
● India has the largest area under cotton cultivation in the world though it is the world’s third largest
producer of cotton after China and the USA.
● Currently it is grown over 6 per cent of the net sown area.

Distribution:
● In India, cotton is grown in three distinct agro-ecological zones, viz.,
○ Northern (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan),
○ Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) and
○ Southern zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka).
● Maharashtra is the largest producer and produces 29.78 per cent of the total cotton production
of India. Maharashtra is a traditional producer of cotton. Over 80 per cent of the production comes
from Khandesh, Vidarbha and Marathwada regions.

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Locational Factors of Cotton Industry: The following are the favorable location factors of the cotton
industry:
● Availability of Raw Cotton
● Market
● Transport facilities
● Accessibility of Port
● Labour
● Moist Climate
● Skilled and semi-skilled labor

The cotton industry is not a weight losing industry hence cotton industries are seen in the other part of India
also. At present, the High concentration of the cotton textile industry belt is seen in Maharashtra, Gujarat,
and Tamil Nadu because of the above favorable factors.

The cotton textile industry can be divided into three sub-sectors:

● Handloom
○ It is labor-intensive, providing employment to semi-skilled workers.
○ Need small capital
○ The process involves Spinning, weaving, and finishing fabrics.

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● Powerloom
○ Introduced machine and require less labor
○ The volume of production increase
● Mill station
○ Highly capital Intensive and produce fine quality of cloth.

Current challenges:
● We have world-class production of spinning but do not have a high quality of fabric production
● The power supply is erratic
● Machinery needs to be upgrade
● Low labour to output ratio
● Stiff competition with synthetic fiber like rayon, nylon etc.

BT- COTTON-
• The pest-resistant Genetically Modified (GM) Bt cotton hybrids have captured the Indian market
(covering over 95% of the area under cotton) since their introduction in 2002.
• Their role in increasing India’s cotton production has been instrumental, however, at the same time,
it is argued that Bt cotton hybrids have negatively impacted the livelihoods of the farmers
(especially the resource-poor farmers) and has contributed to the agrarian distress.

Hybrid Cotton versus Varieties Cotton

Sr. Parameter Hybrid Cotton Varieties Cotton

No.

1. Formation ▪ Made by crossing two ▪ Seeds for this type of

Technology parent strains having cotton are produced
different genetic by self-fertilization.
characters.

2. Sowing Area ▪ Hybrids in India are ▪ High-Density

planted at ten- Planting
fold lower plantation (HDP): These plants
density (0.5 kg are planted at high
seeds/acre). density (5 kg
seeds/acre).

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3. Reusability ▪ Hybrid seeds have to ▪ Varieties can

be remade for each be propagated over
planting season by successive
crossing the parents. generations by
Hence, farmers collecting seeds from
must purchase seeds one planting and
for each planting. using them for the
next planting season.

4. Productivity ▪ These plants ▪ Using HDP

have more technique, compact
biomass than both varieties have been
parents and hence have found to outperform
the capacity for hybrids at the field
greater yields. But level.
their plantation in per ▪ Their productivity
acre area is less (due to is more than
its size) as compared to twice the productivity
the Varieties Cotton. of hybrid cotton.
▪ The lower boll
production by
compact varieties (5-10
bolls per plant) as
compared to hybrids
(20-100 bolls/plant) is
compensated by their
ten-fold greater
planting density.

5. Production ▪ Bushy and long ▪ Compact and short

Duration duration (i.e. take duration.
more time to grow).

6. Manufacturi ▪ Hybrids give pricing ▪ There lies no concept

ng Unit & control to the seed of pricing control by
Price Control company thereby any seed company.
ensuring a continuous
market. These seeds
are produced
entirely by the private
sector.

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7. Irrigation/W ▪ They require more ▪ Less

ater water. As cotton is a water requirement.
requirement dryland crop, around
65% of the area under
cotton in India is rain-
fed.

8. Fertilizer ▪ They require more ▪ They require half the

requirement fertilizers. fertilizer as
compared to
hybrids.

9. Risks Farmers with insufficient ▪ Their shorter

Involved access to groundwater in the duration reduces
growing areas are entirely dependence on
dependent on the rain. Also, irrigation (particularly
its longer duration makes late in the growing
it more prone to pest season when soil
attacks and thus involves high moisture drops
risks. following
the monsoon’s
withdrawal, as this is
the period when bolls
develop and water
requirement is the
highest).
▪ Also, it faces less
vulnerability to
damage from insect
pests due to a shorter
field duration.
Hence, low risks are
there.

10. Economic ▪ Expensive, requiring ▪ Low-cost solution.

Cost manual crossing. In
India, low cost of
manual labour makes it
economically
sustainable.
▪ Also, increased yield
from a hybrid is
supposed to justify the

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high cost of hybrid

seeds in India.

Q. Discuss the geographical factors responsible for cotton cultivation in India

AGROFORESTRY
Agroforestry

● Agroforestry is defined as a land use system which integrates trees and shrubs on farmlands
and rural landscapes to enhance productivity, profitability, diversity and ecosystem sustainability.
● It is a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resource management system that, through integration
of woody perennials on farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production
and builds social institutions.
● In agroforestry trees are considered a crop and become a part of crop combinations.
Significance of Agro-Forestry:
● Litter contributes to the organic-matter content of the soil after it decomposes thus is also more
resistant to erosion.
● A good cover of litter or mulch can also be very effective in suppressing weeds.
● Increase nutrient content of soil: Tree roots normally penetrate deeper into the soil than the roots
of crops and Uptake nutrients from deeper layers of soil.
● Nutrients from the atmosphere: The presence of a tree reduces the wind speed and creates good
conditions for the deposition of dust.
● Nitrogen Fixation: Many leguminous trees and a few non-leguminous ones have the ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis with bacteria or fungi in root nodules.
● Protection from soil erosion: Tree roots and stems reduce surface run-off, nutrient leaching and
soil erosion.
Other Benefits of Agroforestry:
1. Environmental Benefits:
a. Reduction of pressure on natural forests. It is also recognized that Agroforestry is the only
alternative to meeting the target of increasing forest or tree cover to 33 percent as envisaged
in the National Forest Policy (1988).
b. Agroforestry is known to have the potential to mitigate the climate change effects through:
i. microclimate moderation and natural resources conservation
ii. carbon sequestration in the long run.
c. When strategically applied on a large scale, with an appropriate mix of species, agro-
forestry enables agricultural land to withstand extreme weather events, such as floods and
droughts, and climate change.
2. Economic benefits:
a. Greater output of food, fuel wood, fodder and timber.
b. Increase in levels of farm income due to improved and sustained productivity.

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c. Agroforestry leads to a reduction in the incidence of total crop failure, which is common
to single cropping or monoculture systems. This is because such systems are structurally
and functionally more complex than monoculture.
d. Agroforestry has significant potential to provide employment to the rural and urban
population through production, industrial application and value addition ventures. Current
estimates show that about 65 % of the country’s timber requirement is met from the trees
grown on farms.
3. Social benefits :
a. Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
b. Makes the villagers self-dependent at the village-level.

National Agroforestry Policy 2014:

The Policy aims to improve coordination, convergence and synergy between various elements of
agroforestry, scattered across various existing missions, programmes and schemes under different
ministries—agriculture, rural development and environment.
Objectives of the National Agroforestry Policy 2014:
1. Promote agroforestry to increase farm income and livelihoods of rural households, especially the
small and marginal farmers.
2. Protect and stabilise ecosystems, and promote resilient cropping and farming systems to minimise
the risk during extreme climatic events.
3. Simultaneously provide raw material to wood based industries. Thus create new avenues for rural
employment, and reduce pressure on the forests.
4. To develop capacity and strengthen research in agroforestry and create a massive people’s
movement for achieving these objectives.

Issues in Adopting Agro-forestry:

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• Lack of Information among Farmers: Although agroforestry is not unknown in India, many
farmers are not keen to take it up because of a lack of information on tree rotation and also
the legal aspects involved in the trade of matured trees.
• Ambiguous Categorisation of Agroforestry: Agroforestry has not become the movement it
should have. For a long time the subject fell between the cracks of “agriculture” and
“forestry” with no ownership by either sector.
o The value and position of agroforestry in the national system remains ambiguous and
undervalued.
o It has been disadvantaged by adverse policies and legal bottlenecks and its adoption by
tenant-farmers is constrained due to insecurity of tenure.
• Financial Constraints: Inadequate investment in the sector is also a cause for neglect. Unlike
the credit and insurance products available for the crop sector, the provisions for growing trees-
on-farms are minimal.
o Weak marketing infrastructure, absence of price discovery mechanisms and lack of post-
harvest processing technologies further compound the situation.
• Small and Marginal Fields: Most of the farmers are small and marginal having small fields(less
than 2Ha). In this area it is economically and spatially agroforestry is unviable.

Suggestions to Promote Agroforestry-

• The sector needs to be institutionally bolstered and profiled from the perspective of its utility
spectrum that knits farm-forestry, environmental protection, and sustainable development.
• Financial support should be provided to all small landholders, rather than only Scheduled Caste
and Scheduled Tribe farmers.
o Protocols need to be developed where smallholders can earn income through carbon
trading.
o Institutional credit with longer funding cycles, a moratorium on interests, and insurance
products suitable for agroforestry must also be designed.
o The private sector too should invest in agroforestry both as a commercial enterprise as
well as through the route of Corporate Social Responsibility.
• Farmer collectives — cooperatives, self-help groups, Farmer -Producer Organisations
(FPOs) — must be promoted for building capacities to foster the expansion of tree-based farming
and value chain development.
o It is possible to target at least 10% of farmland to be covered by trees.
• The current situation of agroforestry calls for amending unfavourable legislation and simplifying
regulations related to forestry and agriculture.
o Policymakers should incorporate agroforestry in all policies relating to land
use and natural resource management, and encourage government investments
in agroforestry-related infrastructure and in the establishment of sustainable
enterprises.
• Scientists and researchers can develop location-specific tree-based technologies that
complement the crop and livestock systems for sustainable livelihoods, factor in gender
concerns, and incorporate the feedback from local communities.

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Q. Why do you understand agroforestry? Discuss its significance. Analyze National Agroforestry
policy 2014.

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Sustainable Agriculture/Eco-Farming:
● It is a system of agriculture which produces sufficient food to meet the needs of the present
generation without eroding the ecological assets and productivity of life supporting systems of the
future generation.
● Sustainable agriculture is a system of cultivation with the use of manures, Crop rotation, and
minimal tillage.
● Sustainable agriculture also involves agroforestry (growing trees near the crops), multi-level
cultivation (growing trees of different heights in sequence), and integrated animal husbandry
(growing crops with animal rearing practices).
● The concept of sustainable agriculture has come up because yields from modern farming techniques
are reaching a plateau and the environmental problems due to excessive use of chemicals and
fertilizers and pesticide residue in the food chain. The high use of modern farming techniques has
led to the degradation of land and has led to various ecological problems like eutrophication,
land degradation, etc., which has depleted the quality of land as a sustainable resource.

Principles of Sustainable Agriculture:

The three main principles of sustainable agriculture are:
1. Environmental sustainability: through e.g. protecting, recycling, replacing and maintaining the
natural resources base such as land (soil), water and wildlife
2. Economic sustainability: through e.g. improving soil management and crop rotation which raise
yields
3. Social sustainability: through upholding social justice and cultural cohesion

Different Methods of Sustainable Agriculture:

1. Crop Rotation: It involves the systematic planting of different crops in a particular order over
several years in the same growing space. It helps in maintaining nutrients in the soil, reducing soil
erosion, and preventing plant diseases and pests.

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2. Planting cover crops: Cover crops are planted during lean season times when soils might
otherwise be left bare. These crops protect and build soil health by preventing erosion, replenishing
soil nutrients, and keeping weeds in check, reducing the need for herbicides.
3. Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM): It emphasizes the prevention of pest problems
with crop rotation; the reintroduction of natural, disease-fighting microbes into plants/soil, and
release of beneficial organisms that prey on the pests. Chemical pesticides are not used.
4. Agroforestry: It involves the growth of trees and shrubs amongst crops or grazing land.
Agroforestry systems can combine both agriculture and forestry practices for long-lasting,
productive, and diverse land use.
5. Permaculture: The concept of permaculture was developed by Bill Mollison and David
Holmgren in the 70s and early 80s. It is the design and maintenance of agriculturally productive
ecosystems which have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems.
6. Organic Farming: It is a type of farming which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic
inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and
biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection.
7. LEISA (Low External Input sustainable Agriculture): It uses low synthetic fertilizers or
pesticides. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on cultural practices, IPM, and
utilization of on-farm resources and management.
8. Zero Budget Natural farming: The phrase ‘Zero Budget’ means without using any credit, and
without spending any money on purchased inputs. ‘Natural farming’ means farming with Nature
and without chemicals (FAO). It is a set of farming methods first introduced in Andhra Pradesh.
9. Biodynamic agriculture: It considers farm as a living system. The system puts great emphasis on
the integration of animals to create a closed nutrient cycle, effect of crop planting dates in relation
to the calendar, and awareness of spiritual forces in nature.
10. Conservation Agriculture: Conservation agriculture is a farming method that largely forgoes
tillage and involves permanent organic mulch cover and extended crop rotation.
Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture:
1. Environmental Protection: Sustainable Agriculture emphasizes on methods and processes that
improve soil productivity while minimizing harmful effects on the climate, soil, water, air,
biodiversity and human health.
2. Saving Energy: It emphasizes to minimize the use of inputs from nonrenewable sources and
petroleum-based products and replace them with those from renewable resources
3. Food security: It seeks to ensure that the basic nutritional requirements of current and future
generations are met in both quantity and quality terms.
4. Economic profitability: It not only ensures sustainable increase in agricultural production but also
reduces the agricultural sector’s vulnerability to adverse natural conditions (e.g. climate),
socioeconomic factors (e.g. strong price fluctuations) and other risks.
5. Economic and social equity:
• It seeks to ensure long-term employment, an adequate income and dignified and equal working and
living conditions to people involved in agriculture value chain
• It also focuses on local people and their needs, knowledge, skills, socio-cultural values and
institutional structures.

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Issues with sustainable agriculture:

1. Organic farming and food security: Switching to organic farming typically leads to a sharp drop
in yields compared with intensive farming with rising world population; there is a growing debate
over our ability to sustain the population. Therefore, organic farming alone will not be able to feed
the world in its present form but will instead have to be combined with other sustainable production
methods.
2. Feasibility of conservation agriculture for soil management: The absence of ploughing as in
case of conservation agriculture requires changes to weed management, use of herbicides and also
special machinery for sowing. Smallholders in developing countries face a challenge to adopt
conservation agriculture. Thus such practice has been concentrated predominantly in North
America, Europe and Australia.
3. Issue with small land holdings: Many scholars, environmentalists advocate that cultivation based
on small holdings is more sustainable and less polluting than intensive, industry-based production
models. However, environmentally harmful farming methods are not only characteristic of
industrial or intensive large agricultural businesses; smallholders can also damage the soil and the
environment due to lack of knowledge and access to modern sustainable techniques.
4. The debate on use of HYV seeds: High yielding hybrid seeds have been known to pose threat to
not only human and environmental health but are also economically unsustainable for farmers.
However, given the growing concern over food security, these seeds are crucial to enhance
productivity.
5. Use of chemical pesticides: To completely do away with chemical pesticides may not be a feasible
idea given the growing incidences of pest attacks and consequent loss of crop. The amount of
chemical pesticide used should be kept to a minimum, and less harmful agents should be used.
Sustainable Agriculture in India:
Government Initiatives:
1. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture: It is one of the 8 missions outlined under National
Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It aims at enhancing agriculture productivity
especially in rainfed areas focusing on integrated farming, soil health management, and synergizing
resource conservation.
2. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): The scheme aims at promotion of commercial
organic production through certified organic farming y involving group of farmers (cluster farming)
3. Network Project on Organic Farming of ICAR: It aims at evaluating the relative performance
of location-specific, important cropping systems under organic and conventional farming, and
assesses agronomic efficiency of different production systems.
• Other Initiatives:
o Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative: It is a method of sugarcane production using less seeds,
less water and optimum utilization of fertilizers and land to achieve more yields.
o System of Rice Intensification (SRI): It is an agro-ecological methodology for increasing
the productivity of irrigated rice by changing the management of plants, soil, water and
nutrients. It is a low water, labor-intensive, method that uses younger seedlings singly
spaced. Kadiramangalam System of Rice Intensification, a variant of SRI, is practiced in
Cauvery delta region in India.
Zero Tillage farming/No-Till Farming

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● Tillage is an agricultural land preparation through mechanical agitation which includes digging,
stirring, and overturning.
● Zero tillage is the process where the crop seed will be sown through drillers without prior
land preparation and disturbing the soil where previous crop stubbles are present.
● Zero tillage not only reduces the cost of cultivation it also reduces the soil erosion, crop duration,
and irrigation requirement, and weed effect which is better than tillage.
● No-till farming decreases the amount of soil erosion tillage causes in certain soils, especially in
sandy and dry soils on sloping terrain.

Advantages of zero tillage

● Reduction in the crop duration and thereby early cropping can be obtained to get higher yields.
● Reduction in the cost of inputs for land preparation and therefore a saving of around 80%.
● Residual moisture can be effectively utilized and the number of irrigations can be reduced.
● Dry matter and organic matter get added to the soil.
● Environmentally safe – Greenhouse effect will get reduced due to carbon sequestration.
● No-tillage reduces the compaction of the soil and reduces the water loss by runoff and prevents
soil erosion.
● As the soil is intact and no disturbance is done, No-Till lands have more useful flora and fauna.
● This practice has carbon-sequestration potential. Apart from reducing carbon emission, the no-
tilling practice can also reduce nitrous oxide emissions by 40 to 70%.
Disadvantages of Zero Tillage Farming:
● the initial cost of zero tillage equipment (the upfront costs can be high, but they should be
recouped through higher crop yields and fuel and labor savings)
● gullies can form in the fields (low-pressure tires and changing traffic patterns across the field can
help prevent these)
● increased use of herbicides
● the learning curve for zero tillage farming

ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING:

Zero Budget Natural Farming:
● Zero budget natural farming is a method of chemical-free agriculture drawing from traditional
Indian practices.
● It was originally promoted by agriculturist Subhash Palekar, who developed it in the mid-1990s
as an alternative to the Green Revolution’s methods that are driven by chemical fertilizers and
pesticides and intensive irrigation.
● It is a unique model that relies on Agro-ecology. Climate Resilient, Zero Budget Natural Farming,
or ZBNF, is a farming approach that believes in growing crops in harmony with nature.
● It aims to bring down the cost of production to nearly zero and return to a pre-green revolution style
of farming. That is how the word ‘Zero Budget’ is suffixed to Natural farming.
● It claims that there is no need for expensive inputs such as fertilisers, pesticides and intensive
irrigation.

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ZBNF is based on 4 pillars:

● Bijamrita: It is a concoction of neem leaves & pulp, tobacco and green chilies prepared for insect
and pest management, that can be used to treat seeds.
● Jeevamrutha: It is a mixture of fresh cow dung and aged cow urine (both from India's indigenous
cow breed), jaggery, pulse flour, water and soil; to be applied on farmland.
● Acchadana (Mulching): It protects topsoil during cultivation and does not destroy it by tilling.
● Whapasa: It is the condition where there are both air molecules and water molecules present in the
soil. Thereby helping in reducing irrigation requirements.

Benefits of ZBNF:
● ZBNF is a holistic alternative to the present paradigm of high-cost chemical inputs-based
agriculture.
● At a time when chemical-intensive farming is resulting in soil and environmental degradation, a
zero-cost environmentally-friendly farming method is definitely a timely initiative.
● Since in ZBNF there is no need to spend money or take loans for external inputs, the cost of
production could be reduced and farming made into a “zero budget” exercise. This would break
the debt cycle for many small farmers and help to envisage the doubling of farmer's income by
2022.
● The unique innovation of the ZBNF programme is the farmer-to-farmer knowledge
dissemination.
● The ZBNF method promotes soil aeration, minimal watering, intercropping, bunds and topsoil
mulching and discourages intensive irrigation and deep ploughing.
● It suits all crops in all agro-climatic zones.
● Citing the benefits of ZBNF, in June 2018, Andhra Pradesh rolled out an ambitious plan to become
India’s first State to practise 100% natural farming by 2024.
Issues Related to ZBNF:

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● Sikkim (India's first organic state), has seen some decline in yields following conversion to organic
farming.
● Many farmers have reverted to conventional farming after seeing their ZBNF returns drop after
a few years.
● There are no independent studies to validate the claims that ZBNF plots have a higher yield than
non-ZBNF plots.
● ZBNF advocates the need of an Indian breed of cow, whose numbers are declining at a fast pace.
○ According to Livestock Census 2019, the country’s total population of indigenous and
nondescript cattle has dropped by 8.1%.
● Low expenditure by the government: Last year, the government launched Rashtriya Krishi
Vikas Yojana, a flagship Green Revolution scheme with an allocation of Rs 3,745 crore for the
financial year 2019-20.
○ Whereas the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana, which was meant to promote organic
farming and soil health has been allocated Rs 325 crore only.
● ZBNF insists on one blanket solution for all the problems of Indian soils. This cannot solve region
specific soil problems.
Way Forward:
● There is a host of structural marketing issues which needs to be addressed first before aiming to
achieve the ambitious goal of ZBNF. For example:
○ ‘Soil health card’ scheme to improve the health of soil and thereby sustainably improve
fertility and production.
○ Need of location-specific interventions towards balanced fertilisation and integrated
nutrient management.
○ Strengthening of agricultural market infrastructure.
○ MGNREGS must also be linked with farm work in order to reduce the cost of cultivation
which has escalated at a faster pace over the past few years.
○ Fixing minimum support prices (MSP) in consonance with the cost of cultivation.
Enacting legislation on ‘right to sell at MSP’ needs immediate attention.

POPULATION & SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY

MIGRATION
Migration:

● Migration is the movement of people away from their usual place of residence, across either
internal (within country) or international (across countries) borders.
● As per the Census 2011, India had 45.6 crore migrants (38% of the population) compared to 31.5
crore migrants in 2001 (31% of the population).
● According to the International Migrant Stock 2019 report (released by the Population Division
of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs), India with 5 million
international migrants has emerged as the top source of international migrants, constituting 6.4%
of world’s total migrant population.

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1.2. Causes for Migration:

PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS

1. Demographic ● Population growth, young age ● Population decline,

and social structure, marriage demographic ageing.
factors ● Inadequate educational ● Social security
institutions, medicare and social
security.

2. Economic ● Unemployment, low wages, ● High wages, demand,

Factors poverty, poor living standards high living standards,
welfare schemes.

3. Political ● Bad governance, political ● Political stability,

factors upheaval, dictatorship, conflicts, democracy, rule of law,
war, terrorism, human rights Pluralism,Peace, Security,
violation, oppression of Protection of human
minorities. rights & minorities.

4. Ecological ● Lack of natural resources, water ● Protection of natural

Factors shortage, desertification, soil resources and
erosion, lack of environmental environmental protection.
policy.

5. Migrant stock ● Information flow, media, family ● Diaspora, ethnic

decisions. community. Information
flow.

Q. Discuss the push and pull factors of migration.

Types of Migration:

● One kind of classification is: i) rural-rural, ii) rural-urban, iii) urban-rural and iv) urban-urban.
● As per the 2011 census, there were 21 crore rural-rural migrants which formed 54% of classifiable
internal migration.
● Rural-urban and urban-urban movement accounted for around 8 crore migrants each.
● There were around 3 crore urban-rural migrants (7% of classifiable internal migration).
● Another way to classify migration is: (i) intra-state, and (ii) inter-state.
● In 2011, intra-state movement accounted for almost 88% of all internal migration (39.6 crore
persons).
● According to the 2011 Census, there were 5.4 crore inter-state migrants.
● As of 2011, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were the largest source of inter-state migrants while
Maharashtra and Delhi were the largest receiver states.

Q. Discuss different types of migration in India.

Interstate Migration/ Internal Migration

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● The number of internal migrants in India Was 450 million as per the most recent 2011 census.
Internal migrants as a percentage of population increased from 30% in 2001 to 37% in 2011.
● Female Migration: Out of the total internal migrants, 7 percent are women (Census of India 2001)
and marriage is one of the major reasons for female migration in both the rural and urban areas.
● Male Migration: Migration for employment-related reasons is one of the prominent reasons for
male migration in both rural and urban areas.

Impact of Internal Migration:

POSITIVE IMPACT: NEGATIVE IMPACT:

● Labour Demand and Supply: Migration ● Demographic Profile: Emigration in large

fills gaps in demand for and supply of labor, numbers can alter demographic profiles
efficiently allocates skilled labor, unskilled of communities, as most of the young men
labor, and cheap labor. move out, leaving only the women and
● Economic Remittances: Economic elderly to work on the land.
wellbeing of migrants provides insurance ● Political Exclusion: Migrant workers are
against risks to households in the areas of deprived of many opportunities to exercise
origin. their political rights like the right to vote.
● Skill Development: Migration enhances ● Population Explosion and the Influx of
the knowledge and skills of migrants workers in the place of destination
through exposure and interaction with the increases competition.
outside world. ● Brain Drain: Source state suffers from the
● Quality of Life: Migration enhances loss of human capital.
chances of employment and economic ● Increased Slum proliferation: Mass
prosperity which in turn improves quality Migration results into an increase in slum
of life. areas, compromising quality of
● Social Remittances: Migration helps to infrastructure and life at the destination,
improve the social life of migrants, as they which further translates into many other
learn about new cultures, customs, and problems such as unhygienic conditions,
languages which helps to improve crime, pollution, etc.
brotherhood among people and ensures
greater equality and tolerance.
● Food and Nutrition Security: According
to the 2018 State of Food and Agriculture
report by Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), outmigration often
leads to improved food and nutrition
security for migrants.
● Demographic Advantage: As a result of
outmigration, the population density of the
place of origin is reduced and the birth rate
decreases.
● Climate Change Adaptive Mechanism:
Migration has also emerged as a possible
adaptive mechanism in the context of
climate change and the occurrence of
extreme weather events like floods,
droughts, and cyclones.

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Challenges faced by migrant workers:

● No collection of data of intra-state migrants: The scope of the database needs to be expanded to
include both sets of migrants.
● Employment in informal economy: Migrants dominate the urban informal economy which is
marked by high poverty and vulnerabilities. The common issues they face are non-payment of
wages, physical abuse, accidents and even death at work.
● Issue of Identification documents: Proving their identity is one of the core issues faced by poor
migrant labourers at destination areas. The basic problem of establishing identity results in a loss
of access to entitlements and social services, such as subsidized food, fuel, health services, or
education that are meant for the economically vulnerable sections of the population.
● Housing: Lack of affordable housing in Indian cities force migrants to live in slums.
● Financial Access: Migrant workers have limited access to formal financial services and remain
unbanked.
● Access to healthcare: Migrant workers have poor access to health services, which results in very
poor occupational health.
● Education of children: UNESCO’s 2019 Global Education Monitoring Report (GEM Report)
shows that children left behind by migrating parents and seasonal migrants face fewer educational
opportunities overall. According to the report, 80% of migrant children across seven Indian cities
did not have access to education near worksites.
● Social exclusion: There is growing hostility of urban governments, as well as middle-class citizens,
towards the urban poor, especially migrants to the cities.
● Political exclusion: Migrant workers are deprived of many opportunities to exercise their political
rights. A 2011 study pointed out that 22% of seasonal migrant workers in India did not possess
voter IDs or have their names in the voter list.

Government Initiatives:

● Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act of

1979: It seeks to address the unjust working conditions of migrant workers, including the necessity
of gaining employment through middlemen contractors or agents who promise a monthly
settlement of wages but do not pay when the time comes.
● Enhancing livelihood opportunities for rural population: The government from time-to-time
has taken various initiatives to combat farmers’ distress and enhance livelihood opportunities in
rural areas. Examples: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-
NRLM), Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, Attracting and Retaining
of Youth in Agriculture (ARYA).
● Infrastructure development in rural areas:
○ RURBAN Mission: It seeks to stimulate local economic development, enhance basic
services, and create well planned Rurban clusters (cluster villages). One of the main
objectives is to reduce the rural-urban divide-viz: economic, technological and those
related to facilities and service

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○ PURA (Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas): It seeks to tackle the problem of
migration of people from rural to urban areas for employment. It seeks to develop
technology in villages, provide better connectivity, enhance livelihood opportunities etc.
Q. Analyze the trend of interstate migration in India in the last two decades. What factors affect this
trend?

COVID-19 crisis and internal Migrants/ Reverse Migration:

● According to the World bank report ‘COVID-19 Crisis Through a Migration Lens’,
nationwide lockdown in India due to COVID-19 has impacted nearly 40 million internal migrants.
● Around 60,000 moved from urban centers to rural areas of origin in the span of a few days.
● The magnitude of internal migration is about two-and-a-half times that of international migration.
● Internal migrants have faced issues in health services, food, cash transfer and other social
programmes.
● They are vulnerable to the loss of employment and wages during an economic crisis.
● Lockdowns in labour camps and dormitories would increase the risk of contagion among migrant
workers.
● The state boundaries became the sites of violent migrant-police encounters, as police resorted to
beating migrants for having violated the lockdown orders.
● Thousands of them, without any means of transport left to their villages back on foot, dying of
starvation, fatigue, and road accidents.

Q. What is reverse migration? Discuss factors leading to reverse migration.

POTENTIAL OF RELIGIOUS TOURISM IN INDIA

Religious Tourism is regarded as planning visits to other towns, cities or countries for religious purposes.

● Religious Tourism has exponential growth in the modern years in India.

● According to the World Economic Forum, Travel and Tourism accounts for 5% of India’s
employment.

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● Religious tourism has been one of the reasons for developing India. Many places like Kedarnath,
Mahakaleshwar, Jagannath puri, Tirupati, Gangotri, Yamunotri, Badrinath, Omkareshwar, Kashi
Vishwanath, etc are most visited religious places in India.
● Religious Tourism plays a very significant role in the socio-economic development of a State.
● It promotes cultural diversity, spirituality; bringing foreign exchange provides employment
opportunities and encourages masses to mutually exchange their values, cultures, traditions and
way of living. Further it helps in managing the soft power of the countries in maintaining foreign
relationships.

Opportunities of Religious Tourism in India:

2.4. Religious Tourism is divided into the following major categories:

• Pilgrimages
• Missionary travel
• Leisure (fellowship) vacations
• Faith-based cruising Crusades,
• conventions and rallies
• Retreats
• Monastery visits and guest-stays
• Faith-based camps
• Religious tourist attractions

2.5. Issues being faced in the development of Religious Tourism in the Country:

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• Tourism acts as a crucial enabler in facilitating development of basic infrastructural facilities,

generates income for the local community as well as the government, balances regional
development strategies through 'umbrella' effect, and fosters peace and socio-cultural harmony.
However, tourism development in any region needs to be regulated to prevent the negative impacts.
• Major problems include:
1. Infringement of Carrying Capacity: Most religious centres in the country, major or
minor, suffer from short but intense seasons that alter the dynamics of the region for the
rest of the year. The Char Dham Yatra in Uttarakhand is one such example. Lasting from
May till about November, it puts a serious pressure upon the transport infrastructure of the
Garhwal region, which coupled with the monsoons and a lot of road construction still under
progress imply landslides, meaning frequent road blocks, accidents and loss of life.
2. Waste Management: In part a derivative of the problem of carrying capacity, the waste
management problem has aggravated as science and technology grew to usher us into the
'era of plastic'.
3. Air Pollution: The sheer volume of travel in this niche makes the figures mind boggling.
While trains still manage to absorb a majority of the travel volume, quite a substantial
number of major religious tourism sites in India are still only accessible by road or foot, or
a combination of the two (take the case of hilly regions).
4. Monetizing Religion: In the race for developing as many niches as possible, there is often
the issue of religion being 'monetized', as the host community gets increasingly driven by
the 'profit motive'.
5. Lack of scrutiny of religious trusts: There is a need to put forward regulations which
governs the financial status and regulation of religious trusts as it looks to allay global
concerns about money laundering and terrorist financing activities. Such a law will also
pave the way to make public names of organizations that claim tax exemption to ensure
greater transparency. This is especially crucial in a scenario when some of India's religious
trusts are among the richest in the world.

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2.6. The following ten point roadmap can pave the way for initiation of a progressive phase in the
development of religious tourism in the country:
1. Developing Religious Tourism Circuits through a Hub and Spoke Model: One of the first steps
in this aspect is to create nodes near religious centers, where there is already a basic infrastructure
present and plan day trips from there. For example, Chennai in South India can be a node for
excursions to Madurai, Thanjavur, Trichnapalli and Pondicherry. Madurai is the home of the
exquisite Meenakshi Temple, which is regarded as the holiest temple in India by many people. As
the influx of crowd is already sizeable in famous spots, a hub and spoke model will ensure tourist
spread to all the nearby attractions.
2. Providing the tourists with a holistic tourism experience: Attracting the tourist segments that
are not attracted to religious sites, needs a holistic package around the religious spots. Tourists may
not find it worthwhile to come all the way just for a pilgrimage. An innovative mechanism to
streamline this development can be to market a religious tourism destination as an alternative
tourism destination. For example, Rishikesh is marketed as both a religious and an adventure
tourism destination.
3. Marketing religious tourism destinations needs special training as quite a major part of the visitors
are attracted to these destinations due to reasons like studying old culture, evolution of practices
and research
4. Developing integrated infrastructure for religious tourism development: Infrastructure
development requires that religious tourism circuits be identified and State Government is required
to streamline the development of the entire religious tourism circuit existing in a given region/area.
5. Enhanced emphasis of minimizing the impact on the environment and maintaining the
ecological balance: Appropriate checks and balances need to be put in place to ensure that the
negative impact of tourism on environment is minimized. These checks and balances can be in the
form of fines. Religious Tourism is endemic to a given geography and in this scenario training of

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the local population deriving its source of livelihood from tourism in the field of environment
management can be the model approach.
6. Scrutiny of religious trusts: There needs to be a practice for reviewing the financial status and
regulation of religious trusts as it will allay global concerns about money laundering and terrorist
financing activities. Such a law will also pave the way to make public names of organizations that
claim tax exemption to ensure greater transparency. This is especially crucial in a scenario when
some of India's religious trusts are among the richest in the world.
7. Developing appropriate Institutional Framework to stimulate the growth of Religious
Tourism: The Department of Tourism of the respective state governments should institute a
separate board to prepare and implement plans to provide necessary facilities to the devotees and
also ensure conservation of cultural atmosphere consistent with sentiments of visiting devotees.
The religious aspect of tourism is a crucial enabler in economic development of the local region.
The nature of economic development relies heavily on the institutional mechanisms of any region
and the infrastructural development undertaken to stimulate the development of that particular
region. Hence in the above scenario, it is extremely crucial that appropriate institutional
mechanisms be put suitably in place to streamline the spill off effects occurring as a result of
religious tourism.
8. Pricing of religious tourism products: In India, the prices paid are only for the tertiary services
provided and not for the actual services of the religious flavors one intends to experience. Hence,
attempts need to be taken to ensure that the pricing of the tourism product is such that it
compensates for educational and cultural services provided to those interested. But extreme caution
must be exerted while attempting the pricing of these products. As we know that majority of
pilgrims are either from middle or budget classes, therefore, pricing of products needs to be done
to suit their budgets.
9. Limiting the impact of globalization on places with an endemic flavor of being a distinct
religious tourism attraction: Since religious tourism is based on the values, customs, practices,
traditions and beliefs of a particular region, the same need to be maintained. It is only by preserving
these local values and customs that one can provide a genuine and original religious tourism
product.
10. Improving connectivity to specific religious tourism circuits to promote them: The Ministry
of Civil Aviation, Government of India has developed specialized infrastructure for the
development of Buddhist Tourism Circuit by developing an international airport near Gaya and
provided a strong impetus to the development of Buddhist Tourism Circuit. The airport operates
flights directly from key SAARC countries such as China, Japan, Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
etc

2.4. Government Intervention towards promotion of Religious Tourism in India:

● PRASAD: Pilgrimage tourism is a matter of trust, beliefs, and devotion. PRASAD (Pilgrimage
Rejuvenation and spiritual Augmentation Drive) Scheme’s missions to pilgrimage tourism,
generate employment, economic development, provide facilities & good services to tourist and
developed infrastructure
● SWADESH: This Scheme is based on the development of circuits in the country. The Ministry of
Tourism (MOT) launched the Swadesh Darshan Scheme for integrated development of theme
based tourist circuits in the country in 20014-15.

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● Adopt a Heritage Scheme: The “Adopt a Heritage: Apni Dharohar, Apni Pehchan Scheme''
is a step of the ministry of tourism. The main objectives of this scheme is to develop the tourist
sites, maintaining basic facilities, like drinking water, cleanliness, travel information and guidance,
proper sanitation etc.

Q. Discuss the potential of religious tourism in India.

DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND IN INDIA:

India’s Demographic Dividend:
● According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), demographic dividend means, "the
economic growth potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly
when the share of the working-age population (15 to 64) is larger than the non-working-age
share of the population (14 and younger, and 65 and older)".
● India has 62.5% of its population in the age group of 15-59 years which is ever increasing and
will be at the peak around 2036 when it will reach approximately 65%.
● According to Economic Survey 2018-19, India’s Demographic Dividend will peak around 2041,
when the share of working-age,i.e. 20-59 years, population is expected to hit 59%.

Advantages Associated with Demographic Dividend

● Labour supply: The first benefit of the young population is the increased labour supply, as more
people reach working age. Increased Labour Force that enhances the productivity of the economy.
● Female Human capital: Rise in women’s workforce that naturally accompanies a decline in
fertility, and which can be a new source of growth.
● Economic growth: Another opportunity is produced by increased domestic demand brought about
by the increasing GDP per capita and the decreasing dependency ratio. This leads to demand-driven
economic growth. Growth, education, better economic security, and a desire for more durable
goods are the cause and consequence of young demographics.
● Infrastructure: Increased fiscal space created by the demographic dividend enables the
government to divert resources from spending on children to investing in physical and human
infrastructure.
● Skilled workforce: Most sectors of the Indian economy would require a more skilled workforce
than the present. It would be both a challenge and an opportunity for India to provide its workforce

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with the required skill sets and knowledge to enable them to contribute substantially to its economic
growth.
● Migration:It presents some opportunities that can arise from having demographic changes,
particularly the demographic dividend and interstate migration to overcome labor shortage in some
parts.
● Capital formation: As the number of dependents decreases individuals save more. This increase
in national savings rates increases the stock of capital in developing countries and provides an
opportunity to create the country’s capital through investment.
● A massive shift towards a middle-class society, that is, the rise of the aspirational class.

Challenges Associated with Demographic Dividend

● Asymmetric demography: The growth in the working-age ratio is likely to be concentrated in

some of India’s poorest states and the demographic dividend will be fully realized only if India is
able to create gainful employment opportunities for this working-age population.
● Lack of skills: Most of the new jobs that will be created in the future will be highly skilled and
lack of skill in Indian workforce is a major challenge. India may not be able to take advantage of
the opportunities, due to a low human capital base and lack of skills.
● Low human development parameters: India ranks 130 out of 189 countries in UNDP’s Human
Development Index, which is alarming.Therefore, health and education parameters need to be
improved substantially to make the Indian workforce efficient and skilled.
● Informal nature of the economy in India is another hurdle in reaping the benefits of demographic
transition in India.
● Jobless growth: There is mounting concern that future growth could turn out to be jobless due to
de-industrialization, de-globalization, the fourth industrial revolution and technological progress.
As per the NSSO Periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18, India’s labour force participation rate for
the age-group 15-59 years is around 53%, that is, around half of the working age population is
jobless.
● Regional variations in the degrees and timings of fertility decline: Reports also highlight that
demographic dividend is not available in all the states at the same time because Northern states
are predominantly youthful whereas southern and western states are maturing.

What needs to be done?

● UNFPA backs a differential approach in forward-looking policymaking and program planning
to join the demographic dividend opportunity in those states where the windows for opportunity
are closing soon.e.g. Southern states of india.
● The focus in the states where the demographic dividend window is yet to open will have to be
threefold such as addressing harmful practices such as child marriage, access to quality sexual and
reproductive health services and family planning services to all, and provisioning of health,
education, life, and vocational skills to all the young people.
● Good governance: Effective avenues for citizen input, well-functioning institutions, respect for
the rule of law, low level of corruption, respect for property rights, the sanctity of contracts, etc.
are important aspects of good governance that enable the equal opportunity to all.

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● Building human capital: Investing in people through healthcare, quality education, jobs, and skills
helps build human capital, which is key to supporting economic growth, ending extreme poverty,
and creating a more inclusive society.
● Skilling: India’s labour force needs to be empowered with the right skills for the modern economy.
Government has established the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) with the overall
target of skilling/ up-skilling 500 million people in India by 2022.
● Academic-industry collaboration: Will help to synchronize modern industry demands and
learning levels in academics.
● Education: Enhancing educational levels by properly investing in primary, secondary, and higher
education. India, which has almost 41% of the population below the age of 20 years, can reap the
demographic dividend only if with a better education system.
● Health: Improvement in healthcare infrastructure would ensure a higher number of productive days
for the young labor-force, thus increasing the productivity of the economy. The success of schemes
like Ayushman Bharat and the National Health Protection Scheme (NHPS) is necessary. Also, the
nutrition level in women and children needs special care with effective implementation of the
Integrated Child Development (ICDS) program.
● Job Creation: The nation needs to create ten million jobs per year to absorb the addition of young
people into the workforce. Promoting businesses’ interests and entrepreneurship would help in job
creation to provide employment to the large labor force.

COUNTER URBANISATION-
• Counter urbanization is a demographic and social process whereby people move from urban
areas to rural areas.
• It first took place as a reaction to inner-city deprivation and overcrowding.
• Off- late urbanization process in India is witnessing counter – urbanization in its life cycle.
4.1. Causes-
• The causes of counter-urbanisation are linked to push and pull factors of migration.
• Push factors-
o Overpopulation or dense populations in urban areas.
o Overcrowding in communities.
o Rising real estate and residential costs in urban areas.
o Deeply congested and traffic ridden in urban areas.
o Industrial meltdowns or shifts.
o Case Study- It first took place because of flight from the inner cities in Britain, often as a
result of economic problems in those areas. The collapse of inner city industries resulted
in large scale unemployment and a cycle of decline and deprivation in those areas.
Newcastle-upon time is no stranger to this process, as its heavy industries of armaments
and ship building led to dereliction of inner city communities along the river side. Poor
quality housing and low environmental quality can also force people away from the inner
city.
• Pull factors-

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o People want a better quality of life and they want to be able to live in a clean and quiet
area.
o An area without air and noise pollution from heavy industries, the crime of urban
environments and the lack of opportunities found in some parts of cities.
o They also aspire to having larger houses with more land for cheaper prices compared to
the large towns and cities.
o Opportunities for people to work from home.
o Urban amenities being available in these areas such as through online shopping.
o Greater peace and safety in these areas.
o Case study- The Government of UK promoted this movement through its green belt and
new Towns policy (New Towns Act 1946). The green belt policy restricted growth within
the city boundaries, and forced developers to look just outside of the city boundaries for
other villages to develop. These new towns develop into commuter towns or suburbanised
villages, also known as dormitory towns as people sleep and live in those towns but work
elsewhere. Milton Keynes is a good example next to London, whilst Cramlington and
Washington act as new towns for Newcastle.
Situation in India-
• The urbanisation in India is about 31.1% as per Census 2011. It is expected by 2030 nearly 40%
of the population will migrate to the cities.
• Cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, and Bangalore are over-populated beyond their carrying
capacities.
• The movement of more and more people into less resilient areas like coastal regions, flood plains
and earthquake-prone zones has been cited as one of the factors responsible for more natural
disasters.
• Degradation of natural environment is another reason for increasing calamities. Unplanned
expansion and development in disaster-prone areas as another reason for increased disasters and
mentions recent flood fury in Uttarakhand in India as an example.
Way forward-
• Several reforms are implemented by the government in India to improve the standard of living of
people in rural areas like Sansand Adarsh Gram Yojana, MGNREGA, Rashtriya Kishore
Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) etc.
• Developing cluster of 15-20 villeges having about 30 to 40 lakh population into Rurban cluster.
Counter urbanization is not without negative effects, a move towards counter urbanisation, if not
to degrading to rural lifestyles and environments might be a great boon to overall rural
development.

PREVALENCE OF MENTAL DISORDER IN SOUTH INDIA

● Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh account for a higher
prevalence of mental disorders that manifest primarily during adulthood in depression and
anxiety, according to the first comprehensive estimates of disease burden attributable to mental
health from 1990 prepared by the India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative and published in the
Lancet Psychiatry.

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● The study finds that roughly one in seven Indians, or 197 million persons, suffered from mental
disorders of varying severity in 2017. These include depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia,
bipolar disorders, idiopathic developmental intellectual disability, conduct disorders, and autism.

● Why is depression and anxiety high in South India?

○ The higher prevalence of depressive and anxiety disorders in southern States could be
related to the higher levels of modernisation and urbanisation in these States and to
many other factors that are not yet well understood.
○ The study found positive relationship between depression and suicide death rates at the
State level, with suicide death rates also being higher in the southern States than in the
northern ones.

Q. Why are mental disorders prevalent in southern parts of India?

INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS

LOCATIONAL FACTORS OF INDUSTRIES IN INDIA & THE WORLD

Location of industries is determined by various factors. It varies with time, space as well as development
priorities. Broadly the factors influencing the location of industry can be divided into:

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I. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS: LL. NON GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS:

1. Raw materials: The location of industrial 1. Capital: Big cities like Mumbai, Kolkata
enterprises is determined by the location of etc are big industrial centres because the
the raw materials. Industries which use big capitalists live in these cities.
heavy and bulky raw materials in their 2. Governmental policies: Government
primary stage in large quantities are activity in planning the future distribution
usually located near the supply of the raw of industries plays a very important role in
materials. the location of industries. Location of oil
➢ Jute Mills: West Bengal refinery at Mathura, coach factory at
➢ Sugar Mills: UP, MH Kapurthala, pharmaceutical industries at
➢ Cotton textile mills: MH-GJ uttarakhand etc are some of the results of
the governmental policies.
➢ Iron & steel: Near Iron ore
3. Industrial inertia: Industries tend to
2. Power: Regular supply of power is a
develop at the place of their original
prerequisite for the localisation of
establishment though the original cause
industries. Mineral oil, Hydroelectricity &
may have disappeared. This phenomenon
coal are conventional sources of power.
is called Industrial inertia.
E.g. Fertilizer plant at Nangal (PN).
4. Efficient organisation: To run modern
3. Labour: Labour supply is important in
industry efficient organisation and
two aspects:
management is needed.
➢ Workers in large numbers are
5. Banking & finance: Establishment of
often required
industries involves daily exchange of cores
➢ People with skill and technical of rupees which is possible through
expertise are needed. banking facilities only.
4. Transport: Transport is necessary for the 6. Insurance: There is a constant fear of
assembly of raw materials and for the damage to machines and man in industries
marketing of finished products. E.g. Port for which insurance facilities are badly
towns Mumbai, Kolkata. needed.
5. Market: Nearness to market is essential
for quick disposal of manufactured goods
especially perishables. Also based on
purchasing power & demand.
6. Site: Sites generally should be flat and well
served by transport facilities and low cost
of land is preferred.
7. Climate: Harsh climate is not suitable for
many industries. E.g. In dry climates, the
cotton-threads will break quickly during
spinning.

The world’s major industries are:

1. Iron and steel industry – Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.
2. Textile industry – India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan.

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3. Information technology industry – Silicon Valley of Central California and the Bangalore region
of India.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RAW MATERIAL & INDUSTRIES: HOW GLOBALISATION &

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT IS CHANGING THIS RELATIONSHIP:
Industrial Locations:
● Industrial locations are primarily driven by costs.
● Influence by factors like:
○ Access to raw material
○ Power
○ Market
○ Capital
○ Transport
○ Labour
● The economic location is where the cost of production and delivery cost is least(Weber least cost
principle).
Relationship between raw material and location of industries:
1. Industries which use heavy & bulky raw material in their primary stage. E.g. Iron and steel
industry.
2. Industries which use weight losing raw material. E.g. Sugar mills.
3. Industries which use perishable raw materials. E.g. Agro processing, Dairy products.
4. Finished products of one industry used as raw material of another. E.g. Pig iron by smelting industry
serves as raw material for Steel industry.
5. Industries using raw material which cannot bear very high transportation costs. E.g Cotton
textiles.
Changing trends due to globalization & technological advancements:
1. Reduced transportation cost due to technological advancements.
2. Market & profit orientation: Industries are set up near market due to increased demand and
customization of products.
3. Improved backward linkages & cold chain infrastructure: Increase shelf life of the perishables.
4. State policies and incentives: FDI, FTA’s, Tax exemptions, custom duties etc.
5. Creation of artificial environment: e.g. Humid conditions required for cotton textiles are
artificially created.
6. Expansion of Industries: branches and subsidiaries.
Globalization is dismantling the trade barriers between nations. Industries are becoming footloose i.e. losing
their locational dependence on raw materials.

FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY:

India has more than 35000 registered units. But majorities of the food processing factories are concentrated
in the coastal states (one reason being, accessibility to marine food processing)
Major coastal states include Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat, Punjab and WB. Non-
coastal states include UP, Punjab etc.
There are two types of processes in the food processing industry:

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1. Manufacturing: Raw materials → Food.

2. Value Addition: Increase shelf life and value of manufactured food.

UPSTREAM REQUIREMENTS: DOWNSTREAM REQUIREMENTS:

1. Agricultural raw material: Before an 1. Market: Consideration of the marketing

agro-industrial firm is located and factor is vital to management analysis of
investments are made for a processing the Agri-food industry, because it provides
plant, procurement of raw agricultural the market information to assess an agri-
material inputs must be studied as food plant’s viability. Firms take into
carefully. consideration the market location and the
2. Infrastructure: Experts in this field have availability of raw material with the
recommended that a plant should examine highest priority.
a location for the basic infrastructural 2. State: The convenience (tax discount,
aspects such as water, electricity, existing investment opportunities etc.) offered by
food processing facilities etc. the state affects the location decisions.
3. Good linkages with farmers: Contract 3. Organized retail stores for faster
farming, which has increased during recent distribution.
years, is another important factor affecting 4. Latest processing techniques and
the location decisions especially in terms of Latest processing machinery.
5. Transport facilities.
having quality raw material.
6. Environmental factors: Environmental
4. Storage facilities for raw materials like factors were found to be less important
Grains, Meat, Fish etc. compared to other factors affecting
5. Modern extraction techniques and Quality location decisions in many less developed
testing facilities. and developing countries
6. Workforce: Adequate Labour is needed.

Various Policy Measures taken by the Government-

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• Inclusion of food & agro-based processing units and cold chain as an agricultural activity
under Priority Sector Lending (PSL) norms in April 2015.
• As a measure toward ease of doing business, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) through notifications in 2016 has shifted from product-by-product approval to an
ingredient and additive-based approval process.
• 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) approval under automatic route has been permitted for
the food processing sector
• A Special Food Processing Fund of Rs. 2000 crore was set up with National Bank for Agriculture
and Rural Development (NABARD) to provide affordable credit for investments in setting
up Mega Food Parks (MFP) as well as processing units in the MFPs.
o In 2019, the coverage of the fund was extended to the setting up of Agro-Processing
Clusters along with setting up of individual manufacturing units.
o Also, a Designated Food Parks (DFPs) scheme would be introduced in different states
for the purpose of availing affordable credit from the special funds with NABARD.

SUGAR INDUSTRY:
● India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world after brazil.
● Sugarcane industry is the second largest agro based industry after cotton textiles.

Localisation of sugar mills near sugar growing areas because:

1. It is raw material based industry: Heavy , weight losing, perishable raw material used.
2. Once you cut the sugarcane, the sucrose content starts to decline. Hence raw material cannot be
transported to long distances.
3. Low rate of recovery: 100 tonne of sugarcane => 10-12 tonne sugar.

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Distribution:
North India (MH-KN-TN-AP Belt) South India (UP-BH-HR-PN Belt)

1. E.g. Gorakhpur- Basti-Gonda-Meerut- 1. E.g. Ahmednagar- Pune-Nasik-Kolhapur-

Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar. Solapur.
2. Low yield. 2. Tropical Climate: Higher yield.
3. Low sucrose content. 3. High sucrose content.
4. Short crushing season- 4 months. 4. Longer crushing season- 7-8 months.
5. Small Size mills. 5. Cooperative sugar mills.
6. Old traditional Machines. 6. Large mills & New modern machinery.
7. Proximity to the Ports ex. Mumbai port to
export the sugar produced.

Problems of sugar industry:

1. Low yield of sugarcane per hectare.
2. Short crushing seasons. Mills remain idle for remaining duration.
3. Fluctuating production trends: severe shortfall to bumper harvest.
4. Low recovery rate (<10 percent).
5. Small size mills do not create economies of scale.
6. Competition with gur and khandsari.
7. Low per capita consumption and low market demand.
8. Regional imbalances in distribution.
9. Policy issues: Mills pay FRP to farmers but themselves are left to markets for recovery.
Market dynamics are ignored.

Measures:
1. High yielding , early maturing , frost resistant, high sucrose content, pest resistant variety of
sugarcane required.
2. Increase crushing season by sowing and harvesting at regular intervals.
3. Reduce production cost by Proper utilization of by products.
a. Bagasse: paper pulp, plastic, insulating boards.
b. Molasses: alcohol, DDT, Rayon, Rubber, convert to edible molasses & use as feedstock.
c. Pressmud: Wax.

COTTON TEXTILES:
Cotton textile industry has three sectors:
1. Mill sector
2. Handloom
3. Powerloom
● It is the largest agro based industry in India which absorbs one-fifth of the total indian labour.
● In India 80% of the industry is concentrated in the cotton growing areas. Some of the centres like
Ahmedabad, Sholapur are located in areas of large scale cultivation. Black soil of Maharashtra
good for cotton (short, medium staple)

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Why majority of the cotton textile mills located in the cotton growing areas of Great Plains &
Peninsular India?
● In the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton growing belt of
Maharashtra and Gujarat ( Black Cotton soil).
● Availability of raw cotton, market, transport including accessible port facilities, labour, moist
climate, etc. contributed towards its localisation.
● Humid Climate is ideal for spinning, weaving and cotton processing.
● Availability of cheap & sufficient power. E.g. Coimbatore has Piker Hydel project
● This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton ball pickers
and workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and
sewing.
● Port location so easy to import long-staple cotton from Egypt, foreign textile machinery.
● The industry by creating demands supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and dyes,
mill stores, packaging materials and engineering works.

Why Mumbai emerged as the textile industry hub-

• The first successful mechanized textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.
• The warm, moist climate, a port for importing machinery, availability of raw material and skilled
labour resulted in rapid expansion of the industry in the region.
• Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of favourable
humid climate.
• But today, humidity can be created artificially, and raw cotton is a pure and not weight losing raw
material, so this industry has spread to other parts of India.
• Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmadabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat
are some of the other important centres.

5.4. Why Ahmedabad emerged as textile industry hub-

• It is located in Gujarat on the banks of the Sabarmati River.
• The first mill was established in 1859.
• It soon became the second largest textile city of India, after Mumbai.
• Ahmedabad was therefore often referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’.
• Favourable locational factors were responsible for the development of the textile industry in
Ahmadabad.
• Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing area.
• This ensures easy availability of raw material.
• The climate is ideal for spinning and weaving.
• The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the establishment of the mills.
• The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-skilled
labour.
• Well-developed road and railway network permits easy transportation of textiles to different parts
of the country, thus providing easy access to the market.
• Mumbai port nearby facilitates import of machinery and export of cotton textiles.
• But in the recent years, Ahmedabad textile mills have been having some problems.

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• Several textile mills have closed down.

• This is primarily due to the emergence of new textile centres in the country as well as non-
upgradation of machines and technology in the mills of Ahmedabad.
Present scenario:
● At present, the trend is to locate at or close to markets. This is because it is the market which decides
what kind of cloth is to be produced.
● Also, the market for the finished product is extremely variable; therefore it becomes important to
locate the mills close to the market.

JUTE TEXTILES:
Locational requirements for jute production?
1. Tropical climate with adequate moisture and heavy rainfall.
2. River alluvium, especially where annual floods renew the fertility of the soil.
3. Jute is often grown as a cash crop in paddy-growing areas under flood conditions.
4. Labour intensive, grown in densely populated areas.

Distribution of Jute Industry in India:

● Jute industry is highly concentrated in West Bengal which contains about 80 % of the jute milIs in
India in the linear jute belt stretches along the Hooghly river
● In Bihar the jute industries are located at Katihar and Samastipur.
● The industry has also flourished in Uttar Pradesh at Gorakhpur and Kanpur.
● In Madhya Pradesh at Raigar.
● In Andhra Pradesh at Chitwalsah and Nellimalli in Visakhapatnam district.
Factors that facilitated the development of jute industry in West Bengal
● The Ganga Brahmaputra delta grows about 90% percent of India’s Jute and provides raw material
to jute mills here.
● Jute industry continues to be localised in West Bengal along the river HooghIy even though the
raw material base has expanded to include Bihar and Assam due to industrial inertia.
● Coal available from Raniganj fields
● Cheap water transportation
● Humid climate is very convenient for spinning and weaving.
● Proximity to Kolkata port
● Abundant cheap labour especially from the states of West Bengal and Bihar.
● Easy flow of capital is available especially from Kolkata.
● Kolkata already enjoys the advantage of an early start as it got impetus already from British time.

PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY:
India is called the Pharmacy to the world. India is the largest generic drugs provider globally. It supplies
50% global demand for various vaccines.

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Distribution of pharmaceuticals industry:

TRADITIONAL CLUSTERS: UPCOMING CLUSTERS:

1. West coast of India. GJ-MH-KN-Goa-TN- 1. Himachal Pradesh & Uttarakhand.

AP. 2. Fiscal incentives by the government. E.g.
2. Proximity to ports. Easy exports to Africa FDI, tax incentives.
& Europe. 3. Natural flora & fauna.
3. Import of Raw materials ( Active 4. Favorable Climate.
Pharmaceutical Ingredients’). 5. Skilled manpower & good governance.
4. Favorable policies. E.g. Ease of doing
business in GJ-MH.
5. Proximity to petrochemical hub (Bombay
high, Gujarat coast).
6. Easy capital availability.

Advantages in India:
1. Cost Efficiency: Low cost production (50% cheaper than west) and increasing expenditures on
R&D has led to competitive pharma exports reaching $ 17.15 billion in 2019.
2. Economic Drivers: High Economic growth along with increasing penetration of health insurance
push expenditures on healthcare and medicine in India.
3. Policy Support: The Indian Government’s ‘Pharma Vision 2020’ aims to make India a global
leader in end to end drug manufacturing.
4. Increasing Investments: Increasing private sector investments in R&D and acquisitions are
driving the sectors growth. In 2018, the Indian Pharma Companies invested 8.8% of their sales in
R&D.
5. Speedy clinical trials: Large patients base.

Challenges:
1. Low R&D budget.

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2. Over dependence on China for APIs (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients) even for essential
medicines like paracetamol, aspirin.
3. Inadequate Infrastructure: Labs, Drug Testing facilities.
4. Poor Industry-Academia linkage.
5. Limitations of domestic market:
➢ Low medical & healthcare expenditure.
➢ Low healthcare insurance penetration.
6. Lack of regulatory infrastructure:
➢ Delay in clearances of new drugs.
➢ IPR issues (evergreening of patents & compulsory licensing).

Government Initiatives:
• Strengthening of Pharmaceutical Industry Scheme:
o A total financial outlay of Rs. 500 crore (USD 665.5 million) for the period FY 21-22 to
FY 25-26 were announced under the Scheme.
• First Global Innovation Summit of the pharmaceuticals sector:
o In November 2021, Indian PM inaugurated the first Global Innovation Summit of the
pharmaceutical sector, where national and international speakers deliberated on a range of
subjects including regulatory environment, funding for innovation, industry-academia
collaboration and innovation infrastructure.
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme:
o The PLI scheme aims to promote domestic manufacturing of critical Key Starting Materials
(KSMs)/Drug Intermediates and Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) in the country.
• Promotion of Bulk Drug Parks Scheme:
o The government aims to develop 3 mega Bulk Drug parks in India in partnership with
States to reduce manufacturing cost of bulk drugs in the country and dependency on other
countries for bulk drugs.

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY:

Iron & Steel industry capital goods industry which is the base of all other industries.

Locational factors of Iron and steel industry are based on raw materials mainly:
● Iron and steel industry uses large quantities of heavy and weight losing raw materials and its
localisation is primarily controlled by the availability of raw materials.
● Coal and iron ore are the two basic raw materials used by iron and steel industry and on the basis
of minimum transportation cost most of the steel plants are located at three distinct places viz. (i)
near coal fields, (ii) near iron ore mining centres and (iii) at places between areas of coal and iron
ore production.
● Iron ore based location: e.g. Lorraine (France), Duluth (USA), Visakhapatnam (India).
● Coal based locations: e.g. Ruhr valley (Germany), New Castle (UK), Pittsburgh (USA), Bokaro
(India).
● Iron ore and coal producing regions have bidirectional relationships. E.g. Pittsburg-Lake
Superior(USA), Bokaro-Rourkela (India). For instance Ural-Kuznetsk combine, the Ural

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Mountains are rich in iron ore deposits and the Kuznetsk Basin in Western Siberia is rich in coal
deposits and sent to the Ural region by Railways. The returning wagons after emptying coal bring
iron ore from the Ural region. So iron-steel industry developed at both places. This is called Empty
wagon concept.
● Most of the iron and steel plants of India such as Jamshedpur, Bumpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai
and Bokaro are located in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa and Chhattisgarh. These states are very
rich in coal and iron ore deposits.

Why Jamshedpur emerged as Iron and Steel industry hub?

• Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country – Tata Iron and Steel
Company Limited (TISCO).
• It was privately owned. After Independence, the government took the initiative and set up several
iron and steel plants.
• TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and
Kharkai in Jharkhand.
• Later on Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur.
• Geographically, Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country.
• Sakchi was chosen to set up the steel plant for several reasons-
o This place was only 32 km away from Kalimati station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway
line.
o It was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits as well as to Kolkata, which
provided a large market.
o TISCO gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone, dolomite and
manganese from Odisha and Chhattisgarh.

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o The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured sufficient water supply.

o Government initiatives provided adequate capital for its later development.
o The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial
development in India.
o Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for
their basic infrastructure.

Changing trends with examples from India and the world:

● Traditionally these industries were located at the raw materials site slowly and other factors are
also contributing.
● Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works at Bhadravati is a major exception which is located far away
from the main coal producing areas of the country. Earlier, this centre depended upon charcoal
which was available locally. Now it uses hydroelectricity from the Sharavathi Power Project. The
other raw materials are manganese, limestone, dolomite, silica, etc. used in small quantities and
can be transported without much difficulty.
● Another important factor influencing the localisation of the iron and steel industry is the
availability of markets. Thus, following the least cost principle many centres of iron and steel
production tend to be attracted by market.
● Moreover, recent technological developments in transport, the use of scrap as raw material and
the agglomeration economics have made market oriented location more advantageous than ever
before.
● Near Coastal region:
○ Japan's Iron steel industry is developed at coastal areas/port locations because they rely
on imported coal and iron-ore.
○ E.g. from India include steel industry in Osaka-Kobe India Steel plants at
Visakhapatnam, Ratnagiri, Mangalore
○ USA In the coastal cities of Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago (using imported ores from
Canada).
● Political Considerations:
○ Steel industry was set up specifically at Bhilai to reduce the regional Backwardness.
○ Location of Salem plant in TN was due to political considerations.
○ In China, “Backyard steel furnaces” were set up in every commune under the “great leap
forward” policy of Mao.

PETROLEUM REFINING:
Refineries can be set up
○ near the raw material or
○ near the market or
○ At an intermediate break of the bulk location (ports/coastal locations) because for
Petroleum refineries, the raw material sources were less decisive factors for industrial
location.
Locational factors:

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1. Raw material site: Oil refining close to production site represents a weightloss of 10-11 % only
so there is not much cost saving in transport even if located near raw material site. Refinery will
become useless after oil is exhausted from oil well. But experts say refined products have higher
rate of evaporation, therefore it is better to set up the refinery near the source.
➢ Example: Assam: Digboi, Guwahati and Bongaigaon;
➢ Gujarat: Koyali
Unrest/Instability as a location factor: Because of this Multinational companies do not feel
confident to set up refineries in the middle-east or South America.
Ports: Many petrochemical complexes are located on the coast to facilitate export.
➢ Examples: Ras Tanura, Mina-Al-Ahmedi in Kuwait.
➢ Refineries on East Coast of USA get crude oil from Venezuela and West Asia then
transport the final products via pipelines and tankers to markets of Philadelphia, Chicago
and Great Lakes region.
➢ Reliance refinery (Jamnagar, Gujarat) near Sikka port. Refinery clusters are found near
port locations at Rotterdam and Thames: making it easier to transport the final products via
pipelines, river-barges and railroads.
Markets: In Europe, manufacturing industries also consume a large portion of petroleum products
therefore refineries are also located in major manufacturing centres, where petroleum products are
demanded for instance Antwerp, Rotterdam and Southampton.
➢ New refineries were constructed near the markets / consumption centres
Barauni at Bihar
Mathura at UP
Panipat at Haryana

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FERTILIZER INDUSTRY-
Introduction-
• The Indian fertilizer industry has made good progress in the case of Nitrogen-based fertilizers. India
is the 2nd largest consumer of Urea fertilizers after China.
• India also ranks 2nd in the production of nitrogenous fertilizers and 3rd in phosphatic
fertilizers.
• Potash requirement is met through imports since we have limited reserves of potash.
• Productions are largely state-controlled. Popular PSUs are The Fertilizer Corporation of India
Ltd, National fertilizers Limited, Hindustan Fertilizer Corporation Ltd., etc.

Importance of fertilizer industry in Indian agricultural system-

• Fertilizer provided the cradle in which the HYV seeds and assured irrigation flourished in the form
of the green revolution, mitigating the ever-multiplying problem of food security in India.
• Its importance can be gauged from the fact that the regions with high use of fertilizers are now
known as ‘granaries of India.’ The fertilizers industry is the second most important industry in
India after iron and steel.
• Decreasing fertility of the land and increasing population have raised the importance of this
industry manifold.

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• The fertilizer industry provides vital forward-backward linkages with other industries.
• Forward linkages are with agriculture and backward linkages are with petrochemical industries.
• The by-products of the petrochemical industry are used as raw materials in the fertilizers
industry.
• General productivity of the fertilizers industry is low. India is still not self-reliant in fertilizer
production (about 50% of fertilizers are imported).
• Further, there is a high Spatio-temporal variation in consumption. Fertilizer can most effectively
be used with ample water.
• So rainfed areas (deprived of irrigation) constitute 70 % of agricultural land and still, they use
only 20% of national Fertilizers consumption.
• On other hand Rabi crops are dominantly produced in Irrigated areas, so they consume about 66%
of fertilizers while their share of total agriculture output is 33%.
• India meets 85 percent its urea requirement through indigenous production but depends heavily
on imports for its phosphate and potash (P & K) fertilizer requirements.

Location factors-
• Raw Materials: Most of the industries are raw material oriented i.e. located where raw material
is available.
o Naphtha is the most important and preferred feedstock accounting for over 70% of the
installed capacity of nitrogen production.
o Naphtha is a by product of petroleum industry i.e. why many fertilizer industries near
oil refineries. Most of the Napatha required by the industry is imported.
o Coal is another important constituent of the location factors.
o It is used both as fuel and raw material.
o Ammonia is required for nitrogenous fertilizer. The coal based fertilizer units are
located at Ramagundem and Korba.
o The only lignite based unit in the country is located at Neyveli.
o Coke oven gas (COG), a by-product of iron & steel plants is also used as raw materials.
This is the reason for many fertilizers plants located near Iron & Steel plants e.g. in
Bhilai, Durgapur, Jamshedpur and Rourkela etc.
o Other important raw material includes Rock Phosphate used in the manufacture of
phosphoric fertilizers.
o About 90% of the requirement of phosphates is imported.
o The small phosphate deposits of commercial importance are confined to Singhbhum
(Jharkhand), Vishakhapatnam (A.P.), and in some parts of Rajasthan.
o Sulphur is also an important raw material. There are no known large reserves of
elemental sulphur in the country.
o However, some of the reserves of Sulphur is available in Tamil Nadu.
o Hydro-grade gypsum is used in large quantities for the manufacture of ammonium
sulphate.
• Energy: It is another important determining factor, since the fertilizer industry is highly energy-
intensive so many plants are located in areas where cheap energy is available i.e. Nangal Plant.

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• Transportation: Since many raw materials needed by this industry have to be transported to the
plant location and finished goods are to be transported to the consumption center and both of them
are bulky so efficient transportation make the backbone of this industry.
• Ports offer an attractive location for the fertilizers industry that is why there are many port-based
fertilizers plants.
• Gas pipelines e.g. HBJ has correspondence with fertilizer plants.
• Many fertilizer industries are located where there is a very high density of rail networks.
• Market: Apart from raw material, the market is also an important factor to be accounted in the
location of these industries i.e. in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh the location of this industry is
guided by market pull.
• Technology: Involvement of various chemical processes makes up gradation of technology
imperative. Besides, fuel efficiency is very important owning to energy intensive nature of this
industry.
• Government policy: It is the major factor deciding the localization of fertilizer industry
besides the raw material vicinity.
• Location of Sindri fertilizer plant was a part of government policy. Further, Administered Price
Mechanism earlier determined the prospects of this industry in India.
• International agreements in the form of increase or subsides regulate the consumption and in turn
the growth of this industry.
• Fertilizer consumption has gone down in past few years because of abolishment of subsides.
• Capital: fertilizer industry involves huge capital viz-a-viz new materials, heavy machinery,
transportation and new techniques. This factor has facilitated the location of industry in
Gujarat-Maharashtra region.

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Distribution of fertilizer industry-

• Fertilizer industry in India is concentrated in certain major regions of the country. This industry is
mainly spread over 5 regions.
o Gujarat region
o Chhottanagpur region
o Tamil Nadu region
o North West region
o Uttar Pradesh region
• Gujarat Region:
o It includes Gujarat and Maharashtra and is the largest producer of fertilizer in the
country.
o Petrochemical industries and oil refineries of this region produce Naphtha which is a
basic raw material for nitrogenous fertilizer. Important centers are Vadodara, Kalol,
Ahmedabad, Kandla and Trombay.
• Chotanagpur plateau region and other Iron and Steel locations
o Here the fertilizer industries have cropped up due to proximity to Iron and Steel
industries.
o The fertilizer industry of this region use byproducts of Iron and Steel industry as raw
material that is Steel slug, coke, and lignite.

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o Important centers are Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Durgapur, Burnpur, Sindri, Bhilai, etc
o Bhilai, Vizag, Mettur are other centers having fertilizer industry due to the presence of
the Iron and Steel industry.
• Tamil Nadu Region
o It is the availability of Sulphur in the Tamil Nadu region that has propelled the growth
of the industry in this region. Dispersal of fertilizer industry to South was important for its
localization in this area.
o Important centers are Coimbatore, Neyveli, Alwaye (Kerala), Kochi (Kerala),
Tuticorin, Ennore.
• North West region:
o This location has the advantage of huge market as it is the agriculturally most advanced
region and market driven demand fuelled the growth of fertilizer industry in this region.
o Important centres are Bhatinda, Nangal (Punjab), Panipat (Haryana) and Delhi.
• Uttar Pradesh region
o This region became the hub of the fertilizer industry due to the availability of the
mineral Phosphate.
o Phosphatic fertilizer plants are located here i.e. Jagdishpur, Gorakhpur, Aonla,
Shahjahanpur, Babrala etc.
• HBJ Pipeline
o This pipeline has been constructed by the Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) to
transport gas and Neptha through the pipeline. It is 1,750 km long and connects Hazira
in Maharashtra to Bijapur in M.P. and Jagdishpur in U.P.
o It carries 18 million cubic meters of gas every day to three powerhouses at Kawas
(Gujarat), Anta (Rajasthan), and Auraiya (U.P.) and to six fertilizer plants at Bijapur,
Sawai Madhopur,. Jagdishpur, Shahjahanpur, Aonla, and Babrala.

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• Coal based Plants

o These plants are located in the close proximity of coal producing regions. Some of the
plants are located in Korba, Talcher, Ramagundam and Neyveli.

New development in fertilizer industry-

• The Government is planning to liberalise Market Development Assistance (MDA) policy to
promote the use of alternative fertilisers.
• Neem Coating of Urea:
o The Department of Fertilizers (DoF) has made it mandatory for all the domestic
producers to produce 100% urea as Neem Coated Urea (NCU).
• New Urea Policy (NUP) 2015:
• Objectives of the policy are-
o To maximize indigenous urea production.
o To promote energy efficiency in the urea units.
o To rationalize the subsidy burden on the Government of India.
• New Investment Policy- 2012:
o The Government announced New Investment Policy (NIP)-2012 in January, 2013 and
made amendments in 2014 to facilitate fresh investment in the urea sector and to make
India self-sufficient in the urea sector.
• Use of Space Technology in Fertilizer Sector:
o DoF commissioned a three year Pilot Study on “Resource Mapping of Rock Phosphate
using Reflectance Spectroscopy and Earth Observations Data” by National Remote
Sensing Centre under ISRO, in collaboration with Geological Survey of India (GSI)
and the Atomic Mineral Directorate (AMD).
• Recently, the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) introduced the world's
first Nano Urea Liquid for farmers across the world.
o It is a nutrient (liquid) to provide nitrogen to plants as an alternative to the conventional
urea.
o It is developed to replace conventional urea and it can curtail the requirement of the same
by at least 50%.

Trends of growth of fertilizer industry in India

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FOREST BASED INDUSTRY: TIMBER, PAPER AND PULP INDUSTRY:

Lumbering:
● Lumbering is defined as cutting down trees and turning them into pieces of wood used for building.
● It is defined as the felling of economic trees in the forest, which can be used for domestic, industrial
or commercial purposes.
Why is Lumbering a large scale organised activity in Canada?
1. Raw material: Canada’s forests are mostly softwood so it’s easy to chop. In coniferous forests,
trees of same species are concentrated in one particular area so mass exploitation is easier compared
to tropical areas.
2. Transport: During winter, the Jungle surface is covered with snow which has a slippery surface
so it is easier to move logs to rivers.
a. The forests are comparatively less dense than in tropical areas and easy to access.
b. Areas are also well connected by railroads
3. Labour: The winter season in Canada is long so agricultural activities are limited. Farmers have
plenty of leisure time and there is no work in the field during winter. So they migrate to northern
(coniferous) forests along with their families so there is easy availability of lumberjacks.
a. Lumbering is highly mechanized with the help of chainsaws; bulldozers etc so low
population-density doesn’t create much problem.
4. Market: These forests are close to economically developed regions, where demand for wood is
higher e.g. USA for newsprint paper.
Canada’s paper and Pulp industry:
● Forest area is large enough to supply timber on a constant basis.
● Ideal location for mill is riverside. It minimizes transportation problems.
● Canada has mountainous terrain and fast flowing rivers with cheap hydroelectric Power available.
Paper and pulp mills are highly mechanized and require little manpower which helps less
population of Canada as well. They can be located in remote regions without experiencing labour
shortage.
● USA has highest paper consumption in the world, provides a ready-made market for the paper pulp
industry of Canada.

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Why are tropics a bad destination?

1. In temperate forests trees of same species are concentrated in a particular area so easy to exploit
on a commercial scale. However in tropical forests some tree-species are extremely valuable, but
they are scattered.
2. Frozen ground helps transporting logs from jungle/hills up to rivers in temperate areas .In tropical
areas valuable trees are scattered throughout the jungle, there is need for some land transport before
logs reach the rivers. But road construction is difficult due to rain, dense vegetation.
3. Temperate regions have softwood which is easy to float down the river streams which is not the
case in the tropical regions. In the Amazon and Zaire Basin, some trees are so heavy; it is difficult
to float logs as extraction cost is very high.
4. In temperate areas major industrial/urban areas are near the market. In tropical areas settlement is
sparse; economies are non-industrialized, away from demand areas.
5. In temperate areas government assistance is there with replantation programs, Silviculture, strict
government regulation on lumbering .In tropical areas there are lax regulations, slash-n-burn type
agriculture, jungles are permanently destroyed.

Indian timber industry:

1. Raw material: Dependent on bamboo, softwood. For instance, regions like South Gujarat, Odisha,
MP.
2. Near market: For Kolkata raw materials are brought from North Eastern States.
3. Also cheap labour, coal, water is readily available.

ELECTRONIC AND IT INDUSTRY:

The Electronics Industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. The electronics industry is
made up of companies that manufacture, design, assemble and service electronic products.

Locational Factors necessary are:

1. In this industry the traditional locational factors like raw materials do not influence much.
2. Skilled force: In Japan ‘s Kumamoto Prefecture, the centre of Kyushu’s Silicon Island the strengths
include the region’s wealth of well-educated and talented engineers.
3. Electronics Industry is driven by tough competition to innovate ideas and introduce the newest
technology in the market first.
4. Market: Proximity to the rapidly growing greater Asian market in the case of Kumamoto as it can
capitalize on this by developing transportation systems to support global business.
5. Government policies: China has lured several multinational chipmakers to build new fabs inside
its borders. In fact, starting in the 1980s, China introduced several initiatives to modernize its IC
industry. And over the years, China has launched several domestic foundry vendors and a plethora
of fabulous design houses.
6. Research and development and specialized production have maintained the Valley’s position as
a primary hi-tech centre in the USA.
7. Technology: There are high technological barriers to entry in this industry. Without a high level
of technological sophistication, which often takes years to develop, new entrants find it challenging
to establish a foothold in the industry.

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8. Capital barriers as this industry processes are really expensive.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND START UP’S:

Bangalore case: (Silicon valley of India)
● Early starter :
○ Bangalore has seen start-ups like Infosys, Mindtree transforming into multinationals. Since
1980's, with the telecom revolution in India, Bangalore seized the opportunity.
○ The city is home to billion-dollarIndian start-ups like Flipkart, InMobi and Mu Sigma.
● Government Initiatives:
○ Karnataka was the first state to have an IT policy in 1992 itself.
○ Promoting SEZ and inviting global giants to do business by providing them land at
subsidized rates.
● Capital:
○ Many Venture capital funds are located in the town. Business funding fairs are organised
almost regularly where they meet technocrats with their fresh and innovative ideas.
● Business parks :
○ SEZs in service sector fuel this growth as units located inside are away from Bureaucratic
interference.
● Investment:
○ It is the 3rd largest hub for high net worth individuals: There are nearly 10,000 millionaires
with an investable surplus of USD1.15 mn.
● Infrastructure:
○ Infrastructure of Bangalore like many Incubation centres help start-ups flourish in their
initial stage.
○ Largely English speaking population of India and growth of service sector have their own
advantages in making Bangalore a preferred destination for Innovation and start-ups.
● Weather:
○ Mild weather throughout the year makes it an easy place for even foreigners to work in a
tropical country like India.
● Availability of manpower:
○ With a large number of engineering colleges, cheap and talented manpower is available.
● Education: The city has few top-class global research institutes like Indian Institute of Science,
and also houses many state-owned research organizations

SOLAR INDUSTRY:
Factors responsible for the location of solar industry:
1. Availability of sunlight: Availability of abundant sunlight is the most important factor for setting
up a solar plant.
2. Latitude: Due to Earth's spherical shape, the solar rays have more intensity around the equatorial
regions. Thus, it's a definite advantage to be close to the equator for the solar plants.
3. Duration of sunlight: Fluctuations in climatic conditions hamper the functioning of solar plants.
4. Cloud cover: Clouds have a big impact on the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of
Earth.

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5. Aerosols: By absorbing solar radiation, they can decrease the level of solar radiation reaching the
surface. While aerosols degrade the performance of photovoltaic systems, their impact is more
severe on the performance of concentrating solar applications and solar thermal systems.
6. Shading: The immediate surroundings of the solar project site also have a big impact on the level
of solar radiation reaching solar energy systems. Vegetation, buildings, even certain landscape
features such as hills can block incoming radiation and cast a shadow, drastically reducing the
usable solar radiation.
7. Transmission and Distribution facilities: Efficient Transmission and Distribution systems are
crucial in the operation of a solar plant.
8. Local Legislation: Local laws and regulations often play a key role in plant location.
Reasons for India lagging behind in solar industry:
Solar’s Share in India’s Total Installed Capacity Rises to 7.9% at the End of 2018. India has a target of
installing 100 GW of solar capacity by 2022 and is still 72 GW short of it. To achieve this ambitious goal,
a ramping up of the yearly targets is the need of the hour. However, there exist a lot of challenges which
obstruct the growth of solar industry in India:
1. To achieve the 100 GW target, India needs to invest $65 billion in the next four years. A major part
of it has to be raised within the country, as the renewable sector could so far attract a foreign direct
investment (FDI) worth only $7.5 billion in the last 18 years (2000-2018), according to a report
by the India Brand Equity Foundation.
2. Indian cities lag far behind in installing rooftop solar installations. This is despite policies and
net metering guidelines in several states; a subsidy of 30 percent offered by the MNRE, the
installation of solar rooftop systems has been dismal in leading metros in the country.
3. On the domestic manufacturing front, India fares worse. Various efforts by the Solar Energy
Corporation of India (SECI) to attract bids for the development of the Inter-state Transmission
System (ISTS) connected Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Plant since May 2018 has been in vain.
4. Almost 95 per cent of the solar cells and modules currently being used by Indian solar developers
are imported. Even domestic solar manufacturers import solar wafers.
5. Solar panels require inverters and storage batteries to convert direct electricity to alternating
electricity so as to generate electricity. While installing a solar panel is cheap, installing other
equipment becomes expensive.
6. Absence of Proper Financing Mechanism is a major issue. Commercial banks constitute a major
source for financing infrastructure projects including renewable energy systems in India. But these
national banks provide debt at a rate much higher than what is available in the developed nations.
7. Availability of Land and Possession is another issue. Finding suitable land which must be non-
agricultural and unused land with good solar irradiance is challenging. Also the land must be free
of undulations and trees. Once a suitable land is identified, its acquisition becomes the next
challenge.
8. Funding of initiatives like the National Solar Mission is a constraint given India's inadequate
financing capabilities.
9. Dust, high temperatures and the dearth of water are contributing to a significant increase in the
cost of operating solar power plants in the country.
10. The existing power grids are very old in India and are not equipped to handle renewable energy
very efficiently.
11. India is facing challenge to balance Prioritising domestic goals and WTO commitments.

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India needs a more comprehensive approach in order to achieve the targets of 2022 and beyond. Some of
the initiatives in this direction include:
● The Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has announced a scheme to develop
at least 25 solar parks, each with a capacity of 500 MW and above targeting over 20 GW solar
powers.
● Charanka Solar Park in Gujarat is the first-of-its-kind large scale solar park in India with
contiguous developed land, transmission connectivity and provision of other amenities and
infrastructure.

FISHING INDUSTRY:
Fisheries are the industry of fish catching. Over 80 % of the world fisheries are in coastal environments and
20 % in inland fresh water. Commercial fishing is developed in middle to higher latitudes of the Northern
hemisphere.

Factors responsible for this development are:

1. Plankton Availability: Plankton is the basic food of fish. The Dogger Bank in Northern Sea and
Grand Bank in North Eastern USA are the shallower continental shelves with large scale planktons.
2. Broken Coastal Lines: It is observed that near the broken coastal lines, the speed of the water is
slow which in turn reduces the speed of a fish, thus near the broken coastal lines, fish catching can
be quite easy.
3. Cold & Warm Currents: Meeting of ocean currents for instance meeting of Gulf Stream and
Labrador Grand banks and New Found land in North America is one of the best fishing grounds in
the world. Similarly congruence of Kuroshio and Oyashio in Japan .
4. Climate: In tropical areas fish cannot be stored for long whereas in cool temperate climate large
scale commercial fishing, preservation and storage of fish can be done.
5. Labour:In higher latitudes of northern hemisphere there are long winters which are unsuitable for
cultivation so many people switch to fishing so labour is easily available especially in the countries
like Iceland, Japan, Norway Etc.
6. Fishing equipment : In medieval times temperate forests provided both soft and hard wood for
construction of fishing boats. Today, commercial fishing vessels does not need this, but steel and
heavy engineering industry also developed in surrounding coastal regions leading to enormous
shipbuilding industries.
7. Fishing market: In the higher and mountainous regions of Asia and Europe especially Japan and
Norway as agricultural production is also quite low people rely on fish as a source of protein. Also
in many Asian countries Fish is a staple diet.
8. Economic factors:
a. Availability of fast and modern transport facilities.
b. Availability of cold storage for preservation of fish.
c. Good communication system among consumers and sellers.
d. Excellent & quick banking system for transfer of payments.

Why commercial fishing more developed in Europe and North America compared to Asia (except
Japan)?
1. Climate in most of the Asian countries is tropical so fish cannot be stored for long.

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2. The coastline of Asia is relatively smooth unlike indented coastlines in countries of North America.
Also, continental shelves are narrower than Europe.
3. Commercial fishing requires huge ships and also high technology equipment for scanning fishing
waters to find the optimal location. These are readily available in Europe and America and much
less in Asia.
4. In tropical regions of Asia multiple varieties of fishes occur but in smaller groups which is not very
profitable for commercial fishing.
5. The tropical fishes have higher oil content which is less desirable for eating.
.Why is Fishing more developed along the western coast than the Eastern coast?
1. Continental shelf in the western coast is wider with more plankton so more fish is present.
2. Commercial varieties like Prawns and Mackerel are mostly confined along western coast.

Why is India not a major player in fishing industry despite huge coastline?
With 5.6% of the total world fish production, India has one of the largest fishery sectors in the world.
However It has an unrealised deep water potential. The challenges include:
1. Lack of a reliable database relating to aquatic and fisheries resources.
2. Limited number of species grown / cultured, mainly due to weak linkages between research and
development and fish farmers community.
3. Inadequate HRD and specialized manpower in different disciplines.
4. Poor yield optimization, problems in harvest and post-harvest operations, landing and berthing
facilities for fishing vessels and issues in welfare of fishermen. Poor quality of fish feed remains a
challenge.
5. Decline in fish catch and depletion of natural resources due to over exploitation of coastal fisheries.
6. Water pollution; unscientific management of aquaculture and contamination of indigenous
germplasm resources.
7. Marine fishing has declined due to depleting resources, energy crisis and resultant high cost of
fishing.
8. Large % of this sector continues to remain structured on unorganised and traditional lines with
little proliferation of technological improvements.
9. India has yet to realise the potential of deep-sea fishing.
10. Poor infrastructure especially in relation to marine fishing results in significant post harvest
losses. Weak marketing and extension network.
11. Security of fishermen especially along the maritime boundaries with Sri Lanka and Pakistan
remains a concern.

FOOTLOOSE INDUSTRIES
Footloose industries can be located in a wide variety of places. They are independent of any specific raw
material. They largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere, in other words they
are not dependent upon proximity of raw materials. These are called footloose as these types of
industries are prone to relocation.
Examples--
1. computer chips manufacturing
2. Diamond manufacturing

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3. Smartphones assembling
4. cotton textile industry
What are the important characteristics of footloose industries?

1. Location: Footloose industries can be established at any place. These industries are affected by
component parts and they are available at all places.
2. Small plant size: These industries require small plant size compared to heavy and small industries.
3. Less transport cost: Their products are having very high value addition and smaller in size and so
transportation cost is only a small fraction of total cost.
4. Less labour force: These industries produce their products in small numbers and they do not
require a large labour force.
5. Eco-friendly: These are environment-friendly industries as the process involved in these industries
have a negligible carbon footprint. These industries emit less or no pollution.
6. Skilled workers: It needs skilled workers as the industrial process is advanced and major work
needs high-quality precision.
7. Less raw material dependence: These are less dependent on specific raw material, especially
weight losing ones. Most of the raw materials are small and light and can be transported easily.
What are the factors responsible for the location of footloose industries?
1. Connectivity: Location with a good connectivity of roads, railways, telecommunication, airways
etc. are preferred to facilitate quick movement of skilled workers and high-value outputs.
2. Accessibility: The important factor in their location is accessibility by transportation network
enabling the workers commute hassle free. The extensive network of metro, railway and road in
NCR helped service industry in Gurugram and Noida.
3. Cheap land: They are located on the edge of cities because the land is often cheaper than in the
center. The out of town surroundings and easy access to workers in the suburbs provides an ideal
location.
4. Close to similar industries: They are also located close to similar industries to facilitate exchange
of ideas and knowledge.
5. Raw material independent: The computing and information technology industry are not tied to
raw materials and can choose their own location. The mega cyber cities like Bangalore and
Hyderabad are the best examples.

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6. Close to research centres: The Hi-tech industries have to locate close to research centres like
universities. Development in the hi-tech industry happens so fast that companies need to stay up to
date to survive. For e.g. software technology parks in India.
Footloose industries are crucial for the development of areas which lack locational advantages with respect
to port facilities, availability of raw materials, etc. With technological advancements traditional industries
are increasingly becoming footloose.

NASHIK AS WINE CAPITAL OF INDIA

● Nashik has long been known as one of the three locations for Kumbh Mela, a religious event that
witnesses the largest congregation of Hindus. However, over the past decade or so, the city of 1.4
million, which is located 190 km north of Mumbai, has earned a new distinction of being the wine
capital of India.
● That’s because almost half of India’s wineries are located in Nashik.
● The reason why Nashik has attracted so many wine entrepreneurs is because it has a favourable
climate for growing grapes. Located at an altitude of 700 metres above the sea level, Nashik
has an ideal temperature variation, particularly in winters, that helps grapes retain acidity
and optimal sugar levels.
● Sula stands out for not only pioneering the wine industry in Nashik but also in India. Currently, it
is India’s largest winery producing up to 1 million cases of wine every year. Currently, it has 65
per cent share in the premium wine segment.
● Sula exports between 10 to 15 percent of its wine to 27 markets all over the world.
● Despite the impressive growth of the wine industry in India over the past decade, wine consumption
in India continues to remain low.
● Keeping in mind this trend, some of the wineries in Nashik have adopted the strategy of focusing
on exports. One such brand is Soul Tree which produces 150,000 bottles of wine every year, all of
which is sold in the overseas market.

Q. Discuss the location factor responsible for making Nashik as wine capital of India.

MEDIA AND ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY

The Indian Media and Entertainment (M&E) industry is a sunrise sector for the economy and is making
significant strides.

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18.2. Mumbai- The Hub of Indian Cinema:

● Mumbai is home to the Bollywood film industry. Over 70% of Indian motion pictures, television
serials and commercials are produced in Mumbai itself.
● The term Bollywood is imbibed from the merger of the term Bombay (now Mumbai) and
Hollywood, depicting the significance of the city on its film industry.
● Initiatives to promote films in Mumbai
○ Mumbai has been on the forefront of promoting the dynamic film industry by continuously
taking measures such as easing filming process, offering information on location and
location promotion, incentivizing the regional film production and hosting National and
International events.
● Incentive & Support:
○ Financial Assistance: Maharashtra Cultural Affairs Department offers Film finance
assistance scheme, under the name “Darjedar Marathi Chitrapat Arthsahaya Yojna to
Marathi films.
○ Tax Exemption and Concession: Marathi films also get 100% entertainment tax
exemption on theatrical release in Maharashtra State.
○ Location Compendium & Database: Location Compendium plays a key role in
promoting the film shooting locations in the state and offers sneak peek into the state
offerings in terms of locations. Maharashtra has its own location compendium named
“Spotlight” which highlights top 100 scenic locales in Maharashtra where majority of the
film shooting takes place.
○ Single Window Facilitation: Maharashtra Film Cell (MFC) is a unique initiative by the
state government which serves as a one stop solution for obtaining film shooting
permissions in the state. MFC works to enable international as well as domestic producers,
filmmakers to seek filming/ shooting permissions for multiple locations through the single
window system.

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○ Events & Film Festivals: Mumbai city is known for its vibrant colors, festivals, events
and trade meets. City is a host prestigious Mumbai Film Festival, Mumbai International
Film Festival and Kala Ghoda Arts Festival among others, which offers a clear glimpse of
the city's lively spirit and culture.

Q. Discuss the factors responsible for making Mumbai as the film industry hub of India.

INDUSTRIAL CORRIDORS:
Context-
• Government has approved the development of the five industrial corridor projects which will be
implemented through National Industrial Corridor Development and Implementation Trust
(NICDIT).
o NICDIT is an apex body under the administrative control of the Department for
Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry
for coordinated and unified development of the 5 Industrial Corridors in India.
o In 2017, Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Project Implementation Trust Fund (DMIC-
PITF) was re-designated as National Industrial Corridor Development and
Implementation Trust (NICDIT).
o NICDIT supports project development activities and appraisal, approval and sanction of
projects. It also coordinates and monitors all central efforts for the development of
Industrial Corridor projects.

The Five Industrial Corridors:

S.No. Industrial Corridor States

1. Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan,

(DMIC) Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra

2. Amritsar Kolkata Industrial Corridor Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,

(AKIC) Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, West
Bengal

3. Chennai Bengaluru Industrial Corridor Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,

(CBIC) Kerala

4. East Coast Economic Corridor (ECEC) West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
with Vizag Chennai Industrial Corridor Tamil Nadu
(VCIC) as Phase-1

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5. Bengaluru Mumbai Industrial Corridor Karnataka, Maharashtra

(BMIC)

Features of Industrial Corridors:

• Industrial corridors offer effective integration between industry and infrastructure, leading to overall
economic and social development. Industrial corridors constitute:
o High-speed transportation network – rail and road
o Ports with state-of-the-art cargo handling equipment
o Modern airports
o Special economic regions/industrial areas
o Logistic parks/transhipment hubs
o Knowledge parks focused on catering to industrial needs
o Complementary infrastructure such as townships/real estate
o Other urban infrastructure along with enabling policy framework
• The 5 industrial corridors are spread across India, with a strategic focus on inclusive development
to boost industrialization and planned urbanization.
• Manufacturing is a key economic driver in each of these projects. Industrial Corridors are expected
to play a critical role in raising the share of contribution of the manufacturing sector from
approximately 16%2 to 25% by 2025.

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• Smart cities are being developed along these corridors. These cities, with state-of-the-art
infrastructure, will house the new workforce that is required to power manufacturing, in turn leading
to planned urbanization.

Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC):

• Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) is the first Industrial Corridor project which was
announced.
o DMIC Development Corporation (DMICDC) incorporated in 2008, is the
implementing agency for the project.
o DMICDC has been registered as a company with 49% equity of Government of
India, 26% equity of the JBIC (Japan Bank for International Cooperation) and the
remaining held by government financial institutions.
• The project aims to create smart, sustainable industrial cities by leveraging high speed, high
capacity connectivity backbone provided by the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) to
reduce logistic costs in an enabling policy framework.
o These new cities will come up in the States of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
o The 1,504 kms long Western DFC is from J N Port in Mumbai, Maharashtra to Dadri
in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
▪ The DFC project is one of the Indian Railways’ largest infrastructure
projects, undertaken by the government at a cost Rs. 81,459 crore.
• This is the first time that India has embarked on the process of planned urbanisation with
manufacturing as the key economic driver.
o The vision for DMIC is to create a strong economic base with a globally competitive
environment and state of the art infrastructure to activate local commerce, enhance
foreign investments and attain sustainable development.

DEDICATED FREIGHT CORRIDORS

Dedicated Freight Corridors:
● Dedicated freight corridor (DFC), as the name suggests, is meant to create a safe and efficient
freight transportation system in the country.
● DFC involves the seamless integration of better infrastructure and state of the art technology.
● Under the Ministry of Railways.
DFC consists of two arms:
● Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor (EDFC):
○ It starts at Sahnewal (Ludhiana) in Punjab and ends at Dankuni in West Bengal.
○ The EDFC route has coal mines, thermal power plants and industrial cities.
○ The EDFC route covers Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West
Bengal
○ The World Bank is funding a majority of the EDFC.
● Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC):
○ WDFC is around 1,500-km WDFC from Dadri in Uttar Pradesh to Jawaharlal Nehru
Port Trust in Mumbai, touching all major ports along the way.
○ The WDFC covers Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.
○ It is being funded by the Japan International Cooperation Agency.

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○ Connecting Link for Eastern and Western Arm: It is under construction between Dadri
and Khurja. The industrial corridors of Delhi-Mumbai and Amritsar-Kolkata are also
being developed around both these DFCs.

Significance:

● Increased Capacity
● Decongestion: Around 70% of the freight trains currently running on the Indian Railway network
are slated to shift to the freight corridors, leaving the paths open for more passenger trains.
● Logistics costs will be reduced
● Reduction in the unit cost of transportation,
● Smaller organization & management cost,
● Higher efficiency & lower energy consumption.
● Faster movement of goods.
● It is environmentally friendly.
● Helps in generating more employment
Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Ltd (DFCIL):
• DFCCIL under the Ministry of Railways is a special purpose vehicle tasked with planning and
completion of 3,306 kms of DFCs.
• It is headquartered in New Delhi and is a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU).
• It engages in the planning and development, deployment of monetary resources, building, upkeep,
and the operation of the DFCs.

Q. What do you understand about a dedicated freight corridor? Discuss its significance for Indian
economy.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

MODERN INDIAN HISTORY MAINS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EUROPEAN PENETRATION INTO INDIA ................................................................................................................................ 3

BRITISH EXPANSION IN INDIA.............................................................................................................................................. 13

EARLY STRUCTURE OF THE BRITISH RAJ/POLICIES OF BRITISH RAJ ........................................................................ 28

ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH COLONIAL RULE .......................................................................................................... 40

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 53

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENT ............................................................................................................... 61

MOVEMENT/REVOLUTIONS/REBELLION ........................................................................................................................... 77

DIFFERENT PERSONALITIES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION ............................................................................................ 91

REVOLT OF 1857- INDIAN RESPONSE TO BRITISH RULE .............................................................................................. 105

EARLY INDIAN NATIONALISM - 1858-1900 ...................................................................................................................... 113

SECOND PHASE OF NATIONALISM - 1900-1915 ............................................................................................................... 127

REVOLUTIONARY PHASE .................................................................................................................................................... 137

NATIONALISM UNDER GANDHI’S LEADERSHIP - 1915-1940 ........................................................................................ 142

POLITICS OF SEPARATISM AND TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE- 1940-TILL INDEPENDENCE .................................. 167

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN COLONIAL INDIA BETWEEN 1858-1935 ...................................................... 180

DIFFERENT ASPECT OF FREEDOM STRUGGLE ............................................................................................................... 188

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EUROPEAN PENETRATION INTO INDIA

1. The roots of the disintegration of the Mughal empire may be found in the Indian economy and external
incursions. Discuss.

Hint-
Disintegration of the Mughal empire was a decisive event in the history of India which led to the rise of different
regional powers as well as British rule for over 200 years.
Beginning of the disintegration of the Mughal empire can be traced to the strong rule of Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb inherited a large empire, yet he adopted a policy of extending it further to the farthest geographical limits
in the south at the great expense of men and materials.
Reasons for disintegration of Mughal empire:
● Political reasons:
○ War of succession: Due to the absence of any fixed rule of succession, the Mughal dynasty often had to face
civil wars between the princes.
■ These wars of succession became increasingly destructive and fierce during the 18th century which resulted
in great loss of life and property.
○ Increased factionalism among Mughal Nobility: The Mughal nobles were divided into Irani, Turani and
Hindustani factions, and these nobles played an important role in choosing the successors.
■ Sayyid brothers of Hindustani faction assassinated Jahandar Shah and blinded and murdered
Farrukhsiyar.
■ Later, Muhammad Shah with the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jahan who united Irani and Turani factions
killed both of them.
○ Weak Successors of Aurangzeb: The successors of Aurangzeb were weak and became victims of the intrigues
and conspiracies of the faction-ridden nobles.
■ They were inefficient generals and incapable of suppressing revolts.
■ The absence of a strong ruler, an efficient bureaucracy and a capable army had made the Mughal Empire
weak.
○ Challenge from Regional Powers: The Great Mughals were efficient and exercised control over ministers and
army, but the later Mughals were poor administrators.
■ As a result, the distant provinces became independent. The rise of independent states led to the disintegration
of the Mughal Empire.
● Economic reasons: The Mughal economy was affected by a number of reasons which in turn led to disintegration
of the Mughal empire.
○ Jagirdars: The economy of the empire deteriorated due to the Jagir crisis as many Jagirdars were contesting
for a limited number of jagirs which in turn led to further political crisis between the nobles.
■ Though the Mughal area expanded, however, the majority of the new area conquered was put under the
Khalisa i.e. the revenue was directly sent to the treasury. Thus, the numbers of nobles expanded but the jagirs
remained the same.
■ To increase profit with a limited number of jagirs, the Jagirdars started to maintain less than expected number
of troops which weakened the army of the Mughal empire.
○ Empty Treasury: Shah Jahan’s zeal for construction (e.g. Taj Mahal) had depleted the treasury. Aurangzeb’s
long wars in the south had further drained the exchequer.
○ Peasants revolts: The agrarian system becoming more exploitative as pressure on limited resources grew. This
sparked off peasant revolts which ruined imperial stability. E.g. Jats and Sikhs in north India.
● Social reasons: Aurangzeb failed to realize that the vast Mughal Empire depended on the willing support of the
people.
○ Aurangzeb’s religious orthodoxy and his policy towards the Hindus damaged the stability of the Mughal
empire.
○ He lost the support of the Rajputs who had contributed greatly to the strength of the Empire.
○ They had acted as pillars of support, but Aurangzeb’s policy turned them to bitter foes.
○ The wars with the Sikhs, the Marathas, the Jats and the Rajputs had drained the resources of the Mughal
Empire.
● Military reasons: The strength of the Mughal empire depended on a strong army to be maintained by a strong
treasury.

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○ However due to absence of a strong central authority, the jagirdars maintained less number of Jat and Sawars
than required, while exaggerating their numbers in records.
○ There was no technological advancement in the military of the Mughal empire.
○ The neglect of naval power by the Mughals also cost them dearly.
● Foreign invasion: After the death of Aurangzeb, due to the weakness of later Mughals, many foreign invasions
struck the empire. Such invasions resulted in plundering much of the wealth of the empire.
○ Invasion by Nadir Shah: Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia, attacked the empire in 1739. Nadir Shah’s invasion
gave a crushing blow to the already tottering Mughal Empire and hastened the process of its disintegration.
○ Invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali: In 1761, during the reign of Shah Alam II, Ahmad Shah Abdali, the
independent ruler of Afghanistan, invaded India. He conquered Punjab and marched towards Delhi. Ahmad
Shah Abdali’s invasion further weakened the Mughal Empire.
○ Further, the emergence of British and other European powers in the Indian subcontinent also posed a challenge
that took away the last hope of the revival of the Mughal Empire.

The disintegration of the Mughal Empire made the soil fertile for colonization by the British.
In 1857, Bahadur Shah II played an important symbolic role and with his death in 1862, the Mughal Empire came to
an end.
Thus, decline of economy and external incursions acted as termites in the strong wood of mughal empire.

Other Questions:
Q. What were the reasons responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire in India. Discuss.
Q. Social decay, deterioration of the previous order and long spells of chaos and disorder are some of the main
causes of decline of the Great Mughal Empire in India. Deliberate.
Q. “The major characteristics of eighteenth-century India was therefore the weakening of the centralized Mughal
empire and a dispersal of political power across the regions.” Discuss such dispersal of political power in South
India.
Q. Discuss, in a nutshell, the causes of the downfall of the Mughal empire in India.

2. Did the Mughal traditions end with the decline of the Mughal empire? Explain
Hint-
In sharp contrast to the rapid territorial disintegration of the Mughal empire was the stubborn survival of the Mughal
tradition of government.
● By 1761 the Mughal empire was an empire only in name, it could better be described as the state of Delhi.
● But the prestige of the emperor, the king of kings, was so considerable, that whether it was acquiring territory,
a throne or an empire, the sanction of the emperor was sought.
● Even rebel chiefs of the Marathas and Sikhs sometimes recognised the emperor as the fount of authority.
● The Sikhs made offerings to the Delhi court in 1783 (despite their gurus having been killed by the Mughals) and
the Maratha leader, Shahu, visited Aurangzeb's tomb in 1714.
● The British and the Maratha fought over possession of the person of the emperor, hoping to gain legitimacy for
their claims to inherit the imperial mantle.
● Shah Alam II was made a pensioner of the company after the battle of Buxar but he preferred the protection of
the Marathas at Delhi.
● British occupation of Delhi in 1803 brought him once again under British protection.
● Mughal administrative practice was adopted by the regional powers.
● It was natural for the successor states of the Mughal empire to continue with old Mughal practice.
● Even the states, such as the Maratha, which began as popular reactions against imperial rule, copied Mughal
methods of administration.
● Many officers schooled in Mughal practice found employment in numerous local kingdoms.
However, we should not deduce from the continuity of institutions that the Mughal political system survived.
● The new polities were regional, none could achieve an all- India scale.
● Some of the old institutions were reintegrated into new political systems by the regional chiefs and later by the
British.
● The old Mughal institutions served very different functions under colonialism.
● Land revenue practices might be the same as earlier, but the wealth gathered was drained from India under
colonialism.

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This distinction between form and function is blurred by imperialist historians with the intention of emphasizing
continuity of institutions to show that the British were no different from their predecessors.

Q. Despite losing most of their territories, the Mughal emperor commanded authority. Discuss
Q. Discuss how the Mughal tradition continued and how their function changed under different powers.

3. What were the factors that led to the advent of Europeans in India?

Hint-
The landing of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in 1498 with three ships is generally regarded as the beginning of a new era
in world history, especially in the relation between Asia and Europe.
The British were not the only trading nation to come to India. There were a few other European countries such as
Portuguese, Dutch, and French who aspired to establish commercial relations with India. They first came to India in
search of trading opportunities, but circumstances made them the masters of this vast country. And the British emerged
the winner from among all European powers.

The factors that lead to the advent of Europeans in India –

● Weak rulers and fragmented regional powers: Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers. He
established control over a very large part of the territory that is now known as India. After his death in 1707,
many Mughal governors (subadars) and big zamindars began asserting their authority and establishing
regional kingdoms. As powerful regional kingdoms emerged in various parts of India, Delhi could no longer
function as an effective centre.
● Vast wealth of India: It was the immense wealth of India that attracted the Europeans to this country which
they came to know from the accounts of Marco Polo and some other sources.
● Heavy demand for Indian commodities: Heavy demand for Indian commodities like spices, calicoes, silk,
various precious stones, porcelain, etc caught the attention of the European traders from the early medieval
period.
● Advancement in navigational technologies: For a long time Europeans failed to establish a direct trade relation
with India as all the major land routes to this country were then controlled by the Arabs. In the 15th century,
Europe achieved great advancement in the art of ship building and navigation.
● Quest of the expansion of the market: Industrialization greatly increased the economic, military, and political
strength of the European societies, along with government support and need for market expansion to fulfill their
capitalist desire.

During the second half of the 19th Century and the first half of the 20th Century a powerful national struggle against
British imperialism developed in India. This struggle was the result of a clash of interests between those of the Indian
people and those of the British rulers.
The very nature of the foreign rule resulted in nationalistic sentiments arising among the Indian people and produced
the material, moral, intellectual and political conditions for the rise and development of a powerful national movement.

4. Out of all the major European powers that came to India, the British were able to establish a long-lasting
pan Indian Empire. Examine the factors responsible for it.

Hint-
British raj, period of direct British rule over the Indian subcontinent from 1858 until the independence of India
and Pakistan in 1947. The British almost took a century to expand and consolidate their power to become ruler from
trader with help of diplomatic and military tactics. The English had imposed every possible means of war and
administrative policies to consolidate their own rule over the entire India.

Reasons For British Supremacy In India:

Superior Arms and Military strategy

● The British had modern muskets and cannon were well equipped with a speed of firing and range which were
better than Indian arms.
● For that matter, many Indian rulers imported European arms and employed Europeans as military officers,
but they never thought about military strategy which made them mere imitators.

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Loyalty, Military discipline and regular salary
● The British were very particular about regular salary and a strict regime of discipline which ensured that officers
and the soldiers were loyal.
● On the other hand, Indian rulers did not have sufficient funds to pay salaries on a regular basis.
● Some of the rulers were dependent on personal retinues or a rabble of mercenary elements that were not
disciplined and loyal.
Procedure for the Selection of officers
● The British select their officers and soldiers on the basis of reliability and skills not on the basis of heredity,
caste and clan.
● They were very strict on the subject of discipline and objectives of their campaign.
● On the other hand, Indian rulers selected their administrator and military officers on the basis of caste and
personal relations that sometimes disregarded merit and ability.
Quality of leadership
● Robert Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro etc. showed their high quality of leadership.
● The British also had the advantage of a second line of leadership such as Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, Arthur
Wellesley etc. who fought for the cause and glory of their countrymen.
● The Indian side also had brilliant leadership like Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan, Madhav Rao Sindhia, Jaswant Rao
Holkar but they lacked a second line of leadership.
● It is noteworthy that Indian rulers were not united and their enmities were immensely used by the British against
each other.
Strong Financial Backup
● The British had enough funds to pay its shareholders with good dividends that compel them to finance the English
wars in India.
● Moreover, the British trade added enormous wealth to England that made their government to help them
indirectly or directly through money, material and money.
Lack of National Pride and unity
● The Indian rulers were not well-versed in a materialistic vision of diplomacy whereas the British believed in
material advancement. Indian rulers lacked unified political nationalism, which was masterly used by the
British to engage them into fight among themselves.
● Political factionalism and lack of unity among the Indian rulers forced the British to aspire from trader to
ruler. The British officers started acquiring territory just to promote and protect their trade interest, but political
hostility in India compelled them to establish an empire.
● A number of powerful kingdoms such as Bengal, Avadh, Hyderabad, and Mysore arose and became virtually
independent from the Mughal Empire.
● The weakened Mughal Empire was challenged by Marathas time and again. Marathas captured vast swathes
of territory in northern and central India.
● The remaining illusion of continued domination of Mughal power was shattered by Nadir Shah’s (Shah of
Persia) invasion of India in 1739.

The British who came to India for trade eventually became the political masters of India. From the Battle of Plassey
to annexation of Punjab in 1849, the entire Indian sub-continent had been brought under British control. Apart from
outright wars they employed methods like Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse to expand and consolidate their
empire in India.

Q. Although many European powers aspired to establish their supremacy in India, only the British succeeded
among them. Examine.

5. Comment on the French ambition of building a territorial empire in India.

Hint-
Though the British and the French came to India for trading purposes, they were ultimately drawn into the politics of
India.
● Both had visions for establishing political power over the region.
● The Anglo-French rivalry in India reflected the traditional rivalry of England and France throughout their
histories.

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● Specifically, in India, the rivalry, in the form of three Carnatic wars decided once for all the English and not
French were the more suitable ones to establish their rule all over India.
First Carnatic War
● The First Carnatic War was provoked by the outbreak of hostilities in Europe in 1742 between the two
countries.
● By 1745 the war spread to India where French and English East India Companies were rivals in trade and
political influence.
● The English attack of French ships near Pondicherry was duly matched by the French occupation of Madras.
● At this juncture the Nawab of Carnatic responded to an English appeal to protect Madras and his armies were
defeated by the small French army at St. Thomas near Madras.
● With the end of the war in Europe, the hostilities in India ceased, but only temporarily.
● The issue of supremacy had not been decisively settled and from 1748 onwards a situation of conflict once again
emerged.
Second Carnatic War
● The second war was the outcome of the diplomatic efforts of Dupleix, the French Governor-General in India.
● Disputes over claims to the throne arose both in Hyderabad and in the Carnatic.
● Dupleix was quick to extend support to Chanda Sahib in the Carnatic and Muzaffar Jang in Hyderabad, with
the intention of obtaining handsome rewards from them.
● This early preparation was useful as the French and their allies defeated their opponents in 1749.
● The French gained territorially and monetarily. Significant gains were the Northern Sarkars, Masulipatnam
and some villages around Pondicherry.
● Political influence was secured at the Nizam's court by the appointment of an agent at the court.
● The English avenged their defeat in 1750. Robert Clive masterminded the occupation of Arcot with only 200
English and 300 Indian soldiers.
● Chanda Sahib had no option but to rush to the defense of his capital, lifting the siege of Trichodopoly and
releasing Muhammad Ali in consequence.

The French effort to strike back was frustrated by the lack of support given by the French government. They had
incurred heavy losses in America and India and preferred a humiliating peace to an expensive conflict. Thus, the very
nature of the company, it being almost a department of the state, proved disastrous for it. The French state was not only
corrupt and decadent, it failed to keep in line with current developments and visions into the future. Dupleix was recalled
after negotiations with the English company in 1754. The French challenge was virtually over.

Third Carnatic War

● A third war broke out in 1756 with the commencement of war in Europe.
● Count de Lally sailed to India to aid the French army but his ships were sent back and the French troops were
defeated in Carnatic.
● The battle of Wandiwash in 1760 marked the elimination of French influence in India.
● Peace, like war, was once again linked with Europe. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 reduced the French company
to a pure trading body without any political privileges.
The conflict between the English and French companies was a crucial stage in the consolidation of British power in
India. At the end of 20 years the superiority of the British over the French was clearly proved.

Similar - Q. “Dupleix made a cardinal blunder in looking for the key of India in madras: Clive sought and found
it in Bengal.” Critically examine.

6. How was the organisation of French and English East India Companies decided the ruler of India? Analyze
the causes for the Failure of the French in India.

Hint-
Both the French and the English East India Companies were the products of the rise of mercantile capitalism in
Europe. This phase of capitalism is regarded as a preparatory phase when trade with Asiatic and Latin American
countries was carried on to help in the process of capital accumulation. Trade was carried on in goods which were
manufactured in lndia and for which there was a heavy demand in Europe. However, the way in which the two
Companies took advantage of trade with the East differed greatly.

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● While the English Company had a vastly superior infrastructure with much larger fleets, the French were
deficient even in their knowledge of commerce.
● The English Company was the wealthier body and conducted more frequent voyages.
● In comparison with the French Company it had a more continuous history of trading with the East.
● To appreciate the qualitative difference in the two Companies we must take into account the nature of their
origins.
● While the French Company was the offspring of state patronage whose revenues were largely drawn from
monopoly of the tobacco trade, the English EIC was a great private corporation, founded and maintained by
individual enterprise— not dependent in any way on the state. In fact the state was in its debt.

The impact of these differences was very great, as these differences would decide the ruler of India as the French were
subdued in the Carnatic Wars.

Reasons for the French failure in India:

● The English East India Company was the wealthier of the two due to its superiority in trade.
● EIC possessed superior naval strength. They could bring in soldiers from Europe and also provide supplies
from Bengal. The French did not have any such avenue to replenish resources.
● Its possessions in India had been held longer and were better fortified and more prosperous.
● The French Company was heavily dependent on the French Government.
● Dupleix’s Mistakes: Dupleix did not pay attention towards improving the finances of the company and did not
concentrate his efforts only at one place; and sought no support from the French government for executing his
plans.
● English had three important ports i.e. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras which provided them superiority in almost
every angle be it trade or Naval Power, but French had only one port i.e. Pondicherry.
● The victory at the Battle of Plassey opened up the British to a rich area, namely Bengal.
● The British had many capable and able soldiers like Robert Clive, Stringer Lawrence and Sir Eyre Coote.

With the treaty of Paris, Chandernagar and Pondicherry were returned to France but they were barred from
fortifying them or having troops in them. They could only have trading activities. French hopes of building an empire
in India were completely dashed. The French agreed to support British client governments making the British a
dominant foreign power in India.

Q. “Compared to their English counterpart, the French East India Company enjoyed little discretionary power
and had to always look up to Paris for all major decisions. This partly explains the failure of the French in India.”
Evaluate Critically.

Q. “Neither Alexander the Great nor Napoleon could have won the empire of India by starting from Pondicherry
as a base and contending with a power which held Bengal and command of the Sea.” Comment.

7. “The Battle of Plassey was not a great battle but a great betrayal”. Comment

Hint-
The battle of Plassey was fought on 23rd June 1757 in the Plassey region, West Bengal. This battle was fought between
the British East India Company led by Robert Clive and the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-daula. The French troops
were also a part of this battle and fought with Siraj-ud-daula against Robert Clive.
The battle of Plassey is known as the historic battle for the Britishers and a turning point in the history of India in
favour of Britishers. It established the military and political supremacy of the British in Bengal. Most historians regard
the battle of Plassey as the decisive event having the roots to British dominance and rule over India.

Background
● Siraj-Ud-Daula was succeeded by his grandfather Alivardi Khan to become the Nawab of Bengal. He had
become the Nawab of Bengal the year before, and he had ordered the English to stop the extension of their
fortification.
● The victory of Britishers in the Carnatic wars has made Siraj-Ud-Daula apprehensive about the rising power
of Britishers in India.

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● The officials of the Company made rampant misuse of its trade privileges that adversely affected the nawab’s
finances.
● The Britishers fortified Fort Williams without the permission of Nawab which infuriated him further. He
marched to Fort Williams and captured 146 Britishers and imprisoned them in a small room due to which 123
Britishers died. This incident is known as the “Black Hole Tragedy of Calcutta”.
● Upon this, Robert Clive was sent to Bengal to strengthen the position of Britishers in Bengal. He bribed some
of the chief members of the Nawab of Bengal and promised kingship to Mir Jafar in return for his betrayal to
Nawab.
Battle of Plassey
● The 50,000 soldiers in the army of Nawab of Bengal with French troops on their side severely outnumbered the
British army which had around 3000 soldiers.
● However, the conspiracy of Robert Clive and the subsequent betrayal by Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh and others
became the reason for the defeat of Nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-daula in the Battle of Plassey.
● Jagat Seths, the biggest banker of Bengal at the time, was also part of the conspiracy that involved the
imprisonment and ultimate killing of Nawab Siraj-Ud-Daulah.

Consequences of Battle of Plassey

Financial and Political consequences

● The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
● It also received the Zamindari of the 24 Parganas near Calcutta.
● The new Nawab, Mir Jaffar, was dependent on the British for the maintenance of his position in Bengal. An
English army of 6000 troops was maintained in Bengal.
● The wealth paid to British immediately after Plassey was a sum of £800,000
● Mir Jaffar regretted the deal that he struck with the British later when he was reduced to a puppet leader only.
● Prior to 1757 the English trade in Bengal was largely financed through import of bullion from England; but
after that year not only bullion import stopped, but bullion was exported from Bengal to China and other parts
of India, which gave a competitive advantage to the English Company over its European rivals.
Position of British after the Battle
● The battle of Plassey was of immense historical importance. It paved the way for British Mastery of Bengal
and eventually the whole of India.
● It boosted British prestige and at a single stroke raised them to the status of major contender for the Indian
Empire. Before the battle, it was only just another European company trading in Bengal. But after Plassey they
monopolized trade in Bengal.
● Plassey had brought about a gradual transformation in the character of the Company. In the context of then
politics, military control was synonymous with political power. Thus, the Company played the role of
commercial-cum-military-cum- political body.
● The rich revenues of Bengal enabled them to organize a strong army and meet the cost of conquest of the rest of
the country.
● Control over Bengal played a decisive role in the Anglo French struggle where the British were finally
victorious.
● The victory of Plassey enabled the Company with its servants to amass untold wealth at the cost of helpless
people of Bengal.

Robert Clive became the Baron of Plassey. Affairs that occurred after the victory at the Battle of Plassey had changed
the British East India Company from a trading company to a central power. Thus, the Battle of Plassey marked the
beginning of political supremacy of the English East India Company in India.

Q. The battle of Plassey marked the beginning of political supremacy of the English East India Company in India.
Elucidate.
Q. What were the reasons behind the Battle of Plassey?
Q. What were the factors that led to the war between East India Company and Nawab Siraj-ud- Daulah? Discuss.
Q. How did the British conquer Bengal in the 18th century? What circumstances helped
them?

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8. “Buxar takes rank amongst the most decisive battles ever fought.” Comment.

Hint-
With the advent of Europeans in India, the British East India Company gradually conquered Indian territories. The
Battle of Buxar was one such confrontation between the British army and their Indian counterparts which paved the
way for the British to rule over India for the next 183 years.
Background
● Before the battle of Buxar, the Battle of Plassey, gave the British a firm foothold over the region of Bengal.
● After the Battle of Plassey, Siraj-Ud-Daulah was dethroned as the Nawab of Bengal and was replaced by Mir
Jafar (Commander of Siraj’s Army).
● After Mir Jafar became the new Bengal nawab, the British made him their puppet but Mir Jafar got involved
with Dutch East India Company.
● Mir Qasim (son-in-law of Mir Jafar) was supported by the British to become the new Nawab and under the
pressure of the Company, Mir Jafar decided to resign in favour of Mir Qasim.

Conditions which led to Battle of Buxar

Ambitions of Mir Qasim:

● He was the ablest among all the successors of Alavardi Khan.
● Mir Qasim, an efficient and strong ruler, determined to improve the affairs of the state and shifted his capital
from Murshidabad to Munger (Bihar) in 1762.
● He realized the importance of a full treasury and an efficient army required to maintain his independence, thus
initiated reforms even employing Europeans, which irked the British.
● Mir Qasim regarded himself as an indepen-dent ruler which was a problem for the British as they wanted him
to be a puppet in their hands.
Tussle between Mir Qasim and the British:
● Due to the misuse of the Farman of 1717 by the British to evade internal custom duties, Mir Qasim took the
extreme step of abolish-ing all duties on internal trade and benefitting his own subjects by giving them the
concession that the British had forcefully snatched.
● This was strongly protested by the British and a preferential treatment over other traders was demanded.
● These conflicts over transit duty led to the outbreak of wars between the British and Mir Kasim in 1763 which
resulted in British victories at Katwa, Murshidabad, Giria, Sooty and Munger.
● Mir Kasim fled to Oudh (Awadh) and formed a confederacy with the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-daulah,
and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II, with a view to recover Bengal from the British.
Battle of Buxar
● The Battle of Buxar was fought between the English Forces, and a joint army of Shuja-ud-Daulah, the Nawab
of Oudh, Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal, and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
● The battle was the result of misuse of trade privileges granted by the Nawab of Bengal and also the colonialist
ambitions of the East India Company.
Result
● This decisive battle confirmed British power over Bengal and marked the end of the attempt to rule Bengal
through a puppet nawab.
● The battle resulted in the Treaty of Allahabad, 1765 in which the Mughal Emperor surrendered sovereignty of
Bengal to the British.
● Lord Robert Clive, the victor at the Plassey, became the first governor of Bengal.

Consequences
● Unlike the battle of Plassey which was more of British conspiracy, the battle of buxar was a full-fledged war
which established the British prowess in warfare.
● The defeat of the Great Mughal House was very significant and it stamped the British troops as one of the
potent forces on the Indian subcontinent.
● The Treaty of Allahabad formally gave the British East India Company the right to exact revenue from the
eastern province of Bengal which turned the economic fortune of the company.
● Robert Clive set up the infamous dual system of administration in Bengal wherein the Company acquired the
real power, while the responsibility of administration rested on the Nawab of Bengal.
● Under the ‘dual’ or double government system, the Company got both the Diwani (revenue) and nizamat
(civil administration) functions of Bengal.

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● Thus, virtual power went into the hands of Britishers without any responsibility which created confusions,
anarchy and economic loot of India began.
● The British victory at Buxar ensured that there were no significant forces left to challenge its position in the
eastern part of the subcontinent.
● The defeat of the Nawab of Awadh created a buffer state which effectively created a wall between the Britishers
and the notorious Marathas.
● Through the Residents, the Company officials began interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states.
● This policy was made more effective and further developed into the Subsidiary Alliance by Lord Wellesley.

If the Battle of Plassey had made the English a powerful factor in the politics of Bengal, the victory of Buxar made
them a great power of North India and contenders for the supremacy of the whole country. The Buxar battle resulted
in a strong foothold of the British as not only economic power but also political power in India.

Q. “Thus ended the famous battle of Buxar, on which depended the fate of India and which was as gallantly
disputed as was important in its results.” Comment.
Q. “The revolution of 1760 (Bengal) was really no revolution.” Comment.
Q. “By certain of his actions Clive has marred both the glory and usefulness of his work.” Comment.
Q. “The verdict at Plassey was confirmed by the English victory at Buxar.” Comment.

9. The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many empire-shaking battles fought at Panipat?

Hint-
Panipat and its adjacent region, located in present Haryana on the banks of river Yamuna and between the fertile
plains of Ganga and Indus rivers, have witnessed several battles. These battles changed the course of Indian history
at different points of time.

The first battle of Panipat in 1526 was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi. The result of the battle laid the
foundation of the Mughal empire by ending the rule of Delhi Sultanate.

The Second battle of Panipat was fought between Akbar and Hemu in 1556, and it decided in favour of the
continuation of the Mughal rule in India.

The third battle of Panipat between Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas in 1761 put an end to Maratha ambition
of ruling over India.
The reasons for so many battles at Panipat are as follows:
● Panipat had a strategic location. One of the parties to the war came from the northwest/north through Khyber
pass to get a hold over Delhi, the political capital of Northern India.
○ To move a military through rough terrains- through deserts of Rajasthan or the other northern areas infested
with dense forests- was very risky and difficult. Also, the rulers of Delhi considered Panipat as a comfortable
strategic ground and hence, they preferred to take the fight there.
● Its proximity to Delhi made it easier for the Indian rulers to transport weapons, military, food supplies etc., to
the battleground, and still keep the capital insulated from the conflict at hand.
● Panipat’s surrounding region has a flat ground which was suitable for cavalry movement- the main mode of
warfare at that time.
● After the construction of Grand Trunk Road by Sher Shah Suri which passed through Panipat making it easier
for the conquerors to find their way there.
● The duration of monsoon rainfall in the region is short in comparison to other areas making it easier to fight.
● The artisans/smiths in this region were experts in making warfare-related materials and hence, it became easier
for the forces of both parties to replenish their war materials.

10. What were the reasons for the defeat of the Marathas at the third Battle of Panipat? What were its
consequences?

Hint-

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The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761, at Panipat, about 60 miles (95.5 km) north of Delhi
between a northern expeditionary force of the Maratha Empire and the King of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Durrani
with two Indian Muslim allies— the Rohilla Afghans of the Doab, and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Oudh.

Militarily, the battle pitted the French-supplied artillery and cavalry of the Marathas against the heavy cavalry and
mounted artillery(zamburak and jezail) of the Afghans and Rohillas led by Ahmad Shah Durrani and Najib-ud-
Daulah.

The battle is considered one of the largest fought in the 18th century with the largest number of fatalities in a single day
reported in a classic formation battle between two armies.

Background
● The decline of the Mughal Empire following the 27-year Mughal-Maratha war (1680–1707) had led to rapid
territorial gains for the Maratha Empire.
● Under Peshwa Baji Rao, Gujarat and Malwa came under Maratha control.
● Finally, in 1737, Baji Rao defeated the Mughals on the outskirts of Delhi, and brought much of the former
Mughal territories south of Delhi under Maratha control.
● This brought the Marathas into direct confrontation with the Durrani empire of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
● In 1759, he raised an army from the Pashtun tribes and made several gains against the smaller Maratha garrisons
in Punjab.
● He then joined with his Indian allies - the Rohilla Afghans of the Gangetic Doab - forming a broad coalition
against the Marathas.

Reasons for the defeat of the Marathas are:

● The heavy mounted artillery of the Afghans proved much better on the battlefield than the light artillery of the
Marathas.
● In terms of numeric and qualitative terms, the Afghans had the edge over the Marathas.
● The unfamiliarity of the Marathas regarding the terrain gave a tactical edge to Abdali as his Rohilla allies were
familiar with the terrain.
● Abdali had made diplomatic alliances with the Hindu and Muslim chiefs of the region while the Maratha
commanders had not made such overtures. Because of this the Marathas lacked critical support at the most
crucial juncture of the battle.
● Shuja-ud-daulah’s support also proved decisive as he provided the necessary finances for the Afghans’ long
stay in northern India.
● The Jat and Rajput chiefs were completely alienated by Maratha conquests which were followed by imposition
of heavy fines.
● The Maratha capital was at Pune and the battlefield was miles away.

Consequences of the third battle of Panipat

● The third battle of Panipat proved significant in the struggle for mastery over India.
● The Marathas' ambition of replacing the Mughals as the imperial power was checked at a strategic point by this
defeat.
● The beneficiaries were the British rather than the Afghans. The British got a tremendous opportunity to expand
their influence in Bengal and India.

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BRITISH EXPANSION IN INDIA

11. From the second half of the nineteenth century, it was not only a struggle between the colonial power and the
Indian states but also there was a struggle among the Indian powers themselves to establish political
supremacy. Examine.

Hint-

The East India Company, which started initially as a trading company, had, by 1773, acquired territorial control over
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and Bombay. The Nawab of Awadh and Carnatic were their dependents.
However, after 1765 they had to face stiff opposition from the Marathas, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and
the Sikhs. The East India Company had to subjugate these powers in order to be paramount in India.

Struggle between colonial power and Indian states:

● Conflict between English and Nawabs of Bengal
○ Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757): Robert Clive’s victory over Siraj-ud-daula laid the territorial foundation
of British rule in India.
○ Battle of Buxar (1764): Clive’s victory over the combined armies of Nawab of Bengal, Nawab of Awadh and
the Mughal Emperor at Buxar laid the real foundation of the English power.
● British Conquest of Mysore
○ First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69); Treaty of Madras
○ Second Anglo-Mysore War (1779-1784); Treaty of Mangalore
○ Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92); Treaty of Seringapatam
○ Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799); Mysore is conquered by British forces
● Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy
○ First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82); Treaty of Surat (1775), Treaty of Purandar (1776), and Treaty of
Salbai (1782)
○ Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05); Treaty of Bassein, 1802
○ Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819)
Struggle among Indian powers
● Marathas frequently allied with the British against South Indian states such as Hyderabad and Mysore, which
were both closer to the French.
● After 1761, Maratha state became more of a confederacy than an empire, as its successful generals carved out
new territories for themselves, and established dynasties, such as the Holkars and Sindhias, in addition to the
peshwas, the title of the hereditary prime ministers who had become the de facto rulers of the empire during the
course of the 18th century.
● Nizams and Marathas allied with the British against Hyder Ali in the Anglo- Maratha wars.
Indeed, the Indian subcontinent in the middle of the eighteenth century was marked with political fragmentation and
regional instability.
The ruler of Delhi was no longer the ‘de-facto’ ruler of India. For a large number of Indians, ‘right to live’ transformed
into ‘struggle for survival’, and ‘freedom of trade’ transformed into ‘ransom and robbery’- all because of the bickering
among regional rulers. All these created ripe opportunities for the British to take over India and indulge in large scale
‘drain of wealth’.

12. Why did the British view the political power of Mysore under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan as a security threat
to the English position in Madras and in the Carnatic? How did they deal with the Mysore state? Discuss.

Hint-
In eighteenth century India, there was an intricate power struggle not only between the colonial power and the Indian
states but also among the Indian powers themselves to establish political supremacy.
The most common cause for conflict among the Indian powers was the urge for territorial expansion as a response to
the need for further resources.

● In the case of Mysore, the situation was even more peculiar, as it posed a great threat to the Marathas, the Nawab
of Carnatic and the Nizam of Hyderabad. This mutual dissension and enmity among the country powers'
ultimately helped the British to intervene effectively in their internal polity.

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● Also, Haidar and Tipu's control over the rich trade of the Malabar coast was seen as a threat to the British
trade in pepper and cardamom. Tipu also undertook trade reforms such as:
○ He appointed officials to run trade centres established by him to keep trade in control.
○ Regular inspection of financial records of these centres was undertaken.
○ Further, currency was strictly regulated.
○ He built a navy to support trade, and commissioned a “state commercial corporation” to set up factories.
○ To prevent an alliance of private traders and the British, in 1785 he declared an embargo at his ports on the
export of pepper, sandalwood and cardamoms.
○ In 1788 he explicitly forbade trade with the English.
● Mysore was also a threat to the British control over Madras as Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan undertook military
reforms and organised their armies on modern European lines.
● Moreover, the development in infantry, rocketry and gunnery in Mysore caused great uneasiness for the
Company’s army.
● Particularly the French alliance with the Mysore rulers was seen as a threat to the British dominance in this
region.
● Tipu also undertook land revenue reforms to increase the revenue to finance militarization of Mysore. These
include:
○ Intermediaries were sought to be removed and a direct link between the interests of the state and the interests
of the peasantry was established.
○ Tipu took measures like denying revenue farming rights to main government officials to protect peasants
against the revenus farmers.
○ Rent free land was gifted to individuals for the construction of irrigation and other infrastructure.
○ Cash crops like Silk were promoted.
● The British home government was in need of finance for the growing expenditure for Napoleonic wars in
Europe and the attitude of the Company merchants, in favour of direct political intervention to protect their
commercial interest, favored a more aggressive expansionist policy in this region.

As a result, Haidar Ali and Tipu sultan fought four wars against the British, and everytime the basic cause remained
the same i.e. to undermine the independent authority of the Mysore rulers.

First Anglo-Mysore War

● The Nizam and Maratha entered into an alliance with the British against Haider Ali and Maratha attacked
Mysore in 1766.
● Haider skillfully paid off the Marathas to ensure their neutrality and used diplomacy to bring the Nizam of
Hyderabad to his side.
● Then, he launched an attack against the British and reached upto the gates of Madras.
● He forced the Madras council to sign peace on his terms in 1769.
● This was a defensive alliance and both the powers agreed to help the other in case of an attack by a third party.
Second Anglo Mysore War
● When the Marathas invaded Haider’s territories in 1771, the British didn’t come to his help.
● The British capture of Mahe, a French settlement within Haider’s jurisdiction, provided the immediate pretext
for the second Mysore war.
● The British neutralized Haider by winning over the Marathas and the Nizam and defeated Haider at Porto
Novo in 1781. In 1782, Haider Ali died and Tipu became the ruler.
● However, lack of resources, uncertainty of Maratha attitude, and the presence of the French fleet on the
Coromandel coast and some other considerations changed the attitude of the Madras government and they
desired peace.
● Thus, the war ended with the treaty of Mangalore in 1784.
Third Anglo Mysore War
● Tipu’s attack on Travancore made the war with the British again inevitable.
● Tipu suffered a serious setback in the third Mysore war and showed initiative for peace.
● The treaty of Seringapatinam was signed in 1792 and Tipu had to surrender half of his territories to the British
and their allies.
Fourth Anglo Mysore War
● The arrival of Lord Wellesley in 1798 gave fresh vigor to the British expansionist policy.
● Wellesley desired to make Mysore an ally of his grand ‘subsidiary alliance’ system.
● But Tipu had no intention of surrendering his independent authority to the British imperial system.

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● Wellesley sent the British forces against the Mysore ruler who was defeated in a brief and fierce war in 1799.
Tipu died in the course of war in the same year.
● Seringapatam was plundered and half of Tipu’s dominions were divided between the British and their ally, the
Nizam and Wodeyar were restored to the Mysore kingdom.
● Mysore virtually became a dependency of the English.

Mysore hence proved to be a threat to Britain's economic and strategic goals in the region. Hence they tried to defeat
Tipu Sultan by waging a direct war which they rarely resorted to in case of other princely states. The British fought
4 wars with Mysore. With only the 4th war they could defeat Tipu Sultan. The state of Mysore was then annexed and
given to the supportive Wodeyar rulers which provided generous concessions to the British.

Q. Why was Mysore considered a threat by the British to their possessions and mercantile interests in the south?
Do you think that Tipu Sultan’s posturing became his undoing?
Q. Examine the circumstance which led to the third Mysore War. Could Cornwallis have avoided it?
Q. Tipu Sultan is the fearless “Tiger of Mysore”, a powerful bulwark against colonialism, and a great son of
Karnataka. Comment.

13. How did the Anglo-Maratha rivalry shape the contemporary politics of the Indian subcontinent? What were
its long term implications? Discuss.

Hint-

There were three Anglo-Maratha wars fought between the late 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century
between the British and the Marathas. In the end, the Maratha power was destroyed and British supremacy
established. However, the Maratha war machine delayed British occupation of India by around 50 years.

Rise of Maratha Empire:

● The Hindu Maratha Empire was founded by the warrior Shivaji Bhonsle in 1674 in what is today the state of
Maharashtra.
● Its power grew as bands of Marathas fought the Mughals, whose empire had grown weak after the death of
Aurangzeb in 1707.
● The Marathas, moreover, utilized guerrilla tactics that proved to their advantage against large and divided
Mughal armies.
● By the middle of the 18th century, the Marathas had emerged as the most powerful entity in India.
Rivalry of Anglo-Maratha shaped contemporary politics of India:
● Even though the Maratha Empire lost the Third Battle of Panipat to the Afghans in 1761, it still remained the
dominant power in India, and occupied Delhi from between 1770 to 1803, officially as the agents of the Mughal
Empire, though in reality the converse was closer to the truth.
● They frequently allied with the British against South Indian states such as Hyderabad and Mysore, which were
both closer to the French.
● After 1761, Maratha state became more of a confederacy than an empire, as its successful generals carved out
new territories for themselves, and established dynasties, such as the Holkars and Sindhias, in addition to the
peshwas, the title of the hereditary prime ministers who had become the de facto rulers of the empire during the
course of the 18th century.
● British foresight exemplified in keeping Awadh as buffer state to keep Marathas at bay even after defeat of the
latter in 1764, battle of Buxar.
● The main cause of the first Maratha war was the increased interference of the British in the affairs, both internal
and external, of the Marathas and also the struggle for power between Madhav Rao and Raghunath Rao.
● It was these divisions between Maratha chiefs, as well as the competing ambitions of the Marathas and British,
the region’s two greatest powers that made war hard to avoid.
● Even in 1800, the Maratha Empire controlled much of western, central, and north India, including territory it
administered on the behalf of the Mughals.
● In terms of military technology, it was not as a particular disadvantage, and moreover the British were
preoccupied with fighting Napoleon.

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● Nonetheless, the British were in a stronger position because of their ability to better monetize revenue from their
now-substantive Indian territories, their perfecting of military drilling, and their ability to use divisions among
their enemies to their advantage.
● Delhi and most of north India passed into British hands in 1803, as well as the protectorate of the Mughal
family, still nominally the rulers of much of India, a legal fiction that both the Maratha and British maintained.
● The Maratha polity ultimately had too many constituent components jostling for self-preservation for the state
to hold together, especially when British protection seemed to provide more stability than the constant clashes of
the main Maratha clans, however competent they were in commanding their own particular armies and fiefs.
Long term implications of Anglo-Maratha rivalry:
● According to Percival Spear in The Oxford History of Modern India, 1740-1947, by the time of Maratha defeat,
most other central and western Indian states previously tributary to the Marathas made subsidiary treaties with
the British, including Bhopal, Jaipur, Udaipur, and Jodhpur. However, the territories ruled by the peshwas in
western Maharashtra were annexed and became part of the Bombay Presidency, directly ruled by the British.
● Moreover, many of the non-Maratha states under Maratha influence, such as the Rajput states, were happy
in their relief from Marathas and Pathans.
● British rule in South Asia began in Bengal between 1757 and 1765 as the British East India Company won
battles, and was eventually given the legal right to collect revenue from that region by the powerless Mughal
government.
● Marathas lacked vision to unite Indian powers against British, rather British succeeded to divide Indian
powers and defeat one at a time. Marathas hegemony could not become popular outside Maharashtra.
● The British had no enemy in the west and south after the defeat of Marathas, which areas remained quite inactive
in the 1857 revolt indicating fatigue to fight against the British or hope of reforms in caste system and education.
● Failure of native power to defeat the British or replace Mughal with legitimate indigenous alternative power
lowered the morale of Indians about political and military capacity.

The debacle of Marathas in 1818 led to the complete dominance of the British throughout India, except for the
northwest where the Sikh Empire still thrived, leaving the principal surviving Indians state as islands in a sea of
British territory, or fenced in.

Q. How did the British establish their control over Maharashtra in the first two decades of the 19th century?
Why did the Maratha challenge ultimately collapse?
Q. "The Maratha polity disintegrated through internal stress." Critically examine.

14. “The Treaty of Salbai (1782) was neither honorable to the English nor advantageous to their interests.”
Comment.

Hint-
Background

● After the death of Madhavrao Peshwa in 1772, his brother Narayanrao became peshwa (prime minister) of the
Maratha Empire.
● Narayanrao was murdered by his palace guards in August 1773, and his uncle Raghunathrao (Raghoba)
became Peshwa.
● However, Narayanrao's wife, Gangabai, gave birth to a posthumous son, who was the legal heir to the throne.
● Twelve Maratha chiefs, known as the Baarbhai and led by Nana Phadnavis, directed an effort to install the
infant as the new Peshwa and to rule in his name as regents.
● Having failed in his bid to capture power, Raghunathrao appealed to the British for help.
● This was the immediate background of the First Maratha war (1775-82).
Course of the War
● The Treaty of Surat in 1775 was signed according to which Raghunathrao ceded Salsette and Bassein to the
English and in return he was given 2500 soldiers.
● The British and army of Raghunathrao attacked the Peshwa and won.
● The British Calcutta Council under Warren Hastings annulled this treaty and a new treaty, the Treaty of
Purandar was signed in 1776 between the Calcutta Council and Nana Phadnavis, a Maratha minister.
● Accordingly, Raghunathrao was given a pension only and Salsette was retained by the British.
● But the British establishment at Bombay violated this treaty and sheltered Raghunathrao.

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● In 1777, Nana Phadnavis went against his treaty with the Calcutta Council and granted a port on the west coast
to the French.
● This led the British to advance a force towards Pune. There was a battle at Wadgaon near Pune in which the
Marathas under Mahadji Shinde secured a decisive victory over the English.
● The English were forced to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon in 1779.
● There was a series of battles at the end of which the Treaty of Salbai was signed in 1782. This ended the first
Anglo-Maratha war.

Treaty of Salbai, 1782

Mahadaji Sindhia made an agreement with the English in October 1781 by which he agreed to negotiate with the
Poona Council for a treaty with the English. The negotiations started in early 1782 and the treaty of Salbai was signed
between the English and the Marathas on May 17, 1782. Its terms were as follows
● The English retained Salsette and Broach.
● The English abandoned the cause of Raghunath Rao who was given a pension by the Peshwa.
● Mahadaji Sindhia got back all his territory west of the river Yamuna.
● Both parties returned to each other’s territory conquered during the course of war in South India.
● It also obtained a guarantee from the Marathas that they would retake their possessions in the Deccan from
Hyder Ali of Mysore.
● The Marathas also promised that they would not grant any more territories to the French.
● The English accepted Madhavrao II (son of Narayanrao) as the Peshwa.

The Treaty of Salbai (1782) was neither honorable to the English nor advantageous to their interests because:
● The British had to denounce support for Raghunath Rao. Thus, the British failed in their war aim.
● They gained nothing more than Salsette. The British had to return territories won back to the Marathas and
Maratha supremacy was proved. This reduced the British possessions in the north Konkan, Bombay and
Gujarat.
● The treaty on the face proved dishonorable to the British considering that their prestige in India had increased
and they were in the process of becoming a paramount power in the country.
● The material gain for the British were negligible in comparison to the expenditure on the war. They were put to
extreme financial distress.

Counter View
● Yet, the results of the war were, certainly, in favour of the English. They retained Salsette and its dependencies.
This meant loss of the revenue of 6 lakhs, loss of trade to some extent as well as loss of prestige to the Marathas.
● From the British point of view, there was no loss of territory. Whatever territories were exchanged were Maratha
territories which the British had conquered during the war.
● Besides, it was proved that the native rules could not work in union and there were divisions in the Maratha
camp as well. It emboldened the British.
● The British used this treaty to defeat Mysore by isolating the rulers of Mysore and consolidate their position in
Hyderabad and Awadh.
● They had fought successfully against the strongest native power in India. Therefore, the treaty was certainly “an
important landmark” in the history of India.

Hence, the treaty of Salbai was somewhat disadvantageous to the British in the short run and did not result in much
immediate gain. But, the British used it to their advantage in the long run towards British supremacy in India.

Q. The British "fought the First Maratha War in a period when their fortunes were at the lowest ebb". Comment.
Q. “Anglo-Maratha War covering nearly nine years from the murder of Narayan Rao to the Treaty of Salbai
emphatically discloses the vitality of the Maratha nation which had not been exhausted either by the disaster of
Panipat or the death of their great Peshwa Madhavrao.” Comment.

15. What were the underlying factors and forces of Wellesley’s policy of expansion?

Hint-

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Large-scale expansion of British rule in India occurred during the Governor-Generalship of Lord Wellesley who
came to India in 1798 at a time when the British were locked in a life and death struggle with France all over the
world.

Underlying factors of Wellesley’s policy of expansion

● Wellesley wanted to expand the British dominions in India to such an extent that it should become the sovereign
power in India.
● His expansionist mind would not remain content with the British remaining one of the powers in India, as such,
he set himself the task of converting India into an empire of Britain.
● Another aim, which was ancillary to his main objective, was the removal of French influence from India and to
make the possibility of French territorial expansion in India impossible.
Forces for Wellesley’s policy of expansion
● Under him the British East India Company adopted a non-interventionist policy of subsidiary alliance,
assumption of the territories of previously subordinated rulers and outright wars.
● Under the Subsidiary Alliance System used by Lord Wellesley, every ruler in India had to accept to pay a
subsidy to the British for the maintenance of the British army. In return, the British would protect them from
their enemies which gave the British enormous expansion.
● The system was extremely advantageous to the British. They could now maintain a large army at the cost of the
Indian states.
● The system of subsidiary alliance enabled them to fight wars far away from their own territories since any war
would occur in the territories either of the British ally or of the British enemy.
● They controlled the defence and foreign relations of the protected ally, and had a powerful force stationed at the
very heart of his lands, and could, therefore, at a time of their choosing, overthrow him and annex his territories
by declaring him to be ‘inefficient’.

The Policy of Subsidiary Alliance was in reality, a document of losing sovereignty which meant the state did not have
the rights of self defence, of maintaining diplomatic relations, of employing foreign experts, and of settling its disputes
with its neighbours. The system of Subsidiary Alliances was, in the words of a British writer, “a system of fattening
allies as we fatten oxen, till they were worthy of being devoured”

16. “The Treaty of Bassein, 1802 was a step which changed the footing on which we, the English, stood in western
India. It trebled the English responsibilities in an instant.” Comment.

Hint-

Background
● The peace that was established with the British through the treaty of Salbai, continued for the coming 20 years.
● This gave the British needed time to concentrate on other fronts especially against Mysore. The Maratha state
was in a very bad shape during these years.
● The Maratha chiefs were trying to curb their independent principalities, Gaikwad at Baroda, Bhonsle at
Nagpur, Holkar at Indore and Scindia at Gwalior.
● There was also dissension regarding the succession to the Peshwaship and Nana Fadnavis was in complete
control of the Maratha affairs at the centre.
● During this time Lord Wellesley in order to establish complete control of the British over the Marathas invited
them to enter into the 'Subsidiary Alliance' system.
● The Marathas rejected this British gesture of 'friendship', actually a ploy for their subjugation.
● The death of Nana Fadnavis at this juncture gave the British an added advantage.
● Jaswant Rao Holkar, a powerful Maratha chief, defeated the combined armies of Scindia and the Peshwa at
Poona in 1800 and captured the city.
● The Peshwa approached Wellesley for help. This provided Wellesley an ideal opportunity to intervene in the
Maratha affairs.
● Thus the Second Maratha War started (1803-05).

Course of the War

● The Peshwa, Baji Rao II, accepted the subsidiary alliance and signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802.

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● The Peshwa lost his independent authority in handling relations with other powers without the British consent
and had to pay a large annual subsidy.
● An attempt was made by Scindia and Bhonsle to save Maratha independence. But they could not stand before
the well prepared and organised British force.
● The British army defeated the forces of Bhonsle and Scindia and at the end both of them concluded separate
treaties with the English.
● Yashwant Rao Holkar who so far remained aloof in the British attacks against Scindia and Bhonsle made an
attempt in 1804 to form a coalition of Indian rulers to fight against the British. But he was not successful in his
venture.

Result of Second Anglo Maratha War

● All the Maratha forces were defeated by the British in these battles.
● The Scindias signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon in 1803 through which the British got the territories of
Rohtak, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Gurgaon, Delhi Agra region, Broach, some districts in Gujarat, parts of
Bundelkhand and Ahmednagar fort.
● The Bhonsles signed the Treaty of Deogaon in 1803 as per which the English acquired Cuttack, Balasore and
area west of Wardha River.
● The Holkars signed the Treaty of Rajghat in 1805 according to which they gave up Tonk, Bundi and Rampura
to the British.
● As a result of the war, large parts of central India came under British control.

Significance of Treaty of Bassein

The Treaty provided a strategic, psychological, economical and political gain to the company due to the following
reasons-
● British troops at the expense of Peshwa were stationed at Poona, giving greater strategic importance to the
Britishers as the Company now could interfere in the Maratha affairs directly and its rulers.
● Under the provisions of treaty, Peshwa’s foreign policy was in the hands of the Company, which made Poona
party to each & every war with which Britishers were involved, aiding in consolidating their supremacy over
India by providing in return a large army & men to fight any war for the Britishers.
● Also, non-British Europeans were expelled and were not allowed employment under Peshwa this had political
implications for the Britishers as it made them the sole arbitrator in Maratha affairs.
● Peshwa also agreed to cede in perpetuity to the Company Territories like some in Gujarat including Surat,
territories yielding an income of 26 lakhs etc which was used for financing the campaigns of Britishers in India.

Thus, after signing of the Treaty of Bassein by the Peshwa, the options for other Maratha chiefs were curtailed, which
later led to the 2nd Anglo- Maratha war and paved the way for British supremacy in the whole West and Central
India. In the long run, Peshwa too realized the mistakes of the Subsidiary Treaty and revolted in 1817 which led to
third Anglo-Maratha War but faced defeat at the hands of the Britishers and was pensioned off. However, even
though entering into the Treaty with the Peshwa, head of Maratha confederacy, gave prestige to the Britishers. But
to draw practical advantage from the treaty, the English had to fight wars against the Marathas, which required more
than a treaty to defeat the trained armies of Scindia and Holkar.

Q. Describe the circumstances leading to the treaty of Bassein (1802). What were its consequences?
Q. Trace the course of the Anglo-Maratha relations in the first two decades of the nineteenth century. Account
for the ultimate defeat of the Maratha power by the British.
Q. “Upon the whole, then, I conclude that the treaty of Bassein was wise, just and a political measure.”
Comment.
Q. “The treaty of Bassein, by its direct and indirect operations, gave the Company the Empire of India.”
Comment.

17. Underline the major considerations of the British imperial power that led to the annexation of Punjab.

Hint-
Background
● After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in June 1839, the Punjab was beset by political instability and rapid
changes in the government, Kharak Singh, Nav Nihal Singh, Chand Kaur, Sher Singh and finally Dalip Singh
were brought to the throne in quick succession.

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● Conspiracy and intrigues were widespread and the ariny played a major role in all these changes in the
government.
● Prolonged and bloody battles were generally fought to bring the claimant to the throne or to dislodge the
incumbent.
● Since 1830’s, the British were interested in the Punjab, as the Commander-in-chief of the British forces used
the occasion of the marriage ceremony of Ranjit Singh’s grandson to estimate the forces necessary to overcome
the Punjab army.
● The possibility of military occupation was discussed by Governor General Ellenborough with the Home
government in October 1843.
● But as a result of the weak state of the British Indian army after 5 years' war in Afghanistan discouraged any
military action against the powerful Punjab army.

Conquest of Punjab
● The British, however, found their opportunity soon as the repeated changes in the government of the Punjab,
the corruption among the officials, general indiscipline in the army and the disenchantment of the mercantile class
and Lahore’s population lowered the morals of the rulers and ruled alike.
● Moreover, they found important allies in the higher rungs of the Punjab government, e.g Prime Minister Raja
Lal Singh, the Commander-in-Chief Misar Tej Singh, a leading Sardar of the Lahore darbar Dogra Raja
Gulab Singh etc.
● So when the first war between the Company and Punjab was declared on 13 December 1845, the company’s
army was almost routed but for the supineness of Lal Singh.
● Because of such failure of leadership, the formidable Punjab army was defeated in a series of encounters and
was forced to sign the humiliating treaty of Lahore on 8 March 1846.
● The British annexed the Jalandhar Doab and handed over Jammu and Kashmir to Raja Gulab Singh for a
cash payment of five million rupees.
● The Punjab army was reduced to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry and a strong British force was stationed
at Lahore.
● Later, another treaty was signed on 16 December 1846 which gave the British Resident at Lahore extensive
authority (through a council of Regency) over all matters in every department of the state.
● The British stationed their troops in Punjab, and the expenses were to be paid by the Lahore government.
● All these, however, did not satisfy the British. Their ultimate aim was direct rule over Punjab.
● So, when the Diwan of Multan rose in revolt (1848) against the Lahore Darbar, which was then under the
protection of the British, the latter gave it every opportunity to spread.
● And when it did spread and others joined in, they welcomed it.
● In the campaign of 1849 the Sikh forces were decisively defeated and Punjab was annexed.
Considerations of the British imperial power that led to the annexation of Punjab Immediate pretext
● The immediate pretext was given by the rebellion by two Sikh governors, Diwan Mul Raj of Multan and
Sardar Chattar Singh Atariwala of Haripur.
● As a result, Maharaja Dalip Singh signed the document of annexation and Punjab became the province of the
East India Company.
Imperialist policy of Lord Dalhousie
● He was a great imperialist and if there occurred any possibility of annexing an Indian state, he took it.
● It is said that Punjab’s fate after Ranjit Singh was foredoomed as the impulse of Neo-Victorian Imperialism
was bound to overwhelm it.
Strategic Location
● The British wanted a safe and secure frontier in the North-west with Punjab acting as a buffer state between
India, Afghanistan and Persia.
● As a result of the instability after the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Punjab, gave the British one more
reason to conquer it.
Russophobia
● The conquest was also the result of growing Anglo-Russian rivalry and the consequent British fears that Russia
might attack India through the north-west region.
Compensating lost prestige
● The British felt the need for a conquest to compensate for the loss of prestige after the debacle in the first Anglo-
Afghan war, which was a great humiliation for the British and a setback to its invincibility.
● First they annexed Sindh and next in line was Punjab.
Commercial consideration

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● The British had commercial interests in Punjab as the Indus river linked Punjab to the sea and hence making
it important for trade and military considerations.
● Punjab also had fertile land which was commercially important for the British for revenue and plantation
purposes.

Q. “Annexation of Punjab was part of a broad north-west frontier policy set in motion after the exit of
Maharaja Ranjit Singh.” Critically examine
Q. "Punjab's fate after Ranjit Singh was foredoomed as the impulse of neo-Victorian Imperialism was bound to
overwhelm it". Elucidate
Q. What were the factors which helped the English to subjugate Punjab?

18. “The British conquest of Sindh was both a political and moral sequel to the first Afghan war.” Comment.

Hint-
Importance of Sindh for British
● The conquest of Sindh occurred as a result of the growing Anglo-Russian rivalry and the consequent British
fears that Russia might attack India through the north west region.
● To counter Russia, the British Government decided to increase its influence in Afghanistan and Persia.
● It further felt that this policy could be successfully pursued only if Sindh was brought under British control.
● The commercial possibilities of the river Sindh were an additional attraction.
● Primary waterway of Sindh, the Indus river, was important for military and commercial purposes.
● The road and rivers of Sindh were opened to British trade by a treaty in 1832 but military presence of the
British was not allowed under this treaty.
Annexation of Sindh
● Governor General Auckland had sent an army to Sindh and announced the suspension of the 1832 treaty.
● The chiefs of Sindh, known as Amirs, were made to sign a subsidiary treaty in 1839.
● The British forced Amirs to finance British military presence and accept British East India Company’s
currency.
● A British resident was also installed in Hyderabad. All these effectively ended the sovereignty of Sindh.
● Lord Ellenborough, Auckland’s successor, sent Sir Charles Napier with full civil and military power to Sindh
in September 1842, to take control of all British Indian troops there.
● Sindh was annexed in 1843 after a brief campaign by Sir Charles Napier.

The annexation of Sindh was totally unjustified because of the following reasons
● Sindh was annexed despite the fact that the Amirs who ruled Sindh had just signed an agreement in 1839, highly
favorable to the British. Amirs had done no wrong and annexation was nothing but brutal imperialism.
● Sindh was annexed in spite of previous assurances that its territorial integrity would be respected. Annexation
was an open violation of the existing treaty.
● Charge against Amirs was that they could not possibly be genuinely devoted to the Company which were vague
charges of disaffection in Amirs based on unsatisfactory evidence.
● They also accused Amirs for complicity with the Afghan during the First Afghan War.
● One of the major reasons for the annexation of Sindh was the debacle of the British in the First Anglo-Afghan
war (1839-42).
● The British had felt the need for a conquest to compensate for the loss of prestige after the debacle in the First
Anglo-Afghan war.
● Napier was an ambitious soldier who saw opportunity in making a name for himself and provoked the Sindhis
into attacking British Residency in Hyderabad and war ensued.
● The annexation of Sindh was morally indefensible. Amirs had faithfully carried out terms of treaties and had
been loyal to the British.
● The Company Directors disapproved of Napier’s Sindh policy though they had no courage to restore Sindh to
Amirs.
● Outram, the British resident in Sindh had written to Charles Napier, “It grieved me to say that my heart and
the judgement of God had given me unite in condemning the measures we are carrying out as most tyrannical –
positive robbery.”
● Even Charles Napier had written in his diary before fighting began: “We have no right to seize Sindh, yet we
shall do so, and a very advantageous, useful humane piece of rascality it will be”.
● For his rascality, Napier was awarded 70000 Pound and governorship of Sindh.

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Q. “We have no right to seize Sind, yet we shall do so and a very advantageous, useful, humane piece of rascality
it will be.” Comment.

19. “Treaties were only between equals; that there was no need for him to sign it”. Comment in light of the
annexation of Awadh by the Britishers.

Hint-

Background
● The English came into contact with the state of Awadh first during the course of the battle of Buxar.
● Awadh was defeated and Clive made a settlement with it some time after. It surrendered Allahabad and Kara
to the Mughal emperor and paid rupees fifty lacs to the Company.
● In 1773, Warren Hastings restored Allahabad and Kara to Awadh after payment of rupees fifty lacs.
● The English also helped it in conquering Rohilkhand. By a treaty in 1775, Awadh handed over Banaras and
Ghazipur to the English.
● He also agreed to pay a fixed annual amount for the expenses of the English army.
● However, the English didn’t want to conquer it, rather to keep Awadh as a buffer state between their territories
and the Marathas.
● Therefore to keep its finances afloat, Cornwallis reduced the annual amount which the Nawab used to pay to the
Company.
● When Wellesley came to India, the Nawab was forced to accept the subsidiary alliance which made him an
entirely dependent ally of the English. He also surrendered Rohilkhand and lower Doab to the English.
● The financial burden which the English put on Awadh, the interference of the English Resident in the internal
administration of the state and the incompetency of the Nawab resulted in maladministration of the state.
● The English threatened to annex it several times on that ground. But it was not done simply because every Nawab
of Awadh had remained perfectly loyal to the British.
● In 1847, Lord Hardinge, met the then Nawab Wazid Ali Shah and warned him that if he failed in improving
his administration within two years, Awadh would be taken over by the English.
● The Nawab brought about no improvement in the administration. Yet, as the English engaged themselves in the
second Sikh War, Awadh was saved.
Annexation of Awadh
● Dalhousie came to India in 1848. He attempted to find pretexts for the annexation of Awadh from the very
beginning.
● The Nawabs of Awadh had never either conspired or revolted against the English.
● Therefore, the only pretext could be the maladministration of Awadh by its Nawab.
● The English Resident met Nawab Wazid Ali Shah on February 4, 1856 and asked him to sign a treaty accepting
his abdication from the gaddi.
● The nawab refused to sign the treaty. He said: “Treaties were only between equals; that there was no need for
him to sign it.”
● He handed over his turban to the English Resident and, thus, relinquished his gaddi. He refused to accept the
pension of rupees twelve lacs a year offered by the English.
● The English, then, declared the annexation of Awadh.
Result of annexation
● The results of the annexation were certainly negative, as the English officers were charged with plundering the
palace and treasury of the Nawab, of dishonoring women and of selling the goods of the palace in public markets.
● The revenue policy of the English harmed the interests of both the landlords and the peasants.
● And, among the sixty thousand soldiers of the Nawab, nearly fifty thousand were dismissed from service and left
with no means of livelihood.

Thus, the immediate consequences of the annexation of Awadh went against the interests of its people. That was one
reason for their active support to the leaders of the rebellion of 1857. Thus, the annexation of Awadh by the English
was primarily a result of their imperial designs and its immediate results were not good either to its people or to the
British.

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20. Why did the East India Company thrust on the Awadh Nawab subsidiary Alliance?

Hint-

Although Shuja-ud-Daula was restored to Awadh after Battle of Buxar, he was firmly bound to the Company by a
treaty which provided for mutual defence (paid for by the nawab), trade free of duty for the Company in his territory,
and a payment of Rs. 5,000,000 as war debts. The ramifications of this treaty proved enormous for the history of not
only the parties involved but of whole India.
● Under the subsidiary alliance, the Nawab agreed to the permanent stationing of a contingent of British forces
in his territory and paid Rs.210,000 per month per brigade.
● He also agreed to the posting at his court of a British Resident and gave assurance that he would not employ any
European in his service without the consent of the British.
● The System of Residency proved very crucial in the years to come.
● By the extension of extraterritorial protection, by the administration of guaranteed pensions and by the provision
of honors and preferment, the Resident attracted a circle of important dependents and so made himself a new
power centre at the Awadh capital.
● Extraterritoriality, coupled with the resources of manpower and money mobilized in Awadh proved crucial in
redrawing the political map of India.
● The armies, recruited from Awadh and Bihar and supported by the money exacted from the people of Bengal
and rulers of Awadh helped the Company in winning repeated victories over the Marathas and the Sikhs and
led to its emergence as the paramount power in India.
● It also helped the Company to keep Awadh in check by providing extraterritorial protection to the dissidents
from the jurisdiction of the Awadh rulers thereby creating a constituency loyal to the Company.
● The Company, through the Resident stationed at the Awadh capital, increasingly encroached upon the powers
of the rulers so much so that by the beginning of the nineteenth century, many of the high officials, courtiers and
the large landholder of the province tended to repose their faith in the Company and considered it as the real
source of power.
● Even reigns of Nawabi families like Asaf-ud-Daula and Saadat Ali Khan relied on Company’s intervention
for securing the position of nawabi.

The Company, therefore, by manipulation and show of force, had acquired so much authority that the annexation of
Awadh in 1856 became a logical conclusion.

21. Examine the essential principles of the Subsidiary Alliance system. How far did it
contribute in making the British Company the supreme sovereign authority in India?
Hint-

Subsidiary Alliance System was first introduced by the French East India Company Governor Joseph Francois Dupleix.
It was later used by Lord Wellesley who was the Governor-General of India from 1798 to 1805. Early in his
governorship, Lord Wellesley adopted a policy of non-intervention in the princely states. However, later, he adopted
the policy of forming subsidiary alliances, which played a major role in the expansion of British rule in India.
The key principles of subsidiary alliance system were as follows:
• A permanent subsidiary force would be stationed in the capital of friendly princely state
• For the upkeep of this force a smaller native state was asked to pay in cash and bigger native state was asked to
surrender a part of its territory yielding revenue equal to the expenditure on upkeep of subsidiary force.
• The company was to protect native state from all external enemies of any kind.
• An English resident was to stay in the capital of native state
• Native state was to surrender its foreign relation to company
• Native state was not to employ any Frenchman or other European nation who don’t have friendly terms with
Britain.
• The native state was not to declare any war or peace without the permission of the company
• The native state shall not enter into offensive or defensive alliance without the permission of the company.
Due to this system, the company was able to maintain a large army without much financial burden. Battalions of such
armies were stationed at places of strategic significance to counter any challenge arising from any part of India. Thus,
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subsidiary alliance strengthened the striking capability of East India Company. This system not only helped British in
territorial expansion because almost half of the territory of native state was given away for the upkeep of subsidiary
force; but also helped in wiping out the French challenge and eliminated possibilities of native alliance against British.

22. “The British policy towards Indian States in 1818-1858 was one of isolation and non-interference tempered
by annexation.” Comment.

Hint-

The British completed the task of conquering the whole of India from 1818 to 1857. Sindh, Punjab, Awadh, the
Central Provinces and a large number of other petty states were annexed.
Part of the entire subcontinent was ruled directly by the British and the rest by a host of Indian rulers over whom the
British exercised paramount power.
During this period the British policy was one of isolation and noninterference tempered by annexation exemplified by:
● The imperial concept grew, and the theory of paramountcy began to emerge—Indian states were supposed to
work in subordinate cooperation with the British government, acknowledging its supremacy.
● The states relinquished all forms of external sovereignty while retaining internal administration sovereignty, but
even in this respect they acknowledged British authority wielded through a Resident.
● British Residents were elevated from diplomatic agents of a foreign power to executive and command officers
of a superior government.
● The Charter Act of 1833 ended the Company's commercial functions while retaining its political functions.
● It adopted the practice of requiring prior approval/sanction for all succession matters.
● The Board of Directors issued guidelines in 1834 to annex states whenever and wherever possible.
● The Indian states had virtually no armed forces of their own, nor did they have any independent foreign relations.
● They paid heavily for the British forces stationed in their territories to control them. They were on perpetual
probation.

Lord Dalhousie came to India as the Governor-General in 1848. He was from the beginning determined to extend
direct British rule over as large an area as possible.
The chief instrument through which Lord Dalhousie implemented his policy of annexation was the ‘Doctrine of
Lapse’.
Under this Doctrine, when the ruler of a protected state died without a natural heir, his state was not to pass to an
adopted heir as sanctioned by the age-old tradition of the country. Instead, it was to be annexed to British India, unless
the adoption had been clearly approved earlier by the British authorities. Many states, including Satara in 1848 and
Nagpur and Jhansi in 1854, were annexed by applying this doctrine.

23. Cornwallis was responsible for "laying the foundation for British rule throughout India”. Discuss
Governor General Lord Cornwallis (1786-93) was sent to india specially charged with the duty of finding out a
satisfactory solution to the land revenue problem. The administrative superstructure built by Cornwallis remained
substantially in force till 1858
Contribution of Cornwallis :
• Revenue Reforms In 1790, Cornwallis decided to recognize the zamindars, as the owners of the land, subject to
annual payment of land revenue to the state. A ten-year settlement was made with the zamindars on the basis
of 69 per cent of the rental, leaving 11 per cent with the Zamindars. In 1793, this decennial settlement was
declared permanent (called Permanent Settlement of Bengal)
• Cornwallis Code In 1793 Cornwallis compiled his judicial reforms in the form of the Famous Cornwallis Code
based on the principle of separation of powers. The Code divested the Collector of all his judicial powers and
left him with the duty of revenue administration alone. The judicial powers were given to a new class of officer-
the District Judge.
• Reform of Criminal Law Cornwallis brought about changes in the criminal law as well, even though the
Muslims took their criminal law to be divinely ordained.
o For instance, in cases of murder, the law officers were now to be guided by the intention of the murder and
not merely by the manner of perpetration.
o The usual punishment of amputation of body parts was to be replaced by imprisonment or fine.
o Further, non-Muslims were now allowed to give testimony against Muslims in criminal cases .

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o Undesirable effects:
▪ The new code was unfamiliar and elaborate, beyond the comprehension of the common man.
▪ The traditional judicial functionaries were replaced by European judges who knew very little about
Indian customs and habits.
• Suppression of Bribery and Corruption Cornwallis himself was beyond the greed for money that had tarnished
the names of Clive and Warren Hastings, Cornwallis forbade the Company's employees from indulging in
private trade and required each officer to declare his property under oath before he left India. He also raised the
salaries of the Company's officials in order to desist them from indulging in corruption.
• Europeanisation of Administration:
o Unfortunately, Cornwallis, like most of his countrymen, suffered from the evil infection of racial
discrimination.
o He had very low opinion of Indians in general and regarded every Indian to be corrupt. He sought to reserve
all higher services for Europeans and reduced the Indians to 'hewers of wood and drawers of water
o For instance, in the army, Indians could not rise above the position of Jemadar or Subedar and in civil
services not above Deputy Collector. In this way, he put the official seal on the policy of racialism that infested
Anglo-indian relations till the very end.
Thus, by doing reforms in core areas of administration, we can say that Cornwallis laid the foundation of the British
rule in india.

24. Hastings completed the fabric of British supremacy in India, almost exactly the way his predecessor had
planned it. Elaborate.
Hint-

If Lord Wellesley had succeeded in expelling the French and establishing the Company's military ascendancy in India,
Lord Hastings (1813-22) succeeded in unmistakable terms, in establishing the British Paramountcy in India. In fact,
Hastings completed the fabric of British supremacy in India, almost exactly the way his predecessor had planned it.
Prior to becoming the Governor General of India, Lord Hastings had served the British forces in the American War of
Independence. In India, he adopted an aggressive forward policy and waged extensive wars, thus completing and even
consolidating Wellesley's policy.
Expansion under Lord Hastings :
• His governorship saw the Anglo-Nepal war, the suppression of the Pindaris and the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
• Lord Hastings' era marks a milestone in the expansion and consolidation of British power in india.
Administrative Reforms:
• Though Hastings' genius was more suited for war, yet his era saw some significant administrative reforms
thanks to his capable band of administrators that included - Sir John Malcolm, Sir Thomas Munro, Mountstuart
Elphinstone, Jenkins and Charles Metcalfe.
• Munro, governor of Madras in 1820, established the Ryotwari system of land settlement n Malabar, Canara,
Coimbatore, Madura and Dindigul. Under it, the settlement was made directly with the ryots, i.e. the actual
tiller of soil.
• In the north west provinces, the Mahalwari system was introduced in 1822. Under it, the settlement was
made with a village community or mahal.
• Hastings modified Cornwallis’s laudable system of separating the judiciary from the executive and
henceforth the Collector could hold the office of the Magistrate also.

25. Why did the armies of the British East India Company – mostly comprising of Indian Soldiers – win
consistently against the more numerous and better equipped armies of the then Indian rulers? Give reasons.
Hint-
Indians were recruited for the British East India Company's army because they were familiar with the conditions in
India. Indians were prepared to take lower wages. As a result, the East India Company's overall expenditures were
cheaper than those of contracted British army men. Because of the immense distance that separated Britain from India,
the British people were not willing to move India. The English had enforced every available means of war and
administrative procedures in order to consolidate their own authority over India.
Superior military and armaments strategy:
• The British had cannon and assault rifles that were more advanced in terms of their range and shooting speed
than Indian weapons.

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• Many Indian rulers brought European weapons, but they were unable to develop war strategy like British
authorities.
Armed regulation, dedication, and consistent remuneration:
• The British were very careful about a regular income and a rigid code of conduct that guaranteed the loyalty
of the commanders and soldiers.
• The rulers of India lacked the resources necessary to make regular salary payments.
• Some of the kings were dependent on their own personal guards of unruly and disloyal mercenaries.
Effective leadership:
• Robert Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro, and others demonstrated exceptional leadership traits.
• The British also profited from second-line commanders like Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, Arthur Wellesley,
and others who stand up for their nation's interests and honor.
While the Indian side had excellent commanders like Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan, Madhu Rao, Sindhia, and Jaswant Rao
Holkar, they needed a second line of leadership.
A solid financial foundation:
• A great deal of wealth was contributed to England by British trade, which led to government assistance in the
form of money, materials, and other resources.
Absence of national pride and unification:
• Indian rulers lacked a cohesive political nationalism, which the British skillfully exploited to incite civil war
among them.
The East India Company had a private army. The corporation utilized its armed power to impose terrible taxes, carry
out officially approved plundering, subjugate Indian governments and principalities with which it had previously entered
into commercial deals, and defend its economic exploitation of both skilled and unskilled Indian workers.

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EARLY STRUCTURE OF THE BRITISH RAJ/POLICIES OF BRITISH RAJ

26. “The Dual System of Government was a complete failure from the outset. In the first place, the abuse of
private trade reached a greater height than ever. In the second place, the demands of the Company for the
increase led to gross oppression of the peasantry.” Examine.

Hint-

Dual System of Government

● After victory in the Battle of Buxar, in 1765 the Company got the rights of the Diwan, viz., the rights to
collect revenue and dispensation of civil justice for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from the Mughal emperor.
● The Nawab of Bengal, however, retained the rights of the Nizamat, viz., the rights to maintain peace and
order, defend the frontiers against foreign aggression and dispensation of criminal justice.
● Because of this division of authority, the rule in Bengal between the period 1765-1772 has been called the
“Dual Government”. The system was devised by Robert Clive.
● The “Dual Government” was the result of the Company’s refusal to take the direct responsibility of
administering Bengal.

Significance of Dual System of government

● The British had political and economic powers but had no administrative responsibilities.
● They had absolute military power and the right to collect revenue in Bengal.
● On the other hand, the Nawab had to shoulder all the responsibilities of the administration with no real power.
● He also did not have any economic resources as the revenue was collected by the Company.
● Only a small part of the revenue was given to the nawab which was not adequate to administer law and order.
● This dual nature of power caused many problems for the Nawab as he had to supervise the administration,
the criminal justice system and the maintenance of law and order without any real power.

Failure of Dual Government

Abuse of private trade
● During its period the abuses of private trade by the servants of the Company reached a climax.
● The privilege of dastaks was so misused that the Indian merchants failed to compete with the English and
were completely ruined.

Destruction of Indian industries

● The Company used its political power to ruin the silk industry in Bengal.
● The cotton cloth industry which was the most developed one in Bengal was also ruined.
● The representatives of the Company arbitrarily decided the quality of the cloth, its quantity of production and
its price much against the interest of the artisans.
● If any artisan or worker protested, he was severely punished or tortured.
● Therefore, many of them changed their profession and many others left Bengal.

Destruction of Agriculture
● Agriculture was also destroyed because of the excesses of the Company.
● Land was assigned to the highest bidder every year for the collection of revenue.
● These bidders or the farmers of taxes collected maximum revenue from the farmers to draw maximum gain
for themselves within a year.
● The Company increased its demand every year from the contractors.
● The contractors, in turn, increased their demand from the farmers while they were no way interested in
increasing the production.
● Therefore, the peasants were the worst sufferers and many among them left their lands and became dacoits
and robbers.

Decline in Company’s finances

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● Ultimately, the income of the Company also suffered. It could get neither good revenue nor enjoyed better
trade.
● Therefore, it felt the necessity of bringing some reforms. In 1769, the Company divided Bengal into thirty
districts and appointed one English Supervisor in each district.
● But the measure yielded no fruitful result. The supervisors were appointed with the sole purpose of getting
maximum revenues for the Company.
● They were not required to look after the welfare of the peasantry, to provide justice to them, to help them to
increase production or even to supervise the working of Indian revenue collectors.
● Besides, the supervisors were permitted to engage in private trade which became their primary concern.
Therefore, the experiment of appointing supervisors failed miserably.

Thus, the Dual Government in Bengal failed miserably. In 1770, Bengal suffered from a severe famine and nearly
one-third population of Bengal fell victim to its ravages. Though, of course, it was primarily because of the failure of
rains, there is no doubt that the sufferings of the people had increased manifold because of the misgovernance of Bengal
under the system of “Dual Government”. The Company also did not remain unaffected by the evils of its
administration. Its income both from revenue and trade suffered. When Warren Hastings came to India in 1772 as the
Governor-General of the Company he came with specific orders from the Directors to abolish the Dual Government.
Therefore, he took away the right of Nizamat also from the hands of the Nawab. The Nawab of Bengal was granted a
pension of rupees sixteen lacs annually for his personal expenses.

Thus, the Dual Government in Bengal was abolished and the Company became the de jure as well as the de facto
ruler of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Q. What was the dual system of government? What were the effects of the dual system of government in Bengal?

27. Discuss the basic features of the judicial administration under the East India Company. Did the British
introduce the modern concept of the rule of law in India?

Hint-

The development of the judicial system of India may be traced back to the Anglo-Indian era, when the judicial system
was at its most rudimentary state. The beginning of India’s modern judiciary based on recorded judicial precedents with
a common law system can be traced back to the establishment of the Mayor’s Court. In 1726, Mayor’s Court was
established in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta presidency by the British East India Company.

Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772- 1785)

● District Diwani Adalats under a collector were established in districts to try civil disputes where Hindu law
applicable for Hindus and the Muslim law for Muslims. The appeal from District Diwani Adalats lay to the
Sadar Diwani Adalat.
● District Fauzdari Adalats were set up to try criminal disputes and were placed under an Indian officer assisted
by qazis and muftis. These adalats also were under the general supervision of the collector. Muslim law was
administered in Fauzdari Adalats.
● The approval for capital punishment and for the acquisition of property lay to the Sadar Nizamat Adalat at
Murshidabad which was headed by a deputy Nizam (an Indian Muslim) assisted by chief qazi and chief mufti.
● Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a Supreme Court was established at Calcutta which was competent to try
all British subjects within Calcutta and the subordinate factories, including Indians and Europeans. It had
original and appellate jurisdictions.

Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-1793)

● The District Faujdari Courts were abolished and, instead, circuit courts were established at Calcutta, Dacca,
Murshidabad and Patna. These circuit courts had European judges and were to act as courts of appeal for
both civil and criminal cases.
● The Sadar Nizamat Adalat was shifted to Calcutta and was put under the governor-general.
● The District Diwani Adalat was now designated as the District, City or the Zila Court and placed under a
district judge. The collector was now responsible only for the revenue administration with no magisterial
functions.

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● A gradation of civil courts was established for both Hindu and Muslim laws
● The Cornwallis Code laid out the separation of revenue and justice administration, establishment of the
sovereignty of law, and brought European subjects under jurisdiction.

Reforms under William Bentinck (1828- 1833)

● The four Circuit Courts were abolished and their functions transferred to collectors under the supervision of the
commissioner of revenue and circuit.
● Sadar Diwani Adalat and a Sadar Nizamat Adalat were set up at Allahabad for the convenience of the people
of Upper Provinces.
● Till now, Persian was the official language in courts. Now, the suitor had the option to use Persian or a vernacular
language, while in the Supreme Court, the English language replaced Persian.

The basic features of the judicial administration under the East India Company were:
● One important feature of the system of law that was erected was that enough tolerance was displayed toward the
existing traditional and religious laws.
○ The criminal courts did not altogether abolish the Muslim criminal law but applied it in a somewhat
modified form, so as to make it less harsh.
○ Similarly the civil courts also did not do away with the customary laws which had been followed by the local
people.
● Another feature of the new judicial system was the establishment of a whole network of laws through the process
of enactment of laws and codification of old laws.
○ The traditional system had been based on 1) customary laws based on traditions and social practices, 2)
religious laws based on Shastras and Shariat, and 3) laws flowing from the will and authority of the rulers.
○ As against this, the British created a new system of laws.
○ Through the Charter Act of 1833, all law making authority was vested in the Governor General-in-Council.
○ In the same year, a Law Commission headed by Lord Macaulay was appointed which prepared the Indian
Penal Code which was applicable throughout the country.
● The two main theoretical principles underlying the entire judicial system were the notions of the Rule of Law
and Equality before law.

How far the concept of Rule of Law and Equality before law remained valid:
● The Rule of Law meant that the administration was now to be carried out strictly according to certain laws which
defined the rights, privileges and obligations of the people, and not according to the personal desires of the rulers.
● It also meant that in theory at least, nobody was above law.
● Even the official. and those who supervised law, were in theory, accountable to the same set of laws and could be
brought before a court of law for violating any law.
● The law, once formulated, could place restrictions on the actions of the rulers.
● However, the laws formulated and interpreted were such that they contained enough space for the oppression of
the people.
● As it happened, various bureaucratic misdeeds did not require a violation of law, they could be done well within
the legal rights of the officials.
● Despite the theoretical principle of "rule of law", there remained domains of action. e.g. by the police or army,
which remained unaffected by restrictions which should have followed from the principles.
● A great deal of extra-legal continued to be exercised by the police and civil-servants.
● In fact, under the Rule of Law, legality itself became an instrument of power and oppression.
● Similarly, the concept of equality before law did not, of course, include Europeans into its fold.
● Separate courts and laws were set up for them. In criminal cases they could be tried only by the European Judges.
● The Indian people had to pay a heavy price for the undeniably laudable principles of the Rule of Law and
Equality before Law.
● Justice became very expensive and therefore out of reach for most people.
● The new laws were quite complicated and most people could not understand or interpret them.
● Also the legal process generally became very lengthy and sometimes lawsuits dragged on for years.

28. What kind of administrative change was introduced in India under the East India Company?
Hint-

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The administrative and legal system introduced by the British did not take shape overnight and did not evolve in a
vacuum. It was spread well over eighty years, was implanted through a series of measures and acts, and was based on
the initiative taken by many British administrators and thinkers. These were-
● Cornwallis looked at the creation of English style aristocracy in land as the best means of developing India.
○ This coupled with English style institution of law and administration where the object was to
separate revenue and judicial function of administration would effectively ensure the improvement
of lndia under the landed aristocracy.
● Macaulay who was a liberal and influenced by the missionary zeal of evangelicalism and the emerging
pragmatism of 1830s and 1840 took up the codification of laws with vigour.
○ However, though he approved of this aspect of institutionalism, he did not at all agree with their
goal of reforming India.
● Between the concern of Cornwallis and Macaulay, came the intellectual current called 'utilitarianism' with
James Mill, Jeremy Bentham, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill as were its major exponents showed a
special interest in the Indian question, and were largely responsible for the kind of administration and judicial
system that came into being in India.
○ They reflected on how to govern and control lndia and their ideas gradually gained acceptance in
Britain perhaps because they represented and combined the interest of the British merchants.
manufacturers and missionaries.
The main aim of the British administration in lndia was the maintenance of law and order and the
perpetuation of the British rule. A fairly adequate body of written laws had already been created to facilitate
the tasks of the administration. The three main pillars of the British administration in lndia were:
● The civil service
● The Army, and
● The Police.
The Civil Service
● The main job of the civil service was to translate law into action and the collection of revenue.
● The term 'civil services' was used, for the first time by the East lndia Company mainly to demarcate its civilian
employees from their military and ecclesiastical counterparts.
● The appointment to these services was the sole prerogative of the court of Directors of the East lndia Company.
● However, due to corruption, bribery and illegal private trade, Cornwallis imposed certain restrictions on the civil
servants (like forbidding private trade) but increased their salaries as a compensation.
● All this, however, failed to solve the twin problems of corruption and inefficiency.
● Lord Wellesley introduced the idea of a suitable training for the civil servants in India, for which he founded the
Fort William College in Calcutta on 24 November 1800.
● After five years, an East lndia College was established at Haileybury for imparting two years training to young
officers for the civil services and this continued for the next fifty years or so.
● The method of recruitment however remained through the system of patronage in the hands of the court of
Directors who were free to nominate their sons and nephews for the services.
● The idea of 'competition' for recruitment (as against nomination practised earlier) was introduced for the first time
by the Charter Act of 1833. But it was to be a very limited competition and could be termed as nomination-cum-
competition for recruitment But gradually the demand for open Public competition started gaining ground.
● The Charter Act of 1853 ultimately took away the power of the court of Directors to make nominations and
made a provision for open competition.
● Subsequently the college at Haileybury was abolished in 1858 and the competitive examinations became the sole
responsibility of the Civil Service Commission.
● This competitive examination was to be held annually in England and it was therefore virtually impossible for
an Indian to compete in it.
● The officers of the civil services were employed both in the control officer and the district.
● The chief officer in the district was the collector who was initially responsible exclusively for the collection of
revenue.
● He had the authority to decide all disputes related to the boundary and the rent.
● He was assisted by a Tehsildar who was an Indian. After the reforms of 1831 the offices of the Magistrate and
the local chief of Police were also transferred to him.
● A post of Deputy Collector, placed between the Collector and the Tehsildar in the hierarchy was also created
after 1831. This was soon converted into an uncovenanted post which meant that experienced Indians could be
employed as Deputy Collectors.
The Army

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● The bulk of the Company's army consisted of lndian soldiers. In 1857 the lndians constituted about 86% of the
total strength of the Company's army.
● The main reason for this large share of Indians lay in the expenses involved in maintaining an exclusively British
army.
● However, the officers of the army, as in other branches of administration, were exclusively British. The highest
an lndian could reach was the post of a Subedar.

The Police
● Zamindar were stripped off their power of policing, their armed retainers were disbanded and in its place, a
police force was set up.
● This force was entirely at the command of the government of the East lndia Company.
● This force was grouped into Thanas, headed by a Daroga who was an Indian.
● These thanas were initially under the general supervision of the District Judge. Later the post of District
Superintendent of Police was created to head the police organisation in the district.
● Finally the organisation of the police force was handed over to the civil service and the collector in the district
also controlled the police.
● The main task of the police was to handle crime and also to prevent conspiracy against British rule.

29. “The object of the Act (Regulating) was good, but the system that it established was imperfect.” Comment.

Hint-
The Regulating Act was passed in the British Parliament in June 1773. It was the first parliamentary ratification and
authorization defining the powers and authority of the East India Company with respect to its Indian possessions.

Reasons for passing the Act

● The East India Company was in a severe financial crisis and had asked for a loan of 1 million pounds from the
British government in 1772.
● Allegations of corruption and nepotism were rampant against company officials.
● There was a terrible famine in Bengal where a huge population perished.
● The Dual form of administration instituted by Robert Clive was complex and drew a lot of complaints.The
farmers and the general population suffered as their improvement was neglected and the company was only
concerned with maximizing revenue.
● Lawlessness increased in Bengal.
● The defeat of the company against Mysore’s Hyder Ali in 1769.

Provisions of the Regulating Act

● This act permitted the company to retain its territorial possessions in India but sought to regulate the activities
and functioning of the company. It did not take over power completely, hence called ‘regulating’.
● The act provided for the appointment of a Governor-General along with four Councillors in the Presidency of
Fort William (Calcutta), jointly called the Governor-General in Council.
● As per this, Warren Hastings was appointed as the Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William.
● The Governors in Councils at Madras and Bombay were brought under the control of Bengal, especially in
matters of foreign policy. Now, they could not wage war against Indian states without Bengal’s approval.
● The company directors were elected for a period of five years and one-fourth of them were to retire every year.
Also, they could not be re-elected.
● The company directors were directed to make public all correspondence on revenue, civil and military matters
with Indian authorities before the British authorities.
● A Supreme Court of Judicature was established at Calcutta with Sir Elijah Impey as the first Chief Justice.
Judges were to come from England. It had civil and criminal jurisdiction over the British subjects and not
Indian natives.

Defects of Regulating Act 1773

● The Governor-General had no veto power.
● It did not address the concerns of the Indian population who were paying revenue to the company.
● It did not stop corruption among the company officials.

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● The Supreme Court’s powers were not well-defined.
● The parliamentary control that was sought in the activities of the company proved to be ineffective as there was
no mechanism to study the reports sent by the Governor-General in Council.

30. “The Charter Act of 1833 rang down the curtain on the company’s trade and introduced a new concept of
government in India.” Substantiate.

Hint-
The Charter Act of 1833 was passed by the British Parliament when the Charter Act of 1813 ran out in 1833. It
extended the royal Charter granted to the East India Company for 20 more years.

Background
● The Industrial Revolution had made Britain a manufacturer of cotton textiles and other factory goods.
● A vast country like lndia could consume a large number of manufactured goods and provide raw materials as
well.
● Industrialists were keen to conquer the vast lndian markets.
● The East India Company served the ends of British imperialism. Their restrictive policies had led to the ruin of
indigenous industries.
● Laissez Faire had become the basic philosophy of the new industrial policy in Britain. There was a popular
desire to free trade from restrictions and monopolies.
● When it was time for the renewal of the Charter in 1833 there was widespread agitation for abolition of the
Company and take over of administration by the Crown.

The Charter Act of 1833 is considered as a landmark in the constitutional development in India as:
● The monopoly of tea trade with China was abolished.
● The Company was to have only political functions and it became a purely administrative body and no longer a
commercial body.
● lndia was to pay the Company's debts. Its shareholders were guaranteed a dividend of 10.5 per cent per annum.
● Company was to rule over India in the name of the British crown as the Act provided that the company’s
territories in India were held by it ‘in trust for His Majesty’.
● With this, monopolies in trade were eliminated and other British Companies were allowed to trade freely with
India in all commodities along with other Far East countries.
● The President of the Board of-Control became the minister for lndian affairs.
● The Directors were to act as expert advisors of the President of the Board of Control.
● The Board of Control was invested with authority to superintend, direct and control the affairs of the Company
relating to the Government or revenues of the lndian territory which vested in the Company in trust for the
English Crown.

The Charter Act of 1833 introduced a new concept of government in India through:
Centralization of government
● The centralisation of government occurred in financial, legislative and administrative matters.
● The Governor General of Bengal was made the Governor General of India.
● The Governor General in Council was to control, supervise and direct the civil and military affairs of the
Company.
● Bombay, Bengal, Madras and other regions were subjected to complete control of the Governor General in
Council.
● The Central Government was to have complete control over raising of revenues and expenditure.
● Thus, the act created, for the first time, a Government of India having authority over the entire territorial area
possessed by the British in India.
Separation of power
● For the first time executive and legislative function of the Governor General-in-Council were separated.
● By the Act of 1833, the Governor General in Council was given the power to legislate for the whole of the
British territories in India.
● Extra six members were added to the council for legislative purposes. This is to function as a mini-parliament for
law making.
● The laws made under the previous acts were called Regulations while laws made under this act were called Acts.

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Inclusion of law member in the council and Codification of Law
● The Act added one more member to the Executive council of the Governor General, i.e. the Law Member,
whose work was fully legislative.
● He had no vote in the Council and he was to attend meetings, on invitation.
● The Act provided for the codification of laws in India. By this Act the Governor General was empowered to
appoint the Law Commission to study, collect and codify various rules and regulations prevalent in India.
● Law commission was established under Macaulay to codify all Indian laws which later culminated into Indian
Penal Code and Codes of Civil and Criminal Law.
Non-discrimination provision and Reform in Civil Services
● The Act of 1833 attempted to introduce a system of open competition for selection of civil servants, and stated
that the Indians should not be debarred from holding any place, office and employment under the company by
reason of religion, place of birth, descent, colour or any of them.
● The Charter Act of 1833 made no provision to secure the nomination of Indians to the covenant services of the
company.
● Yet the clause proclaiming on discrimination was of great importance for it became the sheet-anchor of political
agitation in lndia towards the end of the century.
Steps towards the abolition of Slavery
● The Act of 1833 enjoined the Government of India to take measures for amelioration of the conditions of slaves
and ultimate abolition of slavery in India.
● Slavery was finally abolished in 1843.
Legalization of the British Colonisation
● The Act of 1833 legalized the British colonization of India and the territorial possessions of the company were
transferred to the Government of India.
● All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition by them of land and property in India were
removed.

31. Which weaknesses of the Regulating Act were removed by the Pitt's India Act?

Hint-

Pitt's India Act was passed in August, 1784. The purpose was to remove defects in the Regulating Act. The plan
included:
● Company's public affairs and its administration in lndia were to come directly under supreme control of the
British Government.
● The right of the Company to territorial possessions was however not touched, so it essentially meant a
compromise.
● The Act established a Board of Control consisting of six commissioners, including two Cabinet ministers.
● The Board of Control was to guide and control the work of the Court of Directors and the Government of
India.
● They were to control all matters of civil and military government of the British territories in India.
● A secret committee consisting of three Directors was appointed to take the place of the Court of Directors in
political and military matters.
● The Constitution of the Company's government in lndia was revised.
● The Act established the principle that the government of lndia be placed under the Governor General and a
Council of three, so that if only one member of the Council supported him, he could have his way.
● The Governor General was given a casting vote.
● The Act clearly stated that the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were to be subordinate to the Presidency
of Bengal in all matters of war, diplomatic relations and revenue.
● The Governor General and council were made subordinate to the British Government.
● They were forbidden to declare war and enter into any treaty without the sanction of the directors or the secret
committee.
● The Governor General and Governors were given the authority to override their councils.
● The possessions of the Company in India came under the supremacy of the British Parliament.
● The Act laid the foundation of a centralized administration, a process which reached its climax towards the
close of the nineteenth century.

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● Parliament's control over East lndia Company was tightened, a trend which remained conspicuous till the
Crown directly took over the Government of lndia in 1858.

The Act had many defects too:

● It had divided authority and responsibility. The Governor General had two masters, the Court of Directors and
the Board of Control.
● Out of this conflict of authority emerged the view of the primacy of the man on the spot. The actual state of affairs
was not known to the Home Government.
● This gave the Governor General an opportunity to act in his discretion even on matters of importance.
● Cornwallis, when appointed Governor General, insisted on having the power to override his council in
important matters such as safety, peace and interests of the Crown in India.
● The Act of 1786 gave him the powers he asked for. The offices of the Governor General and the Commander-
in-Chief were to be united in the same person.

Later, the Declaratory Act of 1788 gave full powers and supremacy to the Board of control. This was a step towards
transfer of powers of the Company to the Crown.

Q. “The Regulating Act (1773), the Pitt’s India Act (1784) and eventually the Charter Act of 1833 left the East
India Company as a mere shadow of its earlier political and economic power in India.” Critically examine.

32. “Sprung from paternalism, the English Utilitarian philosophy as introduced in India rejected its human
warmth between rulers and the ruled.” Comment.

Hint-
The English Utilitarian Philosophy and Paternalism
● The utilitarian philosophy, born in the atmosphere of British liberalism, had an impact on the British
administration in India.
● The English Utilitarianism owed its genesis to the ideas of Jeremy Bentham and expanded by James Mill,
David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill.
● Bentham preached that the ideal of human civilization was to achieve the greatest happiness of the greatest
number.
● He argued that good laws and efficient administration were the most effective agents of change and ideas of
rule of law were necessary precondition for improvement.
● The utilitarian philosophy justified colonisation by arguing that paternalistic colonial governance of
indigenous people are required until they matured and acceded to rational thought and self government.
● The pursuit of colonial people’s own welfare and happiness defined in utilitarian terms was invoked to justify
colonisation.
● The utilitarians reflected on how to govern and control lndia and their ideas gradually gained acceptance in
Britain perhaps because they represented and combined the interest of the British merchants. manufacturers
and missionaries.
Their ideas about Indian Society
● lndian society was seen by them as completely devoid of the values of rationalism and individualism, which
were seen as the essential principles for building a modern society.
● A traditional and decadent society like lndia could be improved through proper legislation, which would impart
"human justice" as against "divine justice" practised in traditional societies. This meant that British
administration with its principles of justice and uniformity could convert lndia into progressive and dynamic
society.
● However in this scheme the instrumentality of education was rejected by Mill and so was the indianisation of
the Government structure. Given their character, Indians were seen unfit in the task of their over
'modernisation'. Mill therefore dismissed the idea of giving any power and responsibility to Indians.
Utilitarians prescribed a modern machine of government, run by the British.

The Englishmen took on themselves the task of taking India on course of modernity. Indians were to be taught the
virtues of self-government.
Solution suggested were:

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● Advancement of society through the establishment of a good government with good laws and sound
administration.
● This would lead to freeing of individual initiative from despotism, customs and communal ownership (which
Mill saw a sign of a primitive society and inhibiting the making of a civil society).
● This would give a free and full scope for capital and labour and place due emphasis on individual rights and
ownership (as against communal ownership, characteristic of Indian society).
● Towards the same and it was necessary to legally define and protect individual rights in land.
The British took many steps in paternal manner to apply utilitarianism. For example:
● British passed several legislations (eg. ban on Sati), codified laws, gave importance to ryotwari system of land
revenue etc.
● The paternalism in utilitarianism involved restrictions on the rights of individuals in order to protect and
reform them. This caused loss of human warmth between rulers and the ruled.
● English Utilitarians’ ideas of strong, efficient and centralized administration gave almost despotic power to
the government.
● Bentinck’s administrative reforms were in line with utilitarian theory but with deference to local conditions
and in harmony with his own military sense of command.
● He applied utilitarian principles in a heavy handed manner without taking the consideration of people.

Q. “James Mill, the apostle of utilitarian philosophy, proposed a revolution of Indian society through the ‘weapon
of law’ solely. But in actual policy framing, other influences and considerations weighed much more than the
colonial State.” Elucidate.

33. “English utilitarianism had a profound impact on British agrarian policy in India as well as Indian Society
in the 19th century.” Comment.

Hint-
English utilitarianism had a tremendous impact on agrarian policy in India:
● The utilitarians, as Eric Stokes has suggested, had a contemptuous attitude towards landed intermediaries.
○ Following David Ricardo’s Theory of Rent, the utilitarians looked upon the rent extracted by the
zamindars as an unearned income that belonged to the government.
○ In fact the utilitarians favoured the property rights for the peasants.
● According to utilitarians, rent was surplus and only the state had legitimate share in it at the expense of
unproductive intermediaries.
○ Thus it provided an argument for the abolishment of the zamindari system.
● Consequently, in several land revenue settlements in India like Ryotwari and Mahalwari settlements in
Madras and Punjab respectively, the property rights were given to the peasants/cultivators.
○ Initially in the North-western provinces and later in Maharashtra, agrarian settlements sought to vest
property rights in the actual cultivators by setting aside the claims of revenue intermediaries.
○ Since the zamindars showed no signs of undertaking measures of improvement to increase agricultural
production, officials influenced by utilitarianism began to look for peasant enterprise in agriculture.
○ This way they believed that peasants would take interest in modernizing the agriculture and increasing its
efficiency.
● The attack on intermediary rights had the additional motive of creating appropriate conditions in which urban
capital would be encouraged to make investments in agriculture in the absence of locally powerful parasitic
classes namely the zamindars.

Although, the new land revenue settlements were introduced in India but they failed to bring any significant changes
in the overall agricultural pattern, system, output because they were equally harsh and the revenue demands were
high and burdensome.
Impact of Utilitarianism on Indian society:
● James mill was one of the greatest proponents of utilitarianism. Due to the efforts of James Mill, a law
commission under Lord Macaulay was appointed in 1833 which drew up Indian Penal Code on the
Benthamite model.
● According to utilitarians what India needed for her improvement was an effective school master i.e. wise
government promulgating good legislation.

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○ Legislation was an effective agent of change. James Mill, the apostle of utilitarian philosophy, proposed a
revolution of Indian society through the ‘weapon of law’ solely.
○ So following such ideology, Lord Bentick abolished sati and child infanticide through legislation.
● Utilitarians favoured vernacular education as opposed to English as it was more suited to Indian needs.

However, it is always to be remembered that whatever the school of philosophy may be whether orientalist,
utilitarianism or evangelism, their ultimate aim was to consolidate English rule over India.

Q. Assess the impact of the utilitarian ideas in molding the British attitude towards India. How did the utilitarian
try to solve the problem of land revenue?

34. Evaluate the policies of Lord Curzon and their long-term implications on the national movement

Hint-
When Lord Curzon became the Viceroy of India in 1899, the national movement was still in it’s infancy. The Indian
National Congress has been established in 1885 and was dominated by the moderates who believed in pleading and
petitioning to have their demands met.
Policies adopted by Lord Curzon
Imperialism:
o Curzon was a true imperialist and deeply racist, and convinced of Britain’s “civilising mission”. He was
intolerant of Indian political aspirations and his ambition was to strangulate the national movement.
o He had famously said, “Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my greatest ambitions while in India is to assist
it to a peaceful demise.”
Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899:
o The Act reduced the number of the elected representative to the Calcutta Corporation. The aim was to deprive
Indians of self-governance and serve the interests of the European business community who complained of delay
in grants of licences.
University Act, 1904:
o On the pretext to raise the standard of education all around, the Act reduced the number of elected senate
members. A countrywide movement against this Act was launched.
Bengal Partition, 1905:
o Bengal was divided, on the pretext of administrative convenience, in two separate provinces, but the real motive
was to check the rising nationalism among the Bengalis. Curzon wanted to create fission based on religious
identity.
Implication of Curzon’s policies
o The steps taken by Curzon to curb political aspirations created resentment and a confrontation with the educated
middle-class nationalists ensued.
o The Swadeshi movement was started in Bengal in 1905 with an appeal to boycott British goods and promote
swadeshi.
o The future movements by Gandhiji, such Non-Cooperation were considered to be based on Swadeshi
movement.
o The movement had started on the conventional moderate lines but later it was taken over by the extremists and
became a nation-wide anti-colonial movement. Leaders like Tilak, Bipin Pal, Aurobindo Ghose started to
dominate the Congress.
o Later, numerous revolutionary organisation like Jugantar began to emerge. They actively engaged in anti-
colonial activities and instilling nationalism among the youth.
Thus, The partition of Bengal and the high-handed behaviour of Curzon fired the national movement. His policies,
contradictory to his beliefs, strengthened and extended the reach of nationalism. He also ended up extending the clout
of extremists and revolutionaries who did not believe in pleading and petitioning.

35. What were the prominent changes made in the administration of India after the Revolt of 1857, especially in
the fields of the provincial administration, local bodies and public services?

Hint-
The considerable support which the revolt of 1857 obtained and the threat it posed to the very existence of British rule
in India, forced the British to examine the entire nature of their connection with India.

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The consequences of the Revolt of 1857 may be studied under various heads such as:

Administrative changes:
• By the Government of India Act 1858, the power to govern India was transferred from the East India Company
to the British Crown.
• The authority over India, which was wielded by the directors of the Company and the Board of Control, was
now to be exercised by the Secretary of State for India aided by a Council.
• The Act of 1858 provided that the Governor-General would have an Executive Council whose members were
to act as heads of different departments and as his official advisers.
Provincial Administration:
• The Act of 1861 marked the turning of the tide of centralization. It laid down that legislative councils similar to
that of the centre should be established first in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal and then in other provinces.
• In 1870, under Lord Mayo, provincial governments were granted fixed sums out of central revenues for the
administration of certain services like police, jails, education, medical services and roads and were asked to
administer them as they wished.
• In 1877, Lord Lytton transferred to the provinces certain other heads of expenditure like Land Revenue, Excise,
General Administration, and Law and Justice.
• In 1882, all sources of revenue were divided into three heads- general, provincial, and those to be divided
between the centre and the provinces.
Local Bodies:
• The Government further decentralized administration by promoting local government through municipalities
and district boards.
• Local services like education, health, sanitation and water supply were transferred to local bodies that would
finance them through local taxes.
• Ripon resolution of 1882 laid down the policy of administering local affairs largely through local bodies, a
majority of whose members were to be non-officials.
• However, the local bodies functioned just like departments of the government as the Government retained the
right to exercise strict control over the activities of the local bodies.
Public Services:
• Maximum age of entry into the civil service was gradually reduced from 23 in 1859 to 19 in 1878.
• Under Indian pressure, different administrative services were gradually Indianised after 1918; but the
position of control and authority were still kept in British hands.
• Moreover, people soon discovered that Indianisation of these services had not put any part of political power
in their hands. The Indians in these services functioned as agents of British rule and loyally served Britain’s
imperial purposes.

A new phase of history began after 1857, the government policies were put in place to ensure that another rebellion
does not break out, on the other hand and the government also strengthened the administrative institutions in the
country.

36. Explain how the upraising of 1857 constitutes an important watershed in the evolution of British policies
towards colonial India.

Hint-
The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and made its re-organization inevitable.
The Government of India’s structure and policies underwent significant changes after the Revolt.

Changes in Administration:
o By the Act of Parliament of 1858, the power to govern India was transferred from the East India Company to
the British Crown. The authority over India was now to be exercised by a Secretary of State for India aided by
a Council.

The Indian Council Act of 1861

o enlarged the Governor’s Council for the purpose of making laws, which was known as the Imperial Legislative
Council.
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Provincial Administration:
o The British had divided India for administrative convenience into provinces, three of which- Bengal, Bombay
and Madras-were known as Presidencies. The Presidencies were administered by a Governor and his Executive
Council of three, who were appointed by the Crown.

Changes in the army:

o The domination of the army by its European branch was carefully guaranteed. The proportion of Europeans
to Indians in the army was raised. The crucial branches of artillery, tanks and armored corps were put
exclusively in European hands. The Indians were strictly excluded from the higher posts.

Divide and Rule:

o Immediately after the revolt they suppressed Muslims, confiscated their lands and property on a large scale,
and declared Hindus to be their favorite. After 1870, this policy was reversed and an attempt was made to turn
Muslims against the nationalist movement. The Government cleverly used the attraction of government
service to create a split between the educated Hindus and Muslims.

Relations with Princely States:

o Loyalty of Princely States was now rewarded with the announcement that their right to adopt heirs would be
respected and the integrity of their territories guaranteed against future annexation.

Hostility towards educated Indians:

o The officials became hostile to the educated Indians when the latter began to organise a nationalist movement
among the people and founded the Indian National Congress.
Zamindars:
o The lands of most of the talukdars of Awadh were restored to them. The zamindars and landlords were now
hailed as the traditional and ‘natural’ leaders of the Indian people. Their interest and privilege were protected
and they, in turn, became the firm supporters of British rule in India.

Hence, in essence, uprising in 1857 was an important mark from which the British government started consolidating
its hold over India, with an aim of having long lasting empire.

37. The pursuance of a foreign policy, guided by the interest of British imperialism often led to India’s conflicts
with neighboring countries. Discuss.

British Foreign Policy was aimed at British expansion and territorial conquests outside India’s natural frontiers. These
imperialist tendencies clashed with other european imperialist powers, which resulted in conflicts.

Reasons of Conflicts due to British Foreign Policy

• There were many factors that impelled the Government of India to reach out for natural, geographical frontiers
for internal cohesion and defence. For example,
• Political and administrative consolidation of the country;
• Introduction of modern means of communication;

These factors sometimes resulted in border clashes.

• The British Government had as its major aims in Asia and Africa:
• Protection of the invaluable Indian empire;
• Expansion of British commercial and economic interests;
• Keeping other European imperialist powers, whose colonial interests came in conflict with those of the British,
at an arm’s length in Asia and Africa.

Thus, British foreign policy interests dragged British India into conflicts, While the interests served were British, the
money spent and the blood shed was Indian.

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ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH COLONIAL RULE

38. Discuss the situation of the Indian economy at the eve of the british conquest of india.

Indian Economy on the Eve of British Conquest can be divided into following heads:

Hint-
Village economy:
o In the beginning of the 18th century, the basic unit of Indian economy was the self sufficient, self-governing
village community which produced almost everything for its local needs (except perhaps a few items like salt
and iron) and had very little to do with the outside world.
o Handicrafts had reached a high level of development and were in much demand. Some of the famous handicrafts
of the time included cottori, silk and woollen fabrics and metal works.
Pre-British agrarian structure:
o The concept of private property in land had not yet developed. Land in the village was plentiful and belonged
collectively to the cultivating community, each family having its share of arable land. Karl Marx had described
this kind of collective ownership of land as the Indian form of communism.
o Different classes connected with land possessed certain rights. The actual cultivators enjoyed the right to
cultivate and had security of tenure provided a fixed share of produce was paid to the overlord.
o The land revenue was collected by the village headman or Patil and passed onto the ruler or Nawab.
o The state demand of revenue generally varied from one-sixth to one-third.
o Other land related issues and disputes were settled by the Patil in consultation with the village Panchayat.
o The villages were also self-governing. The Village Panchayat administered the village affairs and settled
disputes.
o The local chief or the subahdar did not interfere in the day to day village affairs and limited himself to claiming
a share in the village crops.
o In this way, the main link of the village with the state was the payment of land revenue.
o Even as rulers and dynasties changed continuously, the life in the villages carried on as usual, phenomena
referred to as the 'unchangeableness of Asiatic communities' by Karl Marx.
o It has been aptly said that the village communities in India 'lasted when nothing else seemed to last.
o The unchanging character of village communities was responsible for socio-economic stability on one hand and
stagnation on the other.
o Agriculture was technically backward and stagnant. Though the farmer's produce supported the rest of society,
yet his own reward was miserably inadequate.
o The farmers had to pay exorbitant amounts to the state, the zamindars and the revenue farmers.
o The isolation of village communities obstructed the creation of a wider market for Indian handicrafts.
o The caste-bound socio-economic structure permitted little mobility of individual and labor.
o Political indifference acted as a barrier to growth of national consciousness.
o As a result, Indian villages represented a picture of stagnation, untouched from all modern scientific
developments taking place in other parts of the world.
Urban economy:
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o Even as economic stagnation continued, India remained a land of extensive manufacturers and Indian
manufactures enjoyed a world-wide renown.
o Though urban economy presented a better picture, there was no sharp division between urban centres where
industries were concentrated and rural centres which supplied raw materials.
o Industrial production in India continued to be largely a rural based activity.
Condition of Indian industry:
o Cotton textiles which were produced virtually all over India constituted the most important manufacture.
o The cotton manufactures of Bengal (Dacca, Murshidabad), Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Surat, Bharuch) and Andhra
(Masulipatam, Aurangabad, Vishakhapatnam) the silk fabrics of Murshidabad, Lahore and Agra, woollen
shawls and carpets of Agra, Lahore and Kashmir were in demand both in India and abroad.
o In addition to cotton and silk, dye stuffs (particularly indigo) and sugar were the next most important
commercial industrial products.
o Significant agro-based industries included oils, tobacco, opium and alcoholic beverages. Though mining was
inadequately developed, India was self-sufficient in iron.
o Ship building was another important and developing industry. High class luxury goods were also produced and
largely consumed by the rich nobility.

Thus, In this way, India was a large-scale manufacturer of cotton and silk textiles, dyes, sugar, oils, tobacco, oplum,
alcoholic beverages, jute, ivory, ships, tron and other mineral and metallic products (like gold and silver jewellery, arms
and shields, etc.) and high-class luxury goods.

o Some other important manufacturing centres included Patna (Bihar), Chanderi and Burhanpur (MP),
Juanpur, Varanasi, Lucknow (UP), Multan, Lahore (Punjab), Bangalore, Coimbatore and Madurai (South
India).
o The emerging Indian cities had also developed their own banking system comprising shroffs, mahajans, chetties
and others.
Though India was, on the whole, self-sufficient in agriculture and craft industries, some observers feel that the pre-
British industrial sector was stagnant and technically backward and there was an overall declining trend in agriculture
and craft industry production. However, this decline was far greater in the post British 18th and 19th centuries.

Condition of Indian trade:

• As India was self-sufficient in food grain production and handicrafts, it did not import goods on a large scale.
• On the contrary, its agricultural and industrial produce was in great demand in the foreign market.
• The 17th century saw Indian cotton textiles emerge as the most important Asian import to the West, displacing
spices (the marked expansion of cotton textile exports provided employment to a sizeable section of Indian
population).
• Hence, India exported more than it imported and its trade was heavily balanced in India's favour.
• The remarkable rise in Indian textile exports ensured a steady flow of bullion into India from buyer nations and
came to be known as the sink of precious metals.
• Indian trade with Europe then was essentially based upon the price differential between Asia and the rest of the
world.
• The European merchants bought Indian goods at a low price and sold them at a much higher price in Europe,
Africa and other New World markets.
• Since there was no demand for European goods in India, the purchases of Indian goods had to be financed by
bullion payments. This comprised the main problem faced by European companies in Indian trade.
• Flourishing trade brought into existence the merchant capitalists and bankers who further promoted trade and
commerce. In fact, in the beginning of 18th century, India was one of the main centres of world trade and
industry.
• However, political disintegration of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century inevitably brought economic
fragmentation as well.
• Economic activities were disrupted by continuous wars and conflict between the regional powers. New agencies
of pillage and plunder sprang up.
• Every small or large ruler tried to increase his income by imposing heavy duties on goods passing through his
territories.
Many trading centres were looted by foreign invaders (like Nadir Shah and Abdali) and European trading companies
began to dabble in Indian politics.

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39. Discuss the economic model of the British east india company had as a colonial project in India.

Hint-
Economic Model Of British East India Company
The East India Company: A Joint Stock Company
o The East India Companies of Europe, including the English Company, were the earliest joint stock companies
of the world.
o The joint stock structure allows these companies to raise a much larger quantity of capital and also ensures
the continuity of business over a longer period of time.
Grant of Monopoly by Government of England
• This means that the Company was granted exclusive control of trade with India and other countries in the
Indian Ocean.
• This was done because, firstly, it was felt that the state must promote foreign trade to bring home wealth.
• The risky trade with distant countries was particularly in need of such government protection.
• Secondly, the merchants of the the East India Company were also relatively more wealthy and influential in
the monarch's court and were able to secure monopoly rights for the company.
Policy of 'Buy Cheap and Sell Dear':
• The business model of the company was simply, 'buying cheap and selling dear'.
• For this reduction of competition was an important aim. Therefore, the Company resorted to all sorts of means
including legislation, force and even warfare.
• From the last decades of the 18th century, peasants and artisans (eg. the indigo cultivators and weavers) were
subjected to coercive practice in order to procure goods at cheap prices and even coerce them into producing
goods for the Company.
Need for New Markets:
• With the ongoing industrial revolution in England, it now sought new markets for its manufactures,
particularly cotton manufactures.
• Also, it now needed more raw material than before to feed its rapidly growing industries.
• Thus, the whole basis of economic relationship between India and England was steadily changing.
• As England rapidly transformed into the world's first industrial capitalist country, the merchant company that
had acquired the Indian Empire was now required to fulfil a different role.
Territorial Expansion for More Secure and Profitable Business:
• Initially, the English made only voyages to India for trade by a ship or two. But no large-scale trade was
possible in this manner as it was not possible to procure large quantities of goods at a short notice when a
merchant ship arrived.
• Therefore, it became necessary to set up 'factories', i.e. trading stations for storing goods for export. gradually
the Companies began to fortification and militarised their trading stations into centres of armed power,
challenging the local governments.
• These forts began to provide the nucleus around which the Company spread its control over surrounding
territory.
• Such an evolution of the East India Company, from voyage system to territorial power, helped it immensely
in increasing its business and profits in many ways.

Shifting Financial Base of the Company (from Trade to Land Revenue):

From the mid-18th century till 1813, the Company's directors had to struggle very hard to retain Company's
effective monopoly for many reasons:
• There were always merchants and adventurers who somehow managed to make their way into Indian
trade.
• The Company's own employees were not above temptation to set up their own private trade.
• The company's monopoly also came under severe attack in England owing to the emergence of the doctrine
of Free Trade or laissez faire promoted by economists like Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations, 1776).
With the prospect of declining income from trade, the Company's financial base began to shift from trade and
commerce to land revenue, from business of trade to business of government. This naturally pushed the
Company to go ahead with continuous territorial expansion.

40. Elaborate on changing nature of colonialism and its impact on Indian economy and industry.

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Hint-
Changing Phases Of Colonialism And Impact On Indian Economy And Industry

Pre-Colonial Stage (1600-1757)

• During this period, the role of East India Company in India was like any other trading company-it brought goods
or precious metals into India and exchanged them for Indian goods which it sold abroad.
• The company's profits mainly came from sale of Indian goods abroad and so, naturally, it was interested in
production of Indian goods and creation of new markets for them.
• This is why Indian rulers encouraged Company's factories in India. With its goods in high demand, India's
balance of trade was highly favourable and the various European trading companies, including the East India
Company competed with one another for their share of Indian trade.
• However, soon the British manufacturers grew jealous of the popularity of Indian textiles as the fine cotton
cloth from India began to replace the coarse woollens there.
• They began to put pressure on the English government to restrict or prohibit the sale of Indian goods in England.
• By 1720s, laws had been passed prohibiting the wear or use of printed or dyed cotton cloth (there was a case
in 1760 when a lady was fined for possessing an imported handkerchief!)
• Additionally, the English government also imposed heavy duties on the import of plain cloth and Indian silks
Other European countries such as Holland also followed in the British footsteps.
• Despite this, Indian cotton and silk textiles continued to retain their stronghold in certain foreign markets
until mid-18th century, when the English textile industry itself began to develop along modern lines, thanks to
industrial development.

Colonial Stage (After 1757): Stages of Colonialism in India

• The fundamental character of British rule in India did not remain the same through its long history of nearly
two centuries.
• The changing pattern of Britain’s position in the world economy led to changes in the nature of British
colonialism.
• Marxist Historians, especially Rajni Palme Dutt, identified three overlapping stages in the history of
imperialist rule in India.
• He points out that each stage developed out of the conditions of the previous stage and the different modes of
colonial exploitation overlapped—old forms of colonial exploitation never entirely ceased but got integrated
into new patterns of exploitation.
• These stages are, however, marked by distinct dominant features i.e., qualitative changes from one stage to
another.

there were three phases in the history of colonial rule in India

➢ Era of Merchant Capitalism or Mercantilism (1757 to 1813)
➢ Era of Industrial Capitalism (1813 to 1857)
➢ Era of Fiscal Capitalism (1857-1947)

First Stage

The Period of Merchant Capital (Mercantilism),

• often described as the Period of Monopoly Trade and Direct Appropriation (or the Period of East India
Company’s Domination, 1757-1813), was based on two basic objectives—
o to acquire a monopoly of trade with India, against other English or European merchants or trading
companies as well as against the Indian merchants;
o to directly appropriate or take over governmental revenues through control over State power.
During this period no basic changes were introduced in administration, judicial system, transport and
communication, methods of agricultural or industrial production, forms of business management or economic
organisation.
o Nor were any major changes made in education or intellectual field, culture or social organisation.
o In fact, the traditional Indian civilisation, religions, laws, caste system, family structure, etc., were not
seen as obstacles in the colonial exploitation.

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The only changes made were:
o in military organisation and technology which native rulers were also introducing in their armed forces, and
o in administration at the top of the structure of revenue collection so that it could become more efficient and
smooth.
o In this phase there was large scale drain of wealth from India which constituted 2-3 per cent of Britain’s national
income at the time.
o It was this wealth that played an important role in financing Britain’s industrial revolution.
o In this stage there was no large scale import of British manufactures into India, rather, the reverse occurred—
there was an increase in export of Indian textiles, etc.
o The weavers were, however, ruined at this stage by the Company’s monopoly and exploitation. They were
forced to produce for the Company under uneconomic compulsions.

Second Stage : Era of Industrial Capitalism (1813 to 1857)

o Owing to its mode of exploitation being trade, this stage is also termed as Colonialism of Free Trade.
o It started with the Charter Act of 1813 and continued till 1860s. Soon after the East India Company became
the ruler over most parts of India, there was a debate in Britain as to whose interests the newly acquired
colony would serve.
o The newly emerging industrial capitalists began to criticise the East India Company and its exploitation of
India.
o They demanded that colonial administration and policy in India should now serve British capitalist interests
which were very different from those of the East India Company.
o Now India was to serve as a market for the ever increasing output of British manufactured goods especially
textiles.
o At the same time, the new capitalists in England, needed from India exports of raw materials, especially
cotton, and foodgrains.
o Moreover, India could buy more British goods only if it earned foreign exchange by enhancing its exports.
o The export of raw materials was increased sharply to meet the dividends of the Company and profits of British
merchants.
o Besides, there was a need of money to pay for pensions of British officials who would go to Britain after
retirement.
In this phase the following dominant features were visible:
1. India’s colonial economy was integrated with the British and world capitalist economy. This was made
possible with the introduction of free trade. All import duties in India were either totally removed or
drastically reduced to nominal rates.
2. Free entry was also granted to the British capitalists to develop tea, coffee and indigo plantations, trade,
transport, mining and modern industries in India. The British Indian Government gave active State help to
such capitalists.
3. The Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari system in agriculture were introduced to transform
traditional agrarian structure into a capitalist one.
4. Administration was made more comprehensive and included villages and outlying areas of the country.
These changes were brought about to make British goods reach, and agricultural products drawn from,
interior villages and remotest parts.
5. Personal law was largely left untouched since it did not affect colonial transformation of the economy.
However, the changes related to criminal law, law of contract and legal procedures were overhauled to
promote capitalist commercial relations and maintain law and order.
6. Modern education was introduced to provide cheap manpower to the vastly expanded administration.
However, it was also aimed at transforming India’s society and culture
for two reasons:
o (a) create an overall atmosphere of change and development and,
o (b) give birth to a culture of loyalty to the rulers.
7. The taxation and the burden on peasant rose sharply due to economic transformation and costly
administration (civil as well as military).
8. India absorbed 10 to 12 per cent of British exports and nearly 20 per cent of Britain’s textile exports.
After 1850, engine coaches, rail lines and other railway stores were imported into India at large scale.
9. Indian army was used for British expansion of colonialism in Asia and Africa.

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Third Stage - The Era of Foreign Investments and International Competition for Colonies.
It began around the 1860s in India owing to several changes in the world economy.
o These changes were as follows.
1. Britain’s industrial supremacy was challenged by several countries of Europe, the United States and Japan.
2. As a result of the application of scientific knowledge to industry, the pace of industrialisation increased
sharply (use of petroleum as fuel for the internal combustion engine and the use of electricity for industrial
purposes were significant innovations).
3. The world market became more unified due to revolution in the means of international transport.
During this stage, Britain made strenuous efforts to consolidate its control over India.
o Liberal imperialist policies got replaced with reactionary imperialist policies which were
reflected in the viceroyalties of Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne and Curzon.
o The strengthening of colonial rule over India was meant to keep out the rivals as well as to attract British
capital to India and provide it security.
o As a result, a very large amount of British capital got invested in railways, loans (to the Government of
India), trade and, to a lesser extent, in plantations, coal mining, jute mills, shipping and banking in India.
o The notion of training the Indian people for self-government vanished.
o The Indians were declared to be permanently immature—a ‘child’ people—needing British control and
trusteeship.
o Geography, climate, race, history, religion, culture and social organisation were all cited as factors in making
the Indians unfit for self-government or democracy.
The British thus tried to justify their rule over Indians for centuries to come—all in the name of civilising a barbaric
people—“the White Man’s burden”.

41. Trace the circumstances that led to the introduction of the Permanent Settlement in Bengal. Discuss its
impact on landlords, peasants and the Government.

Hint-
Background
● After gaining control of Bengal in 1757, the British thought that they would retain the administration established
by the Nawabs of Bengal but would use it to collect an ever-growing amount for themselves.
● However, the rapacity and corruption of the Company's employees, and their continual interference in the
administration led to complete disorganisation, and was one of the causes of the terrible famine of 1769-70, in
which it was estimated that one-third of the people of Bengal died.
● From 1772 therefore, a new system was introduced: this was the farming system.
● Under this system the government gave out the collection of land revenue on a contract basis.
● The contractor who offered to pay the largest amount from a certain district or sub-division was given full powers
for a certain number of years.
● Obviously, such contractors (they were called 'farmers' in those days), would try and extort as much as possible
during the period that they held the contract which ruined many peasants and the production in the later years
declined.
● Extortion and oppression were the obvious results of such a system.
● Furthermore, many of the contractors had offered to pay very large amounts, and later found that they could not
collect so much, even with great oppression.
● Finally, the system also led to corruption. In 1786 Lord Cornwallis was sent out to India with orders to clean
up and reorganize the administration.

Permanent Settlement in Bengal

● To overcome the above problems, it was decided therefore that the land tax would now be permanently fixed:
the government would promise never to increase it in future.
● Cornwallis belonged to the landed aristocracy of Britain and was in favour of a settlement that gave the right
of ownership to the zamindars, who, he hoped, would improve the land as English landlords did.
● Also, it would create a class of loyal Zamindars who would be prepared to defend the company at all costs
because their rights were guaranteed by the company.
● The government hoped that it would reduce the scope for corruption that existed when officials could alter the
assessment at will.
● It was hoped that landholders would invest money in improving the land as the whole of the benefit would come
to them.

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● Production and trade would increase, and the government would also get its taxes regularly.
● Finally, Cornwallis believed that even if the Iand tax was fixed, the government could always levy taxes on
trade and commerce in order to raise more money if it was needed.
● Also, collecting taxes from millions of peasants was difficult, and it was obviously much simpler to collect the
revenue from a small number of big zamindars.
● This was the arrangement made under the Permanent Settlement that was introduced in Bengal and Bihar in
1793.
● The zamindar was the proprietor, the owner of his zamindari. He could sell, mortgage or transfer it. The land
would be inherited by heirs in due course.
● If however, the zamindar failed to pay the tax due, then the Government would take the zamindari and sell it
by auction and all the rights would vest in the new owner.
Impact on peasants
● The actual cultivators of land were now reduced to the status of tenants of the zamindars.
● Cornwallis had also decreed that the zamindars should issue written agreements (called pattas) to each
cultivator to prevent oppression by the zamindars. However, no such pattas were issued, and the peasants were
wholly at the mercy of the zamindars.
● The permanent assessment was the largest sum that could be obtained from the land. It was a heavy and oppressive
assessment.
● Such oppressive taxes could only be collected by oppressive methods to meet the demands of the State.
● By regulations made in 1793. in 1799 and in 1812, the zamindar could seize, that is, carry away the tenants'
property if the rent had not been paid.
● The immediate effect of the Settlement was, therefore, to greatly worsen the position of the actual cultivators of
the soil, in order to benefit the zamindars and the British Government.
Impact on landlords
● It may seem that the settlement was greatly in favour of the zamindars but they were also now obliged to pay a
fixed amount by fixed dates every year, and any failure on their part meant the sale of the zamindari.
● Furthermore, many of the zamindars were rated for large sums that left no margin for shortfalls due to flood,
drought or other calamity.
● As a result, many zamindars had their zamindaris taken away and sold in the decades immediately after the
permanent settlement.
● The new buyers would then set about trying to increase the rents paid by the tenants in order to make a profit
from their purchases.
● As a result, many zamindars divided most of their estates into 'lots' or ‘fractions’ called patni taluqs. Each such
unit was permanently rented to a holder called a patnidar, who promised to pay a fixed rent. Thus, a process of
subinfeudation commenced.
● However, as more land was brought under cultivation and tax remained fixed, the position of the zamindars
improved, and they were able to lead lives of indolence and luxury at the expense of their tenants.
Impact on Government
● One of the major disadvantages for the government was that the settlement left no scope for increases in taxation
but expenses of the company rose exponentially due to engagement in a continuous state of war.
● Even when new areas of land were brought under cultivation and the rents of the land already under cultivation
had increased manifold, the state could not claim its legitimate share in the increase.
● Politically, the permanent settlement did fit in the game of the company and the Zamindars along with other
vested interests became the favorite children of Imperialism. However, the British Administration gained the
loyalty of the few at the cost of the alienation of the masses. Besides, the system divided rural society into two
hostile classes, namely, the Zamindars and the tenants.
● Immediately after the Permanent Settlement a struggle commenced between the local governments and the
zamindars. Instead of co-operating in the matters of administration, the latter embarrassed the government in
all possible ways. The zamindari areas suffered from law and order problems and many times zamindars
promoted and connived in criminal activities.
● Thus, as early as 1811 the London authorities warned against the introduction of permanent settlements
without a minute and detailed survey of the land.

Q. “The Permanent Settlement of land revenue in Bengal was a bold, brave and wise measure.” Comment.
Q. “The permanent system of Bengal though initiated with best of best of intentions, was a sadly blundering
affair.” Comment.

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Q. “Permanent Settlement disappointed many expectations and introduced results that were not anticipated.”
Comment.
Q. “Though the Permanent Settlement had serious defects, it gave tranquility to the countryside and stability to
the government.” Comment.

42. “Absentee landlordism was a consequential feature of Bengal’s Permanent land settlement.” Comment.

Hint-

The Permanent Settlement system introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal and Bihar in 1793 under which land
revenue was fixed permanently. The state demand was fixed at 89% of the rent and 11% was to be retained by the
zamindar.

Expectations from the settlement

● Now that the state would not demand anything extra if the production increased it was hoped that landholders
would invest money in improving the land as the whole of the benefit would come to them.
● Also it was expected that Zamindars would make efforts to improve the conditions of the tenants.
Reality of the settlement
● But it did not happen and in fact the condition of the tenants worsened due to many consequences of the
permanent settlement.
● One of them was absentee landlordism.
● Work of Zamindars was to collect and pay revenues at time but many zamindars found it difficult to pay the
amount demanded by the British and so they started doing sub- feudalization of their estate to some unofficial
middlemen.
● One such zamindar, the Raja of Burdwan then divided most of his estate into ‘lots’ or factions called patni
taluqs.
● Each such unit was permanently rented to a holder called a patnidar, who promised to pay a fixed rent.
● If he did not pay, his patni could be taken away and sold. Other zamindars also resorted to this: thus a process
of subinfeudation commenced.
● A new crop of unofficial middlemen grew between the Zamindars and Peasants.
● A Zamindar would sublet the land to a middleman and would relocate to big cities like Calcutta to live a
luxurious life.
● Zamindars thus turned into absentee landlords due to permanent settlement.
● Old rural based zamindars were replaced by many new urban landlords, who obtained Zamindari by hook
or by crook to earn money as well as social distinction.
● The urban Zamindars left their servants and agents to collect revenue from peasants.
● This furthered the exploitation of the peasantry because agents/middlemen would extort almost all a peasant
produced.

43. Discuss the main features of the ‘Ryotwari Settlement’ in South India. Did it satisfy the aspirations of the
peasantry?

Hint-

Ryotwari settlement
● As the shortcomings of Permanent settlement started to come up, other ways of assessing and collecting the
land-tax were being devised by British officials.
● Two officers, Munro and Read were sent to administer a newly conquered region of Madras in 1792.
● Instead of collecting from the zamindars, they began to collect directly from the villages, fixing the amount that
each village had to pay.
● After this they proceeded to assess each cultivator or ryot separately - and thus evolved what came to be known
as the 'Ryotwari' system.
● This early ryotwari was a field assessment system.
● This means that the tax payable on each field was fixed by a government officer, and then the cultivator had the
choice of cultivating that field and paying that amount, or not cultivating it.
● If no other cultivator could be found; then the field would not be cultivated: it would lie fallow.

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● Now, in fixing the assessment of a field, the revenue officer had to consider two things: one was the quality of
the soil and the other was the area of the field.
● It followed, therefore, that this system depended on a survey, that is, a classification of it.
● Munro usually fixed it by estimating what the usual product of the land was and calculating the amount that the
cultivator had to pay the State (which amounted to one third or two-fifths of the usual produce).
● Munro argued that it was the original Indian land tenure, and the one best suited to Indian conditions.
● Its adoption was due, however, to one main reason - it resulted in a larger revenue than any other system could
have produced.
● This was because there were no zamindars or other intermediaries who received any part of the agricultural
surplus - whatever could be squeezed from the cultivator went directly to the State.
● Thus, the Madras authorities were by 1820 converted to the ryotwari system and the system covered most of
the Deccan by 1865.
Ryotwari Theory and Practice
● The working of the Ryotwari system depended upon the government carrying out a detailed measurement and
assessment of each field.
● But after 1820 the system was extended to many districts where no surveys had ever been carried out.
● No one knew how much land a peasant cultivated, or what its product might be.
● His tax came to be fixed on an arbitrary basis, usually by looking at what he had paid in earlier years. This was
known as a 'putcut' assessment.
● Again, in theory the ryotwari allowed the ryot to give up any field that he chose.
● But it soon became clear that if this was freely permitted the tax revenue of the State would fall.
● So government officers began to compel the cultivators to hold on to (and of course, pay for) land that they did
not really want to cultivate.
● Since cultivation was not voluntary, it was always difficult to collect the revenue, and so the use of beating and
torture to enforce payment was also widespread.
Impact on peasantry
● There is hardly any doubt that the effects of this system upon the rural economy were distinctly harmful.
● The Collectors began trying to increase the revenue as rapidly as they could.
● The assessment was too high and when the government tried to collect the amounts many of the cultivators gave
up their lands and fled into princely states.
● The peasants were impoverished and lacked the resources to cultivate new lands.
● Apart from this depressing effect upon the rural economy, the heavy burden of taxation distorted the land market.
● No one would buy land, because buying it meant that the new owner would have to pay the extortionate land
revenue.
● After paying it, he would have no income from the land, and obviously, in such circumstances, no one would
purchase land.
● It was also possible for non-cultivating landlords to have their names entered as the occupants (or owners) of
particular holdings, while the actual cultivation was carried on by their tenants, servants or even bonded labourers.
● There was no limit to the amount of land that a ryot could hold, so there could be great difference in wealth and
status between one ryot and another.
● Also after some reforms in the Ryotwari system in 1836 and in 1858, moneylenders began to seize the lands of
their peasant debtors and either evict them or reduce them to tenants.
● This process led to considerable social tension, and caused a major rural uprising in the Bombay Deccan in 1875.

Q. Explain the essential features of the ryotwari system of land revenue with special reference to Thomas
Munro’s contribution to its evolution.

44. Discuss the main features of the ‘Mahalwari Settlement’. Did it satisfy the aspirations of the peasantry?

Hint-
The Mahalwari System
● By the early 19th century, the Company officials were convinced that the system of revenue had to be changed
again.
● The revenues cannot be fixed permanently at such a time when the Company needed more money to meet its
expenses of administration and trade.

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● In 1822, Englishman Holt Mackenzie devised a new system known as the Mahalwari System in the North
Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh).
● Under the Mahalwari system, the land revenue was collected from the farmers by the village headmen on behalf
of the whole village (and not the zamindar).
● The entire village was converted into one bigger unit called ‘Mahal’ and was treated as one unit for the payment
of land revenue.
● The revenue under the Mahalwari system was to be revised periodically and not fixed permanently.
● The system was popularized by Lord William Bentick in Agra and Awadh and was later extended to Madhya
Pradesh and Punjab.

Mahalwari Theory and Practice

● In 1819, Holt Mackenzie, developed the theory that taluqdars and zamindars were originally appointed by the
State, and the real owners of villages were the zamindars who lived in them, or constituted the village
community.
● He argued that their rights and payments should be clearly established by a survey.
● His ideas were embodied in a law, Regulation VII of 1822.
● This required that Government officials should record all the rights of cultivators, zamindars and others, and also
fix the amounts payable from every piece of land.
● In practice, this proved impossible to implement. The calculations made were often quite inaccurate, and the
Collectors in any case slanted them so as to increase the revenue due to the Government.
● Far from favoring the village communities, the new mahalwari often ruined them by imposing impossible tax
assessments.
● All these calculations involved a large amount of guesswork: and, not surprisingly, the guesses tended to be on
the high side, increasing the amounts to be paid to the State.
Effects of the Mahalwari Settlement
● One of the earliest effects was that the areas under the control of the big taluqdars were reduced.
● The British officers made direct settlements with the village zamindars as far as possible, and even supported
them in the law courts when the taluqdars brought suits against them.
● But the so-called village zamindars were supported only because it was planned to extract the highest possible
revenue from them.
● They were freed from taluqdars' claims only to subject them to a full measure of government taxation. The
result was often the ruin of the village zamindars.
● The result of this situation was that large areas of land began to pass into the hands of money-lenders and
merchants who ousted the old cultivating proprietors or reduced them to tenants-at-will.
● This occurred most frequently in the more commercialized districts, where the land revenue demand had been
pushed to the highest level, and where the landholders suffered most acutely from the business collapse and
export depression after 1833.
● The tax in these cases was so high that the buyer could not expect to make any profit from the purchase.
● Overall, therefore the mahalwari settlement brought impoverishment and widespread dispossession to the
cultivating communities of North India in the 1830s and 1840s and their resentment expressed itself in popular
uprisings in 1857.

45. “The poverty of the Indian people was the consequence of the Government’s land revenue and taxation
policy”. Discuss this statement with reference to British rule in India in the 19th century.

Hint-
Impact of land revenue and taxation policy on Indian Society
● The growth of a new land system in India affected India's economic and social life.
● The British policies revolved around getting maximum income from land without caring much about Indian
interests of the cultivators.
● They abandoned the age - old system of revenue administration and adopted in their place a ruthless policy of
revenue collection.
● In 1793, Lord Cornwallis introduced permanent settlement in Bengal and neighboring areas.
● Under this new Zamindari system, the peasants lost their ownership right over the land which in the past
belonged to them.
● Since the Zamindars enjoyed the right to raise the rent they mercilessly exploited the tenants.

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● Later, the British extended the settlement policy to other states and created Zamindars there too, but they
changed it to ‘temporary settlement’ under which land revenue would be reassessed after a period ranging between
25-40 years.
● Another and totally different land system called Ryotwari settlement was evolved for large parts of Bombay
and Madras which subsequently extended to North-Eastern and North-Western India.
● Under this system, each peasant holding a plot of land was recognized as the land owner and made directly
responsible to the state for the annual payment of land revenue.
● The conditions of farmers under the Ryotwari system should not have been as bad as under the Zamindari
system. But in practice this was not so.
● The greed of the British rulers was responsible for the sad plight of farmers under this system.
● In this system, the British worked as a real landlord and taxes were exorbitantly high.
● It created new intermediaries and hence the purpose of eliminating intermediaries for the benefit of farmers
hardly succeeded.
● In both cases, the land rents fixed were excessive and both the systems were instrumental in destruction of the
organic village community based on customs and traditions.
● Whereas the Zamindari system made the landlords the master of the village communities, the Ryotwari system
cut through the heart of the village communities by making separate arrangements between each peasant
cultivator and the state.
● There was a built-in depressor and the economy failed to grow.
● Under the Mahalwari system, the settlement was made directly with Mahals or estates in which a recognized
landlord or proprietor of some kind declared responsible for the payment of land revenue to the government.
● The exploitation of peasants under the Mahalwari system, in which all villagers collectively deposit land revenue,
was somewhat less practiced but this land tenure system was confined only to small parts of the country.
● This also could not remove intermediaries and village headmen oppressed poor peasants by taking over.

These land revenue systems were reason of poverty:

● Excessive rate of land revenue and the system of sub-tenancy under tenancy left very little with the peasants
leading to poverty and famines. In Bengal for example in less than thirty years land revenue collection was
raised to nearly double the amount collected under the Mughals.
● The capacity of the Indian cultivators to save and invest for increasing the productivity of land was
considerably reduced because of the excessive and uncertain land taxes. The economic decline of the peasantry
was reflected in twelve major and numerous minor famines.
● Due to the defective land tenure system, virtually no investment was made in agriculture and the farm technology
remained backward.
● The size of holdings and the system of distribution of agricultural produce went against any improvement in
agricultural production.
● The Zamindars became a sort of ‘distant suction pumps’, sucking the wealth of the rural areas and wasting it
in the cities.
○ Besides, a host of intermediaries grew up between the state and the actual cultivator. This process of sub-
infatuation sometimes reached ridiculous proportions, there being as many as 50 intermediaries.
○ All the intermediaries looked to their profits and the ryot was reduced to the position of a pauper.
○ In this context it may be worthwhile to quote the view of Carver who wrote: “Next to war, famine and
pestilence, the worst thing that can happen to rural communities is absentee landlordism”.
● Excessive pressure on land due to t destruction of the handloom industry increased poverty.
● Taxation on salt was another inhuman thing after land revenue. Salt tax was so high that iodine deficiency was
seen in large numbers.
Thus, land revenue and taxation became the main source of income for the Britishers and thus a major reason for poverty.
The drain of wealth from India was happening majorly at the cost of peasants.

46. Discuss the evolution of Western education and its impact on Indian society during the British rule.

Approach:

The education imparted in 18th-century India was still traditional which could not match with the rapid developments
in the West.

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The knowledge was confined to literature, law, religion, philosophy, and logic and excluded the study of physical
and natural sciences, technology and geography.
The evolution of Western education and its impact on Indian society during the British rule:

S. EVOLUTION SIGNIFICANT REFORMS IMPACT ON SOCIETY

NO.
1. Charter Act ● It attempts to reconstruct traditional ● Agitation in favour of modern
of 1813 knowledge, creation of an alternative education by enlightened Indians,
system of education. Christian missionaries and
● It incorporated the principle of humanitarian officials.
encouraging learned Indians and ● It angered orthodox groups due to the
promoting knowledge of modern neglect of traditional education.
sciences in the country.

2. Raja ● He got a grant to set up Calcutta College ● It was a step to shatter the caste based
Rammohun in 1817 by educating Bengalis, imparting education in the country that all were
Roy English education in Western humanities made eligible to a common education
and sciences. pattern.
● It gave rise to a middle class
educated intelligentsia.
3. Lord ● English language as medium: The limited ● Modern education only helped this
Macaulay’s government resources were to be process by making available the basic
Minute devoted to teaching of Western sciences literature on physical and social
and literature, through the medium of sciences to nationalists, thus
English language alone. stimulating their capacity to make
● Downward filtration theory: The british social analysis,
planned to educate a small section of ● Modern ideas, if not education, did
upper and middle classes, thus creating a filter down to the masses, though not
class “Indian in blood and colour but in a form desired by the rulers, but
English in tastes, in opinions, in morals through political parties, press,
and in intellect” who would act as pamphlets, public platforms, etc
interpreters between the government and ● It had disassociated Indian people
masses from their traditional way of learning
and living, their classical roots and
indigenous knowledge. Along with
it faded Indian values, philosophies
and traditions.
4. 1854, Charles ● Considered the “Magna Carta of English ● Traditional system of Indian
Wood Education in India” learning gradually declined for want
● It recommended English as the medium of of support, and especially after 1844
instruction for higher studies and when it was declared that applicants
vernaculars at school level. for government employment should
● It laid stress on female and vocational possess knowledge of English.
education, and on teachers’ training. ● It lead to the colonial hangover of
● It laid down that the education imparted English is superior to other languages
in government institutions should be
secular.
Technical ● The Engineering College at Roorkee was ● The education was to be paid for, it
institutions set up in 1847; became a monopoly of upper and
● The Calcutta College of Engineering richer classes and city dwellers.
came up in 1856. ● They adopted various western
● In 1858, Overseers’ School at Poona elements such as dress patterns, food
habits, ideas, values etc.
● They adopted cognitive aspect of
British culture as well as style of life.

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5. Hunter The commission emphasised that the state's The imparting of liberal modern
Commission special care is required for extension and education gave rise to an awareness
improvement of primary education. against foreign rule of the British. The
ideas of liberty, fraternity and
democracy began to gain currency
among Indians.
6. 1913 ● The government refused to take up the Mass education was neglected leading to
Resolution on responsibility of compulsory education, widespread illiteracy (1911—84 per cent
Education but accepted the policy of removal of and in 1921—92 per cent) which created
Policy illiteracy and urged provincial a wide linguistic and cultural gulf
governments to take early steps to provide between the educated few and the masses
free elementary education to the poorer
and more backward sections
7. Saddler ● Female education, applied scientific and The content, structure and curricula of
University technological education, teachers’ modern education served colonial
Commission training including those for professional interests.
and vocational colleges should be
extended. School course should cover 12
years.
8. The Sergeant ● The elimination of adult illiteracy in 20 It led to look at education as a universal
Plan years, stress on teachers’ training, and inclusive need
physical education, education for the
physically and mentally handicapped.

• The Britishers provided western education in India which introduced the Indians to ideas of democracy and
nationalism.
• These ideas changed the political thinking of Indians and brought about a national awakening. The western
education opened to the newly educated Indians, the floodgates of liberal European thought. Thus, it gave a major
boost to the freedom struggle.

47. Why was there a sudden spurt in famines in colonial India since the mid-eighteenth century? Give reasons.

Hint-
The term "famine" is derived from the Latin word "Fames," which means "hunger." Famine is defined as "a state of
intense hunger experienced by a region's population as a result of a lack of regular food supply."
The 1769-70 famine in Bengal followed two years of erratic rainfall but was worsened by a smallpox epidemic. The
1783-84 famine again followed a crop failure over a wide area.
Reasons:
Drought:
o The excessive rainfall in 1770 did not relieve the people from the sufferings of drought of the year before; on
the contrary, it caused overflowing of rivers and damaged standing crops.
o The proximate cause of famines, without exception, was a sharp rise in food prices, which in turn reduced
real wages and caused starvation, malnutrition and epidemic, mainly among agricultural laborer groups.

Rural Indebtedness:
o Debt has always been a major component of India's rural economy. Due to exorbitant rents and illegitimate
taxation imposed by the British Government, peasants were heavily indebted, this indebtedness was
exacerbated by the onset of severe drought-like circumstances which culminated in the onset of famines.

British Policy:
• The main cause of the devastating famines during the colonial rule was the British policy of exploitation,
repression and oppression inflicted upon the Indian people.
• Mass export of agricultural produce to the England by the Britishers led to shortage of the food supply in
India which ultimately culminated into the severe famine.

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• Cornwallis introduced the permanent settlement in 1793. The peasants were dispossessed of their ownership
of land by this strategy, which for the first time in India's agricultural history made the zamindars and talukdars
the true landowners.
• Famines that occurred during the colonial era had a tremendous influence on the economy and even the culture.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

48. Discuss the social policy of the British during the period of 18th and 19th century

Hint-

The term social policy covers a wide range of policies pertaining to law, social customs, family, criminality, education,
status ranking, etc.
o The idea of British responsibility towards welfare of Indian people did not emerge immediately after Plassey
and Buxar but only during the period of dual government (1765-72) when the Company's servants carried out
open and unashamed plunder of Bengal
o The corruption and plunder carried out by the Company in Bengal attracted severe criticism and increased
the pressure on the British Parliament to regulate the affairs of the Company, leading to the passing of the
Regulating Act of 1773. It was through this act that the British government accepted for the first time the power
and responsibility (though partial) for Company's administration. Henceforth, the process continued through
subsequent acts.

Social Policy During 1773-1813 (Blend of Orientalism and Political Pragmatism)

o Warren Hastings, the First Governor-General, was in favour of an administration which was well versed in
Indian languages and responsible to Indian traditions.
o He personally encouraged study and translation of Indian texts. Under his patronage, Bengali became the first
vernacular to be studied systematically by the Englishmen.

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o Nathaniel Halched, a close associate of Hastings compiled a set of Hindu customary and religious laws and
translated them into English.
o In 1788, he also published a Grammar of the Bengali Language, Hastings was also instrumental An the
establishment of the Asiatic Society which helped in the rediscovery' of early traditions of Indians.
o In 1781, Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa for the study of Persian and Arabic languages. In this way,
the early social policy during the days of Warren Hastings reflected a happy combination of British
Orientalism and political pragmatism.

Social Policy After 1813 (Cautious Intervention)

o Until 1813, the British broadly followed a policy of non-interference in socio-cultural and religious life of the
Indians.
o However, after 1813 there was a change in British attitude towards Indian problems in the aftermath of
industrial and intellectual Revolutions in Britain and Europe which filled the Englishmen with the modern
liberal ideas of humanism, liberty, equality and fraternity.
o Several officers who came to India after 1813 were deeply influenced by these ideals and wished to change the
socio-cultural life of the Indians along modern lines.
o However, the existing officials were ready to modernise Indians only to the extent it made them better
customers of British goods and reconciled them to the British rule.
o The challenge therefore was to maintain a workable balance between the two forces and what emerged was
a policy of 'cautious intervention' in Indian social institutions.
o Bengal, being the headquarters of the Company's government, emerged as the social laboratory where the
British developed some of their early state policies with the view to regulating the collective life of subject
population.

The major social policy are as followed :

Religion
Spread of Christianity:
o under the pressure of missionary lobby, the British Parliament inserted a provision in the Charter of 1813
allowing missionaries to go to India and even settle there under a license. But after the revolt of 1857, this
attitude was reversed.

Social Customs
Female infanticide:
o The evil custom of female infanticide was the first social custom to be suppressed by the British. It was
prevalent in many parts of India, especially among the Rajputs, Mewatis and the Jats.
Sati and Widow Remarriage
o Sati was the next social evil to be suppressed by the British. Sati was practiced in almost all parts of India with
the maximum cases being reported from Bengal. In 1829 sati was finally abolished in Bengal Presidency by
means of a legislation passed by Governor General Bentinck. In fact, Bentinck made it a crime to associate
with the act of sati in any form.
Slavery
o The Charter Act of 1833 directed the Government of India to take measures for the abolition of slavery. Slavery
was finally abolished by the Indian Slavery Act of 1843

49. Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century’s Indian Renaissance and the emergence of national
identity.
Hint-

Nineteenth century witnessed significant changes in Indian polity and society consequent to the expansion and
consolidation of British imperialism in India which made Indians realise that their interests were sacrificed in order
to promote the interests of the British authority.

• The impact of modern western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a new
awakening. The modern educational systems familiarised the educated classes with the ideas of equality,
liberty and nationalism.

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• They were impressed by modern science and the doctrines of reason and humanism. Thoughtful Indians who
were product of modern education began to look for the strengths and weaknesses of their society aimed at
giving back to the nation its lost identity.

• This new cultural project, which partly manifested itself through the social and religious reforms was encoded
in the phrase ‘Indian Renaissance’. It marked a period of transition in values, transformation in social
sensibilities and rebirth in cultural creativity.

• A defining feature of the movement was an inquiry into the past and an assessment of the traditions to
overcome contemporary problems. Ram Mohan Roy’s use of Hindu scriptures in his debate with his
opponents on Sati, or Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s widow remarriage campaign, or Narayana Guru’s
advocacy of universalism sought to eliminate social obscurantism, religious superstition and irrational rituals.

• The common feature that they all shared was the urge to transform the existing social and cultural conditions,
ranging from irrational religious practices and rituals to the oppressive state of women’s lives.

• Renaissance ‘purified’ and ‘rediscovered’ an Indian civilisation that was conformant with the European ideals
of rationalism, empiricism, monotheism and individualism.

• It was meant to show that Indian civilisation was by no means inferior to that of the West, rather in one sense,
in its spiritual accomplishments it was even superior to it.

• Evidence of this search for a superior national culture could be found in the development of patriotic regional
literature, in the evolution of new art forms, in the search for purer forms of classical music and in the
construction of new ideals of womanhood. The literary movement led by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay,
Tagore, Iqbal and Subramaniya Bharati provided leadership with imagination and fervor.

The movement, thus, not only talked of beauty and nationalism but also revealed to its followers India in terms of
its spirit, its philosophy, its arts, its poetry, its music and its myriad ways of life. The sense of pride in the spiritual
essence of Indian civilisation, as opposed to the material culture of the West, motivated Indians to confront the colonial
state in a newly emerging public space. This, in other words, provided the ideological foundation of modern Indian
nationalism that developed in the late nineteenth century.

50. What was Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy during 19th century? What was its fallout?

Hint-
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy during 19th century –
• After the acquisition of political power in India, the officials of the British East India Company wanted to
maintain neutrality or non-interference in the field of religion and culture of Indian society.
• The reason behind this policy was partly the fear of adverse reaction and opposition to their role by the
indigenous people. However, due to some constant pressure from various classes, missionaries, liberals,
orientalists forced the company to give up its position of neutrality and take responsibility for the promotion
of education.
Period between 1820 and 1835 - period of Orientalist–Anglisist conflict.
• The Charter of 1813 was the first attempt to establish education as one of the goals of the government.
• It provided for an annual expenditure of only one lakh rupees for the promotion of education through learned
natives of India, but did not give any guidelines in terms of the methods to be adopted to ensure this.
• In the initial phase, the company officials patronized oriental education. Notable in this context are the
establishment of the Calcutta Madrasa by Warren Hastings in 1781, the Banaras Sanskrit College by
Jonathan Duncan in 1791 and the Asiatic Society of Bengal by William Jones in 1784.
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy during 19th century
This created controversy about the nature and medium of instruction in schools and colleges.
• Orientalists preferred Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian as the medium of instruction. They said that although
Western science and literature education should be imparted to prepare students to get jobs, the main emphasis
should be on expansion of traditional Indian education.
• The British supported providing Western education in the English medium. He also got the support of most
of the progressive Indians of that time like Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
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The dispute was eventually settled through the suggestions of Lord Macaulay (1835), and it supported the Anglicist
side. Following Macaulay’s suggestions, the government soon adopted English as the medium of instruction in schools
and colleges.
The Negative fallout :
• many primary schools were replaced by a few schools and colleges providing instruction in the English
medium. This neglected the education of the common man.
• It was expected that local education would be promoted by educated Indians, so that knowledge of Western
science and literature would reach the masses. This principle came to be known as the theory of downward
filtration. However, the expansion of modern education could not take place at the lower level as expected.
• The adoption of the English language as the medium of instruction led to alienation of the masses from
education, despite the establishment of such schools and colleges in the nearby area.
• This created a class of Indians who were Indian in blood and colour, but British in thought, morality and
intellectual. Thus, this class helped the rulers to pursue their colonial interests.
The positive Fallout :
• However, the changed system of education inadvertently made available basic literature related to the physical
and social sciences to the nationalists.
• This increased their ability to conduct social analysis.
• It helped in propagating ideas related to democracy, nationalism, social and economic status among the
masses.

51. Discuss wood’s dispatch of 1854 why it is called as the magna carta of English education
Hint-
In the pre-colonial times, the indigenous system of education comprised of Madrasas and Maktabs for Muslims and
Pathshalas for Hindus. Schools were funded by rich zamindars and the state played little role in school education.
• During the 18th century, the numerous political convulsions created situations that were hardly conducive for
any intellectual pursuits. Both Hindu and Muslim seats of learning were in a state of decay.
• Enlightened Indians and missionaries started exerting pressure on the Government to promote modern,
secular, Western education, as they thought that Western education was the remedy for social, economic and
political ills of the country.
• A Humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813, followed by Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) which
supported the teaching of western science and literature. However due to failure of his downward
filtration theory new policy in form of woods dispatch came.

Wood's Education Dispatch (1854)

• Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control and later the Secretary of State for India, was a firm
believer in the superiority of the English race and sincerely believed that the English institutions could serve
as a useful model for the world.
• In 1854, he sent a comprehensive dispatch on the scheme of future education to the Government of India,
famously known as the Wood's Dispatch. It came to be considered as the Magna Carta of English education in
Indian
• It recommended a properly articulated scheme of education from the primary school to the University for the
whole of British India.

The major recommendations of the Wood's Dispatch may be summarised as follows:

• It declared that the aim of government's education policy was the teaching of Western education. Wood had
clearly stated that the aim of education in India was the diffusion of European languages, through the medium
of both English and Indian languages (vernacular).
• It further clarified that Indian languages shall be the medium of instruction in primary schools, followed by
Anglo-vernacular schools in middle and high school levels and education in English medium at College and
University level.

It also recommended the following

• Creation of a Department of Public Instruction in each province. Establishment of a network of graded the
schools-elementary, middle and high schools.

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• Establishment of University at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the model of the London University. Setting
up a system of grants-in-aid for financial help to foster private enterprise in education.
• Setting up of Technical Schools and Colleges (vocational instruction was emphasised) Setting up Teachers'
Training Institutions and vernacular schools. The Dispatch also made recommendations in support of
education for women.

Almost all the above recommendations were implemented.

• Thus, In 1857, Universities were set up in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, the
novelist, was one of the first two graduates of Calcutta University.
• Girls' Schools set up mostly by Bethune's efforts were brought under the grant-in-aid system.
• Hindu College in Calcutta (later known as Presidency College) was set up by David Hare for promotion of
secular education. Similarly, in Bombay and Madras also, several missionary schools were established.
In this way, by 1850s, the foundation for English education was laid by the British. The next fifty years witnessed
rapid Westernisation of education system in India and the indigenous system was replaced by the English system.

52. Review the educational policy of the English East India Company. To what extent did it serve the imperial
interests of Great Britain?

In pre-British days, Hindus and Muslims were educated through Pathsala and Madrassa respectively, but their
advent created a new place of learning i.e. Missionaries. So that, they can create a class of Indian who would be “Indian
in blood and colour, but English in taste” who would act as interpreters between the Government and the masses.
Three agents of modern education in India
• The British Government (East India Company)
• Christian missionaries
• Indian intellectuals and reformers
Initially, the British East India Company was not concerned with the development of the education system because
their prime motive was trading and profit-making. To rule in India, they planned to educate a small section of upper
and middle classes to create a class “Indian in blood and colour but English in taste” who would act as interpreters
between the Government and the masses. This was also called the “downward filtration theory”. The following steps
and measures were taken by the British for the development of Education in India. The chronological development of
Education during the British Period in India is discussed below:
Under Company Rule:
• Calcutta Madrasah was established by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study of Muslim law and related
subjects.
• Sanskrit College was established by Jonathan Duncan, the resident, at Benaras in 1791 for study of Hindu law
and philosophy.
• Fort William College was set up by Wellesley in 1800 for training of civil servants of the Company in
languages and customs of Indians.
• British Parliament added a clause in the 1813 charter that Governor-General-in Council less than one lakh for
education and allowed the Christian Missionaries to spread their religious ideas in India.
• Grant was sanctioned for Calcutta College set up in 1817 by educated Bengalis, imparting English education
in Western humanities and sciences.
• The government also set up three Sanskrit colleges at Calcutta, Delhi and Agra.
• General Committee of Public Instruction, 1823 was formed to look after the development of education in
India which was dominated by Orientalists who were the great supporter of Oriental learning rather than the
Anglicans. Hence, they created paramount pressure on the British India Company to promote Western
Education.
• Lord Macaulay’s Education Policy, 1835 was an attempt to create a system of education that educates only
the upper strata of society through English.
• Persian was abolished as the court language and English become the court language. Printings of English books
were made free and available at a very low price. English education was allotted more funds as compared to
oriental learning. In 1849, JED Bethune founded Bethune School. Agriculture Institute was established at
Pusa (Bihar). Engineering Institute was established at Roorkee.
• 1835, 1836, 1838 : William Adam’s reports on vernacular education in Bengal and Bihar pointed out
defects in the system of vernacular education.

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• 1843-53 : James Jonathan’s experiments in North-West Provinces (UP),included opening one government
school as model school in each tehsildari and a normal school for teachers’ training for vernacular schools.
• 1853 : In a famous minute, Lord Dalhousie expressed strong opinion in favour of vernacular education.
• Wood’s Despatch (1854):
▪ It asked the government of India to assume responsibility for education of the masses, thus repudiating
the ‘downward filtration theory’, at least on paper.
▪ It systematised the hierarchy from vernacular primary schools in villages at bottom, followed by Anglo-
Vernacular High Schools and an affiliated college at the district level, and affiliating universities in the
presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
▪ It recommended English as the medium of instruction for higher studies and vernaculars at school level.
It laid stress on female and vocational education, and on teachers’ training.
▪ It laid down that the education imparted in government institutions should be secular. It recommended
a system of grants-in-aid to encourage private enterprise.
• Developments-In 1857, universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set up and later, departments of
education were set up in all provinces.

After the Crown Took Over:

• Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)-
o The commission emphasised that state’s special care is required for extension and improvement of
primary education, and that primary education should be imparted through vernacular.
o It recommended transfer of control of primary education to newly set up district and municipal
boards. It also recommended that secondary (High School) education should have two divisions—
literary—leading up to university and vocational—for commercial careers.
o It drew attention to inadequate facilities for female education, especially outside presidency towns
and made recommendations for its spread.
• More teaching-cum-examining universities were set up like the Punjab University (1882) and the Allahabad
University (1887).
• Indian Universities Act, 1904-
o In 1902, Raleigh Commission was set up to go into conditions and prospects of universities in India
and to suggest measures for improvement in their constitution and working.
o Based on its recommendations, the Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904.
• Government Resolution on Education Policy—1913
o In 1906, the progressive state of Baroda introduced compulsory primary education throughout its
territories.
o In its 1913 Resolution on Education Policy, the government refused to take up the responsibility of
compulsory education, but accepted the policy of removal of illiteracy and urged provincial
governments to take early steps to provide free elementary education to the poorer and more backward
sections.
• Saddler University Commission (1917-19)
o The commission was set up to study and report on problems of Calcutta University but its
recommendations were applicable more or less to other universities also.
• Education Under Dyarchy-
o Under Montagu-Chelmsford reforms education was shifted to provincial ministries and the
government stopped taking direct interest in educational matters
• Hartog Committee (1929)-
o Its main recommendations were as follows:
▪ a) Emphasis should be given to primary education but there need be no hasty expansion or
compulsion in education.
▪ b) Only deserving students should go in for high school and intermediate stage, while average
students should be diverted to vocational courses after VIII standard.
▪ c) For improvements in standards of university education, admissions should be restricted
• Sergeant Plan of Education-
o The Sergeant Plan (Sergeant was the educational advisor to the Government) was worked out by the
Central Advisory Board of Education in 1944.
o It recommended pre-primary education for 3-6 years age group; free, universal and compulsory
elementary education for 6-11 years age group;

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o high school education for 11- 17 years age group for selected children, and a university course of 3
years after higher secondary; high schools to be of two types:
o (i) academic and
o (ii) technical and vocational.
o There should be adequate technical, commercial and arts education and liquidation of adult illiteracy
in 20 years.
• 1937 : schools received encouragement from Congress ministries.

Even the inadequate measures the government took for the expansion of modern education were guided by concerns
other than philanthropic.
The government measures for promotion of education were influenced by agitation in favour of modern education;
need to ensure a cheap supply of educated Indians to man an increasing number of subordinate posts in administration
and hope that educated Indians would help expand market for British manufactures in India and an expectation that
Western education would reconcile Indians to British rule.

Assessment of the British efforts on education

• Although there were a few Englishmen who wanted to spread education for its own sake, the government was
chiefly concerned only with its own concerns.
• There was a huge demand for clerks and other administrative roles in the company’s functioning.
• It was cheaper to get Indians rather than Englishmen from England for these jobs. This was the prime motive.
• No doubt it spread western education among Indians, but the rate of literacy was abysmally low during
British rule.
• The state of women education was pathetic. This was because the government did not want to displease the
orthodox nature of Indians and also because women could not generally be employed as clerks.
• In 1911, the illiteracy rate in British India was 94%. In 1921, it was 92%.
• Scientific and technical education was ignored by the British government.
Thus, Education did help the british to manage india affairs, in many ways
• Cheap supply of educated indians.
• Made them loyal to British Imperial interest.
• Development of new market for educated class, thus helping British Capital a save avenue to invest.

53. Examine how India’s freedom struggle impacted the art and literature during that phase.

Hint-

India has a renowned artistic and cultural legacy. Literature and art evolve along with society. The ancient and
mediaeval periods were noted for their religious influence on Indian art and were the birthplace of important religions
like Jainism and Buddhism. Similar to this, in modern times, the avant-garde movement, which was inspired by
nationalist pride, changed Indian art by infusing it with "Swadeshi" ideas.
Indian art and literature were influenced by nationalist fervour and expression during the liberation movement in the
following ways:
Paintings
• The Bengal School of Art, which had its roots in the former cities of Calcutta and Santiniketan, was founded
as a result of the Swadeshi movement of 1905.
• Abanindranath Tagore depicted the Banga Mata/Bharat Mata as a voice against western influence in 1906
to protest the partition of Bengal. Its four characteristics—food, clothing, education, and spiritual wisdom—
were considered as targets of nationalist objectives.
• The paintings served as a vehicle for bringing up images of India's illustrious past. Abanindranath Tagore's
"The Passing of Shah Jahan," a tribute to the Mughal miniature tradition, is an illustration of such a painting.
• Raja Ravi Varma's depictions of Hindu deities, mythological settings, and Indian culture took the place of
the romanticised style of "company paintings." They were printed at his printing press in large quantities and
distributed as posters and calendar art to middle-class houses all throughout the nation.
• Nandalal Bose produced a number of works of art that evoked and honoured the essence of Indian culture and
traditional work. Instead than using Western imagery or design, these posters opted for Japanese calligraphy,
organic colours, and pictures from rural life. For instance, posters for the Haripura-meet of the Congress
Committee.
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• The painting technique of Kalighat: European techniques were incorporated into the traditional expertise of
artisans and craftspeople (patua or scroll painters). They produced trinkets with religious themes that combined
contemporary life and eastern art, or babu culture (Occidental art).
• Drawings by artists like Zainul Abedin depict the appalling conditions that existed during the Bengal famine
of 1943, which was caused by British policies in India.

Music and Literature

• Poems, slogans, folk songs, and music that had previously focused on religion, Sufism, and romantic love have
now turned their attention to political awareness and social issues.
• Rabindranath Tagore, Muhammad Iqbal, and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhya, among others, used literature,
poetry, and speech as a means to raise awareness of the horrors committed by the British against Indians and
to evoke thoughts of liberation in order to motivate people to fight for their nation.
• The development of novels was intimately correlated with 19th-century social reform initiatives.
Anandamath, a Bengali novel by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhya, was published in 1882. It contains the
famous slogan of Indian revolutionaries and nationalist leaders, Vande Mataram.
• Inhumane societal practises and bad habits like untouchability, caste inequalities, and the refusal to allow
widows to remarry were revisited in novels.

As a result, these works of art and literature are of utmost importance to the Indian Freedom struggle since they were
instrumental in ending British cultural dominance, reestablishing the people's sense of self, and igniting pride in their
own traditions.

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SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENT
54. The Socio-Religious reformers of the 19-20th century aimed at modernization rather than westernization.
Discuss.

Hint-

Due to the advent of new communication technologies, discussions and arguments about social traditions and practises
took on a new tone beginning in the early 19th century.
By embracing a new way of life, reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy, Ishawarchandra Vidyasagar, and Swami
Dayananda Saraswati convinced people to abandon tainted age-old traditions like Sati, child marriage, polygamy,
female infanticide, etc.
They were eager to promote modernisation in the nation and advance greater freedom and equality for women and
members of "lower castes."
Modernization against Westernization
• Westernization can be defined as the process by which non-western nations imitate the culture and values of
western nations.
• Modernization, on the other hand, has a broader meaning. Modernization is the adoption of contemporary
fashion, as well as contemporary methods of thinking, living, etc. Modernization is a change or adjustment
that promises to keep the past intact.
• Socio-religious reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries prioritised modernization over westernisation.
• These reformers never intended to supplant the native Indian culture with Western culture. Instead, they merely
accepted western concepts like humanism that they believed were desirable for the advancement of society.
• Instead of outright copying westernisation, they placed more emphasis on the interpretation of the scriptures
and the simplicity of ceremonies.
Role of personalities :
• Swami Vivekananda aimed to bring about transformation by reinterpreting the Vedas in light of the evolving
global situation. He emphasised the value of altruistic behaviour and social service.
• Similarly, Raja Rammohun Roy, who held the Vedas and Upnishads in the highest regard while also having
a high regard for western thought.
• Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar suggested that widows could remarry based on ancient literature. British officials
heeded his recommendations, and a legislation allowing widow remarriage was passed in 1856.
Action against social evils :
• Such intellectuals opposed some social ills as Sati, idolatry, polytheism, untouchability, etc., but they also
considered that the Bible's core message was a compelling reality that was incompatible with contemporary
ideas of equality and human dignity.
• In India, social reform did not typically entail reorganising society's overall structure for the benefit of
underprivileged social and economic classes, as it did in the West. Instead, it meant that new ideas and methods
of thinking would be infused into the old social structure, preserving the society while transforming its
individuals.
• The reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries contributed greatly to the development of contemporary
India. They advocated for the democratisation of society, the abolition of superstition and repugnant
traditions, the dissemination of enlightenment, and the formation of a logical and contemporary mindset.
• By the 20th century's end, women themselves were actively promoting change. They established a women's
society, founded training centres and schools, edited publications, and wrote books.
• Later on, these women joined various nationalist and socialist movements and made significant contributions
to the fight for liberation.
• The reform movements sought to lessen the sense of shame that the conquest by a foreign power had generated
by providing the emerging middle classes with the much-needed cultural roots to cling to.
Although the reformers made traditional beliefs and customs a top priority for attack, their focus was on modernization
rather than outright westernisation based on blind copying of foreign Western cultural ideals. In actuality, the reform
movements aimed to foster the socio-economic conditions necessary for modernization. These movements effectively
put an end to India's isolation from the rest of the world in terms of culture and thought. The reformers contended that
the best way to absorb contemporary thought and culture was to incorporate it into Indian cultural streams.

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55. Trace the rise and growth of socio-religious reform movements with special reference to Young Bengal and
Brahmo Samaj.

Hint-
The socio-religious reform movements arose among all Indian communities during the 19th century. They challenged
the British supremacy and the power of the priestly class. They campaigned for the abolition of castes and
untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities, and illiteracy.

Young Bengal and Brahmo Samaj represent two important points of these reformist movements.

The rise and growth of socio-religious movements can be traced to these reasons:
• The British invasion of India in the 18th and 19th centuries uncovered severe flaws in Indian social systems.
The responses were varied, but the necessity to improve social and religious life was a widely held belief.
• It also introduced entirely new sets of concepts in a social realm. The exposure to post-Enlightenment
rationalism, which came to represent modernity, influenced the attitude of a small set of Indians.
• The advent of western education and ideas has far-reaching consequences on Indian society. A small number
of people began to investigate the nature of their own civilization through the lenses of usefulness, reason,
justice, and progress. The public’s opinion gradually emerged.
• The arguments between Orientalists, experts of Eastern countries such as India on one side, and Utilitarian’s,
Liberals, and Missionaries on the other, facilitated the spread of ideas, at least among the upper classes. The
resulting cultural shift prompted reflection on Indian customs, institutions, and culture.
• Role of the educated elite class: They provided the backbone of religious reform movements. E.g., Raja Ram
Mohan Roy.
• Rising tide of nationalism and democracy during the late 19th century also influenced Indian renaissance
movement.

Contribution of Young Bengal Movement

Derozio motivated his students to think freely and rationally by drawing inspiration from the French Revolution. Below
was the ideology of the movement.
• All authority should be questioned.
• Decadent practises and traditions must be avoided.
• Women’s rights and education were also promoted by the movement.
• Combating societal ills such as child marriage, child labour, sati etc. were the main objectives of the movement
• Disseminated principles from the French Revolution such as liberty, fraternity, and equality.
• They aimed to foster value-based and logical thinking rather than rote learning through scientific information.

Contribution of Brahmo Samaj

• Condemn polytheism and idolatry.
• Faith in divine avatars was abandoned.
• It rejected the idea that any text could have ultimate power over human reason and conscience.
• The caste system was criticised.
• On the doctrines of karma and soul transmigration, Brahmo Samaj took no firm stance.
• The Samaj maintained its focus on human dignity, resistance to idolatry, and condemnation of societal ills
such as Sati.
• The Samaj advocated for widow remarriage, women’s education, the eradication of polygamy, and the
improvement of ryots’ living conditions.

Conclusion
The reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries made significant contributions to the development of
contemporary India. They represented societal democratisation, the abolition of superstition and heinous habits, the
spread of enlightenment, and the development of a reasonable and modern worldview.

56. What were different methodology adopted by reformist to introduce reform in the society.

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Hint-
Methods Of Reform are as follows :
Reform from Within
• The intellectuals believed that for any reform to be effective, the urge for change had to come from within
the individuals themselves. As a result, their main thrust was to create awareness among the people which
they tried to achieve by publishing illuminating literary works, organising debates and discussions on various
social problems, etc.
Reform through Legislation:
• Several intellectuals believed that reforms cannot be effective unless supported by the state. Therefore, they
strived to secure legislative sanction for reforms like widow remarriage and increase in the age of consent.
Reform through Symbols of Change
• Some reformers also tried to create symbols of change through non-conformist individual or group activities.
For instance, they would eat food cooked by lower caste people or defy other caste rules
Reform through Intellectual Work
1. Spread of education:
o Ignorance and illiteracy were seen as the root cause of Indian backwardness. Thus, nearly all intellectuals
considered education as the main agent of reform.
o Great stress was laid on the spread of education to all sections of Indian society, including non-Brahmins
and women.
o The knowledge of science and technology, neglected in the colonial education system, was also
emphasised.
2. Role of Indian languages:
o The intellectuals emphasised the role of Indian vernaculars in the spread of education. They believed that
if the goal of mass education was to be realised, the medium of instruction had to be Indian languages.
o English could be an aid but not the instrument of social change.
3. Use of rationality:
▪ The reformers developed a rationalist critique of socio-religious reality. Faith was sought to be replaced by
rationality and socio-religious practices were evaluated from the standpoint of social utility.
▪ For instance, the Brahmo Samaj rejected the infallibility of the Vedas. The Aligarh movement advocated
the teaching of Islam as per the needs and requirements of modern age. Scientific and medical reasons
were cited against malpractices such as child marriage.
4. Use of scriptures:
▪ The intellectuals of the 19th century also sought scriptural sanction and often quoted lines from them to
support their arguments in favour of reform.
▪ The priestly classes were blamed for distorting scriptural knowledge to suit their own ends.
5. Appeal to universalism:
▪ A large number of reformers appealed to the universality of religion, that all religions were essentially the
same.
Reform through Social Work
▪ There was a clear recognition among several reformers about the limitation of purely intellectual work
without supportive social work. For instance, Vidyasagar did not stop himself at writing columns or giving
lectures in advocacy of widow remarriage. Instead, he spent his entire life, energy and money for improving
the condition of Indian widows. Similarly, Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission also undertook
substantial social work.

57. Discuss the reform movement in the western India.

Hint-
Reform in the western India has some distinct features which are as follows :
WESTERN INDIA
• In terms of the social conditions the 19th century Maharashtrian society was divided as per Varnashrama
dharma into an unequal hierarchical order comprising Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
• Social interactions between different castes were maintained by strict rules of purity and pollution. The
Shudras were deprived of all rights including education. The Brahmins, on the other hand, exercised
considerable domination over the other castes due to their monopoly in matters of religion and learning.

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• During the British years, the Brahmins successfully took to English education and came to dominate the
colonial administration.
• They occupied strategic positions as officials, lawyers, teachers, writers, editors, etc., thus creating fear in
the minds of the non-Brahmins. Such a state of affairs was bitterly criticised by the Christian missionaries as
well as the nationals.
Consequently, in Western India, the main focus of reform movements was social reform, unlike Bengal, where the
focus was religious reform.
Hence, the early intellectuals of Maharashtra had a rather practical approach and were not much concerned with
religious or philosophical aspects.
The reformers in Maharashtra can be divided into two distinct strands:
1. The early radical reformers like Jyotiba Phule who sought a revolutionary reorganisation of traditional
society on the of principles of equality and rationality. (Their efforts lead to the emergence of a general
awareness among the lower castes regarding the various forms of discrimination they were subjected to and
gave birth to non-Brahmin movement in Maharashtra. This been dealt with in the next
2. The later moderate reformers like MG Ranade, who sought a return to past society with some
modifications.
Early Phase of Reform Movement in Western India
Balshastri Jambhekar (1812-46)
• Jambhekar was the pioneer of the intellectual movement in Maharashtra. He attacked the Brahmanical
orthodoxy. In 1832, he started a weekly, the 'Darpan, and initiated the reform movement through his
numerous writings in the early 1830
Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar and Paramhansa Mandali (1814-82)
• The intellectual movement further developed with the efforts of Dadoba. In 1849, he assumed leadership of
Paramhansa Mandali, the first reform organisation of 19th-century Maharashtra.
• The chief objective of this Mandali was the demolition of all caste distinctions. Each member had to pledge
that he would not observe any such distinctions based on caste or religion. In its meetings, members would eat
food cooked by low-caste people. The Mandali, however, had to function as a secret society, for fear of
facing the wrath of the orthodox sections.
Bhaskar Pandurang Tarkhadkar (1816-47)
• Bhaskar Pandurang emerged as a militant critic of the colonial rule in India. In 1841, he wrote a series of
letters in the Bombay Gazette, exposing nearly every aspect of colonial domination.
Jyotiba Phule (1827-90)
• Phule was born in a low-caste Mali family and was acutely aware of the degraded position of non-Brahmins
in Maharashtra. All his life he passionately campaigned against upper-caste domination and in 1854, he
became the first Indian to start a school for the untouchables. Phule also championed the cause of the
liberation of Indian women. He was a pioneer of the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra. In 1851,
Jyotiba and his wife started a girl's school in Poona.
Students' Literary and Scientific Society (1848)
• It was established in 1848 by several educated young men and had two branches known as the Marathi and the
Gujarati Gyan Prakashak Mandalis. The society organised questions on popular science and social
questions. It also aimed to start schools for female education.
Karsondas Mulji
• He was another activist in the field of widow remarriage. In 1852, he started the 'Satya Prakash in Gujarati to
promote the cause.
Lokahitwadi' Gopal Hari Deshmukh (1823-82)
• During 1848-50, Deshmukh (better known by his pen-name 'Lokahitwadi) wrote his famous 100 letters
Shatapatren' in the Prabhakar, a Marathi weekly. This formed the magnum opus the early intellectual work in
Maharashtra. These letters are all encompassing in dimension and touch upon nearly every aspect of the
contemporary society. He advocated the restructuring of Indian society along modern humanistic lines.
• To him, whether social reforms had the sanction of religion was immaterial. If religion did not sanction
them, he advocated that religion itself be changed, as what was laid down in the scriptures need not
necessarily be of contemporary relevance,
• Lokahitwadi wrote, 'Enforced widowhood is a murder of a living human being. It involves the king of
buman passions, feelings and emotions. You are butchering your own daughters in cold blood. Should not
your blood boil with rage?""
Vishnu Bhikaji Gokhale (1825-73)

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• Vishnu Bhikaji Gokhale was also known as Vishnubawa Brahmachari, for he remained a Brahmachari for
life. He denounced caste system and stood for oneness in society. Though he was a Brahmin, he had employed
a Muslim cook and ate food served by anyone. Thus, he openly defied caste rules and worked for an
equitable and just society.

Later Phase of Reform Movement in Western India

Vishnu Parshuram Shastri Pandit (1827-76)
• Pandit was a leading figure in the sphere of the agitation for female emancipation. He began his public career
with the advocacy of widow-remarriage. He founded the Widow Remanage Association in the 1850s and the
Vidhava Vivaha Uttejaka Mandal (Society for Encouragement for Widow Marriage) in 1865. He set an
example by marrying a widow himself in 1875.
The Brahmos in Maharashtra (the Prarthana Samaj, Bombay, 1867)
• In 1867, under the guidance of Keshab Chandra Sen, the Prarthana Samaj (Prayer Congregation) was set
up in Bombay. The members of the Samaj looked upon themselves as a body within the general Hindu body.
in Western India, the main focus of reform movements was social reform, unlike Bengal, where the focus was
religious reform. Hence, they believed that true love of God lay in serving God's children.
• The members of the Samaj worked in the field of widow remarriage, women's education, raising the age of
marriage for both men and women and denunciation of caste system. The Samaj also preached monotheism
and attacked priestly domination.
• The prominent leaders of the Samaj included RG Bhandarkar (1837-1925), Justice Mahadev Govind
Ranade (1842-1901) and NG Chandavarkar (1855-1923). Depressed Classes Mission, Social Service League
and Deccan Education Society lead by Rrarthana Samaj leaders also did important work in the field of social
reform. The Brahmo activities also spread to South India through the efforts of the Telugu reformer,
Kandukari Veeresalingam.
Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1837-1925)
• Bhandarkar earned the title of Maharishi, owing to his profound scholarship. In 1891, he arranged the
marriage of his widow-daughter, in the face of great opposition. He was a strong advocate of Hindu-Muslim
unity.
Narayan Mahadev Parmanand (1838-93)
• Parmanand was also a great social reformer and a constructive critic of the British administration.
Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842-1901)
• Ranade was a product of the Elphinstone College, Bombay and rose to be a Judge of the Bombay High Court
during 1891-1901. He held that the caste system was the main blot on Indian society and that religious reform
was a prerequisite for social reform. In 1867, he helped in the setting up of the Prarthana Samaj, a Brahmo
movement in Maharashtra, by reorganising the Paramhansa Mandali. He guided this movement in
Maharashtra till the end of his life.
• In 1870, he helped in the establishment of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and even edited the Bombay daily
Induprakash founded on his ideology. In 1887, he founded the Indian National Social Conference along with
Raghunath Rao. It functioned as the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress. It launched the
famous Pledge Movement to inspire people to take oath to prohibit child marriage. Upon the death of his first
wife, his reformer friends expected him to marry a widow, instead he married a child bride, Ramabai
Ranade, who also emerged as a prominent social reformer.
Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar (1850-82) and the Deccan Education Society (Pune, 1884)
• In 1874, Chiplunkar started his famous Nibandhamala, a monthly Marathi magazine, devoted to the cause of
social reform. In 1880, Vishnushastri Chiplunkar and Bal Gangadhar Tilak founded the New English
School in Pune, one of the first schools by Indians offering Western education. In 1884, they created the
Deccan Education Society with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev Ballal Namjoshi and others. Soon
afterwards, they established Fergusson College with Tilak and Agarkar as early lecturers. Chiplunkar died at
the young age of 32.

KT Telang (1850-93)
• Telang played a prominent role in introducing compulsory primary education in Bombay. He was the first
Indian Vice-Chancellor.
Ganesh Vasudev Joshi (1851-1911)
• Joshi provided a brilliant critique of the economic policy of the British government. He was a great
intellectual of his times and emphasised on education as the most effective agent of social change.
Narayan Ganesh Chandavarkar (1855-1923)
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• Chandavarkar was primarily a philosopher and emerged as a great leader of the Prarthana Samaj
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-95)
• Agarkar was an iconoclast and an uncompromising rationalist. He bitterly denounced blind dependence on
traditions and false glorification of India's past, Prof. D. K. Karve (1858-1962) Prof. Dhondo Keshav Karve
made his name as a social reformer in the field of women's welfare He started his career as a teacher in a
Girls' school in Bombay and later became a professor in Fergusson College.
• After he lost his wife, he remarried a Brahmin widow in 1893 and spent the rest of his life for the uplift of
Hindu widows. In 1899, he established a Widow's Home in Poona where high caste widows were
encouraged to take up careers in teaching, nursing and medicine. He culminated his work by opening an
Indian Women's University at Bombay in 1916
Behramji M. Malabari (1853-1912) and Seva Sadan (1885)
• Behramji Malabari was a Parsi social reformer who is best known for his ardent advocacy of women's rights
and his campaign against child marriage and enforced widowhood. In 1885, he founded Seva Sadan, an
organisation which took care of those women who were exploited and then neglected by society. His efforts
were crowned by the enactment of the Age of Consent Act 1891 which forbade the marriage of girls below
the age of 12.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) and Servants of India Society (Pune, 1905)
• Gokhale was a prominent social and political leader of India during the Indian national movement. In 1889, he
joined the Indian National Congress as a protégé of MG Ranade and emerged as a leader of the moderates,
advocating reforms by constitutional means. In 1905, Gokhale was elected president of the Indian
National Congress and reached the height of his political power.
• In 1905 itself, he left the Deccan Education Society and founded the Servants of India Society to further the
expansion of Indian education, a cause very dear to his heart. The aim of the Society was to train national
missionaries for service of India. The Society worked for the promotion of education and health and
organised many campaigns to fight the social evils of poverty, untouchability, alcoholism, oppression of
women and domestic abuse. In 1911, the Society began the publication of the Hitavada, the organ of the
Society in English from Nagpur.
Vitthal Ramji Shinde (1873-1944) and Depressed Class Mission (Bombay, 1906)
• Shinde, was a prominent social reformer. of Maharashtra. He was selected by Prarthana Sama in 1901 to go to
England and study comparative religion. He returned in 1903 and devoted his life to socio-religious reform.
In 1906, he established the Depressed Classes Mission to provide education to the Dalits, remove
untouchability and solve their social problems.
Narayan Malhar Joshi (1879-1955) and Social Service League (Bombay, 1911)
• N. M. Joshi was a follower of Gokhale and a leader of the Indian trade union. In 1911, N.M. Joshi established
the Social Service League in Bombay with an aim to secure for the masses better and reasonable conditions
of life and work. The League trained volunteers to carry out relief work during disasters such as famines,
epidemics and floods, and also to carry out welfare work among the poor. In 1921, Joshi started the All India
Trade Union Congress (AITUC) along with Lala Lajpat Rai and served as the general secretary of AITUC
from 1925 to 1929 and again from 1940 to 1948. In 1931, he left AITUC and started the All India Trade
Union Federation.

58. Discuss the idea and teachings of swami Dayanand Saraswathi and also highlight his contribution.

Hint-
Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-83) and the Arya Samaj (1875)
• The Arya Samaj movement emerged as a reaction to Western influences. The founder, Swami Dayanand,
denounced Western ideas and sought to revive the ancient religion of the Aryans His slogan was 'Go back to
the Vedas' which meant revival of Vedic learning and Vedic purity of religion and not revival of Vedic times.
Hence, his movement is called revivalist in form, not in content. He displayed modernity in many aspects
and held patriotic views on national problems
Swami Dayanand (1824-83)
• was born as Mulshankar in a Brahmin family in Gujarat. He acquired a good insight into Vedic literature,
philosophy and ethics from his father who was a great Vedic scholar himself.
• In 1875, Swami Dayanand founded the first Arya Samaj unit in Bombay.
• later, the headquarters of the Arya Samaj were established at Lahore. Henceforth, Dayanand extensively
toured India for the purpose of propagating his ideas.
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Ideas and Teachings of Dayanand Saraswati:

• Dayanand's aim was to unite India religiously, socially and nationally: Aryan religion to be the common
religion, society to be classless and casteless, and India to be a nation free from any foreign domination.
• He gave the slogan 'Go back to the Vedas' as he considered the Vedas as the original seed of Hinduism.
However, his belief in the Vedas as infallible gave his teachings an orthodox hue.
• He disregarded the authority of the Puranas (the later Hindu scriptures) and blamed them for spreading evil
practices like idol worship and superstitions in Hindu religion.
• He gave his own interpretation of the Vedas and published his views in his famous work Satyartha Prakash
(The True Exposition).
• Dayanand attacked various evils that had crept into Hindu religion in the 19th century, including idolatry,
polytheism, superstitions and sacrifices. He believed in the unity of Godhead.
• He rejected the philosophy of 'Maya', which stated that man's soul is merely a part of God and that man's
objective is to escape the world where evil existed and seek union with God. Instead, he held that God, soul and
matter were distinct and eternal entities.
• He also rejected the theory of 'niyati' (destiny) and upheld the doctrine of karma. According to him, the world
was a battlefield where every individual had to work out his own salvation by right deeds.
• Dayanand rejected the domination of Brahmin priestly class over the religious and social life of the Hindus. He
asserted every Hindu's right to read and interpret the Vedas.
• He also rejected the caste system based on birth though he subscribed to the Vedic notion of four-Varna
system based on occupation.
• He condemned child marriage and was a passionate advocate of widow remarriage as well as equal status for
both men and women.

Contributions
• The most phenomenal contribution of Arya Samaj has been in the field of social reform and spread of
education. The Samaj laid great emphasis on brotherhood of man, equality of sexes, and values of justice,
love and charity towards all. It established the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Institutions (DAV) all over the
country with the aim of providing the best of Eastern and Western learning. The nucleus for the DAV
movement was provided by the Anglo-Vedic established at Lahore in 1886. The orthodox elements of the
Samaj set up the Gurukul Pathshala at Hardwar in 1902.
• As a disciplined Hindu organisation, the Samaj succeeded in protecting Hindu society from the onslaught of
Christianity and Islam.
• The Samaj started the 'Shudhi' movement to convert non-Hindus to Hinduism.
• On the political front, it raised the slogan of 'India for Indians' and infused a spirit of intense patriotism. The
Samaj produced several eminent national leaders like Lala Hans Raj, Pandit Guru Dutt and Lala Lajpat
Rai.
• The Arya Samaj movement succeeded in undermining the superiority of the White Race and a sense of pride
among the Hindus.
While the appeal of Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society was limited to the English educated elite only,
Dayanand's message was for the Indian masses and his movement spread far and wide in several parts of the country
specially Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar and Rajasthan.

59. Discuss the role of pt. Madan Mohan Malviya in India society and his contribution
Or
Role of Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya in freedom struggle movements.
Hint-
Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya
o He was a great educationist, pioneer, an eloquent rhetorician, and a national leader.
o He took part in numerous activities like the freedom struggle movements, promotion of industries, the
economic and social development of the country, education, religion, social service, development of Hindi
language and many other issues of national importance throughout his life.
o He was given the title of ‘Mahamana’ by Mahatma Gandhi and the second President of India, Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan gave him the status of a ‘Karmayogi’.
▪ Role in Freedom Struggle:

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oIn the freedom struggle, he was midway between the Liberals and the Nationalists, the Moderates and the
Extremists, as the followers of Gokhale and Tilak were respectively called.
o In 1930, when Mahatma Gandhi launched the Salt Satyagraha and the Civil Disobedience Movement, he
participated in it and courted arrest.
▪ Role in Congress:
o He was elected as the President of the Congress committee (four times) in 1909, 1918, 1932 and 1933.
• Sengupta was elected Congress chief in 1933 after president-elect Madan Mohan Malviya was arrested.

▪ Contributions:
o Remembered for his role in ending the Indian indenture system, especially in the Caribbean.
• Indentured labour was a system of bonded labour that was instituted following the abolition of slavery in
1833.
• Indentured labour were recruited to work on sugar, cotton and tea plantations, and rail construction projects
in British colonies in West Indies, Africa and SouthEast Asia.
o Apprehensive of the possibility of the British completely damming the flow of Ganga at Bhimgoda in
Haridwar, he set up the Ganga Mahasabha in 1905.
o He was a social reformer and a successful legislator, serving as a member of the Imperial Legislative
Council for 11 years (1909–20).
o Popularized the term ‘Satyamev Jayate’. However, the phrase originally belongs to the Mundaka
Upanishad. The term now is the national motto of India.
o Devnagri was introduced in the British-Indian courts because of Malviya’s efforts with the British
government.
o Worked immensely for Hindu-Muslim unity. He is known to have given famous speeches on communal
harmony.
• He was expelled from the Brahmin community for expressing his views on caste discrimination and
Brahmanical patriarchy.
o He helped establish the Hindu Mahasabha (“Great Society of Hindus”) in 1915.
o He founded the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in 1916.
▪ Journalist:
o As a journalist, he started a Hindi weekly, Abhyudaya in 1907 and made it a daily in 1915 and
also Hindi monthly, Maryada in 1910.
o He started an English daily- Leader in 1909.
o Malaviya was the editor of Hindi weekly, the Hindustan and Indian Union.
o He was also the Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Hindustan Times for many years.
▪ Death: He died on 12th November, 1946, at the age of 84.
▪ Awards and Honours:
o In 2014, he was posthumously conferred with Bharat Ratna, the country's highest civilian award.
o In 2016, the Indian Railways started the Varanasi-New Delhi Mahamana Express in the leader’s
honour.

Bharat Dharma Mahamandala (Varanasi, 1887)

• In 1887, he established Bharata Dharma Mahamandal, to propagate Sanatan Dharma and Hindu culture.
The offshoots of the Mahamandala were the Sanatan Dharma Sabhas, founded for the defence of
Hinduism from critics both within the community and outside it.
• In 1918, he presided over the Delhi Congress Session and said that the slogan 'Satyameva Jayate' (Truth
alone triumphs) from the Mundaka Upanishad should be the slogan for the nation.
• Pt. Malaviya condemned untouchability and emerged as a key leader of the Harijan movement. In 1933, he
presided at a meeting in which the Harijan Sevak Sangh was founded.
• He worked for the eradication of various religious and caste barriers and made massive efforts for the entry
of untouchables in Hindu temples.

60. Discuss the akali and gurudwara reform movement.

Hint-
Akali Movement or the Gurdwara Reform Movement (1920-25)

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The Akali Movement was an off-shoot of the Singh Sabha Movement and was launched with the aim of liberating
the Sikh gurdwaras (temples) from the control of corrupt Mahants (priests) who enjoyed the support of the
government.
Historical Context
• The establishment of the Sikh kingdom by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1799 brought about significant
changes in Sikh religion. The Maharaja gave generous endowments in terms of property and privileges to
almost all well-known Gurdwaras.
• The sudden rise in income brought about a change in the style of living of the hereditary Mahants, who
gradually began to live a life of luxury Following the annexation of Punjab by the British in 1849, the British
government took over the control of the Golden Temple and Akal Takht and appointed a committee of ten
members headed by a Sarbarah' to manage their day-to-day affairs.
Corruption in the Gurdwaras
• The appointment of the Sarbarah by the government created several problems. The control of the Sikh
community over management declined before the increasing hold of the officialdom.
• The Sarbarah did not feel responsible to the people but was only interested in pleasing his appointing
authority. The priests indulged in all sorts of evil practices such as misappropriation of offerings, misusing
shrine properties for immoral activities and even abusing women visitors.
• the priests of the Golden Temple did not allow the so called low-caste Mazhabi Sikhs to offer their prayers
in the temple directly.
• the British authorities in Punjab resisted any attempt to change the existing state of affairs.
• Subsequently, the Akali Jathas (band of volunteers) of Sikhs of Amritsar thought of creating public
awareness on the subject and defy the authority of the corrupt priests.
• They took control the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht in their own hands and formed a committee
( SGPC) for the management of these two shrines.
Toshakhana Keys Affair
• The Committee of the reform group asked the government appointed manager of the Golden Temple to hand
over the keys of the Toshakhana (treasury). But before the manager could do so, the keys were taken away
by the British Deputy Commissioner.
• This action of the British official created great resentment in the Sikh community. To get the keys, the
Akali reformers launched a powerful agitation which came to be known as the 'Keys Affair.
• During this time, Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation movement was going on and the Sikh reformers were
joined by the Congress volunteers in Punjab. Feeling threatened, the Punjab government decided to step
back and handed over the keys to the then President of the SGPC, Baba Kharak Singh.
• The Punjab government also passed the Sikh Gurdwaras and Shrines Act, 1922, which provided for a
committee nominated by the government to take over control of the gurdwaras. This, however, was not
acceptable to the Akali leaders and remained for this reason a dead letter.
• However, after the suspension of the non-cooperation movement in February 1922, Punjab government got
its chance of teaching a lesson the Akali reformers which led to another agitation known as Guru-ka-Bagh
Morcha.
Guru-ka-Bagh Morcha, 1922
• The return of the keys had undermined the prestige of the Punjab government and its officials were
waiting to retrieve their lost prestige. They arrested the Akali volunteers who were cutting wood from the
dry kikar trees attached to the Gurdwara Guru-ka-Bagh, on the pretext that the dry wood was the private
property of the Mahant and the Akali reformers were committing a theft' by taking this wood for
community kitchen.
• To assert their right and register protest, the Akali Jathas started marching to Guru-ka-Bagh and the police
started arresting them.
Passage of the Gurdwara Bill and the end of the Akali Movement, 1925
• The Akali agitation was fast becoming the main vehicle for the spread of Congress ideology and
programme among the Sikh peasantry in Punjab and was also likely to affect the Sikh soldiers in the British
army. Due to these factors, the Punjab government felt compelled to find a solution to the Akali problem.
• Consequently, the Punjab government passed the Sikh Gurdwaras Act 1925, giving the Sikh community a
legal right to elect functionaries to manage their gurdwaras. This legislation ended the hereditary control
of the Mahants and introduced democratic control in the Gurdwan management.

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• Any Sikh, irrespective of caste, can be elected to any position including that of the President of the SGPC.
Women also got the right to vote at par with men. With this ended the five-year long Akali agitation in
Punjab.
Significance
• The movement created immense social, religious and political awakening among the people. Of special
significance is the awareness created among the people of the Sikh princely states of Patiala, Nabha, Jind
and Faridkot.
• The movement gave these people the much-needed moral support to organise themselves and fight against
oppression in these princely states.
• Even after the Akali Movement was over, the people in these states continued their fight under the leadership
of Sardar Seva Singh Thikriwala till independence and were finally merged with the Union of India Further,
• the Akali Movement was regional but not communal in nature. In general, the Akali leaders played a
notable role in the national freedom struggle.

61. Discuss the anti-brahmanical movement in the western and southern india.
Or
what were the reasons for the rise of anti-brahmin movement in western and southern india.
Or
How different is the western and southern social reform movement from the Bengal reform movement.

Hint-
A number of factors in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the Anti-Brahminical movements in western and
southern India. These were as follows:
• The 19th-century reform movements (though mostly pioneered by upper-caste Hindus, condemned the caste
system and untouchability)
• Spread of Western education
• Introduction of common Indian Penal Code (1861) and Code of Criminal Procedure (1872)
• Extension of the railway network (where every Indian could buy a ticket of any class and occupy any seat
available)
• Growth of national consciousness and modern political ideas of equality and democracy
The above factors created an environment in which the caste system could no longer be defended. They created a
class consciousness among lower castes and they themselves took upon the task of struggling for caste equality.
The reformers in Maharashtra can be divided into two distinct strands:
1. The early radical reformers like Jyotiba Phule who sought a revolutionary reorganisation of traditional society on
the basis of principles of equality and rationality.
2. The later moderate reformers like MG Ranade, who sought a return to past society with some modifications

It was the early tradition of Phule that gave rise to the non-Brahmin Movement in Maharashtra.

62. Jotirao phule is linked with the anti-caste movement, education and empowerment of women discuss

Hint-
Anti-caste Movements in Western India
Jyotirao Govindrao Phule (1827-90) and Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873)
• Jyotiba Phule was born in a low-caste Mali family and was acutely aware of the degraded position of non-
Brahmins in Maharashtra.
• In 1848, as Phule attended a Brahmin friend's wedding, some orthodox Brahmins insulted him by calling him
a shudra and asked him to leave. This incident turned him into a social revolutionary. The incident made
Jyotiba search for the roots of caste discrimination and the inhuman practice of untouchability.
• In his search for truth, Phule read the holy books and scriptures of almost all the major religions including
Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Jainism.
• He judged them in the light of equality and rationality. The caste system reserved a lifelong slavery for the
shudras. They were not allowed to walk on the streets during sunrise and sunset, as their long shadows would
fall upon the Brahmins' houses and pollute them.
• In fact, the principle of equality called for a complete rejection of caste system, authoritarian family system
as well as subordination of women. Similarly, the principle of rationality called for the rejection of rituals

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and superstitions. Thus, Phule turned into a social rebel and called for a complete rejection of the existing
system which was sustained by the irrational and inequitable institutions.
• Phule argued that as per the Vedas, the Aryans had imposed the unequal caste system upon the Dravidians,
after conquering them and Brahmins continue to hide the Vedas from the Shudras as they contain this truth.
• Naturally, he looked upon education as the most important liberating factor. He also believed that illiterate
people are incapable of rebelling against their mental and physical slavery. Similarly, he held the Brahmins
responsible for keeping women uneducated and slaves to men. Jyotiba was ever critical of the Indian
National Congress leaders for their neglect of the lower castes and the downtrodden.
Activities of Phule
• All his life Phule passionately campaigned for the cause of education and for equality between classes as
also between men and women.
• He urged the government to impart compulsory primary education to the masses through teachers drawn
from the cultivating classes.
• In 1851, Jyotiba and his wife started a girl's school in Poona.
• In 1854, he became the first Indian to start a school for the untouchables.
• He was also a pioneer of the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra. He offered widows protection
and shelter.
• In 1873, Phule started the Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society for Finding Truth) as a social reform society to
attain equal rights for the people of lower castes.
• Phule made generous use of the print media to propagate his ideas and wrote extensively in Marathi
language.
Deen Bandhu:
• It was a Marathi journal, published and edited by Phule for exposing the oppressive character of the
Aryan-Vedic tradition.
Gulamgin (slavery):
• It was a book by Phule that appeared in 1873, where he elaborated upon his views on the historical roots of
Shudras slavery and compared t with the slavery of the Blacks in America.
Setakaryancha Asuda (the whip-cord of the peasantry):
• Here he discussed upon the solutions to peasant problems.
Isara (a warning):
• A pamphlet that published Phule's main ideas on economic concerns of the agrarian classes in 1885. Aware
of the problems of Indian peasants, he extended his whole-hearted support to the peasants in their struggle.
• He was one of the first to introduce the peasantry class in Indian politics. He opposed the Indian National
congress for failing to take up the peasant cause.

Thus, throughout his life, Phule struggled for the downtrodden classes. However, he failed to perceive the colonial
character of the British rule and believed in its progressive role.
He failed to perceive that the type of revolution envisaged by him could not be achieved in the presence of
exploitative colonial rule. With the death of Phule in 1890, the Satya Shodhak Movement saw a steady decline.

Satya Shodhak Samaj in Kolhapur

• In 1913, Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur (1874-1922) established the Samaj in Kolhapur. This
revived the activities of the Samaj, albeit temporarily, with a narrow complexion.
• No doubt, during 1913 and 1922 Shahu Maharaj was associated with several non-Brahmin activities and
started several educational institutions, hostels and scholarships for the depressed classes. However, under him,
the movement passed into the hands of feudal upper-caste non-Brahmins and business groups who began to
use it for their political gains.
• Shahu Maharaj waged a major battle for gaining Kshatriya status for his community. After 1919, post
Montagu(e) Chelmsford Reforms, he demanded special political representation for backward classes in the
Councils.

63. Discuss B. R. Ambedkar’s movement against untouchabilty and discrimination.

Hint-
Role of Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956)

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• Bhim Rao Ambedkar, popularly known as Baba Saheb, was a stalwart social reformer who initiated the
Dalit Buddhist movement and championed the cause of the Dalits as well as women and labour.
• He was born in 1891 in a Mahar (untouchable) caste at Mhow. Although he and other Dalit children
attended school, they were not allowed to sit inside the class.
Activities of Ambedkar
• Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha (Bombay, 1924) this organisation was started by Ambedkar for the moral and
material progress of the untouchables.
• He resorted to satyagraha agitation to secure civic rights for Dalits such as right to enter Hindu temples and
to draw water from wells.
• In 1930, he founded the Depressed Classes Federation, entered national politics and demanded separate
electorates for the untouchables.
• He represented the Dalit community in the three Round Table Conferences (1930-32) In 1936, he founded
the Independent Labour Party. The Communal Award of 1932 provided for separate electorates for the
Depressed Classes.
• In 1942, one of his earlier political parties transformed into the All India Scheduled Caste Federation, as an
all India party. It later evolved into the Republican Party of India. In 1956, he converted to Buddhism and
initiated mass conversions of Dalits.
• His famous literary works include the following.
• The Annihilation of Castes
• The Buddha and his Dhamma
• Who were the Shudras?

64. What were the limitation of 19th century reform movement highlight its achievement and significance
Or
provide an analysis of the reform movement during 19th century india

Hint-
Reform Movements-An Analysis
• Nature of the Reform Movements
Reformation, not Revolution
▪ The nature of the movement was reformative and not revolutionary. Reforms were sought in the
existing socio-cultural order and the reforms did not envisage any abrupt departure from it. The
transformation of society was to be evolutionary and not revolutionary.
Revivalist Tendencies
▪ Another tendency of the thinkers was to view the existing socio-religious practices as distortions that had
crept in Indian society overtime. For them, the Vedic period of Indian history represented an ideal type
of society free from the evils of the present times.
Removal of Socio-religious Evils
▪ The scope of reform movements was socio-religious and they targeted the elimination of various socio-
religious evils and malpractices that were prevalent in India at the time.
Urban Phenomenon
▪ The 19th-century reform movement was majorly an urban phenomenon, originating and operating in
urban areas only.
▪ The movement relied heavily on urban communication channels (such as press and lectures) for the
spread of its messages. Even so, the movement was not localised in its inspiration as their messages of
equity and justice had universal appeal and applicability.
Limitations of the Reform Movements
▪ Limited Impact
o The impact of 19th-century reforms remained limited in extent and achievement. In practice, the reforms
affected a very small minority of people. The masses remained largely untouched from the intellectual
currents of the time.
o Although the reformers attempted to reach the masses through writings in vernacular, their appeal remained
confined to the educated urban middle classes alone.
o Moreover, religious malpractices continued. Caste distinctions remained strong and tradition of child
marriage did not die away.

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o Several factors were responsible for the limited impact of the reform movements. These included
widespread illiteracy, presence of hostile colonial state as well as the stubborn nature and deep rootedness
of traditions and prejudices.
▪ Localised and Isolated
o Each of the reform movements was confined, by and large, to one region, caste or religion. For instance,
Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj did have branches in other parts of the country, yet they were more
popular in Bengal and Punjab respectively.
o While Brahmo Samaj was concerned with the problems of the 'bhadralok', the Aligarh Movement with
those of the Muslim upper classes. They were also isolated from one another as they all emerged at different
points of time in different parts of the country.
▪ Overemphasis on Religion
o The reform movements tended to overemphasise religious and philosophical aspects at the cost of other
aspects of culture such as art, architecture, literature, music, science and technology
o Further, any over-emphasis on religion in a multi-religion country was bound to give rise to religious
chauvinism and have a divisive effect.
▪ Tendency to Look Back
o Some reformers and movements tended to look backward and appeal to the greatness of ancient past or
ancient scriptures. This not only created a sense of false pride and smugness, it also acted as a check on full
acceptance of modern ideas.
o Further, Hindu reformers generally tended to praise India's ancient past at the cost of the medieval period
or the so called 'Muslim period'. This not only alienated the Muslims but also the lower castes as the
oppressive caste system traced its roots back to the ancient period.
o Thus, due to the looking back tendency, what we see is a simultaneous rise of national as well as
communal consciousness. The colonial rulers were quick to take advantage of this communal divide and
used it to weaken the Indian national movement.
Inability to Perceive the Exploitative Nature of the British Rule
o Some intellectuals erroneously perceived the British rule as God-sent, that would lead Indians to the path
of modernity. Since their model of desirable Indian society was like that of the 19th- century Britain, they
felt that British rule was necessary in order to make India British-like and openly preached loyalty to the
British. Although the socio-religious aspects of Indian society were accurately perceived, the reformers
tended to miss the political aspect of basically exploitative British rule.

Achievements of the Reform Movements

Historic Legislations
o the historic legislations abolishing sati and legalising widow remarriage. Enlightened British and Indian
opinion was unanimous in condemning certain practices such as infanticide. The following pathbreaking
legislations were enacted.
• The Regulation of 1829
o The Regulation of 1829 declared the practice of sati, or burning or burying alive of widows illegal
and punishable by criminal courts as culpable homicide.
• Bengal Regulations of 1795 and 1804
o These regulations declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to committing a murder.
o To further support these legislations, the government of India passed an Act in 1870 making it
compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies and providing for verification of female
children for some years after birth.
• Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856
o Hindu Widows Remarriage Act of 1856 legalised marriage of widows and declared issues from
such marriages as legitimate. However, in Bengal, this legislation achieved very limited success
• Native Marriage Act (known as Civil Marriage Act) 1872
o Native Marriage Act prohibited marriage of girls below the age of 14 and boys below 18 years.
o However, this Act was not applicable to major recognised faiths including Hindus and Muslims and
as such had very limited impact on Indian society.
• Age of Consent Act 1891
o Age of Consent Act 1891 forbade the marriage of girls below the age of 12.
• Sharda Act 1930

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o Sharda Act 1930 further pushed up marriageable age and provided for penal action in case of
marriages of boys under 18 and girls under 14 years of age. (The Child Marriage Restraint Act of
1978 raised the marriageable age for girls to 18 and boys to 21 years).
Female Education
o An increasing number of people no longer viewed female education as dangerous and the number of girls
joining school increased at a consistent pace.
o Vidyasagar himself was associated with no less than 35 girls' schools in Bengal. It was this groundwork
prepared by the early intellectuals that later enabled Mahatma Gandhi to bring the Indian women into the
very vortex of national political life.
o The women themselves began to set up organizations for the uplift of women, the most outstanding among
them was the All India Women's Conference founded in 1927.
o Thus, undoubtedly, the reform movements did set in motion the winds of change, however slow their pace
might have been.

Realisation of the Interconnection between Religion and Society

o An important achievement of the 19th century thought was the realisation of the interconnection between
religion and society-how healthy beliefs were a gateway to healthy society, and a healthy society a stepping
stone to politico-economic progress. Religious reform was therefore understood as the precondition for
socio-political and economic progress of India.
o This does not, however, imply that social reform was seen as secondary to religious concerns.
o It was their primary concern for social and material progress of society that made them take up the religious
concerns. It was this understanding that distinguished the 19-century reforms (driven mainly by social and
material concerns) from the earlier Bhakti Movement (driven mainly by religious concerns).
Significance of the Reform Movements Cleansing of Religion and Society
o The reform atmosphere helped Indians to discard many malpractices that had crept in their religion and
society.
o Those that had not been immediately discarded were thrown open to debate and discussion. The socio-
religious practices were no longer held unquestionable, but reviewed through the newly acquired lenses of
rationality and humanism.
Regained Confidence and Pride
o The various reform movements gave the much-needed confidence to Indians who had come under their
influence.
o The movements reminded the Indians about the greatness of their ancient religions and rich cultural
heritage. They developed a new self-concept, an identity they could be proud of.
New Values of Secularism and Democracy
o The reform movements infused the Indian mind with novel values of secularism and democracy.
Prelude to Rise of Indian Nationalism
o Finally, the 19th-century reform movements were a prelude to the rise of Indian nationalism.
o They were directly or indirectly related to the task of national reconstruction and nation building.
o The socio-religious ideas and activities of the intellectuals were loaded with wider national political and
economic considerations.
o Ex. Bhaskar Pandurang was the first to provide a critique of colonial rule. Lokahitwadi was the first to seek
Swaraj. His national and political farsightedness is noticeable in the lines below in which he chalked out the
future course of the national movement, even as it still lay in the womb of the future.
In this way, even as the 19th-century reformers did not directly take up political issues, they created space for them
in the hearts and minds of the Indian people. In the 20th century, it was the national movement that carried
forward the torch of social reform, with Mahatma Gandhi at the forefront.

65. Trace the rise and growth of socio-religious reform movements with special reference to Young Bengal and
Brahmo Samaj.

Hint-
When the British came to India, they introduced the English language as well as certain Western ideas. This led to the
development of new Indian middle-class intelligentsia, where people like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand
Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati, etc. spread the ideals of liberty, social and economic equality, democracy and justice.

Brahmo Samaj and Raja Ram Mohan Roy:

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• Raja Ram Mohan Roy is known as the father of Modern India’s Renaissance and a tireless social reformer
who inaugurated the age of enlightenment and liberal reformist modernisation in India.
• He founded Brahmo Sabha in 1828, whose main aim was the worship of the eternal God. However, it was
against priesthood, rituals and sacrifices.
• The greatest achievement in the field of social reform was the abolition of Sati in 1829.
• He advocated the abolition of polygamy and wanted women to be educated and given the right to inherit
property.
• This led to the emergence of rationalism and enlightenment in India which indirectly contributed to the
nationalist movement.
• It was the forerunner of all social, religious and political movements of modern India.

Young Bengal and Henry Lui Vivian Derozio:

• Derozio joined the Hindu College of Calcutta as a teacher.

• He promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organising an association for debate and discussions on
literature, philosophy, history and science.
• He inspired his followers and students to question all authority.
• Derozio and his famous followers, known as Young Bengal, were fiery patriots.
• They cherished the ideals of the French Revolution (1789) and the liberal thinking of Britain.

Apart from attacking social evils like bigotry, superstition, untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage, social
inequalities and illiteracy, the social and religious reform movements also helped in dealing with the racism perpetuated
by the colonial rule. This eventually led to the development of nationalism against the British Government.

66. The women’s questions arose in modern India as a part of the 19th century social reform movement. What
were the major issues and debates concerning women in that period?

Hint-
In the 19th century, the problems of women in India invited the attention of Western humanitarian thinkers,
Christian missionaries and Indian socio-religious philosophers. Many issues related to women prevalent during 19th
century were discussed thoroughly.

o The socio-religious philosophers protested evil practices such as Sati, child marriage, prohibition of widow
remarriage, polygamy, dowry and the Devadasi system.
o Their views were strengthened when Christian missionaries exposed the evils of such social customs.
o Further, some of the enlightened British officials in India and England also initiated measures to remove these
social evils.
o Pandita Rama Bai, Savitribai Phule, Tarabai Shinde, Anandibai Joshi and Sarojini Naidu and many other
enlightened women came forward to liberate the rest of women.
o The practice of Sati was prohibited officially in 1829 in Bengal with the active participation of Raja Ram
Mohan Roy and then in Madras in 1830.
o Reformers reinterpreted the Sashtras in favor of widow remarriage. In 1855 Ishwar Chandra Vidhyasagar
started a vigorous campaign in favor of widow remarriage.

To summarize, the issues of women in the 19th century are mainly related to the social upliftment of women in
Indian society. Efforts were on to empower women that included social reforms and economic self-reliance.

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MOVEMENT/REVOLUTIONS/REBELLION
67. Malabar rebellion had various strands -the anti-colonial impulse, religious discontent, agrarian moorings,
police brutality. Discuss
or
The 1921 Moplah rebellion was “in essence an expression of long-standing agrarian discontent
which was intensified by the religious and ethnic identity.”

Hint-
The Malabar rebellion in 1921 started as resistance against the British colonial rule, the prevailing feudal system, and
in favour of the Khilafat Movement in South Malabar but ended in communal violence.
The trigger of the uprising came from the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by the Congress in 1920 along with
the Khilafat agitation.

Various strands
Anti-colonial impulse
• The British had introduced new tenancy laws that tremendously favoured the landlords known as Janmis and
instituted a far more exploitative system for peasants than before.
Religious Discontent
• Most of the landlords were Namboodiri Brahmins while most of the tenants were Mapillah Muslims.
Police brutality
• Wagon Tragedy: In November 1921, 67 Moplah prisoners were killed when they were being transported in a
closed freight wagon from Tirur to the Central Prison in Podanur. They died of suffocation. This event is called
the Wagon Tragedy.
Mapilla rebellion was a frightful show of intolerance came at the top of a protracted history of alienation between the
Muslim peasants and the Namboodri Brahmins. In the charged atmosphere of Khilafat and non-cooperation movement
in turned out to be a violent rebellion.
68. Discuss the nature of popular uprisings before 1857 and also highlight their limitation and significance

Hint-

Nature Of The Popular Uprisings Before 1857

The nature of pre-1857 uprisings is interpreted differently by different historians. The British historians tended to
regard them as mere law and order problems and to project the rebels as primitive savages resisting 'civilization,
while neglecting the problems faced by peasants and tribals as possible causes. What follows is an attempt to
understand the nature of these uprisings.

• Aim to overthrow immediate oppressors:

o The rebels aimed at overthrowing their immediate oppressors-whether it was the oppressive zamindars,
money lenders or even the colonial British.
o For instance, the tribals did not attack all outsiders as enemies. The non-tribal rural poor were not only spared,
they even allied with the tribals in their fight against oppression.

• Keenness to restore the past conditions:

o The rebel peasants and the tribals sought to restore the good old past, before the outsiders acquired control
and bad times fell upon them'.
o This does not necessarily mean they were backward looking; it merely represents an attempt to regain a
'condition' perceived as ideal by them.
• Socio-political consciousness:
o The peasant and tribal movements of this period also demonstrated a certain level of socio-political
consciousness.

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o The rebels' targets were the political sources of their oppression such as the landlords, revenue contractors
or even the British rule itself.
o They also simultaneously tried to bring about social reform (for instance, the Mappila and the Faraizi leaders
simultaneously gave a call for socio religious reform).
• Popular character:
o Despite British efforts to term these rebellions as criminal actions, they were rather political actions of a
popular character.
o The rebellions drew their legitimacy from the people, allowing public meetings, planning and attack. The
tribal uprisings were especially broad based and often involved the entire tribal population of a region.
o True, in the early stages the insurgencies were often preceded by acts of crime, ranging from theft to killings
emerging from extremely difficult conditions of rural life, yet the crime to rebellion transition has been
conveniently neglected by the government of the time.
o For instance, the Santhal uprising began with a series of dacoities against the moneylenders, later justified
by the Santhal leaders as arising from the failure of the government officials to address the genuine grievances
of the tribals against the moneylenders.
• Local leadership:
o These movements threw up leaders who themselves belonged to the immediate context of the movements.
o They were local leaders who had themselves been affected by foreign intrusion, whereas leaders of the
national movement were often outsiders who intervened into the peasant and tribal movements as and when
necessary.
• Regional extent:
o The extent of the uprisings was limited to the region inhabited by the affected community.
o For instance, the Santhals fought for their ancestral land which had been grabbed by the outsiders.
• Drew strength from ethnic ties:
o In various degrees, the rebels drew their strength for ethnic ties, religious sentiments and messianic
leadership.
• Unequal nature of war:
o The warfare between the rebels and the British forces was grossly unequal. While the peasants and tribals
fought with their primitive weapons such as stones, axes, spears, bows and arrows, the British forces were
armed with most modern weapons of the time. As a result, the rebels died in lakhs in this unequal war.

Limitations Of The Pre-1857 Uprisings

• Localized and isolated:

o Even though the uprisings were continuous and massive in totality, they were isolated from one another and
were wholly local in nature.
o They not only arose out of local grievances, they were also local in extent and effect, which limited their
impact on national level.

• Traditional outlook:
o The leaders of these uprisings were backward looking and traditional in outlook, with total disconnect from
the modern scientific world.
o Their basic objective was to re-establish previous forms of socio-political order and offered no modern
alternative.
o The tribal leaders often projected themselves as messengers of God. who had ordered them to take up arms
against their oppressors.

• Failed to achieve their goal of overthrowing the foreign rule:

o Such local, disunited, backward looking uprisings were bound to fail in overthrowing the foreign oppressors.

As a result of the above weakness, the uprisings failed to contain British march over Indian land. On the other hand,
the British succeeded in containing the rebellions one by one. The less fiery rebel chiefs were given concessions in the
form of land reinstatement, reduction in revenue assessment, etc., while the fierier ones were physically wiped out.
The ruthless suppression of these uprisings was the major reason why the Revolt of 1857 did not spread to the east,
west and south of India.

Significance Of The Pre-1857 Uprisings

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They were the first expressions of protest against colonial rule.

o The uprisings established a strong tradition of resistance to British rule. Later Indian leaders drew their
inspiration from these traditions during the national movement.
o They marked a valuable prelude to the watershed Revolt of 1857
o the century after 1757 witnessed a large number of popular upsurges and uprisings against the colonial rule
and its accompanying evils. The loss of independence, excessive land revenue demands, administrative
innovations, foreign intrusion into local autonomy and destruction of village economy were experienced in
different regions of India at different points of time, emerging in the form of various peasant and tribal
uprisings.
Even though these uprisings suffered from various shortcomings and were finally suppressed in the face of superior
British might, they were significant in as much as they were the first expressions of protest against oppression in the
colonial period, established a tradition of resistance to the British rule and formed a valuable prelude to the watershed
Revolt of 1857.

69. Provide a brief account of deccan riot of 1875, what were its important features
Deccan Riots (1875)
o The Deccan uprising was an uprising of the Deccan peasants chiefly directed against the exploitation of the
Marwari and Gujarati moneylenders.
o It occurred in the context of a combination of factors such as introduction of Ryotwari system in the Deccan
(1858), slump in world cotton prices at the and of the American Civil War (1864), and raise in land revenue
by government by nearly 50 per cent in 1867.
o This situation was worsened by successive bad harvests.

o Under the Ryotwari system, the land revenue was settled directly with the peasant who was also recognised
as the owner of his land. Like other peasants under the ryotwari system, the Deccan peasants also found it
difficult to pay the high revenues without getting into the clutches of the moneylenders.
o This led to growing resentment between the peasants and the moneylenders, most of whom were outsiders-
Marwaris or Gujaratis.
o The moneylenders who came from outside were greedy and often fooled the illiterate Deccan peasants into
signing unfavourable bonds.
o The civil courts also always favoured the usurious moneylenders, awarding them with decrees of eviction
against the peasants.
o This naturally resulted in increased transfer of land holdings from peasants to moneylenders and further
accentuated the differences between the Vanis (moneylenders) and the Kunbis (cultivator caste). Resulting
into riots.
o First social boycott was tried When the social boycott did not prove very effective, the peasants resorted to
agrarian riots. The chief targets were the mortgage bonds, which the peasants perceived as the instruments of
oppression. This class conflict was also given the colour of caste conflict.

Special Features of Deccan Riots:

o Absence of anti-colonial consciousness:
o the Deccan uprising also lacked anti-colonial consciousness.

o Support of nationalist intelligentsia:

o the modern intelligentsia of Maharashtra supported the cause of the peasants. A notable role was played
by the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, led by Justice Ranade as well as by the nationalist newspapers.

o Government Response:
o The police assisted by the military was swung into action. Thousands of Peasants were arrested and
the uprising completely suppressed. However, the government could not find any evidence against the
peasants, demonstrating the popular base of the movement.
o The government was compelled to appoint the Deccan Riots Commission, to enquire into the causes
of the uprising. Subsequently, the Deccan Agriculturalists' Relief Act of 1879 was passed, which put
restrictions on alienation of the lands of peasants and arrest for failure to pay debts.

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70. Provide an account of the pabna revolt of east Bengal. Highlight its special features.
Hint-
Pabna Revolt (East Bengal, 1873-85):
• At the root of Pabna revolt were the malpractices of zamindars to enhance rent beyond legal limits and to
destroy the tenant's newly acquired occupancy right. The occupancy tenants were forced to give up their
occupancy rights and convert into tenants-at-will through forcible written agreements.

Special Features of Pabna Revolt

• Formation of agrarian leagues:
o the Pabna peasants became aware of the new laws and in 1873, and formed an agrarian league. The
struggle spread to other districts of east Bengal and everywhere agrarian leagues were formed.
o The formation of the league was opposed by most pro landlord newspapers, including Amrit Bazaar
Patrika.)
• A legal resistance:
o The movement was largely within the bounds of law and violence was rare Forms of mobilisation
included drum beats, blasts from conch-shells and night shouts.
o The leagues organised rent strikes and challenged the zamindars in courts. The peasants had developed
a Strong awareness of their legal rights and an ability to put up peaceful resistance.
• Neither against zamindari system, nor anti-colonial:
o A noteworthy feature of the revolt was that the aim of the peasants was limited to redressal of
immediate grievances. It was neither anti-zamindari nor anti-colonial at any stage.
o Peasants did not defy British authority, rather declared that their aim was to become the 'ryots of the
Queen of England and of Her only.
• Support of Indian intellectuals:
o Once again a number of young Indian intellectuals rose in the support of the peasants' cause.
o These included men such as Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and RC Dutt. The Indian Association, led
by Surendranath Banerjee, Anand Mohan Bose and Dwarkanath Ganguli also campaigned for the
rights of the tenants.
• Hindu-Muslim unity:
o the Bengal peasants demonstrated complete Hindu Muslim solidarity.
o The landlords tried to paint it as a communal movement, since more than two-third of the peasants
and nearly 70 per cent of Pabna's population was Muslim.
o However, it is noteworthy that two prominent leaders of the Pabna peasants, namely Keshab Chandra
Sen and Sambhunath Pal, were Hindus.
• Government response:
o In the beginning of the revolt, there are references of sympathetic attitude zamindars, whenever
violence took place. But it became neutral as far as legal battles or their peaceful agitations were
concerned.
o In 1885, the Bengal Tenancy Act was passed, in an attempt to protect the tenants from zamindari
oppression.

For nearly a decade, the Pabna peasants successfully resisted the landlords' efforts to fleece them. Many zamindars
developed cold feet with the prospect of long and costly litigation. Many peasants were able to acquire occupancy
rights and resist enhanced rents.

71. Discuss the indigo revolt of Bengal. Discuss Special Features of the Indigo Revolt

Hint-

As early as 1770, Indigo plantations had been set up by the East India Company. Indigo planting became more and
more profitable with the increasing demand for blue dye in Europe. Consequently, the Indigo planters, mostly
Europeans, forced the peasants to grow indigo crop at a loss, in place of food grains necessary for their survival. The
planters relied upon reign of terror by lathiyals (armed retainers) and even legal manipulation. In reality, the planters
were even above lasy. In 1857, twenty-nine planters were appointed as honorary magistrates; giving rise to the saying-
'je rakhak se bhakak'. (one who protects us is the one who devours us). This generated a lot of resentment among the
peasants.
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In April 1860, the revolt first started from the villages of Gobindpur under the leadership of Bishnucharan Biswas
and Digambar Biswas. The indigo farmers refused to sow indigo, in what may be called as the first general strike in
the history of Indian peasantry. The strike quickly spread to other places in Bengal, including Pabna, Khulna,
Birbhum, Burdwan and Murshidabad.

Special Features of the Indigo Revolt

o Unity of indigo farmers:

o A major reason for the success of the Indigo Revolt was the unity and organisation showed by the
peasants. There was complete unity among Hindu and Muslim peasants as well.
o Support of Bengali middle class:
o The movement, also called Nilbidroh, received wholehearted support of the Bengali intelligentsia. It
was duly covered in the contemporary newspaper The Bengalee. Special role was played by Harish
Chandra Mukherjee, editor of the Hindoo Patriot, who published regular reports on the hardships of
the peasants and their resistance. Dinbandhu Mitra depicted the plight of the peasants in his play in
Bengali, Nil Darpan. The play evoked much controversy and was banned by the Company's
government.
o Impact on emerging nationalists:
o The intelligentsia's support left a significant impact on young nationalists for whom the Indigo Revolt
had laid down a valuable tradition of resistance against oppression by foreign rulers.
o Government response:
o Apprehendinga great agrarian uprising, the government ordered an enquiry and appointed an Indigo
Commission (1860).
o The enquiry exposed the corruption underlying the entire system of indigo cultivation. Subsequently,
the government issued a notification to the effect that the peasants could not be forced to grow indigo.
o The recommendations were embodied in the Act of 1862. By then, the Bengal indigo planters had
already developed cold feet and many moved out to Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

72. Do you agree that nature and characteristic of popular uprising after 1857 were different than its
predecessor. Justify

Hint-
Nature And Characteristics Of Popular Uprisings After 1857

A major shift occurred in the nature and characteristics of popular uprisings after 1857 which may be understood
under the following heads:

Peasants Emerged as the Main Force

• Since most of the princes, chiefs and landlords had either been crushed or co-opted, the peasants now emerged
as the main force behind these uprisings.
• The peasants now fought directly for their demands and also showed remarkable spirit of sacrifice and
solidarity which cut across lines of caste and religion.

Limited in Aim, Region and Organization

• The peasants and tribals rose in revolt with the limited aim of solving their immediate grievances, which were
almost wholly economic in nature.
• They did not aim to fight against colonialism or even against landlordism but merely objected to vile practices
like unreasonable evictions. These movements were directed against the immediate oppressors such as the
indigo planters, zamindars and moneylenders (sahukars) and not against the imperialist rulers as such.
• Conversely, in some cases like the Munda rebellion, we see an association with imperialism in a struggle
against the landlords and the moneylenders.
• The movements were also limited in terms of the region affected. They were localised and isolated from one
another.
• They also lacked continuity or any long-term organisation. The leaders rose and fell with the movement, and
left behind no successors.
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Envisaged a Fair and Just Order

• The uprisings were moved by strong notions of justice and fair play. The peasants and tribals envisaged a just
order, free from exploitation where everyone lived a happy and dignified life.
• They had also demonstrated a strong awareness of their legal rights and asserted them inside and outside the
courts.

Role of Indian Intelligentsia

• Unlike the revolt of 1857, these movements saw the beginnings of the support of Indian Intelligentsia, whose
pro-peasant sympathies were expressed in some newspapers and contemporary literary works like Nil
Darpan.

Association with Religion and Caste

• This was another notable feature of these uprisings. Given the multiplicity of caste and religion in India, on
several occasions these class conflicts were given a communal or caste angle.

Lack of Adequate Understanding of Colonialism

• This was a major weakness of the 19th-century peasant movements. Unlike the previous tribal uprisings and
the Revolt of 1857, the post-1857 peasant uprisings did not directly challenge the colonial state.
• As a result, the British government's treatment of these rebels was also qualitatively different and the state
was willing to walk a certain distance to mitigate their concerns.

Tendency to 'Look Back'

• Like the previous uprisings, even these uprisings attempted to look back into the past when h was much better'.
• Thus they were 'restorative in character and sought to establish a previous order. They did not put forth
any new ideology or an alternative socio-economic political system
• In the absence of a fresh vision of society and modern outlook, it was easy for the British to reconcile and
then suppress these movement one after the other. An alternative, forward looking view of society could only
be formed by a modern intelligentsia, which was itself in the process of emerging. In the 20th century, most of
these limitations were overcome and the peasant movements merged with the larger anti-imperialist struggle

73. The relationship between peasant movements and the national movement continued to be of vital importance
and integral nature.
Hint-
There had been peasants uprisings in India since the East India Company captured Bengal such as Sanyasi
Rebellion(1763-1800), Rangpur Uprising(1783), Mysore Rebellion(1830-31) etc. These movements were localised
in their reach, and were violent in nature and tried to destroy the established order of sahukars, zamindars and British
colonial administration which were responsible for their destitution. But there never emerged a national consciousness
among the peasants.

• During the second half of the 19th century, the peasant movements were increasingly becoming more
widespread, receiving support from the Indian intelligentsia and the popular masses. They started organising
themselves into groups to collectively fight against their oppressors in courts. Example- During the Indigo
revolt (1859), Dinbandhu Mitra wrote a play Nildarpar to highlight the plight of the peasants, Surendranath
Bannerji used his newspaper Bengalee to provide due attention to their movement.

• Similarly, during the Pabna peasant movement(1873-85), the peasants formed a league to collectively defend
their property and holdings.

• Thus it was not until the first half of the 20th century that the peasants movements were successfully united
with the nationalist movement. It was also the time when the Congress under Gandhi started to move towards
mass mobilisation and the peasants participated in large numbers. Gandhi in 1917 and 1918 had successfully
mobilised the peasants in Champaran and Kheda respectively.

• In the 1920s, the peasants in UP were organised under Baba Ramchandra and later this movement got
associated with the Non-cooperation movement under Gandhi. However, with time the movement became
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more militant and the government used force to suppress the movement. In north Bihar they were led by Swami
Vidyanand.

• In 1928, Bardoli Satyagraha was started by Vallabhbhai Patel and K. Mehta against the enhanced revenue
demands and were successful in their campaign.

• During the Civil disobedience movement, no-rent campaigns were organised in different parts of the country
by Congress. However, they were shy of launching movements against the landlords and abolition of
Zamindari was never as one of the policy was never taken up by the Congress.

• Due to increasing influence of the leftist in the national movement, the peasant leaders formed All India Kisan
Sabha(AIKS) in 1936 and prepared a Kisan Manifesto which was passed by Congress in its Faizpur session
under Jawahar Lal Nehru. But Congress was reluctant in implementing these demands when they formed
ministries in the provinces in 1937 due to the fear of alienation of the zamindars and the start of a class struggle.

• Thus, AIKS rached out in different provinces in 1937 under leaders like NG Ranga, Swami Sahajanand,
Narendra Dev, Indulal Yagnik etc. They launched movements in these provinces independent of the Congress
mainly directed at the landlords such as the Bakhast movement in Bihar(1937-38), movement against Canal tax
in Bengal and Hat tola movement in Bengal etc.

Thus, the relationship between Congress and the peasants was a difficult one. The Congress needed their support for the
overthrow of the British but avoided peasants' demands against the landlords and when peasant movements rose
they tried to restrain them.
Despite this the kisan leaders never worked against the Congress but unlike Congress right wingers, they demanded
emancipation from the British, the Zamindars and the Capitalists.

74. Assess peasants and workers movement between 1920-1940. How did it help in freedom struggle movement?

Hint-
The impoverishment of the Indian peasantry was a result of changes in the agrarian structure due to – New land
revenue system introduced by British, Colonial economic policies, gradual destruction of handicrafts leading to
overcrowding of land and administrative & judicial system of British.

The peasant movement can be studied as under:

Peasant movements in 1920s
• Majorly included Eka Movement, Kisan Sabha Movement, Mapilla Movement and Bardoli Satyagraha.
• These mostly focused on the local causes and discontent among the peasants. The National Movement also
influenced and fed the demands of the peasants.
• It gained traction in late decades when an aggressive element was included due to leftist and communist leaders.
Peasant movements in 1930s
• During the 1930s, peasant movement were influenced by Great Depression and the Civil Disobedience
Movement taking the form of no-rent, no-revenue movement.
• During CDM no revenue campaign was pursued in UP, movement against Chowkidari tax was done in Bihar,
no tax campaign in Surat and Kheda, Anti-zamidari struggle in Andhra Pradesh.
• After 1934 Congress Leftist leaders took deep interest in Peasants issues. Congress Socialist Party was formed.
Communists too got opportunity to work for CSP. An All India body in the form of All India Kisan Congress
was formed in 1936.
• Congress Ministries too aroused interest in Peasant Movements, however they could not bring any significant
results to the demands of the Peasants.

Assessment of the peasant movements

• The struggles of the peasants were not aimed at overthrow of the agrarian structure but towards lessening
the oppressive practices. However, the movements did erode the power of landed class in many ways paving
the way for transformation of its structure.
• Peasant associations like Kisan Sabhas created such an environment that necessitated abolition of zamindari
post-independence. Zamindari abolition did not come as a direct culmination of any particular struggle but
popularization of this demand contributed to its achievement.
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• Peasant movements got integrated with the National Movement such that they both fed each other.
Worker Movements from 1920 to 1940:
The aftermath of the First World War brought a rise in export, massive profits and opportunities for industrialists but
very low wages for workers.
• The broad based national movement accommodated interests of the working class under the leadership of
Gandhiji.
• A need was felt for the organization of the workers in trade unions.
• Establishment of Soviet Union, setting up of International Labour Organization and economic depression
gave a new dimension to the working class in India.
• All India Trade Union Congress was founded in 1920 to organize labour on national scale.
• Congress Ministries also took up the cause of labour but due to Capitalist pressure they were not able to go
too far.
• The later years of 1940s saw remarkable increase in strikes due to economic issues.
The economic grievances during the war , continuation of high prices, scarcity of food and drop in real wages, all this
combined to drive working class to limit of tolerance. Independence was seen as a signal to end their miseries.

75. Peasant movements of the twentieth century in India were deeply influenced by the ongoing struggle for
national freedom. Discuss the important features of these movements.

Hint-
Unlike the earlier peasant movements that arose from discontentment among the peasantry, the peasant movements
in the twentieth century were influenced by national freedom struggle. This phase witnessed an increased
involvement of middle-class, modern educated class in peasant resistance movements. This led to percolation of the
idea of nationalism among the peasantry too.

Gandhian Peasant Movements

These movements were essentially non violent in nature. Satyagraha (fast unto death) was the defining feature of these
moments to build moral pressure on britishers to accept their demands.
Champaran Satyagraha: In Champaran, the peasants were agitating against the planters who were forcing the peasants
to grow indigo under the exploitative tinkathia system. This system forced cultivation of indigo in 3/20th of land held
by the peasant.
• One of their leaders, Raj Kumar Sukul invited Gandhi to resolve the issue.
• Gandhi led the movement by launching satyagraha and mobilised the peasantry in the area defying the British
authority.
• This satyagraha brought the tinkathia system to an end and helped in determining the rent payable by the
peasants to the planters.
Kheda Satyagraha: In Kheda, on the request of the local peasant leaders, Gandhi decided to support the struggle of
the peasants for revenue remission in 1918.
• Here the peasants had lost about 25 percent of their crop due to excessive rains. They wanted the land revenue
installments to be suspended. They sent several petitions to the government. However, the Government was
adamant on recovering its dues.
• Gandhi supported their just demand. Although the struggle did not succeed, the government at least agreed
not to confiscate the property of the non-paying peasants.
Bardoli Satyagraha In Bardoli, the nationalist leadership, between 1921 and 1927, undertook the task of generating a
model peasant movement by linking the local peasant discontent with the larger problem of nationalism.
• The issue was the periodic upward revision of land revenue without paying attention to the ground situation.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel mobilised the peasants and sustained the movement. The government tried to
forcibly collect the entire revenue but failed to do so. Finally, a compromise was reached and the revenue
demand was lowered.

Peasantry during Non Cooperation movement:

• Organisation of Kisan Sabhas:
o In the Awadh region, a powerful peasant movement developed under the leadership of Baba
Ramachandra. This movement gained momentum when Ramachandra was arrested and the Congress
leaders, particularly Jawaharlal Nehru, became involved.

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o The Moplah Rebellion was an extension of the Khilafat Movement in Kerala in 1921. The Government
had declared the Congress and Khilafat meetings illegal. So, a reaction in Kerala began against the
crackdown of the British.
• But soon the Muslims peasants, known as Moplahs, were polarised against Hindu and numerous communal
riots outbreak from 1921 onwards.
Eka Movement :
o The Eka Movement was started in 1921 in Awadh region. The initial thrust was given by the leaders of
Congress and the Khilafat movement. The main reason for the movement was high rent, which was generally
higher than 50% of recorded rent in some areas.
• When leadership was passed on to Madari Pasi, he was reluctant to accept non-violence. This led the movement
to lose contact with nationalist class. It gradually ended in 1922.

Peasantry during Civil Disobedience movement

Emergence of radical leadership:

The launch of the Civil Disobedience movement in such an atmosphere brought a very large number of peasants
within the ambit of the nationalist movement.
• No-rent and no-revenue campaigns in various parts of the country were taken up by the peasant leaders.
• A new generation of radical leadership committed to the peasant movements emerged from among the
Congress left wing and the communists.
• Leaders like Swami Sahajanand, N.G. Ranga, Indulal Yagnik and many others became prominent in
mobilisation of peasantry.
Formation of All India Kisan Sabha:
o In 1936, at the Lucknow session of the Congress, All India Kisan Sabha was formed with Sahajanand as its
first president.
• It later issued a Kisan manifesto which demanded abolition of zamindari and occupancy rights for all tenants.
• Under pressure from its socialist members and leaders, the Congress adopted an Agrarian Programme in
December 1936.
Peasant movement during Quit India Movement:
o In this movement all sections of peasants, cutting across caste lines, and even many landlords supported the
movement believing that the British rule was at an end.
Tebhaga Movement:
o The communist-led Bengal Kisan Sabha prepared the ground for the widespread Tebhaga movement in 1946
which continued for about a year before being suppressed by the government and the landlords.
Abolition of Zamindari:
o During the 1940s, the Congress accepted the idea of zamindari abolition on a larger level. In its election
manifesto of 1946, it proposed that landlordism would be abolished after paying an equitable compensation to
the landlords.
Thus, the rise of nationalism, formation of congress and emergence of Gandhi helped to redefine the peasant
movements in the twentieth century. The idea of a nation spread by the nationalist movement played a big role in raising
the consciousness of the peasantry and created the basis for their assimilation in the freedom struggle. It encouraged
the localised peasant movements to assume national character and significance.

76. Examine the major differences between peasant movements of the 19th and 20th century and their impact
on society.

Hint-
Throughout the 19th century, the British Empire was consolidating its rule in India through exploitative economic
and land revenue policies.
Peasants were among the worst sufferers of British rule. However, peasants resisted the exploitation and started to
organize collective protests and movements against the policies.
Characteristics of 19th century Peasant Movements:
Immediate objective:
o It was not the objective of these movements to end the system of subordination or exploitation of the peasants.
The demands were centered almost wholly on economic issues.
Absence of understanding of colonialism at this stage:
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o The struggles were directed towards specific and limited objectives and redressal of particular grievances.
The movements were directed against the foreign planters and indigenous zamindars and moneylenders.
Colonialism was not the target of these movements.
Leadership:
o The leadership in these revolts e.g. Indigo Revolt (1859-60), Pabna Agrarian league in the 1860s and 1870s
and Deccan Riots were from the peasantry itself.
o Territorial reach was limited to a particular local region.
Organization:
o There was no formal organization. These caused movements to be a short term phenomenon. Lack of
organization inhibited the formation and implementation of long term strategy for movements.
Ideology:
o Forward-looking ideology is a significant part of social movements however at this stage of Peasant
movement there was the absence of any coherent alternative ideas about the future and these movements were
spontaneous reaction of the exploited peasantry.

Characteristics of 20th century Peasant Movements

Peasant movement as part of Indian National Movement:
o With the appearance of Mahatma Gandhi on the Indian political scene, peasants were brought into the broader
struggle against colonialism beginning with Champaran, Kheda and later Bardoli movement. There was an
emergence of anti-colonialism consciousness among peasant.
The emergence of Class Conscious Organisations:
o The Congress policy of safeguarding the interests of zamindars and landlords led to the emergence of
independent class organisations of kisans in rural India. Radical sections in the peasant movements
increasingly realised that the Congress was solicitous of the interest of the capitalists and land magnates. The
first Kisan Congress held at Lucknow in 1935 led to the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha.
Influence of Communal politics:
o Mappila revolt by Muslim tenants began as an anti-government and anti- landlord affair however it acquired
communal overtones. The communalisation of the rebellion completed the isolation of the Mappilas from the
Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement.
All India Movements:
o The period 1937-39 was the high watermark of the peasant movements and activity under the Congress
provincial rule. The chief form of mobilisation was through holding kisan conferences and meetings where
demands were aired and resolutions were passed. Mobilisation campaigns were carried out in the villages.
Leadership:
o During this period peasant movements were led by Congress and communist leaders e.g. Telangana Movement
was organized by communist-led guerillas. Similarly, Tehbhaga movement was led by Bengal Provincial
Kisan Sabha.

The nature of Peasant movements evolve during the rule of British there were striking differences in the peasant
movement in the earlier phase of British Rule and in the 20th century.
The differences were natural progression coming out of increasing awareness of colonial motives, the emergence of
Congress as a mass-based political organization and Marxist-communist ideas.

77. Discuss various peasant movements, and their impact, that took place during Indian freedom struggle.
Peasant Struggles:
• In these struggles, the peasants emerged as the main force, fighting directly for their own demands.
• The movements in the period between 1858 and 1914 tended to remain localised, disjointed and confined to
particular grievances, contrary to the movements after 1914.
Causes of the Movements:
Peasant Atrocities: The peasants suffered from high rents, illegal , arbitrary evictions and unpaid labour in Zamindari
areas. The Government levied heavy land revenue.
Massive Losses for Indian Industries: The movements arose when British economic policies resulted in the ruin of
traditional handicrafts and other small industries leading to change of ownership and overburdening of agrarian land,
and massive debt and impoverishment of peasantry.
Unfavourable Policies: The economic policies of British government used to protect the landlords and moneylenders
and exploited the peasants. The peasants rose in revolt against this injustice on many occasions.

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Rise of Peasant Organisations:
• Between 1920 and 1940 peasant organisations arose.
• The first organisation to be founded was the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (1929) and in 1936 the All India
Kisan Sabha (AIKS).
• In 1936, at the Lucknow session of the Congress, All India Kisan Sabha was formed with Sahajanand as its
first president.
o It later issued a Kisan manifesto which demanded abolition of zamindari and occupancy rights for all
tenants.
19th Peasant Movements (Pre-Gandhian Phase)
Indigo Rebellion (1859-62):
• In order to increase their profits, the European planters persuaded the peasants to plant Indigo instead of food
crops.
• The farmers were discontent growing indigo because:
o Low prices were offered for growing indigo.
o Indigo was not lucrative.
o Indigo planting decreased the fertility of the soil.
• The peasants suffered at the hands of the traders and the middleman. Consequently, they launched a movement
for non cultivation of indigo in Bengal.
• They were supported by the press and the missionaries.
o Harish Chandra Mukherjee, a Bengali Journalist, described the plight of peasants of Bengal in his
newspaper ‘The Hindu Patriot’.
o Dinabandhu Mitra, Bengali writer and dramatist, in his play ‘Nil Darpan’ depicted the treatment of
the Indian peasantry by the indigo planters. It was first published in 1860.
▪ His play created a huge controversy which was later banned by the East India Company to
control the agitation among the Indians.
• The government appointed an Indigo Commission and issued an order in November 1860, notifying that it was
illegal to force the ryots to cultivate indigo. This marked the victory for the peasants.
Pabna Movement (1870s-80s):
• In larger parts of Eastern Bengal, landlords forcefully collected rents and land taxes, often enhanced for the poor
peasants.
• The peasants were also prevented from acquiring Occupancy Right under Act X of 1859.
• In May 1873 an Agrarian League was formed in the Yusufshahi Pargana of Pabna district, Patna (East
Bengal).
o Rent strikes were organised, funds were raised and the struggle spread throughout Patna and to other
districts of East Bengal.
o The struggle was mainly legal resistance and little violence.
• The discontent continued till 1885 when the Government by the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 enhanced the
occupancy rights.
• The struggle was supported by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt and the Indian Association under
Surendranath Banerjea.
Deccan Riots (1875):
• The Deccan peasants uprising was directed mainly against the excesses of the Marwari and Gujarati money
lenders.
• The ryots suffered heavy taxation under the Ryotwari system. The land revenue was also raised by 50% in 1867.
• Social Boycott: In 1874, the ryots organised a social boycott movement against the moneylenders.
o They refused to buy from the moneylenders’ shops and cultivate their fields.
o The barbers, washermen, and shoemakers refused to serve them.
• This social boycott spread rapidly to the villages of Poona, Ahmednagar, Solapur and Satara and was
transformed into agrarian riots with systematic attacks on the moneylenders’ houses and shops.
• The Government succeeded in repressing the movement. As a conciliatory measure, the Deccan Agriculturists
Relief Act was passed in 1879.
20th Century Peasant Movements (Gandhian Phase)
Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
• The peasantry on the indigo plantations in the Champaran district of Bihar was excessively oppressed by the
European planters and compelled to grow indigo on at least 3/20th of their land and sell it at prices fixed by the
planters.

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• In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi reached Champaran and began to conduct a detailed inquiry into the condition of the
peasantry.
• He defied the orders of district officials for leaving Champaran.
• In June 1917, the Government appointed an enquiry committee with Gandhiji as one of the members.
o The enactment of the Champaran Agrarian Act, 1918 freed the tenants from the special imposts levied
by the indigo planters.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
• It was chiefly directed against the Government.
• In 1918, the crops failed in the Kheda district of Gujarat but the government refused to remit land revenue
and insisted on its full collection.
• Gandhiji along with Sardar Vallabhai Patel supported the peasants and advised them to withhold payment of
revenues till their demand for its remission was met.
• The satyagraha lasted till June 1918. The Government conceded the demands of the peasants.
Moplah Rebellion (1921):
• The Moplahs were the Muslim tenants inhabiting the Malabar region where most of the landlords were Hindus.
• Their grievances centred around lack of security of tenure, high rents, renewal fees and other oppressive
exactions.
• The Moplah movement merged with the ongoing Khilafat agitation.
▪ Mahatma Gandhi, Shaukat Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad addressed Moplah meetings.
• Many Hindus were seen by the Moplahs to be helping the British authorities. The anti-government and anti-
landlord movement acquired communal overtones.
o Communalisation isolated the Moplah from the Khilafat & Non-Cooperation Movement.
• The movement was called off by December 1921.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928):
Enhancement of land revenue by 30% in the Bardoli district of Gujarat by the British government led to the organisation
of a ‘No-Revenue Campaign’ by the Bardoli peasants under the leadership of Vallabhai Patel.
• A woman in Bardoli gave Vallabhai Patel the title of ‘Sardar’.
• Unsuccessful attempts of the British to suppress the movement by large scale attachment of cattle and land
resulted in the appointment of an enquiry committee.
• The enquiry came to the conclusion that the increase had been unjustified and reduced the enhancement to
6.03%.
Significance of the Movements
• Awareness among the Indians: Though these revolts were not aimed at uprooting the British rule from India,
they created awareness among the Indians.
o The peasants developed a strong awareness of their legal rights and asserted them in and outside the
courts.
• Inspired other Revolts: They felt a need to organise and fight against exploitation and oppression.
o These rebellions prepared the ground for various other uprisings such as Sikh Wars in Punjab and finally
the Revolt of 1857.
• Unity Among the Peasantry: Because of the non-differentiation in the peasantry, and the all-embracing nature
of the anti imperialist struggle, the Peasant Movement was able to unite all sections of the peasantry including
the landless labourers and its anti-feudal and anti-imperialist crusade.
• Peasants’ Voices were Heard: Due to the peasants fighting directly for their own demands, their voices were
heard.
o In the Indigo rebellion, Bardoli Satyagraha, Pabna movement and Deccan riots, the demands of peasants
were responded to.
o Formation of various Kisan Sabhas to hear the peasants' demands during the Non Cooperation
Movement.
• Growth of Nationalism: The ideology of non-violence had given much strength to the peasants who
participated in the movement.
o The movement also contributed to the growth of nationalism.
• Encouraged Post-Independence Reforms: These movements created an atmosphere for post- independence
agrarian reforms, for instance, ’abolition of Zamindari.
o They eroded the power of the landed class, thus adding to the transformation of the agrarian structure.

78. Discuss the reasons for Indigo Revolt and role of ryots and intelligentsia in its success.
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As a natural textile dye, indigo became one of the most significant cash crops for British traders in the late 18th
and early 19th centuries. The ensuing greed of British planters who relied on Bengali plantations for their supply and
the colonial state's complicity in the exploitation that followed gave rise to the causes of the Indigo revolution.
characteristics of the indigo cultivation system
• The Ryoti method of indigo plantations required the peasants to grow indigo on four significant portions of
their farms.
• The ryots were forced to sign contracts for the required cultivation of indigo, which was thereafter bought at
prices well below market value.
• Additionally, the planters colluded with the (mainly European) magistrates, reducing the likelihood that
fraudulent and exploitative contracts would receive any legal protection.
• Planters used various forms of torture and extra-legal coercion to force the reluctant or dissident peasants to
submit.
• Due to these circumstances, Bengali indigo farmers rebelled in 1859, a period known as the indigo revolution.
In this uprising, the ryots chose the following strategy:
• By working together and asserting their rights to not cultivate indigo under coercion, they defied planters'
physical pressure.
• The planters attempted to compel the peasants into signing contracts by offering them advances (known as
dadon) at high interest rates.
• As the resistance gained traction, indigo manufacturers came under attack. To counter the problems posed by
the use of force by planters and the police, an active defence was prepared.
• Additionally, Ryots fought attempts to evict them violently and refused to pay rent to Zamindars.
• Funds were generated jointly to defend legal actions and to pursue courtroom litigation.
• Social boycott was a strategy used to pressure planters' servants and aids to quit.
The Bengali intelligentsia also contributed in the manner listed below:
• Newspapers like "Hindoo Patriot" under Harish Chandra Mukherjee and articles by Sisir Kumar Ghosh
exposed the exploitation of Indigo planters while promoting and defending the cause of peasants.
• Additionally, artists raised awareness of the situation of indigo farmers and vigorously advocated on their
behalf. Neel Darpan, a drama by Din Bandhu Mitra that became very well-known, serves as an example.
• Additionally, missionaries responded favourably to the demands of the peasants and spoke out in their defence.
In order to address the above-mentioned role played by ryots and intelligentsia, the colonial government had to appoint
an indigo commission. This was due to the unity among Hindu and Muslim peasants, leadership by wealthy ryots, and
even a few zamindars, which resulted in an overall broad social base of the indigo revolt. The movement was successful
because it raised awareness about the pervasive exploitative practises in the indigo-plantation industry.

79. Examine the reasons for tribal uprisings during 19th century India and why did they prove largely
unsuccessful in achieving their objectives.
Numerous tribal communities in India rose up in revolt against the British for their brutal and destructive
incursions into their way of life and territory. Prior to the coming of the colonial powers, the tribal people had been
living quietly and in harmony with nature for hundreds of years in their own forests. When the British arrived, they
brought with them many changes to their way of life as well as strangers into their domain. As a result, they were
demoted from being landowners to being slaves and debts. Essentially, the uprisings were a defence of their
independence and a reaction to this unwanted encroachment.
Causes of Tribal Revolts in India
The practice of Settled Agriculture:
• The tribals’ mainstay were shifting agriculture, hunting, fishing and the use of forest produce. With the influx
of non-tribals into the traditional regions of the tribals, the practice of settled agriculture was introduced.
• This led to a loss of land for the tribal population. The tribals were reduced to being landless agricultural
labourers.
• There were restrictions imposed on the use of forest produce, on shifting agriculture and on hunting practices.
This led to the loss of livelihood for the tribals.
Introduction of the outsiders:
• The British introduced outsiders like money lenders into the tribal areas which led to severe exploitation of
the local tribals. They became bonded labourers under the new economic system.
Private ownership by non-tribal landlords:
• The tribal societies had a system of joint ownership of land which was replaced by the notion of private
property.

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Society became non- egalitarian:
• Tribal society was traditionally egalitarian compared to mainstream society which was marked by caste and
class distinctions. With the coming of the non-tribals or outsiders, the tribals came to be classified under the
lowest rungs of society.
Introduction of Forest Acts:
• A Forest Department was set up in 1864 by the government mainly to control the rich resources of Indian
forests. The Government Forest Act of 1865 and the Indian Forest Act of 1878 established a complete
government monopoly over the forested land.
The work of the Christian missionaries also led to social upheaval in tribal society and this was also resented by them
as they considered the work of missionaries an extension of colonialism.
A section of the tribal rebellion was a response to the landlords’ attempts to impose taxes on the traditional use of
timber and grazing areas, police exaction, new excise regulations, low country traders’ and moneylenders’ exploitation,
and limitations on shifting agriculture in forests.

Weakness of these Uprisings:

• Localised and isolated : The tribal uprisings were massive in totality but were localised and isolated.
• They were the result of the local problems and grievances.
• Traditional outlook : The uprising lacked a strong leadership as they were semi-feudal in character, backwards-
looking, and traditional in outlook and their resistance represented no societal alternative.
On the whole, however, these rebellions were able to establish valuable traditions of local resistance to authoritarianism.

80. There were some common characteristics of the tribal uprisings even though they were separated from one
another in time and space. Discuss.

Hint-
Tribal movements under British rule were the most frequent, militant and violent of all movements.
The tribal movements can be categorised into mainland tribal revolts and frontier tribal revolts concentrated mainly
in the north-eastern part of India.
Uprising Sparked by Number of Factors:
Mainland Tribal Revolts:
The land settlements of the British affected the joint ownership tradition among the tribals and disrupted their social
fabric
• As agriculture was extended in a settled form by the Company government, the tribals lost their land, and
there was an influx of non-tribals to these areas.
• Shifting cultivation in forests was curbed and this added to the tribals’ problems.
• Exploitation by the police, traders and money-lenders (most of them ‘outsiders’) aggravated the tribals’
sufferings.
• Christian missionaries came to these regions and their efforts interfered with the traditional customs of the
tribals. Eg. Chuar Uprising, Kol Mutiny, The Santhal Rebellion, Bhil Revolts etc
Frontier Tribal Revolts (in north-eastern part of India):
• Their revolts were often in favour of political autonomy within the Indian Union or complete independence.
• These movements were not forest-based or agrarian revolts as these tribals were generally in control of land
and forest area.
• Continued for a longer time than the non-frontier tribal movements. De-sanskritisation movements also
spread among the frontier tribals.
• Eg. Khasi Uprising, Ahoms’ Revolt, Singphos’ Rebellion, Kukis’ Revolt etc

Characteristics of Tribal Revolts:

• Tribal identity or ethnic ties lay behind the solidarity shown by these groups.
• Not all ‘outsiders’ were seen as enemies: The poor who lived by their manual labour or profession and had a
socially/economically supportive role in the village were left alone; the violence was directed towards the
money-lenders and traders who were seen as extensions of the colonial government.
• Against Foreign Government: A common cause was the resentment against the imposition of laws by the
‘foreign government’ that was seen as an effort at destroying the tribals’ traditional socioeconomic framework.

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• Many uprisings were led by messiah-like figures who encouraged their people to revolt and who held out the
promise that they could end their suffering brought about by the ‘outsiders’.
• Technologically Backward: The tribal uprisings were doomed from the beginning, given the outdated arms
they fought with as against the modern weapons and techniques used by their opponents.

It is evident that the colonial rule even, during the days of the east India Company witnessed numerous uprising and
disturbances. These varied grievances reached their climax in the revolt of 1857, which in spite of targeting certain
groups of Indians remains the prominent uprising against the British before the beginning of the Indian Freedom
movement.

DIFFERENT PERSONALITIES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION

81. “The British Indian State experienced the 'wind of change' with the arrival of Lord William Bentinck.”
Comment.

Hint-
Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the Governor-General in 1828. His main task was to save the bankrupt
East India Company. These include:
● He reduced the salaries and allowances of all officers.
● He reduced the number of officers on the payroll.
● In the military department, he abolished the system of double batta. (Batta was an allowance to troops on active
service).

He was successful in establishing a sound financial management system for the company, but this was accompanied by
a policy of westernization influenced by the utilitarian principles of Jeremy Bentham and James Mill. He also
introduced administrative reforms which were in line with utilitarian theory but with deference to the local conditions
and in harmony with his own military sense of command.
● In the judicial department, he abolished Cornwallis' provisions for courts of appeal. They were largely to
blame for the massive backlog of cases. The Directors readily accepted this step because it reduced their
expenditure.
● Another good measure implemented by Bentinck was the use of local languages in lower courts and English
in higher courts in place of Persian.
● Even in terms of revenue, Bentinck made a name for himself. He began the revenue settlements of the North
West Province, which were overseen by R.M.bird.
● This agreement was made for a period of 30 years and was made with either the tillers of the soil or the landowners
based on utilitarian philosophy.
● The collector was made the real head of his district by the addition of civil judgeship to his magistracy.
He was undoubtedly the first Governor- General of British India who acted on the dictum that “the welfare of the
subject peoples was a main, perhaps the primary, duty of the British in India”. He adopted a paternalistic attitude
towards the native population with the view to bring in change and modernisation through good laws and efficient
administration. These were:
● Abolition of Sati
○ Sati, the age-old custom of burning widows alive on their husband's funeral pyres, was practiced in India
since ancient times.
○ This inhumane social practice was widespread in northern India, particularly in Bengal.
○ Bentinck was deeply troubled when he learned of 800 cases of sati in a single year, all of which occurred in
Bengal.
○ He was determined to put an end to this practice, which he saw as an affront to natural justice.

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○As a result, he became a crusader against it, issuing Regulation XVII on December 4, 1829, outlawing the
practice of Sati.
○ Those who engaged in sati were sentenced as accomplices to the crime by law courts.
○ The Regulation was extended to the presidencies of Madras and Bombay in 1830.
● Female infanticide
○ Female infanticide was one of the most heinous and heartless crimes committed by civilized people.
○ This practice of killing female infants was widespread in Rajputana, Punjab, Malwa, and Cutch.
○ Bentinck took effective steps to prevent the ritual of child sacrifice on Bengal's Saugor Island.
○ He not only prohibited female infanticide but also made it a punishable offence.
● Suppression of Thugs
○ The most admirable measure taken by Bentinck, which contributed to the material well-being of the people,
was the suppression of the 'thugs'.
○ They were a family of robbers. They moved around in small groups of fifty to a hundred people, posing as
commercial gangs or pilgrims and strangling and robbing peaceful travelers.
○ They became more numerous in central and northern India during the 18th century when anarchy reigned
following the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
○ Colonel Sleeman organized a systematic campaign against the thugs beginning in 1830.
○ Over the course of five years, nearly 2000 of them were apprehended.
○ The majority of them were exterminated, while the remainder were transported to the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.

He also undertook educational reforms to provide more educated Indians for service in the British bureaucracy.
● He formed a committee, chaired by Lord Macaulay, to make recommendations for the advancement of
education.
● In his report, Macaulay emphasized the promotion of European literature and science to the people of India
through the English medium. William Bentinck wholeheartedly accepted this recommendation.
● In 1835, the government passed a resolution making English the official and literacy language of India.
● In the same year, William Bentinck established the Calcutta Medical College.

Bentinck was described as a "straightforward, homely, upright, benevolent, and sensible man." His social reforms, such
as the abolition of Sati and the prohibition of child sacrifice, wiped out long-standing evils in Hindu society. It's
encouraging to see that "Bentinck acted where others had talked." He was willing to jeopardize his own position in
order to enforce the regulations prohibiting Sati. Such bravery and forthrightness were uncommon among administrators
at the time. His educational reforms ushered in a new era in India.

Q. “Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.” Examine this statement with reference to Lord William
Bentinck.

82. Discuss the contribution of E V Ramaswami Naikar ‘Periyar’.

EV Periyar is a pioneer in bringing about radical changes in Tamil society and politics. As a Dravidian social reformer,
he founded the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam. He was staunchly advocated for the rights of
women and was considered ahead of his time. His contributions can be studied as under:

Against Caste Discrimination

• He was strongly against the caste system and division of society into four-fold hierarchy.
• He rejected the notion of higher or lower status attached to Varnashrama dharma and suggested that ban on
inter-marriage or inter-dining were never an integral part of it.
• In 1924 he led a mass movement to demand that lower caste persons be given the right to use a public path in
front of the famous Vaikom temple. This is famously known as Vaikom Satyagraha. Here earned the sobriquet
of Vaikom Veerar (Hero of Vaikom).

Dravidian Identity
• Self – respect movement – started a reform movement dedicated to the goal of giving non-Brahmins a sense
of pride based on their Dravidianist past.
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• The movement was to establish a living bond of union among all the people irrespective of caste or creed. His
emphasized on denial of mythology of Hinduism.

Rights of Women
• Periyar was against patriarchy and called for equal rights of women in marriage, inheritance of property and
civic life in general.
• He argued for accessible contraceptive methods for women, as early as in the 1930s, which was quite ahead
of his time.

Periyar still remains a hero who fought hard for the deprived, oppressed and less privileged. He tirelessly
campaigned against superstitions and blind religious faith and advocated for developing a scientific temperament.

83. Discuss the contribution of Dada Bhai Naroji towards the growth of Indian nationalism.

Dadabhai Naoroji is popularly known as the “Grand Old Man of India” and “Official Ambassador of India”. He
was born into a Parsi family and played a significant role in the Indian National Movement.

His work in England:

• Apart from his distinguished political career, Naoroji was a professor of Gujarati, mathematics and
philosophy.
• Naoroji was the first who began rousing public opinion in England on Indian issues in 1855. He worked closely
with Irish leaders who found common cause with Indian National Movement.
• In 1865 and 1866, Naoroji helped found the London Indian Society and the East India Association. The two
groups aimed to put nationalist Indians and British sympathizers to a single forum. As Secretary of the East
India Association, Naoroji traveled to India to raise funds and raise national awareness.
• He called for greater Indianisation of Civil Services and representation of Indians in House of Commons
As leader of Indian National Congress
• He became vice president of Bombay Presidency Association.
• Later he played crucial role in formation of Congress. He was Congress president thrice in 1886, 1893 and
1906.
• The first session of the Congress in 1885 passed a resolution calling for the formation of a standing committee
in the British House of Commons for considering protests from legislative bodies in India.
Drain Theory
• Dadabhai Naoroji was among the key proponents of the ‘Drain Theory’ along with RC Dutt. He wrote the
book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’.
• Naoroji argued that imperial Britain was draining India's resources by exploitative economic policies. The
exploitation of India by free trade policy of British was taking away money from Indians to the hands of British.

Dadabhai Naoroji thus was a pioneer of the Indian Freedom Struggle. He laid the foundation in the early stages
on which the later leaders build upon the National Movement.

84. Who were Lal, Bal, Pal (extremists)? Critically examine their contribution to the freedom movement.

Hint-
Lal Bal Pal was triumvirate of assertive nationalists who believed in more direct, radical attitude towards the revolution.

The triumvirate played a stellar role in the second phase of the Swadeshi movement, which gained traction after Lord
Curzon's partition of Bengal in 1905 and called for the boycott of all manufactured products and the use of Indian-
made goods.

Lala Lajpat Rai

• He was born in undivided Punjab in a family that allowed freedom of faith.
• He left his legal practice for independence of the country
• He highlighted the atrocities carried out by British rule in India across the countries of the world.
• He led the protest against the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

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• He criticized the withdrawal of Non-cooperation movement and wanted to form a separate Congress
Independence party.
• While protesting against Simon Commission he was hurt by lathi charge and died thereafter.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak is famously known as the “Father of Indian Unrest”
• He founded the Deccan Education Society in Pune, opened New English School for primary studies and
Fergusson college for higher education.
• In Indian National Movements he is famously known to be from the Extremist group.
• His literary works include Kesari and Maharatta newspapers
Bipin Chandra Pal
• Bipin Chandra Pal was an Indian nationalist, writer, orator, social reformer and Indian independence
movement activist.
• Pal was one of the main architects of the Swadeshi movement along with Sri Aurobindo. He stood against the
partition of Bengal by the colonial British government.
• Pal is known as the Father of Revolutionary Thoughts in India and was one of the freedom fighters of India.
• He preached and encouraged the use of Swadeshi and the boycott of foreign goods to eradicate poverty and
unemployment.
• He wanted to remove social evils from the form and arouse the feelings of nationalism through national
criticism. He had no faith in mild protests in the form of non-cooperation with the British colonialist.

Their Legacy
The three dynamic leaders, had been quite vocal in promoting self-reliance and opposing the monopoly of the British
goods in India. Together, they successfully captured more young minds across India by inducing self-confidence and
self reliance in youth. Even with diverse backgrounds, their cause was the same— to use Swadeshi items in place of
‘Videshi’ items and to replace the British Raj with Swaraj.

85. The year 2020 marks the 150th birth anniversary of Chitaranjan Das. Discuss his contribution to the freedom
struggle.

Hint-
C.R. Das served as the Indian National Congress president for a session and co-founded the Swaraj Party. He is
remembered as ‘Deshbandhu’, or ‘friend of the nation’, as the people of his times affectionately called him.

Contributions as a Lawyer
As a lawyer, CR Das defended Indians who were accused of political offences as they languished in jails
without any representation. He defended freedom fighters like Brahmabandhab Upadhyay and
Bhupendranath Datta who were charged with sedition.
In 1908, CR Das defended Aurobindo Ghose in the Alipore Bomb Case which killed two women and Ghose
was the main accused.
Political Career
• He was a believer in the ‘Swadeshi’ idea. He considered development by Western Powers as exploitative. In
the Calcutta session, he gave plans for village reconstruction, with steps such as establishment of local self-
government, co-operative credit societies and starting the cottage industry.
• He rejected the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, which were aimed at installing a dual government system or
dyarchy in the country.
• In 1920, inspired by Gandhiji, Das sacrificed all his luxuries and supported the cause of ‘khadi’. He
participated in Mahatma Gandhi-led Non-Cooperation Movement. During this movement, he initiated a ban on
British clothes in Bengal and boycott of foreign goods.
Swaraj Party
• With Motilal Nehru, Das established the Swaraj party within the Congress. The aim of the newly-founded
party was to contest in the Central Legislative Assembly in 1923 and derail the British rule through anti-
government activities within the council chambers.
• The party was able to secure only 40 seats and the number was too small to make any . Following the death of
Das on 16 June 1925, it was eventually disbanded.
In spite of subtle differences Gandhiji said: “Deshbandhu was one of the greatest of men... He dreamed... and talked of
freedom of India and of nothing else..” thus was the legacy of CR Das.

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86. Bhagat Singh captured the imagination of the youth across class, religion and region. Discuss.

Hint-
Bhagat Singh is one of the most memorable freedom fighter whose memory is etched in the minds of Indians till
today. His sacrifice, courage, patriotism, world awareness, concerns for the class divide, untouchability makes him
a remarkable personality that he was.

Inspiring youth
• Bhagat Singh believed in the power of the youths. He created Bharat Naujawan Sabha to draw youth towards
the national struggle. He also educated youths to work for eliminating social evils.
• Bharat Naujawan Sabha carried out political work among the youth, peasants and workers. Bhagat Singh used
to deliver political lectures in villages with the help of magic lantern slides.
• Being well read and educated Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev organized Lahore Students Union for open, legal
work among the students. This infused legal awareness among youths.
• In the course of their statements from 1929 to 1931, in courts and outside, Bhagat Singh and his comrades had
developed and matured their thinking that revolution meant the creation and organisation of a mass
movement of the oppressed and suppressed parts of society by the revolutionary intelligentsia.
• Before his execution, Bhagat Singh declared that ‘the real revolutionary armies are in the villages and in
factories.
• With his intense patriotism, he rose through the ranks of Hindustan Republican organization and became
one of its top leader. His influence of socialism led it to be renamed as HSRA ( Hindustan Socialist Republican
Organisaton).
• His notable incidents include the assassination of Saunders to seek revenge for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai
• The Assembly bombing case and the trial thereafter made Bhagat Singh a household name. He along with
this comrades Sukhdev , Rajguru and BK Dutt effectively used the court room for freedom propaganda
reaching out to larger public. His fearlessness the British perplexed.

Over the years Bhagat Singh has become a youth icon. No narrative on freedom or protest against societal injustices
takes place without reference to the legend of Bhagat Singh. His still inspires the youth till today.

87. Bal Gangadhar Tilak is the forerunner on the idea of Atmanirbhar Bharat. Discuss.

Hint-
Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak played a crucial role in the making of the Indian Independence movement complete
in letter and spirit. Tilak made an unparalleled contribution to the freedom movement, he dedicated every moment of
his life to the nation and created an ideological generation of revolutionaries.

Forerunner to Atmanirbhar Bharat

• Tilak believed that the foundation of true nationhood is laid on the bed-rock of our culture and traditions.
• Any reform which undermines or disrespects our past cannot help in realizing true nationhood.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak wanted to inculcate love for the nation amongst the people on the basis of pride for
Indian culture. In this context, he set up gymnasiums and arenas.
• Lokmanya Tilak was a strong opponent of untouchability, he launched a movement to unite society divided in
caste and sects. Tilak said that if God accepts untouchability, then I would not accept such a God.
• Tilak’s important work to connect the working class to the national movement. At the same time, Lokmanya
Tilak started celebrating Shivaji Jayanti and Ganesh Utsav to connect the people with the freedom
movement, which changed the direction of the Indian Independence movement.
• Swadeshi was the other important cause espoused by Tilak. His objective was promoting indigenous
entrepreneurship. Tilak wanted to promote manufacturing in India.

• It was the same zeal for promoting swadeshi manufacturing that led to Tilak and Ratanji Jamshedji Tata
coming together to open the Bombay Swadeshi Co-operative Stores Co. in order to promote products that
were made in India.

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Atmanirbhar Bharat, which translates to 'self-reliant India' or 'self-sufficient India', is the vision for being self-
sustaining and self-generating. Atmanirbhar Bharat doesn't mean "self-containment", "isolating away from the world"
or being "protectionist".
Like Tilak’s idea of Swaraj it is about realizing our own innate strength and building up on it.

88. Discuss the contribution of Brahmo Samaj and Kesab Chandra Sen in modernising India.

Hint-
Brahmo Samaj and Kesab Chandra Sen
• Indian society in the nineteenth century was caught in a vicious web created by religious superstitions and social
obscurantism. The reformist movements Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Rammohan in August 1828.
• It was the starting point for all the various reform movements whether in Hindu religion, society or politics
which have agitated modern India.
• Kesab Chandra Sen became a member of the Brahmo Samaj in 1857 and the movement experienced another
phase of energy.
• He tried to incorporate Christian practices in Brahmoism as a result there was a break of brahmo Samaj into two:
led by Dwarkanath Tagore and Bhrahmo Samaj of India under Kesab Sen.
• He was instrumental in popularising the movement, and branches of the Samaj were opened outside Bengal.

Contribution of Brahmo Samaj and Kesab Chandra Sen in modernising India:

1. Abolition of Social evils: Brahmo Samaj successfully campaigned against Sati or the immolation of Hindu widows,
Child marriage, polygamy and attacked the rigidity of the caste system.
2. Gender equality: It worked for respectable status for women in society, opposed the subjugation of women and
their inferior status in the society, advocated for their property rights and for their education.
3. Abolition of superstitions and other evils in Hindu religion: The Samaj attacked many dogmas and superstitions
prevalent in the Hindu society such as polytheism, idolatry and blamed the brahmins for perpetuating religious
evils by keeping people ignorant about the true teachings of the indegenious scriptures.
4. Equality and human dignity: It also attacked the caste system and especially untouchability, which according to
them were the reason for deprivation of the feeling of patriotism among Indians.
5. Promoted Education for all: They established a number of educational institutions including the Vedanta
College,the Hindu College, the English School and the City College of Calcutta and laid stress on Western
scientific knowledge and modern education which could act as a major vehicle for the dissemination of modern
ideas in India.
6. Modernism with indigenous roots: It was a movement that struck a fine balance between reform and rejection.
These were people willing to change contemporary Hindu society without uprooting themselves from tradition;
this was guided by the emergence of a sense of cultural pride and patriotism to which, paradoxically, modern
Western education had greatly contributed.
7. Prominence to Human reason: It denied that any scripture could enjoy the status of ultimate authority
transcending human reason and conscience.
,
1828 Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha

1829 Government Regulation which declared the practice of sati a crime

1858 Keshab Chandra Sen was made the acharya

1878 Split in Brahmo Samaj,formation of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj.

• The Brahmo Samaj made an enormous impact ideologically and culturally and created an enduring value
system.
• The influence of the Samaj was such that there were many Bengali families who believed and practised the
principles of Brahmoism, despite the fact that they were not formal members because the organisation never
went about promoting its beliefs or engaged in proselytising activities.

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• They remained urban based and had a very limited audience. In spite of this, there were concrete gains to their
credit such as abolition of Sati and legalisation of widow remarriage and also started the debate on such issues.
• Another important achievement was their contribution to the spread of female education. Also, due to their
efforts many such organisations began to set up in other parts of the country and thus were directly and
indirectly related to the task of nation building and national reconstruction.

89. Discuss the contribution of AMU and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in modernizing India.
Hint-
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan wore many hats: Civil servant, journalist, historian. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan is best known for
the Aligarh Movement a systemic movement aimed at reforming the social, political and educational aspects of the
Muslim community. He founded the Scientific Society in 1863 to translate major works in the sciences and modern
arts into Urdu. He released two journals to this end — The Aligarh Institute Gazette, which was an organ of the
Scientific Society, and the Tehzibul Akhlaq, known as the Mohammedan Social Reformer in English.

Contribution of AMU and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in modernising India:

1) Spread of Education: Khan’s most notable contribution to the field of education is establishing the Madarsatul
Uloom in Aligarh in 1875, now known as the Aligarh Muslim University, a premier educational institution of the
country. He attempted to model the college on universities such as Oxford and Cambridge.
2) Bringing education and culture together: In 1886, he set up the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Education
Congress, later renamed the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Educational Conference, to bring together
education and culture.
3) Importance to human reason and rationality: Western science and technology strengthened Islamic
convictions, since Islam was not dialectically opposed to reason. In fact, he expected modern education to be an
ally of Islam, sustaining it with rationalist underpinning. He reconciled Western scientific education with the
teachings of the Quran which were to be interpreted in the light of contemporary rationalism and science even
though he also held the Quran to be the ultimate authority.
4) Abolition of superstitious traditions and customs: Sayyid dismissed the traditionally accepted miracles of the
prophet Muhammad as fabrications of zealous Muslims, who sought to match Muhammad's "miracles" with
those of Moses and Christ. He advocated a critical approach and freedom of thought and not complete
dependence on tradition or custom.
5) Dynamism in religion: He said that religion should be adaptable with time or else it would become fossilised,
and that religious tenets were not immutable.
6) Gender equality: He also struggled to bring about an improvement in the position of women through better
education and by opposing purdah and polygamy, advocating easy divorce, and condemning the system of piri
and muridi.
7) Some secular promotions: He also preached the basic commonality of Hindu and Muslim interests.
8) Protect tradition with modern discourse: They wanted to impart a distinct socio-cultural identity to Muslims
on modern lines. Soon, Aligarh became the centre of religious and cultural revival of the Muslim community.

Criticism on Sir Syed Ahmed Khan:

1) Hindi-Urdu controversy: Sir Syed is widely criticized for making the use of Urdu a political issue that served
as a wedge between Muslims and Hindus
2) Against nationalist: Sir Syed opposed the Indian National Congress (created in 1885) on the grounds that it
was a Hindu-majority organisation, calling on Muslims to stay away from it due to fear of the loss of Muslim
political power owing to the community's backwardness.
3) Avoided Religious reform: In face of pressure from religious Muslims, Sir Syed avoided discussing religious
subjects in his writings, focusing instead on promoting education.
4) Two nation theory: Sir Syed was criticized for encouraging communal divisions between Hindus and
Muslims. He is identified by historians as one of the earliest advocates of the Two-Nation Theory that Hindus
and Muslims were distinct and incompatible nations.
5) Hindu-majority controversy: Historians argue that Sir Syed was emotionally unable to accept the prospect
that an independent India's Hindu-majority would come to rule Muslims.

Syed Ahmad is widely commemorated across South Asia as a great Muslim social reformer and visionary. His
educational model and progressive thinking inspired Muslim elites who supported the All-India Muslim League which
led Muslims of India towards formation of Pakistan.

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90. It is not Raja Ram Mohan Roy who is the father of the Indian Renaissance, but Vidyasagar. Elucidate.
Approach:
• There were many Indians who instigated social reforms and caused legislations to be brought about so as to
control and eradicate social evils embedded in so-called traditions. Though Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)
is often called the father of the Indian Renaissance, that appellation truly belongs to Vidyasagar.
• Vidyasagar is known as the ‘father of Bengali prose’, and is credited with simplifying the Bengali alphabet. His
book ‘Bornoporichoy’, which means introduction to the alphabet, is a popular primer in Bengal to this date.
Contributions of Vidyasagar towards renaissance:
1) Efforts for Legislation:
• Similar to the role played by Rammohan Roy in the abolition of Sati, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar,
worked hard to get Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 passed by the government.
2) Widow remarriage:
• Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove that the Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage which
was then a revolutionary idea, while Rammohan Roy suggested ascetic widowhood as the solution.
3) Pioneer of women education:
• Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated with no less than 35 girls’ schools in Bengal and
is considered one of the pioneers of women’s education.
4) Tribal education:
• In the Santhal Pargana where he spent his last 18 years, he had set up a girls’ school and a night school
for adults on the premises of his house, which he called Nandan Kanan. He also opened a free
homeopathy clinic to provide some medical care to these unprivileged tribal people.
5) Association with brahmo samaj :
• A new vitality and strength of membership came to be associated with the Brahmo Samaj due to
independent thinkers such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
6) Blend of Indian and Western thought:
• Vidyasagar’s ideas were a happy blend of Indian and Western thought. Vidyasagar was not critical
of Indian culture as a whole. He only wanted to reject that part of our culture that was holding up our
progress. While Vidyasagar was opposed to Vedanta and Samkhya philosophies, he advocated study
of science and the scientific and rational outlook, something which the Nyaya—Vaisheshika Indian
philosophies propagated.
7) New teaching method:
• He introduced Western thought in Sanskrit College to break the self-imposed isolation of Sanskritic
learning. As an academician, he evolved a new methodology to teach Sanskrit.
8) Promoted scientific knowledge:
• Vidyasagar realised that English was a window to modern scientific knowledge, without which India
could not progress. He fought all his life for the scientific and rational approaches and modern
education. Advocated study of Western science and Western philosophies such as those of David
Hume and John Stewart Mill, logic and history.

If India is to progress, it must follow the path shown by Vidyasagar, the path of science and rationalism, which far
from being foreign to Indian culture, is an integral part of it.

91. The ideology of Bose was an amalgamation of Fascism and Socialism. Comment.

Hint-
Subhas Chandra Bose was an Indian nationalist whose patriotism made him the most revered hero of India. Bose was
known in particular for his militant approach to independence and for his push for socialist policies.
As early as 1930, Bose expressed the opinion that in India there should be a synthesis of what modern Europe calls
Socialism and Fascism. He said “We have here the justice, the equality, the love, which is the basis of Socialism, and
combined with that we have the efficiency and the discipline of Fascism as it stands in Europe today.” He called this
‘Samyavada’.

Glimpse of Fascism

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• Bose admired discipline and orderly approach to any task he took upon. He admired these qualities in the
Fascists of Italy and in the Nazis of Germany. However, it is clear from his letters that despite his hate against
British and his efforts to drive away the alien British rule from India, he was impressed by the methodical and
systematic approach of the British and their disciplined approach of life.
Not a Fascist
• Bose, however, was not a Nazi or a Fascist, for he supported empowerment of women, secularism and other
liberal ideas. He did not believe in racial supremacy nor exclusivism.

Inclination towards Socialism

• Bose considered himself as Socialist. He was a leftist in the sense that he was an anti-imperialist and believed in
attaining complete independence.
• After the achievement of independence, Bose considered leftism would mean socialism; the reconstruction of
national life would have to be on a socialist basis.
• It would appear from many of his writings that, after an initial stage of authoritarian rule, there could be formed
“a new India and a happy India on the basis of the eternal principles of liberty, democracy and socialism.”

Bose was ardent patriot. Gandhi himself wrote that Bose's "... patriotism is second to none" and he said that Bose is a
"prince among patriots"—a reference, in particular, to Bose's achievement in integrating women and men from all the
regions and religions of India in the Indian National Army.
Bose wanted freedom for India at the earliest opportunity, and to some extent, he didn't care who he had to approach
for assistance or which ideology to follow.

92. Despite being sensitive to Hindu interests, Lala Lajpat Rai actually championed diversity in unity. Comment.

Hint-
Lajpat Rai undoubtedly supported strong Hindu politics, as evidenced by his participation in the Hindu Mahasabha in
the middle of the 1920s and the Punjab Hindu Sabha in 1909. Even at that time, his interpretation of Hindu politics
was extremely distinct from the exclusivist nationalism of Hinduism, which demanded that either India's religious
minorities be forcefully absorbed into Hindu culture or be ejected from the nation.
His propensity to support Hindu causes
• He was a part of the Hindu reform movement and was heavily influenced by the Arya Samaj.
• He established the Hindu Relief Movement in 1897 to aid the famine-stricken populace and keep them out of
the hands of the missionaries.
• He supported strong Hindu politics, as evidenced by his membership in the Hindu Mahasabha in the middle
of the 1920s and the Punjab Hindu Sabha in 1909.
• He also believed in the two-nation idea, contending that while Hindus and Muslims needed to band together
to remove the British Raj, the larger issue of peaceful cohabitation could be resolved by creating a separate
nation for each.
However, his conception of Hindu politics was founded on unity in diversity and was considerably distinct from the
exclusivist Hindu nationalism.
• He never called for the exclusion of religious minorities from India or their forced assimilation into Hindu
culture.
• Prior to 1915, he had thought of Muslims and Hindus as two distinct "religious nationalities," but by that
year he had said that "religious nationalism" was a "false idea," representing a "narrow sectarianism" that
could never be "really national."
• argued that India's geographic isolation from the rest of the world was masterfully achieved by its natural
terrain, giving its people a sense of unity.
• He occasionally diverged from discussing a shared Hindu culture to discuss a bigger, distinctive Indian
culture that united India's numerous ethnic groups and suggested that Indians must create a pluralist public
national culture for themselves.
• He argued that Hindus and Muslims would benefit from participating in each other's religious celebrations
during holidays such as Basant Panchami, Baisakhi, Dussehra, Diwali, Muharram, and Shab-e-Barat.
• For him, Akbar was a hero whose memory should serve as motivation for both Muslims and Hindus.

Thus, Lajpat Rai never wavered in his support of India's religious and cultural diversity.He demonstrated how
politics that are sympathetic to Hindu interests may exist without a "tyrannical" drive to impose religious and cultural
homogeneity in the country.
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93. Highlight the difference in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for
freedom.

Hint-
Mahatma Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose were both legendary personalities, gigantic in their political moral and
ethical stature. Both played crucial roles in the freedom movement. They were both internationalists and humanists
as well as secular in their approach and anti-social in their outlook. In spite of their common thought process, there were
glaring differences in their approach.

They are as follows:

• Subhash Chandra Bose was a radical socialist meaning that he wanted to change the existing socio-economic
situation whereas Gandhi was a conservative.
• The young members, of INC including Bose demanded complete self-rule without any compromise while the
senior members were okay with dominion status for India within British rule.
• Bose had a strong revolutionary urge to achieve freedom while Gandhi believed in passive resistance.
• Bose proposed the idea of complete Independence from the British rule. He wanted Swaraj based on all out
struggle. Gandhi on the other hand believed in the concept of Struggle-Truce-Struggle. Gandhi was in favour
of trusteeship theory and aspired village to be self-sustained economy.
• Bose was a strong supporter of Fascism which was obvious in his strong belief that India needed a political
system which was a mix of fascism and communism. Gandhi on the other hand was an anti fascist who did
not propagate any such extreme political system.
• Bose was open to the idea of taking foreign assistance to achieve freedom as seen in the formation of Indian
national Association while Gandhi was completely against any such idea.
Despite their ideological defferences both Gandhi and Bose spoke highly of each other. There were occasions when
Bose praised Gandhi for his success in involvement of women in freedom struggle. Even Gandhi while differing from
Bose’s extreme methods had utmost admiration for his unique effort for India’s freedom, mainly his struggle for
freedom from outside India. Cue must be taken from these two great leaders’ tolerance and respect towards each other
even after serious difference of opinion.

94. Mahatma Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose differed widely in their ways and methods and in their political
and economic ideologies. Discuss.

Hint-
In 1942, Gandhi ji called Bose the “Prince among the Patriots”. Gandhi ji said that Netaji’s “patriotism is second to
none. His bravery shines through all his actions. He aimed high and failed. But who has not failed.” On another occasion
Gandhi said, “Netaji will remain immortal for all time to come for his service to India.”
While Bose believed Gandhiji as a symbol of Indian nationalism and called him “The Father of Our Nation”.

Similarities in their ideologies:

• Both personalities considered socialism to be the way forward in Independent India.
• They both were religious men and disliked communism.
• They worked against untouchability and spoke for women’s emancipation.

Differences:
Non-Violence versus Militant Approach:
✓ Gandhi was a firm believer in ahimsa and satyagraha while, for Bose Gandhi’s strategy based on non-violence
would be inadequate for securing India’s independence.
✓ For Bose, violent resistance alone could oust the alien imperialist rule from India.
Means and Ends:
✓ Bose had his eye on the result of the action. He had no moral issue in taking the help of the Nazis, Fascists or
later of Imperial Japan.
✓ But for Gandhiji one could not just use any means to achieve an end however desirable that end may be
Form of Government:
✓ In early writings Bose expressed the opinion that democracy was the acceptable political system for India.
But later, he seemed to have veered towards the idea that, at least in the beginning, a democratic system would
not be adequate for the process of nation rebuilding and the eradication of poverty and social inequality
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✓ Gandhi’s idealised state, Ramrajya did not need a representative government, a constitution, an army or a
police force. Gandhi was opposed to centralisation.

Militarism:
✓ Subhas Bose was deeply attracted to military discipline while Gandhiji was against the military on the whole.
His Ramrajya was built on the concept of truth and non-violence and self-regulation
Ideas on Economy:
✓ Gandhi’s concept of Swaraj had its own brand of economic vision. He wanted a decentralised economy
without state control while Bose was in favour of large industrialisation for India.
Education:
✓ Gandhi was against the English system of education as also against the use of English as a medium of
instruction.
✓ Subhash Bose was for higher education, especially in the technical and scientific fields, as he wanted an
industrial India.

Gandhi and Subhash Bose had a deep respect for one another despite their hugely differing ideologies. However, each
appreciated the work done by the other in the national struggle for freedom and played a very important role in the
freedom struggle of India.

95. “In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India.” Elaborate.

Hint-
Dalhousie's chief aim was the consolidation of British rule in India. He introduced various social and public reforms to
consolidate the gains of the English East India Company. However, they also laid the foundation on which modern India
has been built up, earning Dalhousie the title of "Maker of Modern India'.
Administrative Reforms
• Dalhousie introduced reforms in almost every department of administration. For the newly acquired
territories, he introduced the system of centralised control as per which he appointed a Commissioner for every
such territory and he was made directly responsible to the Governor-General,
Military Reforms
• Dalhousie's annexations had extended the British Empire upto Punjab and Sind in the west. Thus, for better
control over these areas, the headquarters of Bengal Artillery were shifted from Calcutta to Meerut.
• The permanent headquarters of the army were gradually shifted to Simla, which emerged as the seat of the
Government of India for a major part of the year.
Educational Reforms
• During Dalhousie's rule came Wood's Dispatch (July 1854), the famous education dispatch of Charles Wood,
the President of the Board of Control.
• It abandoned the 'infiltration theory' and provided for a properly articulated scheme of education from primary
to university level. It recommended Anglo-Vernacular schools in each of the three presidencies of India and
laid the foundation on which the modern education system of India has been built. Based on the reforms, the
first three universities in India were later established in 1857.
Railway Department
• It was Dalhousie who first introduced Railways in India. The first railway line was laid down in 1853,
connecting Bombay with Thane.
• Dalhousie's famous Railway Minute of 1853 formed the basis for the future railway extension in India.
Dalhousie encouraged private enterprise to develop railways in India to reduce absolute dependence on the
government and to give English capital and enterprise a chance for investment.
• Establishment of railways in India was not completed with the intention of benefiting local citizens, especially
Indians.
• It was done to transport large amounts of natural resources such as coal and metal from inland mined areas
to the coast to be exported to Britain.
• Nevertheless, besides encouraging trade and commerce and binding India by iron lines, the railways went a
long way in uniting the country into one nation.
Public Works Department

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• Before Dalhousie, the construction of Public works had been part of the Military Board. Dalhousie set up a
separate Public Works Department for the first time and large amount of funds began to be spent on works
of public utility such as irrigational works, construction of canals, bridges and roads. Dalhousie also laid
down the basis of modem postal system and electric telegraph (known as the 'Father of Electric Telegraph in
India').
Evaluation of Dalhousie
• Eight years of Dalhousie's rule were full of important developments in every field, and he is regarded as one
of the greatest Governor-Generals of India. However, Dalhousie also proved to be a ruthless imperialist. His
annexations are considered to generally represent an uneconomic drain on the financial resources of the
Company in India and his policies were greatly responsible for stirring unrest and ultimately leading to the
Revolt of 1857.

96. Critically discuss the objectives of Bhoodan and Gramdan Movements initiated by Acharya Vinoba Bhave
and their success.

Hint-
• Provision of Land by a gift for the common benefit of the landless was the cornerstone of the Bhoodan
movement initiated by Acharya Vinova Bhave in a village in Maharashtra.
• Later, Bhoodan gave way to the Gramdan movement which began in 1952.
• The objective of the Gramdan movement was to persuade landowners and leaseholders in each village to
renounce their land rights and all the lands would become the property of a village association for egalitarian
redistribution and joint cultivation. The first village to come under Gramdan, was Magroth, Haripur, Uttar
Pradesh.

The objectives of the Bhoodan and Gramdan movements:

• The Bhoodan and Gramdan movements led by Vinoba Bhave attempted to bring about a “non-violent
revolution” in India’s land reforms programme.
• These integrated movements were an attempt to implement land reforms by urging the landed classes to
voluntarily surrender a part of their land to the landless. The Bhoodan was started in 1951.
The success of the Bhoodan and Gramdan movements:
• In response to an appeal by Vinoba Bhave, some land owing classes agreed to the voluntary donation of some
part of land.
• Central and State governments had provided the necessary assistance to Vinoba Bhave.
• The movement received widespread political Several state governments passed laws aimed at Gramdan and
Bhoodan. The movement reached its peak around 1969.
Limited impact:
• After 1969 Gramdan and Bhoodan lost their importance due to the shift from being a purely voluntary
movement to a government-supported programme.
• In 1967, after the withdrawal of Vinoba Bhave from the movement, it lost it mass appeal.In the later period,
landlords had mostly donated land under dispute or unfit for cultivation.
• The whole movement was treated as something different from the general scheme of development rather than
combined with the existing institutional set up. This separation from the mainstream scheme seriously
affected its continuation as a policy.
• In many cases, the farmers took back their land. Bribery too became prevalent, while distributing the donated
land. A lot of donated land remained undistributed.
• Gramdan too did not achieve much success. The movement was successful in tribal areas, where there was a
little disparity in ownership of the land.

Despite their failures, both these movements were very important. They stimulated political activity among the farmers
and created a consciousness among the masses about inequality prevalent in the society.

97. Discuss the role played by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in India’s freedom struggle and in post-independence
integration of princely states.
Hint-
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was the first Home Minister and Deputy Prime Minister of India.

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• He is recognized as the real unifier of India for his colossal contribution to integrate and make India a united
and an independent nation.
• He requested the people of India to live together by uniting in order to create Shresth Bharat.
• This ideology is still reflected in the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative which seeks to make India Self-Reliant.
• He is also remembered as the ‘Patron saint of India’s civil servants’ as he established the modern all-India
services system which is also known as steel frame of modern India.

Role in freedom struggle:

• He integrated the farmer’s cause in Kheda Satyagraha (1918) and Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) with the
national freedom movement.
• Women of Bardoli bestowed the title ‘Sardar’ on Vallabhbhai Patel, which means ‘a Chief or a Leader’.
• During the 1930 Salt Satyagraha (prayer and fasting movement), Sardar Patel served three months
imprisonment.
• In March 1931 Patel presided over the Karachi session (46th session) of the Indian National Congress which
was called upon to ratify the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
• Further, He worked extensively against alcohol consumption, untouchability, caste discrimination and for
women emancipation in Gujarat and outside.
Contribution in Post-Independence India:
• Role in Framing Constitution: He headed various Committees of the Constituent Assembly of India, namely:
o Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights.
o Committee on Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas.
o Provincial Constitution Committee.
• Integration of the Princely States:
o Sardar Patel played a key role in the integration of about 565 princely states into the Indian Union.
o Few princely states like Travancore, Hyderabad, Junagadh, Bhopal, and Kashmir were averse to
joining the state of India.
o Sardar Patel worked tirelessly to build a consensus with the princely states but did not hesitate in
employing methods of Sama, Dama, Dand and Bhed wherever necessary.
o He had used force to annex princely states of Junagadh ruled by Nawab and Hyderabad ruled by
Nizam, both of whom had wished not to merge their respective states with the Union of India.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel stitched the princely states along with British Indian territory and prevented the
balkanization of India.
He is known as the “Iron Man of India” for playing an important role in unification and integration of Indian
princely states into the Indian federation and for convincing princely states to align with the Indian Union.

98. Swami Vivekananda had revolutionized and awakened the Indian philosophical mind. He can be viewed as
great Master of Philosophy of unity in diversity. Discuss

Hint-
Swami Vivekananda was originally named Narendra Nath Datta. He was influenced by both Indian and western
culture. His exposure to Hindus deity form of worship and Christian religion often conflicted with his beliefs. This
was until he accepted Ramakrishna as his guru and became a monk. His vast knowledge of culture also earned him
the respect and recognition of raising interfaith awareness.

Philosophy of Vivekananda is based on Vedanta, its main tenets are as follows:

• It was based on Upanishads and their interpretation.
• Its aim was to enquire about ‘Brahman’ (ultimate reality) which was the central concept of Upanishads.
• It saw Veda as the ultimate source of information and whose authority could not be questioned.
• It emphasized on path of knowledge (jnana) as opposed to that of sacrifice (karma).
• Ultimate aim of knowledge was 'Moksha' i.e., liberation from 'sansara'.
Core Values of Swami Vivekanand’s Philosophy:
• One of the most significant contributions of Swami Vivekananda to the modern world is his interpretation of
religion as a universal experience of transcendent reality, common to all humanity.
• This universal conception frees religion from the hold of superstitions, dogmatism, priest craft and intolerance.
Influence of his philosophy in promoting unity in diversity:

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• He believed in the basic oneness of existence seen through different constitutions such as earth, heavens, gods,
hell, ghosts, men, etc. and advocated strongly the eternal sameness or homogeneity beyond all differentiation,
the unity of all personalities.
• His message was essentially of sacrifice and service to others, to serve others without distinction of caste, class
and sex. He believed that in each being there was God and thus each being should be served with humility and
especially the poor. Serving others fostered the spirit of humanism which was dear to him.
• His nationalism is based on Humanism and Universalism, the two cardinal features of Indian spiritual culture.
• Unlike western nationalism, which is secular in nature, Swami Vivekananda’s nationalism is based on
religion which is life blood of the Indian people.
The basis of his nationalism are:
• Deep concern for masses, freedom and equality through which one expresses self, spiritual integration of the
world on the basis of universal brotherhood.
• “Karmyoga” a system of ethics to attain freedom both political and spiritual through selfless service.
Swami Vivekananda belonged to the 19th century, yet his message and his life are more relevant today than in the past
and perhaps, will be more relevant in future.
Persons like Swami Vivekananda do not cease to exist with their physical death - their influence and their thought, the
work which they initiate, go on gaining momentum as years pass by, and ultimately, reach a fulfilment which they
envisaged.

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REVOLT OF 1857- INDIAN RESPONSE TO BRITISH RULE

99. There has been a great controversy amongst the scholars over the character of the 1857 rebellion.

Hint-
Views differ on the nature of the 1857 revolt. It was a mere ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ to some British historians— “a wholly
unpatriotic and selfish Sepoy Mutiny with no native leadership and no popular support”, said Sir John Seeley. However,
that is not a complete picture of the event as it involved many sections of the civilian population and not just the sepoys.
The discontent of the sepoys was just one cause of the disturbance.
• Dr K. Datta considers the revolt of 1857 to have been “in the main a military outbreak, which was taken
advantage of by certain discontented princes and landlords, whose interests had been affected by the new
political order”.
• The last-mentioned factor gave it an aura of a popular uprising in certain areas. It was “never all-Indian in
character, but was localised, restricted and poorly organised”. Further, says Datta, the movement was marked
by absence of cohesion and unity of purpose among the various sections of the rebels.
• It was at the beginning of the twentieth century that the 1857 revolt came to be interpreted as a “planned war
of national independence”, by V.D. Savarkar in his book, The Indian War of Independence, 1857. Savarkar
called the revolt the first war of Indian independence. He said it was
• inspired by the lofty ideal of self-rule by Indians through a nationalist upsurge. Dr S.N. Sen in his Eighteen
Fifty-Seven considers the revolt as having begun as a fight for religion but ending as a war of independence.
• Dr R.C. Majumdar, however, considers it as neither the first, nor national, nor a war of independence as large
parts of the country remained unaffected and many sections of the people took no part in the upsurge.
• According to some Marxist historians, the 1857 revolt was “the struggle of the soldier-peasant democratic
combine against foreign as well as feudal bondage”. However, this view can be questioned in the light of the
fact that the leaders of the revolt themselves came from a feudal background.
• Jawaharlal Nehru considered the revolt of 1857 as essentially a feudal uprising though there were some
nationalistic elements in it (Discovery of India). M.N. Roy felt the revolt was a last ditch stand of feudalism
against commercial capitalism.
• R.P. Dutt also saw the significance of the revolt of the peasantry against foreign domination even as he
acknowledged it to be a defence of the old feudal order.
• The revolt of 1857 is not easy to categorise. While one can easily dismiss some views such as those of L.E.R.
Rees who considered it to be a war of fanatic religionists against Christians or T.R. Holmes who saw in it a
conflict between civilisation and barbarism, one cannot quite go so far as to accept it as a war for independence.
It had seeds of nationalism and anti-imperialism but the concept of common nationality and nationhood was not
inherent to the revolt of 1857.
• It is doubtful if the separate communities that participated in the revolt did so because they felt a common
nationhood. Furthermore, what of the southern section which was not a part of the revolt? Each of the leaders
had a personal cause for revolting; each had a personal interest to protect. However, as Dr Sen points out,
national revolutions are mostly the work of a minority, with or without the active support of the masses. From
that point of view, the 1857 rebellion can claim a national character.
One may say that the revolt of 1857 was the first great struggle of Indians to throw off British rule. Even this view
has been questioned by some historians who feel that some of the earlier uprisings had been equally serious efforts at
throwing off the foreign yoke, but have not got the same kind
of attention. However, S.B. Chaudhuri observes, the revolt was “the first combined attempt of many classes of people
to challenge a foreign power. This is a real, if remote, approach to the freedom movement of India of a later age”

100. Discuss the causes of revolt of 1857 , its failure and significance.

Hint-
Causes Of the Revolt
The British historians tend to emphasise the issue of the greased cartridges as the most important cause of the Revolt of
1857. But the modern Indian historians are of the view that the causes lay deeper and are to be found in the 100 years

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of British Rule from Plassey in 1757 to the rebellion of Mangal Pandey in 1857. The issue of greased cartridge ignited
the simmering discontent accumulated over the last 100 years on account of socio-political and economic grievances.

Political Causes
Annexations of Princely States
• The Company made several annexations under Wellesley's subsidiary alliance and Dalhousie's Doctrine of
Lapse (Satara 1848, Jaitpur 1849, Sambalpur 1849, Baghat 1850, Udaipur1852, Jhansi 1853, Nagpur 1854).
• Thus, the expansionist policy followed by the Company gravely embittered the rulers of the Indian States,
forcing them to rise in revolt, as is clear from the following examples.
Abolition of Regal Titles
• The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had grown old and weak. Lord Dalhousie recognised the succession of
Mughal Prince Faqir-ud-Din, but he was not in favour of empire within an empire and imposed strict conditions
on him.
• In addition to the Mughal Emperor, the British also abolished the regal titles of the Nawabs of Carnatic and
Tanjore.

The Alien Rule of the British

Lord Canning, the Governor General during the Revolt
• India has had a long history of foreign invasions and even before the British, several foreigners had ruled
over different parts of the country, for instance, the Afghans and the Mughals had conquered India but in course
of time they had settled here and made India their home.
• Whatever revenue they collected from the people, it was spent in India itself. But this was not so in the case of
the British. The British never intended to settle down in India and make it their home. The officials of the
Company wanted to make as much money as possible here and then quickly go back to England. As a result,
the British remained perpetual foreigners in India.
• Further, the practice of absentee sovreigntyship', i.e., rule by foreigners from a distant land, also embittered
the Indians against the British. They had begun to feel that they were being ruled by officials from England,
who were draining their own land of its wealth.

Economic and Administrative Causes

Exploitative Land Revenue Settlements Introduced by the British
• The various land revenue settlements (Permanent, Ryotwari and Mahalwari settlements) introduced by the
British meant loss of land for the landholders and heavy taxation for zamindars and cultivators.
• The land revenue assessments under all the systems were heavy and oppressive, reaching upto 50 per cent
or more of the produce and tax was extracted even when the crop was fully damaged. In such cases, the
cultivators had no option but to take loans from the local money lenders who charged them exorbitant interest.
This made the cultivators heavily indebted. Many of them later participated in the Revolt of 1857, driving away
government officials and burning money lenders' records.
• The economic decline of the peasantry also found expression in 12 major and several minor famines from
1770 to 1857. The complex judicial system also aided the rich in oppressing the poor Flogging and jailing of
cultivators for arrears was common. The miserable condition of the peasants made them desperate to join a
revolt against their oppressors.

Destruction of Indian Trade, Handicraft and Industry

• The economic policies of the British in India also destroyed the Indian traders, artisans and industrialists. The
Company's traders enjoyed various privileges such as duty-free trade, which made their goods comparatively
cheaper than those of the Indian traders, who had to pay full duties and made their goods uncompetitive.
• Similarly, the Company destroyed Indian handicrafts and industry in an attempt to convert India into a market
for British manufactures. Thus, driven by self-interest, the British destroyed the two major sources of
employment, Le agriculture and handicrafts, for the vast population of the country.

Alienation of the Upper and Middle Classes

• Under the administration of local princes and chieftains, Indian served at all levels-both lower and upper. But
under British administration, all higher posts were reserved for the Europeans. Indians could serve only as
subordinates and occupied all petty posts.
• The dissolution of princely courts also meant loss of job for cultural persons such as the poets, dramatists,
writers, and musicians, who were patronised by the princes.
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• Further, in some provinces, the British had made land revenue settlements directly with the cultivators. This
dispossessed many landlords and taluqdars of their lands and position. As if this was not enough, a British
official, Coverly Jackson, demanded strict enquiry into the titles of the taluqdars of Awadh, who were the
hardest hit, and drove Awadh into the vortex of the rebellion.

Social and Religious Causes

Arrogant Attitude of the British and Racial Discrimination
• Like all conquerors, even the British were arrogant and rude towards their subject population. They felt racially
superior and treated the Indians with contempt, often describing them as 'barbarians' or uncivilised.
British Interference in Religion and Culture
• It may still be easy to withstand political and economic exploitation but religious persecution embitters the very
soul of a subject population. The conversion of Indians into Christianity was a clear aim of the British.
• The Charter of 1813 allowed missionaries to go to India and also allowed them to settle there under a licence.
Christian missionaries and religious persons such as Charles Grunt, Chairman of Court of Directors, felt that
Westernisation would help in the spread of Christianity, and in this hope, they opened several modern schools,
colleges and hospitals.
• According to Vir Savarkar, the military officials abused the very name of Ram and Mohammad in front of
the sepoys and tempted them into embracing Christianity by promises of promotion.
• The British had also begun to interfere in the socio-cultural affairs of the country. For instance, were passed
regarding prohibition of female infanticide, sati and slavery and passing of legislation regarding widow
remarriage.
• In 1850, the Religious Disabilities Act was passed legislations which modified certain Hindu customs; for
example, it stated that a change of religion would not debar a son from inheriting the property of his heathen
father
• Thus, Indians had begun to feel that their religion and culture was in danger. The atmosphere had become so
charged with suspicion that even railways and telegraph began to be looked upon as instruments of conversion.
• The rebels referred to the telegraph as 'the accursed string that strangled them' and the education offices set up
by the British as 'shaitani daftars'. In such a context, the greased cartridge incident proved a trigger and
convinced both the Hindus and the Muslims that the British were deliberately trying to destroy their religion.

Military Causes
Grievances of the Sepoys
• Over the years, several grievances of the sepoys in the British army had got accumulated. But first we need to
understand who were these sepoys and where did they come from.
• The sepoys in the British army were in reality, 'peasants in uniform. Owing to the impoverishment caused by
the new land revenue settlements, many of them had joined military service to supplement their agricultural
income (only to realise that life was equally tough and exploitative for an Indian sepoy!).
• Further, in the Bengal Army, service was hereditary and nearly three-fifth of the sepoys came from peasant
population of Awadh and the high caste Brahmin and Rajput families of North-West Provinces. Naturally, these
sepoys reflected all the grievances of the civil population of Awadh as well as the grievances of the high caste
and royal families.
• Thus, annexations of princely states did not go down well with these sepoys. Particularly when Awadh was
annexed, they suddenly realized that the Company had used their services to liquidate their own King.

Other causes of growing resentment among the sepoys may be understood under the following heads:

Professional Grievances
• An Indian sepoy was paid one-third the salary of a European sepoy (7-9 monthly). There was racial
discrimination in matters of promotion and pension. Indian sepoys were treated roughly, abused and humiliated.
• They were forced to serve in far-away regions without payment of any extra bana (allowance). They were no
longer gifted with jagirs and other prizes for their meritorious deeds, as was the case under Indian rulers.
• In 1854, the Post Office Act was passed which withdrew the free-postage privilege of the sepoys.

Religious Grievances
• In addition to the above, the upper caste sepoys found that their service conditions frequently came in conflict
with their religious beliefs.

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• The high caste sepoys resented the part of army discipline that treated them at par with the low caste recruits.
In 1806, at Vellore, the turban was replaced by a leather cockade. This caused the sepoys to rise in mutiny.
• In 1824, the sepoys at Barrackpore refused to go to Burma as crossing the sea meant loss of caste. The regiment
was disbanded and some leaders put to death. In 1844, the sepoys of Bengal Army refused to go to Sind as
crossing Indus again meant loss of caste. In 1856, General Service Enlistment Act was passed by the Canning
government-it
• stated that all future recruits of the Bengal army would have to give an undertaking to serve anywhere their
service might be required by the government. This act aroused wide scale hostility since the sepoys who had
gone to Afghanistan during 1839-42 Afghan invasion, had not been readmitted into the folds of their castes.
• Closer to 1857, there were reports of bone dust in flour ration.
• Invincibility of British Rule Shattered In the years immediately preceding the Revolt, the British army
suffered major reverses in wars such as
o The First Afghan War (1838-42),
o Punjab Wars (1845-49) and
o The Crimean War (1854 56).
o In 1855-56, the powerful Santhal uprising took place and temporarily swept away the British from their
area.
These events had lowered the general morale of the British soldiers but had added immensely to the confidence of the
Indian masses, particularly the sepoys who had begun to feel that if they struck at that hour, they had reasonable
chances of success against their foreign perpetrators. Thus, the sepoys were only waiting for the right occasion and the
occasion was supplied by the greased cartridges incident.

Immediate Cause
In 1857, the old-fashioned musket 'Brown Bess' was replaced by the new Enfield Rifile cartridges were covered with
a greased paper which had to be bitten off before the cartridge w was loaded into the rifle. A rumour gained currency
in the Bengal Army that this grease was made of beef and pig fat. This completely outraged the religious sentiments of
both Hindu and Muslim sepoys and they were now convinced that the British were deliberately trying to destroy their
religion. This issue of Enfield Rifles became the immediate cause of the Revolt of 1857.

101. What were the consequence of revolt of 1857, in what ways it changed British rule in India
Or
What were impact of revolt of 1857 and what changes did it bring with respect to British India relation.

Hint-
Consequences Or Impact Of The Revolt Of 1857
• Even though the Revolt of 1857 was suppressed and British authority re-established, the revolt gave a severe
jolt to the British government. It emerged as a milestone event, an eye-opener, full of lessons and warnings for
the Raj.
• The structure and policies of the re-established British Raj were, in many respects, drastically changed and
inaugurated a new era of colonialism in India. Mid-19th century had witnessed the spread of Industrial
Revolution in other countries.
• Countries of Europe, USA and Japan underwent industrialisation. With this began the race for new markets and
colonies. Consequently, Britain began vigorous efforts to save its existing empire.
• Thus, the changes introduced in the post-revolt years were guided by a renewed imperialist ideology evident in
the reactionary policies of Viceroys such as Lytton, Dufferin and Curzon. The feudal and vested interests were
protected, policy of divide and rule was more vigorously pursued and European control over key positions was
tightened.

Change of Power
• After the Revolt of 1857, the British government was forced to pass the Government of India Act of 1858
which called for the liquidation of British East India Company.
• The Act of 1858 abolished the East India Company and ended its rule in India. Power to govern India was
transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown. The Governor General was now to be called as
Viceroy or Crown's representative.

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• The Court of Directors and the Board of Control were abolished and transferred to the Principal Secretary
of State for India and India Council (also called Advisory Council-a 15 member Council to aid and advice the
Secretary of State).
• They were to govern India in the name of the Crown. This Secretary of State was a member of the British
Cabinet and as such responsible to the Parliament. He was required to submit a periodic report on the moral and
material progress of India.
• The Act ushered in a new era in Indian history, bringing an end to the Company's rule in India. At the same
time, this change of power was more 'formal' than 'substantial'.
• It was intended that the change of name will immediately condone the past and give a fresh starting point to the
in England. But The Act did not change anything in India, and only brought about some cosmetic changes affairs
through the Board of Control. Now it was to do this directly. Further, no new policy was Inaugurated by the
Act.
• A few months later, the Act was followed by Queen Victoria's proclamation. The proclamation was announced
on 1 November 1858 at a grand Darbar held at Allahabad. The document is also known as the 'Magna Carta
of the people of India' and it declared the future policy of the British rule in India.

Changes in Military Policy

• The Indian Army had been chiefly responsible for the crisis of 1857 and it was thoroughly reorganised.
Measures were taken to prevent future revolts
• The number of European soldiers was increased. In the Bengal army, ratio was fixed at one European soldier
for two Indian soldiers (1:2). In Bombay and Madras armies, ratio was fixed at 1:3 or 2:5. and
• European troops were strategically placed at key areas; all big positions in army artillery were reserved for
Europeans.
• European troops were given exclusive charge of critical branches like artillery. Soldiers from Awadh, Bihar
and Central India were declared as non-martial while Punjabis, Gorkhas and Pathans (who had fought for the
British) were declared as martial and recruited in large numbers. By 1875, half of the British Indian from Punjab.
army was recruited Indian troops were organised on the policy of 'divide and rule' or balance and counterpoise.
Regiments were formed along the lines of caste, community and region to prevent development of feelings of
solidarity and nationalism.
• The British section of the Indian army served as an army of occupation and became the ultimate guarantee
of Britain's hold over India. The British Indian army was also used to further the cause of British imperialism
in Asia and Africa.
• Change in Policy Towards the Upper Classes (Princes and Landlords) Policy of annexations abandoned:
Prior to the Revolt, the British took up every opportunity to annex the Princely states. Yet, no more than 1 per
cent of the Indian princes participated in the Revolt. They largely remained loyal to the British and actively
participated in suppression of the Revolt. Viceroy Canning later declared that they had acted as 'breakwaters in
the storm'.
• Realising their utility as significant allies, the British abandoned the policy of annexations. The Queen
declared in her proclamation of 1858 that there shall be no more annexations, the states will be allowed to adopt
their heirs. Canning abandoned the Doctrine of Lapse (that had aggrieved Rani of Jhansi, Nana Sahib and Begum
Hazrat Mahal). The princes, zamindars and landlords were now to be utilised as counterweights against the
nationalists.
• Princes and landlords rewarded and befriended: Villages were restored to taluqdars, subject to loyalty and
transmission of information. The princes who had remained loyal to the British during the Revolt were rewarded
(these included Gwalior, Rampur, Patiala and Jind). They were organised into a Board of privileged dependents.
In 1861, a special order of knighthood 'the star of India' was instituted and its recipients were the rulers of
Bhopal, Baroda, Gwalior, Patiala and Rampur,
• Britain as paramount power: At the same time, as a price, the Indian States were made to acknowledge Britain
as the paramount power (Prior to 1857, at least in theory, the princely states were considered subsidiary but
sovereign). In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of 'the Empress of India'. Curzon also declared that the
princely states were mere agents of the British Crown.
Thus, the British now aimed to befriend the strongest elements of Indian society, i.e. the princes and the landlords to
consolidate their position.

Change in Attitude Towards Educated Indians

Hostility Towards Higher Education
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• Even though the educated Indians did not participate in the Revolt, some of them had begun education in India
and even took active steps to curtail it after the formation of Indian National to understand the real nature of the
colonial rule. The British now became hostile to higher Congress in 1885.

Indian Civil Service Act of 1861

• One of the assurances contained in the Queen's Proclamation stated passing of indian civil service act of 1861,
which provided for an annual competitive exam to be held in London. However, the detailed rules framed were
such that they had the effect of keeping the civil services a close preserve of the Englishmen.

Indian Councils Act of 1861

• The British realised that a major cause for the Revolt was the miscommunication between the ruler and the
ruled. Sir Bartle Frère, in his famous Minute of 1860, pushed for the representation of Indians in the Legislative
Councils. It was felt that the association of Indians in legislation would familiarise the rulers with popular
sentiments and avoid future misunderstandings. In this way, the Act of 1861 marked a humble beginning
towards representative institutions in India.

Change in Policy Towards the Common Masses

Socio-religious Reforms
• The Queen's proclamation declared that, "We disclaim alike the desire to impose our convictions (religious) on
any of our subjects.' Social and religious institutions were an area in which the British intervened with great
caution. Yet, even this policy of limited social intervention was abandoned by the colonial government after the
Revolt of 1857. It was now openly put forward that there were many social and cultural defects in Indian society
which made Indian unfit to rule themselves! Hence, they must be governed by the British for an indefinite period
of time!
• According to Percival Spear, 'The Indian Government's honeymoon with progress was over.'

Divide and Rule

• Further, to prevent feelings of unity and nationhood among civilian population, the policy of divide and rule
was introduced even among the masses. The unity showed by Hindus and Muslims during the revolt disturbed
the colonial rulers and they got determined to break this unity.
• Immediately after the revolt, the Muslims were repressed (Since Bahadur Shah II was appealed to head the
revolt, the British believed the Revolt to be a Muslim conspiracy). Later, this policy was reversed and policy of
appeasement of Muslims was introduced which sowed the seeds of communalism in India and disrupted the
national movement.

Racial Discrimination
• Racial bitterness emerged as the worst legacy of the crisis. The British had always stayed aloof from Indians
but the Revolt of 1857 widened this racial divide. The British began to assert vigorously the doctrine of racial
supremacy to assert their authority and humiliate the Indians. etc. In Punch, a British weekly magazine of
humour and satire, the Indian was cartooned as half gorilla half negro who could be controlled only by a superior
race, and henceforth, the British rule was justified by the philosophy of "Whiteman's burden-the burden of
civilising the non-whites.
In this way, the Revolt of 1857 marked the beginning of a new phase of British rule in India. For the British, the dangers
from the feudal India ended and a new challenge emerged in the form of the English educated middle class.

102. The revolt of 1857 was a cumulative effect of the character and policies of Colonial rule in India. Examine.

Hint-
The insurrection of 1857 began on May 10, when the Company's Indian soldiers at Meerut revolted. The British called
it the Sepoy Mutiny, although it is today known as the First War of Independence against the British authorities.
This insurrection was a huge anti-colonial movement against the British's aggressive imperialist practises. In actuality,
it was a struggle against British domination on economic, political, and social levels.
Colonial authority in India's oppressive character and policies:

Political policies:
• The nature of annexation-based colonial growth became a major cause of resentment among Indian rulers.
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• Their annexation programme, known as the Doctrine of Lapse, resulted in the annexation of a number of
sovereign kingdoms to the British Empire. These were British-protected states whose monarchs had died
without leaving a natural heir to the throne. Lord Dalhousie annexed the Maratha states of Satara, Nagpur,
Jhansi, and several more lesser kingdoms in this manner.
• Many Indian monarchs despised the East India Company's influence.
• The annexation policy impacted troops, artisans, and even nobles.
• Even the traditional scholarly and priestly classes lost their patronage from these rulers.
Economic policies:
• It led the traditional Indian economy to be disrupted and subordinated to the British economy.
• The Indian economy is now suffering as a result of British policy. Because they campaigned against Indian
trade and industry, Indian handicrafts were utterly destroyed.
• The British offered low-cost, machine-made clothing in India, destroying the Indian cottage sector. It also
resulted in the layoff of millions of artisans.
• The British also levied high tariffs on Indian-made items. They could now make big profits because there was
no competition for their products. As a result, the British depleted India's wealth and natural resources.
• The colonial goal of increasing land revenue demand resulted in the eviction of a huge number of peasants. The
Permanent Settlement of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa did not recognise peasants' inherited rights to land, and if
they did not pay 10/11th of the total yield, their property might be sold off.
Interference with society and religion:
• Many people were dissatisfied with social reforms against sati, female infanticide, widow re-marriage, and
female education. The missionary activities aroused fear in the masses.
• The religious emotions of the sepoys were harmed during the Madras presidency in 1806. Hindus were urged
to remove caste insignia from their brows, while Muslims were asked to shorten their beards.
Dissatisfaction in the Army:
• Indian troops were not promoted above the rank of subedars. Some sepoys demanded a special bhatta/allowance
if they were moved overseas. They were occasionally paid, but the most of the time they were not.
• They were paid less than their English colleagues. As a result, the Indian sepoy's morale was extremely poor.
Administrative character:
• A major source of discontent was rampant corruption in the Company's administration, particularly among the
police, petty officials, and subordinate law courts.
British foreign policy:
• The insurrection was aided by external events in which the British incurred significant losses, including the First
Afghan War (1838-42), the Punjab Conflicts (1845-49), and the Crimean wars (1854-56). The British were
perceived to be weak, and it was believed that they might be vanquished.

Immediate policies:
The government chose to replace the traditional musket, dubbed "Brown Bags," with the "Enfield rifle." The Enfield
rifle was loaded by bringing the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top. In January 1857, there was a rumour
among the Sepoys that the greased cartridge contained cow and pig fat. This triggered the sepoy uprising on March
29, 1857.

Thus, The Revolt of 1857 was the first indication that Indians intended to end British rule and were willing to unite in
this cause. Despite failing to achieve their goal, they were successful in sowing the seeds of nationalism among Indians.

103. The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred
in the preceding hundred years of British Rule. Elucidate.
Q. “The Indian Rebellion was not one movement, … it was many.” C.A. Bayly brings to our notice what Eric
Stokes has written in his book ‘The peasant armed: the Indian Revolt of 1857’.

Hint-
During the first century of British rule, there were a series of uprisings which Kathleen Gough has called “restorative
rebellions’’ as they were started by disaffected local rulers, Mughal officials or dispossessed zamindars.
The century before 1857 witnessed more than 40 major rebellions apart from hundreds of minor ones. However, these
were local in character and effects & isolated from each other because each rebellion had a different motive.

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Peasant Uprisings
• The Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions, Bengal & Bihar (1770-1820s): These were widely recurrent confrontations
with almost 50,000 participants involved at the height of insurgency.
• The Revolt of Raja Chait Singh, Awadh (1778-81): Primary goal was to restore the existing agrarian relations
and it kept recurring till 1830s.
• Polygar Rebellions, Tamil Nadu (1799-1805): Polygars (feudal lords appointed as military chiefs) were joined
by peasants against Company’s tactics and the rebellion reached a big scale before it was oppressed.
• Paika Rebellion, Odisha (1817): An armed rebellion under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu against the
Company’s rule.
• Fairazi Movement, Eastern Bengal (1838-1848): First ever no-tax campaign led by Shariatullah Khan and
Dadu Mian. It was local in nature and kept on recurring till 1870s.
Tribal Uprisings
• Bhil Uprisings, Khandesh (present day Maharashtra & Gujarat), (1818-31): Bhils rebelled against the British
occupation of Khandesh but were crushed in 1819 but the situation remained unsettled till 1831.
• Kol Uprising, Chhota Nagpur & Singhbhum region, Bihar & Orissa (1831-32): Plunder and arson were the
chief mode with negligible killings but had a major impact in the region.
• Santhal Uprising, Eastern India (1855-56): The most effective tribal movement which spread rapidly covering
areas of Bihar, Orissa and Bengal against British infiltrating policies.

The century long economic exploitation, political subjugation, discriminatory policies, religious interference and
suppression of uprisings finally culminated in the revolt of 1857 giving a platform to the discontented leaders of the
earlier rebellions to raise voices against the Company.

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EARLY INDIAN NATIONALISM - 1858-1900
104. Discuss How an economic critique of British Imperialism by early nationalist leaders helped shape the
coherent ideology against British empire.

• The moderates, the congress's early leaders, were the first to develop an economic critique of British
Imperialism. This was the most significant contribution to the development of India's national movement.
• The British made a moral case for India's colonialism by tying it to the 'White Man's burden' to develop and
modernize the country. Moderate leaders such as Dada Bhai Naoroji, RC Dutt, and MG Ranade, in response,
used solid economic arguments to demonstrate that British imperialism benefited Britain at the expense of
India's exploitation.
• The theory of ‘Drain of Wealth’ was the most groundbreaking finding which also spearheaded the campaign.
This article will focus on the different critiques propounded by the national leaders and the impact it made on
the freedom movement.

Economic Critique of British Imperialism - Background

• Cognition of the negative economic consequences of British colonial rule in India can be traced back to the
early years of 1830s in the writings of Raja Rammohan Roy.
• He complained against the ‘tribute’ paid to Britain and showed his concern for the plight of the self-cultivating
peasants.
• Other early critiques included certain Maharashtrian intellectuals such as Bhaskar Pandurang Tarkhadkar,
Govind Vitthal Kunte (popularly known as Bhau Mahajan) and Ramkrishna Vishwanath who criticized
the British rule for economically exploiting India, particularly by draining its resources.
• Bhaskar Tarkhadkar argued that the destruction of the indigenous industry in Maharashtra, as in India as a
whole, resulted in poverty and misery of the artisans.
• He also criticized the no-tariff policy of the colonial government whereby ‘British goods were forced upon
India without paying any duty’.
• More comprehensive nationalist critique of British rule in India emerged during the 1870s and 1880s from
Dadabhai Naoroji, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Romesh Chunder Dutt, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, G. Subramaniya
Iyer, G.V. Joshi, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Surendranath Banerjea.

Various Economic Critiques Offered

Theory of Drain of Wealth
• Economic nationalism's central subject was the "drain of wealth" theory.
• The constant flow of India’s wealth to England without adequate economic, commercial or material reward has
been described by the early nationalists and economists as the ‘drain of wealth’.
• The wealth drain was recognised and propagated as one of the most important causes of impoverishment of
India.
• Early leaders complained that home expenses such as salary and pensions for officers stationed in London,
as well as guaranteed interest payments on British investments such as railways, were contributing to India's
impoverishment.
• The theory was systematically developed by Dadabhai Naoroji initially through his book Poverty and Un-
British rule in India, which was further studied and expanded by R.P Dutt, M.G Ranade etc.
Foreign capital investment and free trade
• India became a supplier of agricultural supplies and a market for British finished goods in the absence of any
protective tariffs.
• This resulted in India's "de-industrialisation," and the country became a reliant agrarian economy.
• Tariff protection and direct government aid should be used to encourage modern industry.
High Land Revenue
• The early nationalists demanded a reduction in land revenue, the repeal of the salt tax, and better
working conditions for plantation labourers.
• Early nationalist leaders claimed that land revenue was as high as 50 to 60 percent in practise, resulting in land
dispossession, peasant destitution, and periodic famines.
Military Expenditure
• It was pointed out that the Indian army was utilized in imperial wars all over the world, with India bearing the
brunt of the costs.
• The moderates urged that the British government split the military costs equally.
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Impact of Economic critique

• The British conceded to the nationalist leaders’ persuasion against military spending. The government agreed
to contribute a portion of their military spending worth 1 million pounds.
• In Ryotwari Areas, a scientific appraisal of land revenue was advocated.
• The British lost their moral legitimacy to control India, and Indians became convinced of their rule's
exploitative nature. This aided in the spread of Indian nationalism.
• The moderates wanted increased Indian involvement in the management of Indian affairs by establishing a
rational case of British exploitation which was achieved post the exposition of the economic plunder by the
colonialists.
• Indians were enraged and distrustful of British rule as a result of the economic criticism. This rage then paved
the way for the extremists' desire for Swaraj.
Economic critique had a crucial role in developing the anti-British sentiment. Despite limited successes in the short
run, economic nationalism strengthened the mistrust on the intentions of the British and created a fertile ground for
national movement to grow and subsequently demand self rule.

105. Examine how the Pre-Indian National Congress (INC) organisation built the momentum for Nation
building and national struggle?

Hint-
Most of the pre-INC organisations have local and regional character. And brought democratic politics in India.
▪ Most of these organisation had demanded macro level reforms like
o Administrative Reform
o Association of Indians with the administration and
o Spread of education
There are some of these organisation and their contribution to the ideological and political India for nation building:
▪ British India Association 1851: Formed by merging Zamindari Association and Bengal British India
Society. It had raised voice for
o Separate legislature of a popular character
o Separate executive and judicial functions
o Reduction in salaries of officials and various duties.
o The organisation by its macro level demand brought political awareness among middle class
intelligentsia.
▪ East India Association 1866: It was organised by Dadabhai Naoroji in London to influence the public in
England for India’s welfare. This was the first organisation to use persuasion in foreign land for India's interest.
▪ The Indian League 1875: It was started by Sisir Kumar Ghosh. Its contribution was “stimulating the sense
of nationalism amongst the people” and of “encouraging political education”.
▪ The India Association of Calcutta (aka Indian National Association): It was led by Surendranath Banerjea
and Anand Mohan Bose. It contributed to:
o Create a strong public opinion on the political question
o Unify Indian people in a common political programme.
▪ Pre-INC organisation organised various campaigns like:
o Against Arms Act 1878
o Against Vernacular Press Act 1878
o Against plantation labour and against Inland Emigration Act
o In support of the Ilbert bill
o Campaign in British to vote for pro-India party
o Against reduction in maximum age for appearing in civil services.
▪ Contribution of Pre-INC organisation:
o Bring political and economic awareness amongst middle class intelligentsia
o Brought sense of belongingness amongst the elite for cause of masses
o Raised voice for major executive, judicial and legislative reform
o Campaign for general administrative and defense civil rights
▪ These organisations had given a democratic and peaceful form of struggle that led to mass movement in later
years.

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Although these organisations had been dominated by wealthy and aristocratic persons but created a politically trained
and democratically managed middle-class intelligentsia that brought mass movement under leadership of Gandhi and
others.

106. Discuss the political work done by pre-congress organization.

Hint-
Pre-Congress Political Work (1875-1885)
Indians gained tremendous experience and confidence through the political work carried on during this decade. For
instance:
• The Indian Mirror of Calcutta was carrying out a continuous campaign on the need for all-India association.
• There were protests all over India over imposition of License Tax (1878) and abolition of Cotton Import
Duties (1879).
• A massive campaign had been organised during 1877-88 around the demand for Indianisation of government
services. Indians also opposed the Afghan war of Lord Lytton.
• Major campaigns were waged against the Vernacular Press Act, the Arms Act (aimed at disarming the
Indians) and the Plantation Labour and the Inland Emigration Act (during 1881-82 which condemned
plantation labourers to serfdom) were also opposed.
• During 1883, a major agitation was organised in favour of the llbert Bill which aimed at bringing the Indian
magistrates at par with the European magistrates.
• In 1885, a massive all India campaign was organised to raise a National Fund to promote political agitation
in India as well as in England. Indians also appealed to the British voters to elect candidates who were friendly
towards India.
• In December 1883, the Indian Association organised an All India National Conference and gave a call for
another one in December 1885.
• Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose were the main architects of the All India National
Conference.
Now, it was only a matter of time before a national body was created and the stage was set for the birth of the INC.
The stage was set for some basic objectives to be struggled for and the founders of the INC were inspired by these
basic objectives. India had begun to enter the process of becoming a nation, and the first major objective of the
founders of INC was to weld India into one nation. The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, thus emerged
as the first organised expression of the Indian national movement on an all-India scale.

107. What were the aims and objectives of the Indian National Congress at the time of its inception? Discuss
how far was it successful to achieve the targets.

Hint-
A strong foundation had been laid in the late 1870s and early 1880s for the creation of an all-India organization. A.O.
Hume, a retired English civil servant, gave this concept its final form when he rallied the top thinkers of the day and,
with their assistance, planned the first meeting of the Indian National Congress in December 1885.

The main aims of the Indian National Congress in the initial stage-
The initial stages were from 1885-1905 which were dominated by moderates, thus their views shaped the earlier thinking
pattern of the congress.
✓ The early nationalist believed that India was still a nation in making therefore it has to be carefully nurtured.
✓ They believed that the time was not ripe for direct struggle with the british, they were highly attracted towards
democracy thus they planned to move towards democratic self governance.
✓ a democratic, nationalist movement to found;
✓ Politicize and educate individuals about politics;
✓ Identify the location of a movement's headquarters;
✓ Encourage cordial relationships between nationalist political activists from various regions of the nation;
✓ Create and spread a nationalist anti-colonialist philosophy;
✓ to bring the people together around a single economic and political programme, formulate and propose
popular demands to the government;
✓ cultivate and strengthen a sense of national unity among all people, regardless of religion, caste, or province;
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✓ Promote and cultivate Indian nationalism with care.

Evaluation of INC's early-stage performance

Successes
• They represented the most progressive forces of the time.
• They were successful in inspiring a widespread national awakening that all Indians shared common interests,
the need to unite behind a common strategy to defeat a common foe, and most importantly, a sense of shared
national identity.
• They provided political training and spread the word about contemporary concepts.
• They undermined colonial rule's moral foundations by exposing its fundamentally exploitative nature.
• They did not base their political activity on sentimental whimsies or ideologies, but rather on cold, hard facts.
• They were able to prove the fundamental political truth—that India should be governed in the people's best
interests.
• In the years that followed, they established a strong foundation for a more ferocious, militant, and broadly
based national movement.

functional problems in the early stages

✓ Even though they were unable to attract the people to them, the early nationalists made significant
contributions to arousing national emotion.
✓ The masses had a limited social base and took a passive role during the moderate period of the national
movement. This was due to the early nationalists' lack of political faith in the general populace; they believed
that Indian society was divided and subdivided, and that the populace as a whole was stupid and held traditional
beliefs.
✓ Early on, INC was unable to expand both the democratic base and the range of its demands.

It was often believed that Hume established the Congress with the hope that it would serve as a "safety valve" for the
Indians' mounting unhappiness. However, INC embodied the desire of politically aware Indians to create a national
organisation to represent their political and economic aspirations.
Historians point out that, given the circumstances, the early Congress leaders employed Hume as a "lightning
conductor," or as a catalyst to unite the patriotic forces, even if they did so by disguising him as a "safety valve."

108. Indian National Congress acted as a safety valve for the British government. Critically examine.

Hint-
Extremists in India, including Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and others, are credited
with developing the safety valve hypothesis. Lala Lajpat Rai is the author of two books: "Unhappy India" and
"Punjabi." In these two volumes, he outlined and challenged British policies in relation to the founding of the INC.
He said that a conspiracy hatched by Lord Dufferin and A.O. Hume led to the establishment of the Indian National
Congress (INC). In Indian political circles, the safety-valve hypothesis gained traction.

The safety valve argument, according to which the British wished to use INC to quell the growing unrest among the
Indian people, is widely believed to have been the driving force behind the founding of INC. The adoption of the
Vernacular Press Act, the Illbert bill controversy (1883), widespread racial discriminations, etc. were the causes
of Indians' unhappiness.
In light of this context, retired British civil servant A.O. Hume founded the INC, which was founded for a number of
reasons, some of which are listed below:
✓ According to W.C. Banerjee, INC was tasked with determining the level of unhappiness among the Indian
populace in order to prevent a major uprising.
✓ Additionally, the British did not want a repeat of the Revolt of 1857 in their conflict with the Indians. So they
provided the Indians with a means of expressing their resentment.
✓ The British also desired to keep abreast of the general mood.
✓ Additionally, the British deliberately enabled INC to establish so that the Indian Intelligentsia would be
occupied there rather than actively inciting the masses.

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However, taking into account the following claims makes the aforementioned justification appear to be only partially
true:

• Since various regional organisations had been operating in India since the 1860s, the formation of INC was
not an unexpected event. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, for instance, and the Bombay Presidency Association
• Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Pherojshah Mehta desired an all-Indian political structure to give the
movement a suitable shape and to organise the nation against the British yoke.
• In addition, Indians created this platform with British assistance to avoid another suppression like the one
that occurred in 1857. In order to achieve this, it was desired to employ Hume as a lightning conductor.

As a result, once INC was established, it did not really matter why it was founded as INC developed over time and
assisted India in achieving its much-needed freedom.

109. Examine the reasons that led to the foundation of Indian National Congress and its major objectives.
Hint-

• A strong foundation had been laid in the late 1870s and early 1880s for the creation of an all-India organisation.
• A.O. Hume, a retired English civil officer, gave this concept its ultimate form when he rallied the top thinkers
of the day and, with their assistance, planned the inaugural meeting of the Indian National Congress in Bombay
in December 1885.

REASONS THAT LED TO THE BIRTH OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

1. Accumulated dissatisfaction against the British Rule
o With the spread of the foreign rule in India, the people had begun to feel the unpleasantness of the British
Raj. They felt that they were being insulted and subordinated in their own country, lowest rung of society,
the peasants and the tribals, started to rebel in the form of uprisings in with their religion and way of life
threatened.
2. Emergence of the educated Indians as new leaders
o The failure of the Revolt of 1857 had exposed the inadequacy of traditional leadership. The raja
maharajas and the landlords had all been defeated by the British. The new middle class now emerged as
the new leaders. They are also described by the historians as the professional classes or the English
educated elite' or the 'intelligentsia.
3. Role of nationalist art and literature
o This was the period when nationalist ideas had begun to emerge in people's songs, poems and plays. 1867
onwards, some Bengali leaders organised the Hindu Mela for some years to promote indigenous art and
craft. During this time, British policies were blamed for Indian poverty and need for Swadeshi goods
emphasised.
o In 1860s, a Bengali play called Neel Darpan (Dinbandhu Mitra) became popular which reflected the
plight of indigo farmers.
o Many newspapers and journals of this period also played a significant role in building up public opinion
against the excesses of the British rule. These included English language newspapers such as Amrit
Bazaar Patrika, Som Bazaar and The Hindu. Some important Hindi language newspapers were Bharat
Mitra and Jagat Mitra.
4. Role of Political Associations prior to INC
o This chain of political activity was first triggered in 1838 with the formation of Landholder's society in
Bengal. They did a good job in stirring political momentum but soon, for various reasons, people became
dissatisfied with many of them. Their main focus was to protect their own interest along with that they also
had little influence outside their area. Thus a need for all India association was felt which ultimately
resulted into formation of INC.
Opinions on the factors that led to the creation of the Indian National Congress (INC)
• Theory of Safety Valves: There is a suggestion that Hume established the Congress with the hope that it
would serve as a "safety valve" for the Indians' mounting unhappiness. In order to achieve this, he
persuaded Lord Dufferin not to hinder the Congress' establishment.
• The "safety valve" doctrine was held by hardline leaders such Lala Lajpat Rai. Even the "conspiracy
theory" advanced by the Marxist historian was a product of the "safety valve" idea.
• Organization for expression of Indian Demands: Indian historians of the modern era contest the concept
of a "safety valve" as an organisation for the expression of Indian demands. They believed that the
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Indian National Congress embodied the desire of politically aware Indians to establish a national
organisation to reflect Indian political and economic concerns. Bipan Chandra, a historian, notes that early
Congress leaders used Hume as a unifying force.
principal goals of INC
• Establishing a Pan India Organization in order to launch a democratic, nationalist movement
• People should be politicised and politically educated, according to Congress, which sought to raise awareness
of the colonial powers' exploitation of Indians' political rights. In order to do this, Congress put a strong
emphasis on calling for more Indians to be employed in the civil service, among other things.
• Anti-colonialism: Create and spread an anti-colonial nationalist philosophy; Encourage cordial relationships
amongst nationalist political activists from all regions of the nation.
• Create and convey public demands to the government with the goal of unifying the populace around a single
economic and political platform. A forward-looking political and economic programme.
• Promote nationalism by helping all people, regardless of religion, caste, or province, experience a sense of
national solidarity.
Therefore, INC's goals went beyond simply criticising British policies to include a forward-thinking agenda to better
the lives of Indians. With the founding of INC, the Moderates lay the groundwork for a mass-based independence
campaign even though their effort was unsuccessful.

110. Discuss the factor responsible for the rise and growth of Indian nationalism

Hint-
Factors Responsible For The Rise And Growth Of Indian Nationalism

The British Rule along with its various direct and indirect consequences provided the material, moral and intellectual
conditions for the rise and growth of national consciousness in India.

Impact of British Rule

• The British had set foot in India to serve their own interests and the consequently, the rule they established in
India was a colonial one. Thus, clash of interests with the subject population was inherent to the British rule
in India.
• Most classes of Indian society gradually discovered that their interests were suffering at the hands of the
British rulers. Thus, the British rule in India evoked a strong reaction from various sections of Indian people
.

The colonial policies of the British rule and their consequences are discussed below
Direct Consequences of British Rule

• Economic Exploitation of India: The British rule in India led to the ruin of Indian agriculture and handicraft
industries, badly impoverishing the Indian peasants and artisans in the process.
• Unified System of Administration: During British rule, large parts of India were brought under uniform
system of administration for ease of governance and better exploitation of resources. Important measures
adopted for bringing about this uniformity were related to land revenue administration, police, law and order
machinery and judicial system.
• New Means of Transport and Communication: Driven by administrative convenience, fool-proof defence
and economic penetration, the British carried out a planned development of modern means of transport in
India.
• Post and Telegraph were given impetus. All major towns were linked with telegraph. Letters and newspapers
could be sent anywhere in India at the cheap rate.
• Introduction of Printing Press: Modern press, both English and vernacular, was also an offshoot of the
British rule in India. The literate nationalists used this medium to expose British excesses and spread
nationalist ideas across the country.
• Some of the prominent nationalist writers of the period included Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and
Rabindranath Tagore (in Bengali), Lakshminath Bezbarua in Assamese, Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar in
Marathi, Subramanya Bharati in Tamil, Bharatendu Harishchadra in Hindi.
• New Education System: In 1835, the British inaugurated the system of English education in India with the
intention of creating a loyal class of English educated Indians who could carry out clerical tasks.
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• Policy of Continuous Expansion: The British followed the policy of continuous expansion in India, annexing
even those states which were not at war with the British Important among these were the annexations of Sind
(1843), Punjab (1849), Rangoon and Pegu (1852), and Awadh (1856). Jhansi, Satara and Nagpur were also
annexed. This made the India rulers highly apprehensive of the British
• Racial Discrimination: The British in India adopted an attitude of racial superiority and discriminated
against Indians in all matters including social and judicial.
• Foreign Character of the British Rule: A foreign rule invariably unites the subject population against their
common oppressor and arouses patriotic feelings in them. This was true even in case of British Rule in India.

Indirect Consequences of British Rule

The above-mentioned colonial policies further gave rise to the following factors:
• Political unity of India: The British conquered the whole of India from the Himalayas in the north to Cape
Comorin in the south and from Assam in the east to Khyber Pass in the west. Moreover, common laws and
common institutions began to shape India in a common mould.
• Economic and administrative unity of India: The unified system of government introduced by the British
throughout the country also welded India into one nation.
• Psychological unity of India: The harmful effects of the British colonial rule on the lives of all sections of
Indian people, united them against one common enemy-the British rule.
• Rise of the middle-class intelligentsia: The English system of education and administration gave rise to a new
urban middle class in towns.
Intellectual awakening among Indians:
o In the backdrop of new education system, 19th-century India was marked by process of socio-cultural ferment.
Among those who benefitted from modern education and emerged as the leading intellectuals of 19th century
India were-Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshub Chandra Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, MG Ranade and Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan
Progressive character of socio-cultural reform movements:
o In the 19th century, the educated Indians began to re-examine their socio-cultural beliefs in the light of the Dew
Western Scientific knowledge they had acquired. This process led to the rise of various socio-religious reform
movements among the Hindus such as the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, the Arya Samaj and the
Ramkrishna Mission, etc. Similar movements arose among the Muslims, the Sikhs and the Parsis.
o In the sphere of religion, these movements attacked religious superstition, idolatry, polytheism and hereditary
priesthood. In the social sphere, they attacked social evils such as the caste system, untouchability, sati, child
marriage, purdah system, etc. These movements sought to reorganise the society along progressive lines
guided by the ideals of democracy, equality, liberty and reason. Since many of them drew inspiration from
India's rich cultural past, they enthused their followers with a sense of self-respect and patriotism.
Impact of rediscovery of India's past:
o A consequence of foreign rule was that many Indians lost self-confidence. The foreign rulers also constantly
forwarded the thesis that Indians had always been unable to rule themselves.
Impact of Contemporary European Movements
o In Europe, the national liberation movements of Ireland, Italy and Greece also stirred great national emotions
in India. Leaders like Surendranath Banerjee and Lala Lajpat Rai often Referred to national heroes like
Mazzini and Garibaldi in their speeches.
Lord Lytton's Reactionary Policies
o Lord Lytton's short-sighted policies acted like a catalyst and accelerated the national movement against the
British.
The Ilbert Bill Controversy (or White Mutiny, 1883)
o The Europeans stood united to oppose the bill in what came to be known as the White Mutiny of 1883.
o This controversy proved to be an eye-opener to the Indian intelligentsia. It proved to them that justice and
equality could not be expected where the interests of European community were involved. It also demonstrated
to them the value of organized protest. The bitter controversy ended up deepening antagonism between the
British and the Indians and emerged as a prelude to the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

111. “The vernacular press in the nineteenth century was both a newspaper as well as ‘views-papers’ that
enlightened the dormant masses.” Discuss the role played by press.

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Hint-
In the initial phase of the freedom struggle before it being a mass movement, the Press was the chief instrument in
arousing, shaping and consolidating public opinion towards national awakening and exposing the colonial rule.

Newspapers became a form of public participation in not only cities and towns but also villages where it was read or
heard and thoroughly discussed.

Newspapers as views papers

• Library culture-
Libraries were frequently built around a particular newspaper. They were used by the people as "reading
clubs” and was the only way to participate and generate political consciousness in Indian people.
• As enlightenment tool-
Press acted as a means to plant ideals of equality, liberty, fraternity, concept of modern state, free speech etc
• On social issues-
Neel Darpan published and urged people to stop cultivating Indigo. Newspapers discussed issues of sati,
widow remarriage
• Institutional Opposition-
Criticized every act and every policy of government and educated people about its repercussions. Anti-
imperialist extracts from London based socialist newspapers and nationalist newspapers were published.
• Publishing newspaper was a public service and not a business.
• About a third of the founding fathers of Congress in 1885 were journalists.
The British from time-to-time enacted harsh laws to takeout press freedom. The national movement from the beginning
zealously defended the freedom of the Press whenever the Government attacked it or tried to curtail it. In fact, the
struggle for the freedom of the Press became an integral part of the struggle for freedom.

112. Indian nationalism grew partly as a result of colonial policies and partly as a reaction to colonial policies.
Discuss.

Hint-
• Indian Nationalist Movement was a grand and prolonged struggle launched against British imperialism.
Nationalism was the main ideology and the instrument with whose help this struggle was launched.
• In the context of the Indian Nationalist Movement, Indian nationalism represented two major ideas: anti-
imperialism and national unity. In other words, any person, movement or organisation that practised and upheld
these two ideas, could be considered a nationalist.

Factors that led to rise of Indian Nationalism:

Colonial Policies:
• Western thought and education:
o When the British introduced Western education in India, they aimed at creating a class of educated
Indians who could serve the British Interests. However, the English language helped nationalist leaders
from different linguistic regions to communicate with each other and create a sense of national identity.
o Modern western education also propagated the ideas of Nationalism, democracy, rights and freedom.
• Socio-religious reforms:
o These reform movements sought to remove social evils which divided the Indian society; this had the
effect of bringing different sections together, and proved to be an important factor in the growth of
Indian nationalism.
• Modern press and literature:
o the second half of the nineteenth century saw the rise of modern press in India. It helped in often
criticising the British policies and bringing together people from different backgrounds by spreading
awareness.
Political unity:
The political unification of the country, necessitated by the convenience had a twofold effect:
✓ The economic fate of the people of different regions got linked together; for instance, failure of crops in one
region affected the prices and supply in another region.
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✓ Modern means of transport and communication (esp Railways) brought people, especially the leaders, from
different regions together. This was important for the exchange of political ideas and for mobilisation and
organisation of public opinion on political and economic issues.
Reaction to colonial policies:
Rediscovery of India’s past:
• The historical researches by European and Indian scholars created an entirely new picture of India’s past.
• The theory put forward by European scholars, that the Indo-Aryans belonged to the same ethnic group from
which other nations of Europe had evolved, gave a psychological boost to the educated Indians.
• The self-respect and confidence so gained helped the nationalists to demolish colonial myths that India had a
long history of servility to foreign rulers.
Rise of middle class intelligentsia:
• British administrative and economic innovations gave rise to a new urban middle class in towns. This class,
prominent because of its education, new position and its close ties with the ruling class, came to the forefront.
The leadership to the Indian National Congress in all its stages of growth was provided by this class.
Racial arrogance of rulers:
• Racial myths of white superiority were sought to be perpetuated by the British through a deliberate policy of
discrimination and segregation. Indians felt deeply hurt by this.
• Example: Lytton’s reactionary policies such as reduction of maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination from
21 years to 19 years (1876)
• It became clear to the nationalists that justice and fair play could not be expected where interests of the European
Community were involved. However, the organised agitation by the Europeans to revoke the Ilbert Bill also
taught the nationalists how to agitate for certain rights and demands.
The British policies and the growing anger against the colonial government brought together different groups and classes
of Indians into a common struggle for freedom. In a nutshell, we can say that Indian nationalism grew partly as a result
of colonial policies and partly as a reaction to colonial policies.

113. “Though the Swadeshi movement failed in achieving its immediate objective, yet it played a significant
role in the Indian freedom struggle”. Discuss

Indian National Congress initiated the Swadeshi movement in Bengal against the announcement of the partition of
Bengal in July 1905 by Lord Curzon. It was launched as a protest movement which also gave a lead to the Boycott
movement in the country. It led to the use of goods produced in India and burning British-made goods.
Reasons for Failure
• The movement threw up an entire gamut of techniques that later came to be associated with Gandhian
politics—noncooperation, passive resistance, filling of British jails, social reform and constructive work.
o However, the movement failed to create these techniques with a disciplined focus and it lacked an
effective organisation or a party structure.
o The movement aroused the people but did not know how to tap the newly released energy or how to
find new forms to give expression to popular resentment.
• Surat split:
o internal squabbles among leaders, magnified by the Surat split (1907), did much harm to the movement.
• Leaderless movement:
o the movement was rendered leaderless with most of the leaders either arrested or deported by 1908 and
with Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal retiring from active politics.
• Limited participation:
o the movement largely remained confined to the upper and middle classes and zamindars, and failed to
reach the masses—especially the peasantry.
Impact of Swadeshi Movement
• Change in strategy: the movement was a turning point in modern Indian history. It proved to be a “leap
forward” in more ways than one.
o The previously untouched sections like students, women, workers, some sections of the urban and rural
population participated.
o The trend of the national movement moved from conservative moderation to political extremism, from
revolutionary activities to incipient socialism, from petitions and prayers to passive resistance and non-
cooperation, emerged during the Swadeshi Movement.
• Growth of indigenous industries:
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o the anti-partition agitation paved the way for the development of indigenous industries, for example,
Acharya PC Ray’s Bengal Chemical Stores. This inculcated a feeling of self-reliance by reducing the
dependence on foreign goods.
• Growth of national education:
o the movement also increased the demand for national education and numerous national schools and
colleges came up in various parts.
o In1906, a National Council of Education was set up. A National College with Aurobindo Ghose as
Principal was opened in Kolkata.
o The movement led to the flourishing of the Bengali literature under Rabindranath Tagore, Rajani Kanta
Sen etc.
• Attainment of swaraj:
o Swadeshi, as a strategy, was a key focus of Mahatma Gandhi, who described it as the soul of Swaraj
(self-rule). It became an important tool for Gandhian movements in Indian National Movement.

The Swadeshi Movement was not successful in reaching its immediate goals but it provided a platform for the national
freedom struggle. Later it showed the way to nationalist leaders to prepare the masses for the next phase of struggle
under Gandhiji’s leadership.

114. What was the reason behind the Swadeshi movement? Discuss the agitational methods adopted during
the movement and impact of the movement.

Hint-

Swadeshi movement was one of the most successful movements of Pre-Gandhian era.
• Movement finds itself in the backdrop of the mendicant policies of the early nationalist leaders who resisted
the Un-British like rule in India but believed in the English monarchy per se.
• Major cause of Swadeshi movement can be attributed to the partition of Bengal in 1905 which was seen by
the Indian nationalist as a divisionary tactics of Britishers to weaken the Bengali (Bhadralok) intelligentsia
class which was seen as a cradle of Indian resistance.
Other Reasons
There were however multiple other reasons that led to discontent amongst Indians like:-
• Growing awareness about the economic exploitation by Britishers of Indian masses through drain of wealth
theory.
• Diverting fund for railways and police instead of education and famines.
• Passing of Indian university commission Act 1904 which increased the official control over universities by
increasing the nominated elements over the elected ones.
• Punjab land alienation Act of 1900 which prohibited any sale or purchase of land for 15 years by non-peasants.
• Calcutta Corporation Act of 1899 through through which strength of the elected members was reduced,
thereby giving a majority to the European members. Thus the Calcutta Corporation came to be known as Anglo
Indian house.
• Britishers also underestimated the unity of Bengali people and thought that there would not be much resistance.

Agitational methods
• The movement saw variety of methods and instruments which were unheard in Indian national resistance.
• Initially movement adopted passive resistance such as filling petitions, organising prayers, meetings, peaceful
strikes, distributing propaganda pamphlets etc.
• Hindu-Muslims tied threads to each other hands to show unity between both the religions, many people fasted
to show resistance.
• However as the movement gained momentum more active form of resistance started to take place in form of
organized and relentless boycott of English cloth, products, picketing of shops, workers refusing to work for
Europeans, labor’s strike particularly in Bengal.
• Giving up of Anglo-education and promoting vernacular literature through opening of schools, colleges such
Bengal national college.
• Promotion of indigenous industries such as PC Ray’s Bengal chemicals, VO Chidambaram Pillai’s Swadeshi
Steam Navigation Company etc.

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• Imaginative use of religion for invoking spirit of righteousness by calling Britishers as evil and opening
resistance against them through celebration of Shivaji Mahotsav, Ganesh Utsav.
• Various samitis came up in many parts of Bengal such as Swadesh Bandhab Samiti, Dacca Anushilan Samitis
etc which mobilized people at mass level by engaging in various types of activities such social work during
famines ,festivals; preaching swadeshi message, organizing crafts, setting up arbitration courts etc.
• The resistance could also be seen in cultural sphere in literature and songs of Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim
Chandra Chatopadhyay’s vande matram; Abindranath Tagore broke the dominance of Victorian art form and
took to Indian styles of painting; JC Bose’s study in the field of biology filled Indians with sense of pride and
achievement.

Impact of the movement

• People from all walks of life participated in the movement with the greatest contribution coming from students
and women.
• It resulted in significant decline in the foreign imports during 1905-1908.
• It led to building of self-reliance or Atma Shakti asserting on national dignity, honor and confidence.
• The Swadeshi movement led the people to learn to challenge and disobey the British government explicitly
without fearing the atrocities of the police and imprisonment.
• Movement received wide coverage through newspapers and got attention at national level highlighting the
true nature of british rule.
• The movement however also set the undertones for communal disharmony by invoking religious sentiments,
setting foundation for Muslim League.
• Movement resulted in growth of extreme nationalism amongst youth which took to violence and wanted to
bring an instant end to British dominance.
• It forced British dispensation to offer some concession to Indians in forms of Morley-Minto reforms in 1909.
• Most of all its concept of constructive swadeshi and boycott was actively used by Gandhi in later nationalist
movements.

Impact of Swadeshi Movement

Decline in Imports:
• It resulted in significant decline in the foreign imports during 1905-1908.
Growth of Extremism:
• Movement resulted in growth of extreme nationalism amongst youth which took to violence and wanted to bring
an instant end to British dominance.
Morley-Minto Reforms:
• It forced British dispensation to offer some concessions to Indians in forms of Morley-Minto reforms in 1909.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale played an important role in framing these reforms.
Establishment of Swadeshi Institutions: Inspired by Rabindranath Tagore’s Shantiniketan, the Bengal National
College and a number of national schools and colleges in various parts of the country were set up.
• In August 1906, the National Council of Education was set up to organise the national education system.
• A Bengal Institute of Technology was set up for technical education.
Growth in Swadeshi Industries:
• It led to establishments of swadeshi textile mills, soap and match factories, tanneries, banks, insurance
companies, shops, etc.
• It also revived the Indian Cottage Industry.
• Indian industries saw regeneration with reawakening of use of indigenous goods.
Boycott of Buyers and Sellers:
• The foreign goods including clothing, sugar, salt and various other luxury items were not only boycotted, but
they were also burned.
• The Swadeshi movement also led to social boycott of not only buyers but also sellers of foreign goods.
People from all walks of life participated in the movement with the greatest contribution coming from students and
women. The movement however also set the undertones for communal disharmony by invoking religious sentiments,
setting foundation for Muslim League. Most of all its concept of constructive swadeshi and boycott was actively used
by Gandhi in later nationalist movements.

115. Why were people dissatisfied with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s?

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Hint-
Reactionary Policies
• Racial myths of white superiority were sought to be perpetuated by the British through a deliberate policy of
discrimination and segregation. Indians felt deeply hurt by this.
• Lytton’s reactionary policies such as reduction of maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination from 21 years
to 19 years (1876),
• the grand Delhi Durbar of 1877 when the country was in the severe grip of famine,
• the Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878) provoked a storm of opposition in the country.

Racial Arrogance of Rulers - the Ilbert Bill controversy.

• Ripon’s Government had sought to abolish “judicial disqualification based on race distinctions” and to give
the Indian members of the covenanted civil service the same powers and rights as those enjoyed by their
European colleagues.
• Ripon had to modify the bill, thus almost defeating the original purpose, because of the stiff opposition from
the European community.
It became clear to the nationalists that justice and fair play could not be expected where interests of the European
community were involved. However, the organised agitation by the Europeans to revoke the Ilbert Bill also taught the
nationalists how to agitate for certain rights and demands.

116. How did colonialism affect India's rate of urbanization and industrialization?

Hint-
Industrialization is the expansion of machine-based industry that uses non-living energy sources like electricity or steam.
The practice of acquiring colonies by invasion or other means and using them to achieve one's own political and
economic goals is known as colonization, on the other side.
During the Age of Exploration, nations like Spain and Portugal led the initial wave of colonization. Britain, however,
emerged as the primary colonizer during the second wave, when the Industrial Revolution got off to a creative start. a
result of industrialization
• emergence of fresh concepts.
• Increase in output volume.
• modern equipment development.
• enhancements to communication and transportation.
All of these gave Britain a disproportionate edge over other colonising powers and prompted the development of its
sphere of influence.
• More colonies under its authority allowed it to meet the need for raw materials for its own industry.
• To support expanding industries, more and more raw resources were required.
• Cotton came from Egypt and India, rubber from the Congo and the East Indies, and other goods including food
grains, tea, coffee, indigo, tobacco, and sugar were also required.
• It was necessary to alter the production pattern in the nations where they may be grown in order to obtain these.
• As a result, the colonists mandated that just one or two crops be grown in order to supply the raw materials for
their enterprises.
• Later, as production increased, home markets became saturated and the surplus was directed to former
colonies like India, which became marketplaces.
Britain constructed Pax Britannica with an unstoppable rate of industrialization made possible by the raw materials,
labour force, and army from the colonies.

This dominance extended beyond just the political, economic, and military domains. Britain was a true worldwide
colonial power thanks to the importance of its culture, language, educational system, and administrative system.

117. To what extent did the role of the moderates prepare a base for the wider freedom movement? Comment.

Hint-

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Early supporters and leaders of the Indian national movement connected to the Indian National Congress were
moderates. They expressed India's national subjugation and the necessity for its amelioration via petitioning,
questioning, and debating techniques.

Increasing the base of India's liberation movement: the role of moderates

1. The freedom movement's ideological foundation was provided by moderates. For instance, Dada Bhai
Naoroji's economic critique of colonial control inspired conviction over the British rule in India's exploitative
nature.
2. Mahatma Gandhi's political mentor, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, encouraged him to tour India in order to
understand the needs and state of the country. Gandhi will later inspire the largest mass movements in human
history.
3. Indians across the country's length and breadth developed a shared awareness of their political, economic, and
cultural interests thanks to moderates.
4. Council reforms, such the Indian Council Acts of 1892, broadened the range of Indians' political engagement.
5. The failure of the moderates' strategies unwittingly sparked the emergence of the extremist faction, which
inflamed the populace against the British, as was the case with the Swadeshi movement.

The following illustrates how little the moderates were able to do in terms of mass mobilisation:
1. The backgrounds of moderates were uniformly those of professionals like lawyers.
2. They didn't offer accurate or descriptive representations of the people.
3. Many of the moderates believed that British rule was inherently benign and were unaware of how severely it
affected the ordinary people.
4. Due to the moderates' resistance, which caused the Surat split in Congress and years of passivity in national
politics, the cause of popular politics was damaged.
5. Although moderates contributed positively to the cause of India's independence, their ability to mobilise the
general populace in support of the cause was limited.
6. The Indian masses did not have a voice or a face in the liberation struggle until the phenomenon known as
Mahatma Gandhi appeared.

118. In what way the methods adopted by Moderates were different from Extremists in promoting the growth
of nationalism in India?

Hint-

The moderates made a vital contribution to the Indian liberation struggle. Within the British Empire, achieving self-
government was the principal goal of the moderates. They took a moderate approach rather than taking a strong
stand against British imperialism.

The Moderates' techniques are as follows:

1. They put out a number of reform requests and engaged in criticism of government actions in order to attain their
goal.
2. Instead of promoting conflict and violence, they supported tolerance and healing.
3. To accomplish their goal, they resorted to legal and nonviolent means.
4. They put a lot of emphasis on educating people, raising their political consciousness, and forming public
opinion.
5. The Moderates scheduled lectures across England in an effort to influence public opinion. For distribution
among the British populace, a weekly periodical called India was created in England.
6. Various newspapers and chronicles, including the Bengali newspaper, Bombay chronicle, Hindustan Times,
Induprakash, Rast Goftar, and a monthly magazine India, were utilised by moderates to criticise the policies of
the government.
7. Additionally, they urged the government to look into the issues people were facing and provide solutions.
8. They met and had conversations about social, economic, and cultural issues. In a variety of locations, including
England, Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune, and Calcutta, the moderators held meetings.
9. They created and submitted petitions and memoranda to the British Parliament, the government, and
representatives of the Government of India. The purpose of the memoranda and petitions was to inform the
British people and political decision-makers about the circumstances in India.

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Contributions made by moderate nationalists:

1. The moderates, who were led by Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha, and others, examined the
political economy of British rule in India and advanced the "drain theory" to explain British exploitation of
India.
2. The British Empire's dominance in India was widely believed by moderates to be the primary reason for the
country's poverty and economic backwardness. The moderates wanted a decrease in land revenue, the repeal of
the salt tax, better working conditions for plantation workers, etc.
3. They contributed to the growth of councils, i.e., increased Indian involvement in councils, as well as the
reform of councils, i.e., increased council authority, particularly over money.
4. The early nationalists pushed toward a democratic self-government as their long-term goal.
5. They made an effort to promote general administrative reforms. They pushed and pressed the British Empire
to Indianize the government sector for commercial reasons.
6. Separation of judicial from executive responsibilities was something they requested and helped with.
7. They were critical of
✓ a costly and cumbersome legal system, and an oppressive, authoritarian bureaucracy.
✓ An aggressive foreign policy led to the acquisition of Burma, the invasion of Afghanistan, and the repression
of the North Western tribes.
✓ Increased spending on social services, education—particularly technical and elementary—irrigation
projects, bettering agriculture, agricultural banks for growers, etc.
8. They campaigned for civil rights, such as the freedom of speech and the right to free thought and association.
The nationalists were able to propagate contemporary democratic concepts through campaigns, and soon the
defence of civil rights became an essential component of the freedom movement.

By eroding the political and moral influence of imperialist control, the nationalists were able to create a national
movement. This aided in stirring up anti-imperialist feelings among the populace. However, by excluding the general
public, particularly women, and by not pressing for universal suffrage, nationalists failed to broaden the movement's
democratic base.

119. Why, by the end of the nineteenth century, did the "Moderates" fail to convince the country of their
proclaimed ideology and political objectives?

Hint-
The moderates were not against the British rule per se and had strong belief in sense of justice and goodness of the
British rule. They pursued the policy of gradualism and constitutionalism. Constitutional reforms, administrative re-
organisation and protection of civil rights were high on agenda and methods of prayers, petition and protest were
followed.

Moderates met limited success in later stages due to various reasons–

• The political jargons used by the moderates were alien to uneducated masses. There was also lack of political
faith in the masses. Thus people largely remained aloof.
• It was gradually realised that the British didn’t concede to any of the major demands of the moderates.
• Indian Council Act 1892 was criticised. Moves such as further amplification of repressive laws under IPC and
reduction in number of members in Calcutta Corporation didn’t go down well with progressive elements in
INC.
• Political ideologies of the moderates were blamed to be inefficient. Methods followed by moderates were
described as political mendicancy. The result was emergence of a more militant school of thought.
However, the role of moderates can also not be negated. They were first to create national awakening among Indians
and prepared a solid ground for mass oriented national movement at later stages that followed.

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SECOND PHASE OF NATIONALISM - 1900-1915

120. Discuss the demand of moderate and congress program during the year 1885-1900.

Hint-
The Demands of The Moderates and The Congress Program During 1885-1905
• The demands of the moderates (or the Congress program) were very modest. They believed that a direct
struggle for freedom was not yet on the agenda of history. What was on the agenda was the arousal of national
feeling, consolidation of this feeling, stirring up a large number of Indian people out of political dormancy and
training them in political agitation. on political questions.
• For this, they needed to arouse public interest pan India basis and create national unity. The early Congress
leaders were aware of the fact that India was a nation-in-making and its nationhood had to be carefully nurtured.
Thus, the demands of the early nationalists were formulated with the aim of uniting the Indian people around a
common political, social and economic program.
• They mainly demanded increased representation of Indians in government and government services,
constitutional-economic-military reforms and civil rights. For instance, some of the important demands were:
Political Demands
• Expansion of Legislative Councils with more powers and more representation of Indians in them Representation
of Indians in the Secretary of State Council, Viceroy's Executive Council and Governor's Executive Councils
• Separation of judiciary from the executive work to protect people from arbitrary acts of bureaucracy and the
police
• Formation of provincial councils
• Abolition of Indian Council
• More opportunities for Indians in Civil Service and simultaneous examinations for ICS in London and in India.
End of aggressive foreign policy against India's neighbours
• The agenda of the Congress during this time also included arousal and consolidation of national sentiment,
educating and uniting Indians on political questions
Military Demands
• Repeal of Arms Act
• Appointment of Indians to commissioned ranks in the army Reduction of military expenditure
Social Demands
• More expenditure on welfare activities-education, health, sanitation.
• Civil rights like freedom of speech, thought, association and press Basic Human rights for Indian workers in
South Africa and elsewhere in the Empire
• Improvement in the condition of plantation labourers
• Timely justice and reduction in litigation costs
• Sympathetic behaviour of the police and other government officers towards the common people
• The early leaders demanded Indianisation of bureaucracy on the following grounds: Europeans were paid
hefty salaries which made Indian administration very costly.
• Their pensions were paid in England which added to the drain of wealth from India.
• It was hoped that Indian bureaucrats would be more responsive to Indian needs

Economic Demands:
• the economic demands were quite radical.
• The demands were such that they required changes in the basic imperialist economic policies. The Moderates
strongly opposed the attempts of the British to convert India into a market for raw materials and a supplier of
British goods. These demands were always carefully worded in prayerful and apologetic language. The
Moderates only demanded some concessions and not freedom from British rule. This Congress program
remained the same for the next 20 years (1885-1905). The same demands were repeated year after year with
hardly any response from the government. The moderates adopted a very patient, cautious approach for fear of
attracting government hostility.
• At the same time, it is true that the demands were quite comprehensive and the Congress Program was truly
national in nature. The program was broad enough to accommodate interests of all classes and communities.

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• In 1895 Poona Congress, President Surendranath Banerjee stated that the Congress had never asked for
representative institutions for the masses, but such institutions for the educated community, 'who by reason of
their assimilation of English ideas and their familiarity with English methods of govern ment might be
presumed to be qualified for such a boon'.

BRITISH REACTION TO CONGRESS DEMANDS

• Initially, the British adopted a neutral attitude to the Congress demands. After 1887, their attitude stiffened.
The British began to brand the nationalists as 'disloyal babus', 'seditious Brahmins' and 'violent villains'.
• The Congress was described as 'a factory of sedition' and Congressmen as disappointed candidates for office
and discontented lawyers who represent no one but themselves, Challenging the national character of the
Congress.
• Lord Dufferin stated that the Congress represented only a microscopic minority" and its demands as 'big jump
into the unknown. George Hamilton, Secretary of State, ridiculed the Congress leaders and accused them of
possessing 'seditious and double sided character'.
• Some pamphlets of the Congress attracted open hostility of the government. These were pamphlets condemning
government despotism such as 'A conversation between Maulvi Farukhuddin and one Ram Buksh of
Kambakhtpur.
• Henceforth, the British began encouraging pro-British elements like Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiv
Prasad of Banaras. The Aligarh Movement and the United India Patriotic Association were formed to counter
the Congress. Seeing the growing unity of the Indian people, the British pushed further the policy of 'divide
and rule to increase the divide between Hindus and Muslims.
• In 1890, government employees were forbidden to attend Congress meetings. As the century drew to a close,
the British attitude became even more hostile to the Congress under Lord Curzon
• 1900 Lord Curzon openly declared, "The Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my greatest ambitions
while in India is to assist it to a peaceful demise. Writing to the Madras Governor in 1903, he further stated,
'My policy ever since I came to India has been to reduce the Congress to impotence

121. What are the key difference between moderate and extremist, evaluate their role and highlight their
achievement during the freedom struggle.
Difference Between the Moderates and The Extremists
Although the Moderates and the Extremists shared many characteristics, there were also clear divisions between them
that ultimately led to the Surat split in 1907. Following are some ways to understand the variations:
Difference in the understanding of Swaraj:
• The extremist's demand for Swaraj was a demand for complete freedom from British rule and full independence
to manage national affairs without any foreign interference. While the Swaraj of the Moderates was merely a
demand for self-government within the colonial rule.
Difference in attitude towards British benevolence:
• While Moderates had infinite faith in the British sense of justice and fair play, the Extremists had no such faith.
Difference in methodology:
• While the Moderates relied on 3Ps-Prayer, Petition and Protest to press their demands, the Extremists
emphasised on self-reliance, self-sacrifice and strong will. The new leadership sought to create passionate love
for the country and willingness to suffer for the cause for the country.
Difference in the personalities of BG Tilak and GK Gokhale:
• The Moderate vs. Extremist controversy in Congress also revolved around the personalities of BG Tilak and
GK Gokhale. In many ways, their early careers were quite similar, both were Chitpavan from Pune, and both
were important members of the Deccan Education Society, yet when Brahmins they joined the Congress, their
divergent views began to surface.
• While Gokhale was gentle and soft-spoken, Tilak was militant (though he did not believe in an armed
struggle) and felt that the Indians should withdraw all cooperation with the foreign government and attain Swaraj
through self-help, determination and sacrifice. He was the first Congress leader to serve several terms of
imprisonment for speaking his mind against the government and was charged of sedition three times (1897,
1909 and 1916)
• In 1882, Tilak was first sentenced to four months' imprisonment for criticising the government over treatment
meted out to the Maharaja of Kolhapur

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• Tilak possessed a potent pen and significantly impacted public opinion through his publications, the Maratha
and the Kesari, while Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society to train a group of Indians in the service
of the motherland.
Tilak offered assistance to the extremists led by Bipin Chandra Pal during the partition of Bengal, and this Tilak-Pal
alliance upset many in the government since it prevented Tilak and the other members of his group from holding
influential posts within the Congress. The Moderates tried to prevent him from becoming president of Congress because
of these differences. The Surat Split of 1907 was the result of the presidential contest that ensued for the 1906 and 1907
Congress sessions.

Assessment Of the Extremists

Criticisms
Extremists are primarily criticized for being social reformers who are in the past. For instance, Tilak supported anti-
cow killing organizations, opposed the Age of Consent Bill, which sought to raise the age of marriage for females from
10 to 12. He also organized the Ganesh festival. All of these portray him as a leader who practices traditional Hinduism.
Similar statements about a Hindu nation and the defense of Hindu interests at all political levels were made by Lala
Lajpat Rai and BP Pal. These revivalist policies supported communalism even if they were intended to undermine the
British government.
Achievements of the Extremists
• The Extremists saw clearly the clash between the British interest and Indian national interests. They realised
that their goals could not be achieved without pressure tactics and some sort of direct action. Their pressure
tactics included -self-reliance, sacrifice and strong will.
• Their agenda included boycott and swadeshi, non-cooperation, national education and setting up cooperative
organisations. In this way, the extremists successfully transformed patriotism from an academic pass time' to
'service and suffering for the nation'.
• The Extremists were successful in getting annulled the partition of Bengal in 1911 which gave a new sense
of self-confidence to Indian nationalists.
The British government was forced to declare self-government institutions as the goal of constitutional progress in India
since the aim of Swaraj, despite Morley's denial, was no longer perceived as a revolutionary demand.

122. Was the 1906 Swadeshi movement unsuccessful? Talk about the influence of the Swadeshi movement on
the Indian National Movement, emphasizing its importance.

Approach:

The Swadeshi movement was an angry response to Lord Curzon's 1905 partition of Bengal. Public gatherings, a boycott
of imported goods, processions, and other forms of mass mobilization were used in the movement.
Impact of Swadeshi Movement
The history of India was forever changed by the Swadeshi movement. Its strategies served as a model for other large-
scale movements in the future.
Boycott of Foreign goods
• Boycott of foreign clothes, public burning of clothes
• Foreign made sugar and salt.
• Priests refused to use foreign goods in religious rituals
• Washermen refused to wash foreign clothes.
Promoting National Education
• Officially controlled schools and colleges were boycotted
• Bengal Technical Institute was established in 1906
• National Council of Education was set up to organize a system of education—literary, scientific and technical—
on national lines and under national control
Self-reliance
• Promoting Swadeshi - traditional popular festivals and melas were organized.
• Promoting Science - Jagdish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray and others pioneered original research.
• Focus on Local culture – Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore’s painting of Bharat Mata.
• Starting Indian enterprises – Bengal Chemicals, National Tannery, swadeshi banks etc. were established on
Indian lines.
Was it a failure?

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• Its main intention was annulment of Bengal Partition, but that did not happen. However, this cannot be
called as a failure.
• Any event in history can be judged on the imprint it leaves on the minds of the people. Swadeshi movement
inspired many youths to join the National movement and devote their life to its cause.
• Swadeshi movement still inspires us.
• In the recent pandemic PM’s appeal of Atmanirbhrata or self-reliance still reminds us of Swadeshi movement.

123. What were the impact of surat split on the government strategy dealing with Indian struggle.
Impact of Surat Split on Government Strategy
• The government had a negative attitude toward the Congress. Following the Swadeshi Movement, the
government used a fresh tactic known as "rallying" the nationalists or the "carrot and stick" approach.
• A three-pronged strategy of suppression, conciliation, and repression may also be considered. The radicals
were to be moderately suppressed in the first step, mostly to terrify the moderates.
• In the second step, the moderates were to be conciliated with some carrots or concessions to ensure that they
maintained distance from the extremists. Now with the moderates on their side
• the third step was to suppress the extremists with full might. This policy of carrot and stick brought rich
dividends to the government and the nationalist activities were temporarily contained.
• The British used the strategy of "divide and rule" to their advantage. To placate both the moderates and the
Muslims, they introduced the constitutional changes known as the Morley-Minto Reforms in 1909. The
government also revoked the Bengal Partition in 1911 and announced its desire to reunite Bengalis while
dividing Bihar and Orissa into a new province. Additionally, the British government's headquarters in India
were moved from Calcutta to Delhi.
• The so-called 'Reforms' of 1909 were merely designed to confuse the moderates. They increased the number
of elected members in the Councils. This, in no way, democratised the Indian polity. The reformed Councils
enjoyed no real power as they were merely advisory bodies. Morley had himself declared in British Parliament-
'If it could be said that this chapter of reforms led directly or necessarily up to the establishment of a
Parliamentary system in India, I, for one, would have nothing at all to do with it."
• Further, the reforms also introduced the system of separate electorates to please the Muslims under which all
Muslims were grouped in separate constituencies from which Muslims alone could be elected.
• This measure was based on the notion that the interests of Muslims were different from that of the Hindus and
could be best protected under a Muslim leader.
• Such a decision furthered mutual suspicion between the Hindus and the Muslims and proved very harmful for
national unity.
• It ensured ghettoisation of Muslims in India, encouraged separatism and politics of religion rather than one
based on common socio-economic problems.
• Even though the Moderates were not fully satisfied with the reforms, they continued to support the government
and the extremists at the cost of their own popularity among the people.

Impact of Surat Split on National Movement

• The Surat Split, which caused the Congress as well as the national movement great harm, is frequently referred
to be a national calamity. The nation's moderates and extremists were analogous to its brain and heart—one
represented the law, the other the impulse. Their ability to work together effectively was necessary for the
national movement to develop. After the Extremists withdrew, the Moderates were unable to make much
progress, which caused the Congress to be paralyzed for more than ten years. The Congress wasn't reactivated
until 1916, following the return of the Extremists and the departure of the Moderates (1918).

124. How was the Indian National Movement affected by the First World War? Discuss.

Hint-
Western Europe started World War I in 1914, which quickly spread to include the rest of the world. The First World
War had a significant impact on India as well, with far-reaching repercussions.
First World War's Effect on the National Movement
• International Awareness:
o A large number of Indian soldiers were serving abroad. Many understood the exploitative nature of the
colonial British administration. They vouched to worked towards freeing India from foreign control.
• Ghadar Movement:

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o Ghadarites attempted a violent overthrow of British rule. They published their own newspaper to spread
their ideologies. Many Ghadarites later joined Home Rule Leaguers and launched a nation-wide
agitation for securing Swaraj seeing the opportunity provided by First World War.
• Rowlatt Act:
o passed by the British government to tighten grip on people. It was to restrict any revolutionary activity.
But this resulted in backlash and demonstrations. Jallianwala Bagh massacre was a result of this. It
made clear the very alien nature of the foreign rule.
• Khilafat Movement:
o Muslims had great respect for the Caliph. When they saw uproot of Caliphate in Turkey they joined the
Caliphate (Khilafat) Movement for the defence of Turkey against the British.
• Economic impact:
o Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the leader of the masses, he took up local issues that emerged and
impacted by the First World War. Champaran Satyagraha, Kheda Satyagraha and Ahmadabad
Satyagraha- were centred around these issues.
o The war compounded the oppression faced by the agrarian society. It had to bear the brunt of exorbitant
tax rates, high prices of food & other necessities. The anguish amongst the tenants was leveraged by
national leaders who initiated the process of their organization on modern lines and linked them with
politics at the national level e.g. in Kisan Sabhas in UP & Mappila agitation in Malabar.
• Lucknow Pact:
o The growing nationalism also re-united the moderates & the extremists at the Lucknow session, 1916.
Congress and the Muslim League too ignored their differences and put up common political demands
in front of the British.

The Indian business groups reaped great profits from the war; the war created demand for industrial goods (jute
bags, cloth, rails) and caused a decline of imports from other countries to India. As the Indian industries expanded, the
Indian business groups began to demand greater opportunities for development.

Thus, the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 infused new life to the nationalist movement which had been
dormant since the Swadeshi Movement. The large participation of masses in Non-cooperation movement is an evidence
of it.

125. Beginning with the turn of the 20th century, the national movement moved away from the middle class
intelligentsia and toward the masses. Comment.

Hint-

The Indian national movement was without a doubt one of the most massive mass movements that modern cultures
have ever witnessed. It was essentially the result of a fundamental conflict between the interests of Indians and British
colonialism. The Indian people could perceive that India was regressing economically and going through a period of
underdevelopment, which was accompanied with colonial exploitation of Indians. During the movement's mass
phase, this anti-colonial ideology and critique of colonialism was widely propagated.
A shift in the nature of the Indian National Movement from the middle classes to the masses -
Apprehensions of the early intelligentsia:
• Due to their concerns about the educational and political understanding of the masses, the early leaders, largely
from the middle class intelligentsia, were opposed to involving the masses in the movements. This limited their
fight to a narrow social base, largely confined to the metropolitan society.
Economic sufferings endured by the masses:
• This set the groundwork for a great nationalist agitation against British colonial control in the twentieth
century, led by Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Mahatma Gandhi, and others. These figures brought 'economic nationalism'
concepts to the Indian people, mobilising them into the national struggle.
Bengal partition, Swadeshi and Boycott:
• This unusual form of mass protest known as swadeshi and boycott' gained favour among new Congress members
and the general public. Attempts were made to attain mass mobilisation, and 'samitis' were organised to convey
the swadeshi message deep into Bengal's interiors.

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• For the first time in the national movement, traditional and popular festivals were used to reach out to the
people. Tilak used the Ganapati and Shivaji celebrations in Maharashtra to lure people to the movement and
teach them about it.
Rise of nationalism among the masses:
• The French Revolution sparked a worldwide boom in the concept of nationalism and the right to self-
determination.
• The British-initiated modernization in India filtered down to the masses through intelligence.
• The Indians also attempted to protest the British assault on Indian culture. Because of improved
communication via the printing press, railways, and other means, Indians developed a sense of oneness.

Indian National Congress (INC):

• The primary goal of this organisation was to instil in the people a sense of belonging to a single nation,
overcoming the barriers of illiteracy and the land's numerous cultural, linguistic, and religious traditions. INC
was quite successful in reaching out to the public.
Gandhi ji's appeal:
• People believed in his principles and Satyagraha, which drew them to Gandhian mass movements. During the
Gandhian period of the movement, there was widespread mass mobilisation. The Indian National Movement
became a widespread movement under Gandhi's leadership.
The Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation Movement:
• For the first time, the Indian Nationalist movement gained a true mass base with the participation of peasants,
workers, students, lawyers, and teachers, among others, which further awoke all classes of people, exhorting
them to participate in the Indian national movement in their respective capacities. This continued through the
Civil Disobedience movement, the Quit India movement, the RIN mutiny, and other movements until
independence, where it played a critical part in achieving it.
In Conclusion, By transferring social and economic power within society, the Indian national movement served as a
mechanism for social transformation. Nationalism has been a crucial influence in bringing about social change by
weakening the grip of conventional ways of life and casteism. It created a sense of respect and human dignity among
the lowest sectors of society, not only against the British government but also against the established social order.

126. Examine the impact of global events on the Indian freedom struggle and how India's independence
influenced other countries.

Hint-

The most important event in contemporary Indian history might be regarded as the country's independence from the
British Raj. While being influenced by the events occurring in other regions of the world, it underwent periods of
movement and in turn influenced those events.
The National Movement in India was significantly impacted by the First World War (1914–1918):
• Resentment among the Indians: Indians harbour resentment because the British rulers recognised India
as an ally and utilised Indian resources and aggressive Indians in this conflict. The fact that the Indians were
not even consulted before joining the battle greatly aggravated their hatred.
• When the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms failed to deliver on the anticipation of swaraj/home rule, which
was a significant aspiration that led to public support for the British war effort, the experience of war gave
rise to a surge of nationalism and the onset of mass civil disobedience.
• Anguish among Muslims: The British were at war with the Caliphate-ruled Turkish Empire (Khalifa). The
Caliph enjoyed a high regard among Muslims. The Caliphate (Khilafat) Movement, which was formed to
defend Turkey against the British, was joined by Indian Muslims.
Impact of the Second World War and the National Movement:
• After the war, the Labour Party, now in power in Britain, lifted the Congress's embargo and elections were
called in India, which allowed the nation's influential leaders to rejoin the fray.
• Following the war, Britain was economically depleted. She needed to borrow food and factory raw
materials from other nations. Because they were dealing with such serious issues at home, the British lacked
the strength and resources to control India and the fervent Indians who were fighting for independence.
• The Allied Powers stood for freedom and democracy, thus the American administration persuaded Britain
to grant India its just independence.

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• People all throughout the world started to grow resentful of empire and wars after the Second World War.
More than ever, they stood for justice, fairness, and humanity. They believed that providing independence
to India and the colonies would boost their economies and lead to greater welfare.
The Russian Revolution had a significant impact on society. New doctrines like Marxism and Socialism inspired
numerous socialist and communist parties, recruited workers and peasants, and made them an essential part of the
national struggle.
Impact of French Revolution: The principles of liberty, fraternity, and equality from the French Revolution served as
a catalyst for the Indian freedom movement and were eventually included into the Indian constitution.
India's independence had the following effects on other nations:

• The 1947 declaration of India's independence sparked nationalist movements and served as a template for
decolonization and independence around the globe. The outdated colonial order appeared to have lost its
influence and historical significance by 1950.
• India's independence served as a spur for other nations to demand their own freedom. In addition to losing
their colonies, the British had to reduce their once-powerful monarchy to a meagre island.
• In Africa, the transformation was most noticeable. In 1960, practically all of France's colonies in Africa
gained independence; Britain did it more gradually, from 1957 to 1965. (Libya-1951,Ghana-1957,
Morocco-1956,Nigeria-1960)
• Additionally, South East Asian nations felt the effects (Myanmar-1948, Indonesia-1949).
• Martin Luther King and Nelson Mandela were perhaps the two most notable figures who were inspired
by India's freedom movement to practise nonviolence in their leadership.
Global liberation campaigns were inspired by India's struggle for independence and by Gandhi's values of nonviolence,
honesty, etc. Similar to this, neither the Indian national struggle nor the socioeconomic development of the nation
occurred in isolation. India gained its independence by building on ideas and awakenings that were motivated by
significant historical figures and leaders.

127. What factord led to the rise of home rule movment, how annie besant’s home rule was different from
that of tilak’s home rule movement.

Hint-

HOME RULE MOVEMENT (1916-18)

• In 1914, when the First World War broke out, the Indian National Congress decided to support the British in
their war efforts as a matter of duty as well as a bargaining tactic to get concessions later.
• at the time of the War, Britain's difficulty was seen as India's opportunity by many nationalists. The two
groups that tried to take advantage of Britain's difficulty during this time were the Ghadar revolutionaries
based in USA and the Home Rule Leagues of Lokmanya Tilak and Annie Besant in India. Compared to
ghadar movement, a less dramatic but more effective role was played by the Home Rule Leagues.

Factors Leading to the Rise of the Home Rule Movement

A number of factors began to stir the political scene in India and set the stage for the rise of the Home Rule
Movement. These included:

Outbreak of the First World War :

• The Home Rule Movement began in the background of the First World War when a section of nationalists
believed that 'Britain's difficulty is India's opportunity'.

Disillusionment with the Reforms of 1909

• The Moderates felt disillusioned with constitutional reforms of 1909 that thoroughly failed to satisfy the
nationalist leaders. Many of them were now convinced that the government was unlikely to yield any real
concessions unless popular pressure was brought to bear upon it.

Repression of the Ghadar Movement

• The bitter repression of the Ghadar Movement had also aroused the feeling of resentment against the
British rule Tilak's Release from Mandalay and Efforts for Re-entry into Congress On 16th June 1914, Tilak
was released from Mandalay jail in Burma, where he had been imprisoned for six years, and he returned to

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India, an India that had changed much. Aurobindo Ghosh, the firebrand swadeshi, had taken sanyas; Lala Rai
had left for USA and the Congress was yet to recover from the Surat Split and repression of the swadeshis.
Annie Besant's Entry into Indian Politics
• At the same time, Mrs. Annie Besant, then President of Theosophical Society, decided to expand her
activities and build up Home Rule Movement on the lines of Irish Home Rule League.
Formation of the Two Leagues
• In December 1914 Congress Session, the efforts for re-entry of Extremists failed. However, Tilak and Annie
Besant decided to revive nationalist activity on their own and simultaneously exert pressure on the Congress
to re-admit the Extremists.
• Both began their political activities but Tilak was careful not to alarm the Moderates in any way. Their
efforts paid off and finally in December 1915 Congress session, it was decided that the Extremists be allowed
to join the Congress.
Tilak's Home Rule League
• Post Congress decision of readmitting the Extremists, Tilak took the lead in setting up the Home Rule
League in April 1916 at Belgaum during the Bombay Provincial Conference. GS Khaparde was a member of
Tilak's League.
• To spread the message of home rule, the league was organised into six branches-one each in Central
Maharashtra, Bombay city, Karnataka and Central Provinces and two in Berar. It published in Marathi,
Gujarati, Kannada and also in English.
• But the most important role in gathering the support of the people was played by Tilak's lectures during his
tour of Maharashtra. Explaining the demand for home rule, he said, 'India was like a son who had grown up
and attained maturity. It was right now that the trustee or the father give him what was his due.
• It was during this agitation that Tilak gave the slogan, "Swaraj is my birthright and will have it Readers may
note that there was a positive change in Tilak's speeches now there was no trace of any religious appeal.
• He stated, "Alienness is not connected with religion, trade or profession; it is a question of interests. He who
does what is beneficial to the people of this country, be he a Mohammedan or an Englishman, is not alien."
Further, his ideas were free of any linguistic chauvinism or even caste bias, He argued in favour of formation
of states on linguistic basis and education in vernacular. Do the English educate their people in French
language? He asked.
• He frontally opposed untouchability and urged Brahmins to be tolerant to the non-Brahmin demands. Tilak
declared- 'If a God were to tolerate untouchability, I would not recognise him as God at all
• Soon the government tried to suppress Tilak's movement and he was served a show-cause notice. Tilak was
defended by a group of lawyers led by Mohammad Ali Jinnah. He lost the case in lower court but the High
Court exonerated him in November 1916. Encouraged by the court's decision, Tilak now went on to declare
that Home Rule now had legal sanction. He further intensified his propaganda and by April 1917, his league
had registered 14,000 members.
Annie Besant's Home Rule League
• The Congress failed to keep its promise of starting a program of educative propaganda by September 1916
and reviving local level Congress Committees.
• Thus, Annie Besant announced the formation of her All India Home Rule League in September 1916 in
Madras, with George Arundale as the Organising Secretary. Sir S. Subramania Aiyar agreed to serve as the
honorary President.
• some of Besant's impatient followers could not wait till September and had already setup Home Rule
groups. Jamnadas Dwarkadas, Shankerlal Banker and Indulal Yagnik had started the Bombay paper Young
India and also set up an All India Propaganda Fund to publish pamphlets.
• The League published pamphlets in English and Indian languages to explain the demand for self-rule. From
her headquarters at Adyar, Annie Besant along with her lieutenants-Arundale, CP Ramaswamy Aiyar and BP
Wadia, brought out the newspapers New India' and 'Commonweal". Arundale wrote a column on 'Home Rule'
in New India, urging the members to promote political discussions and debates and persuade people to join
the movement. New members who joined the league included: Nehru in Allahabad, B Chakravarti and J
Bannerjee in Calcutta.
• Two hundred branches of beasant’ league were established. But the strength of the league could not be
judged by the mere number of the branches as many of them were inactive. Besant’s league was more loosely
organized than tilak’s as three member could form a branch. The membership tp beasant’s league also
increased at a slower pace.

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128. What was the reason for the decline of home rule movement. Discuss its significance in Indian freedom
struggle.

Hint-

Decline of Home Rule Movement

During 1918, the Home Rule movement gradually petered out. Several factors were responsible for the decline.
• The Moderates lost interest in the movement as they had again been distracted with the bait of fresh reforms.
• They also felt intimidated by the increasing talk of civil disobedience among the League leaders.
• In July 1918, the Reforms Scheme was published which further divided the nationalists- whole some wanted
to reject them, others wanted to give them a try.
• Annie Besant herself could not take a definite stand and remained inconsistent on both the issues the issue of
reforms as well as the issue of civil disobedience. Tilak was consistent in his stand and considered the reforms
unworthy, but there was little he could do given the change in attitude of the Moderates and Besant's
indecisiveness.
• Tilak himself left for England at the end of 1918 in matter of a libel case he had filed against Valentine Chirol,
the author of Indian Unrest. In this way, the movement was essentially left leaderless.

Significance of Home Rule Movement

The most remarkable achievement of Home Rule Movement was the change in British
• attitude and acceptance of the demand for Home Rule as a legitimate demand which could no longer be treated
as seditious. This change in policy was reflected in the Montagu Declaration, which marked distinct advance
over the position taken in 1909.
• Another significant achievement of the Home Rule Movement was the creation of a rich cadre of nationalist
workers including the likes of Jawaharlal Nehru, who were now ready and
• trained to take up leadership role in future struggles.
• The Home Rule activists had also extensively toured Indian towns and villages, narrowing the urban-rural
divide in national politics.
• The movement succeeded in popularising the idea of Home Rule, which had now become a commonplace
thing. The movement played a significant role in arousal of people in political action and furthered national
sentiment.
• The movement also saw the reunion of Moderates and Extremists with the efforts of Tilak and Annie Besant
and revived the Congress as an effective instrument of national movement.
Yes, it is true that the Home Rule Movement's leaders were unable to turn this agitation into a genuine mass movement,
but their accomplishments were enormous, and the movement laid the foundation for the next and final phase of the
struggle—a phase of mass movements that were shaped by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's singular character and
personality.

129. What was congress league pact? what were negative and positive outcome of this pact.

Hint-

The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League signed the Congress: League Pact, also known as the Lucknow
Pact, during the combined meeting of the two parties that took place in Lucknow in 1916. The agreement's creator and
architect was Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who at the time was a member of the Muslim League and the Congress. Sarojini
Naidu referred to Jinnah as "the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity" because of this role.

Reasons for the changes in attitude:

The Muslim League had been going through slow transformations, and the younger members now tended to have more
assertive political views. The gap between the two was progressively widening despite government efforts to placate
the Muslims (Morley-Minto reforms). Due to a number of causes, the League was also shedding its earlier narrow
Aligarh school of thought and moving closer to the Congress tone and philosophy.
• In 1911, the British annulled the partition of Bengal, annoying those Muslims who had been shown the dream
of a separate political state.
• Outside India, Britain had refused to help Turkey (then ruled by the Khalifa who claimed politico- religious
leadership of all Muslims) in the Italian and the Balkan Wars (1911-13).

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• In 1912, at the Calcutta Session of the Muslim League, it agreed 'to work with other groups for a system of
self-government suited to India, provided it did not come in conflict with its basic objective of protection of
interests of the Indian Muslims'. Muslims were also angered by wartime repression by the government. In 1914,
the government
• had suppressed the publication of the Al-Hilal (of Abul Kalam Azad) and the Comrade (of Maulana
Mohammad Ali).
• The government had also interned the Ali brothers-Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Mohani and Abul Kalaam
Azaad were also arrested.
• Further, Muslims could not have remained untouched with the aspirations generated by the World War.
Understanding reached:
• It was agreed that Muslim League and Congress together will present joint scheme of constitutional reforms
before the government while the Congress will accept Muslim League's demand for separate electorates.
Positive Outcomes of the Pact-
• Immediate impact of the unity achieved at Lucknow was tremendous and evoked great political enthusiasm. It
was major effort from the Congress to ally minority fears regarding Hindu-domination.
Negative Outcomes of the Pact:
• The Pact did not involve the Hindu and Muslim masses.
• It accepted the controversial principle of separate electorates, thus giving recognition to the Leagues' communal
politics the notion that Hindus and Muslims were separate political entities with separate political interests. This
was a major landmark in the development of the two-nation theory.
• It undermined the role of secular, nationalist Muslims.
• Concessions to one community soon prompted other communities to seek similar concessions.
• The demand of giving minorities more representation in the government than is proportional to their share of
the population-not only recognised communal representation but also recognised communal privileges.
• The demand stating-No bill concerning a community should be passed if the bill is opposed
• by three-fourth of the members of that community in the Legislative Council-introduced communal-veto.
The INC leaders thought that they were sacrificing their seats in the legislature for the greater cause of the nation. In
their zeal, they did not realise that the Pact ensured the resurgence of communal politics in India in future years and the
unity achieved at Lucknow proved short lived.

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REVOLUTIONARY PHASE
130. Assess the contribution of Indian Revolutionaries in the freedom movement.

Approach-

Indian Revolutionaries unlike Congress believed that only an armed struggle against the government would deliver
India from British rule. These were highly enthusiastic youth who were ready to lay their lives for the country’s
independence.

Contribution of Indian Revolutionaries

• Secret Societies - The era of revolutionary Extremism began in late 19th century and very soon secret societies
sprung up all over the country. The Anushilan Samiti, with its headquarters at Calcutta was created as a
conglomeration of gyms and local youth groups. It supported violence as a means to end British rule in India.
• Assassination of British Officials – Revolutionaries wanted to instill fear in British officials by assassinating
oppressive officials, traitors and informers. They conducted dacoities to raise funds to buy arms, ammunition
etc.
• Individual heroism – Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Chapekar Brothers were some of the early
revolutionaries. They believed in heroic acts just like Irish nationalists.

Assessment
• Sacrifices of the revolutionaries did not go in vain. They aroused emotions in masses thus kindling the flame of
national consciousness which contributed to gaining independence.
• However, they could not mobilize masses to revolt against the British rule. People were more influenced by
Gandhiji’s non-violent method than the path of the revolutionaries.
• They were crushed by the British authorities but stories of heroism and sacrifice for the nation motivated and
continues to motivate people to live and die for the country.
• It had its impact on the Congress strategy to involve the youths in the short-term programme of rural
reconstruction.

This movement was unsuccessful in its quest for independence. After Chandrasekhar Azad who sacrificed himself at
a public park at Allahabad in February 1931, the revolutionary movement virtually came to an end in Punjab, U.P.
and Bihar. Surya Sen’s martyrdom also marked an end to the extremist activity in Bengal. However, their sacrifice
and their lives still inspire youth to contribute to the country.

131. What led to the ghadar movement, provide an account of assessment of ghadar movement

Hint-

The Ghadar Party was a political revolutionary organization founded in the United States of America by migrated
Indians. The formation of the Ghadar Party was primarily the work of Sikhs. Sohan Singh, Kartar Singh, Abdul
Mohamed Barakatullah, and Rashbehari Bose were among the prominent leaders who laid the groundwork for the
establishment of an Indian political organization in the United States and Canada. The Ghadar Movement was a
pivotal event in the history of the Indian freedom struggle.

Who were Ghadar Revolutionaries?

• The Ghadar Revolutionaries were mainly Punjabi immigrants settled in the West Coast of North America
since 1904, particularly USA and Canada.
• Many of them were landless, debt ridden peasants mainly from Jalandhar and Hoshiarpur.
• Many of them were also ex-soldiers who had also served in the British Indian Army and had acquired the
confidence for emigration.
• As they were pushed out of their homeland by the economic crisis and lured by the promise of better life, they
had set out to these foreign lands.

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• By 1908, effective restrictions on Indian immigration into Canada had been put in place. Another disabling
legislation was the Alien Land Law which prohibited Indians from owning land in the US.
• Such discriminatory policies of host countries moved the Indian emigrants into a flurry of political activity.
• Hence, they decided to organize themselves with the aim of securing India’s freedom from British Rule.
Ghadar Party - Features
• The Ghadar Party was an Indian revolutionary organization founded primarily by Indians. The party was
multi-ethnic, but mostly Punjabi, with Sikh, Hindu, and Muslim members, but mostly Sikh leaders.
• The Ghadar party, with headquarters in San Francisco and roots in the Punjab immigrant community of rural
California, was also committed to achieving India's independence through revolution.
Ghadar Party - Causes of Failure
• A large number of Ghadar leaders were arrested even before they set foot on Indian soil, and they were
imprisoned after they disembarked.
• Some of those who escaped arrest, including Kartar Singh Saraba, gathered in Punjab to carry out the
revolution.
• Different strategies were used by Ghadar leaders in Punjab. The British branded them as dacoits, and the native
Punjabi population did not welcome them either. A section of Punjabi Sikhs labelled the Ghadar leaders as
apostates.
• Sikhs were the most loyal men in the British Army at the time, and they had reaped enough benefits from
these jobs.
• The Ghadar leaders were appalled by their countrymen's devotion to the British. Winning over native
Punjabis became critical to the revolution's success.
• One of the many strategies they used to carry out operations within India was to recruit Indian soldiers from the
British Army.
Evaluation of Ghadar Party
Strength of Ghadar movement :

• Ironic though it may seem, it was in the realm of ideology that Ghadar success was the greatest.
• The ghardar newspaper itself acted as propagandist newspaper and motivated and educated the entire
generation.
• The ideology that was created and spread through ‘The Ghadar’ and ‘Ghadar di Goonj’ and other
publications was strongly secular in tone
• The Ghadarites betray any narrow regional loyalties. Lokamanya Tilak, Aurobindo Ghose, Khudi Ram Bose,
Kanhia Lal Dutt, Savarkar were all the heroes of the Ghadars. Rash Behari Bose was importuned and accepted
as the leader of the abortive Ghadar revolt in 1915.

Major weakness of the Ghadar leaders was that

• They completely underestimated the extent and amount of preparation at every level — organizational,
ideological, strategic, tactical, financial — that was necessary before an attempt at an armed revolt could be
organized.
• They underestimated the strength of the British in India, both their armed and organizational might as well
as the ideological foundations of their rule, and led themselves to imagine that all that the masses of India
lacked was a call to revolt, which, once given, would strike a fatal blow to the tottering structure of British
rule.
• The Ghadar Movement also failed to generate an effective and sustained leadership that was capable of
integrating the various aspects of the movement. Har Dayal himself was temperamentally totally unsuited to
the role of an organizer;
• Ghardar’s almost non-existent organizational structure was major weakness; the Ghadar Movement was
sustained more by the enthusiasm of the militants than by their effective organization.
• These weaknesses of understanding, of leadership, of organization, all resulted in what one can only call a
tremendous waste of valuable human resources.

If success of the movement could be measured in the terms of attainment of its immediate goal then all the major
freedom struggle event could be termed as failure But if success and failure are to be measured in terms of the deepening
of nationalist consciousness, the evolution and testing of new strategies and methods of struggle, the creation of
tradition of resistance, of secularism, of democracy, and of egalitarianism, then, the Ghadarites certainly contributed
their share to the struggle for India’s freedom.

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132. How did the Revolutionary movements change over a period of time?

Hint-

The Indian National Movement was largely non-violent, however, a small revolutionary strand emerged in the early
decades of the 20th century. The failure of the Swadeshi movement gave real impetus to revolutionary activities, with
revolutionaries assassinating British officials and showing individual heroism. However, the character of these
revolutionary movements changed with time and circumstances.

Revolutionary movements from 1900 to 1920:

Individual Heroism and revolutionary societies
• Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki were among the firsts who made attempts to kill unpopular British officials.
• They were less organized and acted on impulse. Proper strategy and communication channel among its leaders
was missing.
• They were inspired by Irish nationalists and Russian nihilists. They looked-for short-term results to invoke
fear in British but it failed to arouse nationalism among people.
• They were less organized and their outreach and propaganda were limited, they therefore failed to get support
from masses.
• Religious tone in their activities was clearly visible. They took religious oaths to defend their religion and
honour.
• In Bengal, a number of societies like ‘Anushilan Samiti’ and ‘Yugantar’ came into existence. They acted like
gyms and youth clubs, but secretly planned the assassinations of unpopular British officials.

This phase was the learning phase of revolutionary activity. They focused more on acts of individual heroism and did
not try to organize mass armed revolution as the national consciousness was still at nascent stages. However, they
represented the disenchantment of youth towards the prayer and petition methods of the moderates.
In this early phase, the revolutionaries did not try to organise a mass armed revolution. They focused on acts of
individual heroism.

Revolutionary movements from 1920 onwards:

More organized and focus on mass connect
• The second wave of revolutionary movements began after the withdrawal of Non-cooperation movement in
1922. This was because Gandhiji’s call for Swaraj through non-cooperation movement attracted many youths
but they were left disenchanted after its sudden withdrawal.
• Under the leadership of Bhagat Singh and Chandrasekhar Azad, Hindustan Republican Association took
shape. It conducted assassinations and raids to instill fear and generate finances for their organization.
• In Bengal, under the leadership of Surya Sen Chittagong armoury raid was conducted. For this he inspired
several young and passionate revolutionaries.

The revolutionaries in 1920s gradually shifted away from individual heroic action to more organized group action.
They also matured in their political thought.

Influence of Socialism
• Russian revolution and Marxist ideology influenced the revolutionaries as well. In 1928, they renamed their
organisation as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). They recognized the socialist ideals
and had vision of a just society without exploitation at the hands of the capitalist class.
• Revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Bhagawaticharan Vohra were well read and educated. Their pamphlets
spoke of establishing India as Secular, Democratic, Republic. This was lacking in early revolutionary figures.
• This era of revolutionary movement contributed to arts. They propagated their thoughts through art forms like
plays, songs and poems. This helped a dying form of art and gave it a new lease of life in hinterland of India.
It also helped these leaders to connect with masses directly and gather their support.
• This era saw the comradery of revolutionaries. Many religious friendship like that of Ashfaqullah Khan and
Ram Prasad Bismil set examples to commoners. Such a thing was missing in the early phases of revolutionary
movement.
• They worked towards social cause (education, untouchability, equality, against exploitation etc) as well and
claimed of representing workers and peasants in their struggle.

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British authorities came down heavily on these revolutionaries and its leaders. Their use of violence as a political tool
gave a justification to British to counter them by using more violence. Nevertheless, the selfless sacrifice of the
revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Chandrasekhar Azad, Surya Sen and hundreds of others gained for them
unparalleled popularity among the people. One can debate their means to achieve the freedom for the nation but cannot
question their intentions.

133. Enumerate the Social and ideological forces which influenced the two broad strands of revolutionary
movement developed in India after 1922.
Approach:
• Frustration caused by the failure of Swadeshi movement and government repression ultimately resulted in
revolutionary extremism. During the war years, the revolutionary extremist suffered severe repression, and thus
their movement declined after 1918.
• But to create a receptive atmosphere for the Government of India Act 1919, most of the revolutionaries were
released from jail in 1919 and early 1920’s.
• Mahatma Gandhi and CR Das met many of them and urged them to take part in the non-violent mass movement or
at least to suspend their movement for the duration.
• Recognizing that a new political situation had arisen in the country, many of these leaders joined Congress.
• But due to the sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation movement by Gandhiji in early 1922, many young
participants felt disappointed and dischanted with Gandhi’s leadership and began to question the very strategy of
nonviolent struggle.
• They drew their inspirations from the revolutionary movements and uprising in Russia, Ireland, Turkey, Egypt and
China.
• As a result, 2 broad strands of revolutionary movement developed after 1922: One in Punjab, UP, CP and Bihar
and other in Bengal.
Both these strands came under the influence of new social-ideological forces. These were-
a) One influence was the growth of socialist ideas and groups all over India.
b) Second was the rise of a militant trade union movement.
c) Third was the Russian revolution of 1917 and the consequent rise of the Soviet republic.

• The revolutionary movement in north India was led by revolutionaries like- Sachindranath Sanyal, Jogesh
Chatterjee and Ramprasad Bismil who met in Kanpur in 1924, and formed Hindustan Republican Association.
• Later due to the Kakori case conspiracy many of their cadres were hanged or jailed or deported, and thus in 1928
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was formed. Some prominent leaders include - Bejoy Kumar Sinha,
Shiv Verma and Jaydev Kumar, Bhagat Singh, Bhagvati Charan Bohra, Sukhdev and the others.
• In Bengal the revolutionaries after the death of CR Das became divided and started to quarrel among
themselves on the basis of Yugantar and Anushilan which were led by SC Bose and JM Sengupta respectively.
• government started large scale repression, arresting a large number of revolutionary leaders and even Congress
leaders like Bose and thus revolutionary activities suffered a setback.
• But after their release in1926, many young revolutionaries critical of old leaders began to organize themselves into
new groups known as Revolt Groups.
• Among these new groups, it was the Chittagong group led by Surya Sen, that acquired great fame and prominence.
Their cadre include both men and women such as- Pritilata Wadedar, Kalpana Dutta, Shanti Ghosh. Suniti
Choudhary, Bina Das, Mir Ahmed, Fakir Ahmed Mian and Tunu Mian.

134. Discuss the reasons behind rise of revolutionary Extremism during indian freedom struggle and its
impact.
Hint-
Several internal and external pressures acting on the minds of the youth led to the birth of revolutionary ideology in
India in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The revolutionary movement in India began in the provinces of Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, U.P., Orissa, Bihar,
and Madras, but it was mostly active in these three states i.e. Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab since they were more
politically engaged than other areas of the nation.

The causes of the upsurge in revolutionary Extremism :

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• Youth nationalism: The "economic exploitation" of Indians by the British Government and the Partition of
Bengal were the two most important factors that amplified the spirit of nationalism among the countrymen.
• Failure of the moderate and extreme congress: After the phase of national militancy began to subside, the
younger element was not prepared to retreat. The immediate cause was the Boycott and Swadeshi Movement's
aftermath.
• Failure of the leadership to harness the youth's revolutionary energies.
• There were no peaceful protest routes open due to government repression.
• Inspired from the individual heroic action on the lines of Irish nationalists or Russian nihilists.
• The new nationalists were drawn to the ideologies of freedom by revolution, valiant action, supreme sacrifice,
assassinating unpopular British officials, striking terror in the hearts of rulers, and inciting the populace to drive
out the British with force.

Revolutionary extremism's effects include:

• The age of revolutionary Extremism started, and soon after, secret revolutionary societies sprang up all over
the nation. With its headquarters in Calcutta, the Anusilan Samiti, India's most well-known and enduring
secret society, established revolutionary centres all over the country. They engaged in two types of activity:
killing tyrannical authorities, traitors, and informers; and engaging in dacoities to generate cash for the
acquisition of weapons, etc.
• It had an effect on the Congress' plan to enlist young people in a quick-fix scheme for rural rehabilitation.
• As a result of their sacrifices, the Indian people's emotions were stirred, which aided in the development of
national consciousness and undoubtedly helped India achieve freedom.
• It was unable to sway the masses. In actuality, it had no support among the populace. They cherished personal
valour.
• The goal of independence was not met by this campaign. In February 1931, Chandrasekhar Azad was shot and
killed in a public park in Allahabad, thereby ending the revolutionary struggle in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and
Bihar. The revolutionary activities in Bengal came to an end with Surya Sen's martyrdom as well. The
revolutionaries imprisoned in jails and in Andaman began a process of rethinking. Many revolutionaries
adopted Marxism as their philosophy.
Despite its failure, the revolutionary movement made a significant contribution to India's rise of nationalism. The
heroism and sacrifice of the revolutionaries were not in vain. It had broad public appeal. Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar
Azad, Surya Sen, Rajguru, and others became well-known figures in India and inspired nationalism among the general
public.

135. The emergence of left-wing group in the congress redicalized its social economic agenda." Critically
evaluate.

Hint-
• The Left group did succeed in making a basic impact on Indian society and politics. The Congress including
its right wing accepted that the poverty and misery of the Indian people was the result of not only colonial
domination but also of the internal socio-economic structure of Indian society.
• The impact of the left was reflected in Fundamental Rights and Economic policy passed by Karachi session
of the Congress in 1931, the resolution on Economic policy in 1931, the election manifesto in 1936, the setting
up of national planning committee in 1938 and increasing shift of Gandhiji towards radical positions on
economic and class issues.
• The foundation of All India Student Federation and the Progressive Writer’s Association and the convening
of the first All India State’s people conference in 1936 were some of its other footprints. The Left was also
very active in the All India Women’s Conference.
• Moreover, Nehru and Bose were elected Congress presidents from 1936 to 1939 and Nehru was able to
nominate three prominent socialists to the Congress working committee. In 1939, Bose as a candidate of the
Left was able to defeat Pattabhi Sittaramayya in the Presidential elections. But there is other side of the coin
too.
• The Left invariably fought the Congress leadership on wrong issues and when it came to the crunch was
either forced to trail behind that leadership or was isolated from the national movement. Unlike the Congress
right wing the Left failed to show ideological and tactical flexibility and sought to oppose the right wing with

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simplistic formulae and radical rhetoric. It chose to fight not on questions of ideology but on methods of
struggle and tactics.

A major weakness of the Left was the failure of different Left parties and individuals to work united except for the
short periods. The Left also counterpoised armed struggle to non-violence as a superior form and method of struggle
rather than concentrating on the nature of mass movement and ideology. Above all, the Left failed to under-stand or
grasp Gandhian strategy of struggle.

NATIONALISM UNDER GANDHI’S LEADERSHIP - 1915-1940

136. Discuss the significance of Sabarmati Ashram and Dandi March in Indian History:
Approach:

Gandhi established the first ashram at Kochrab in 1915 which he shifted to the banks of the river Sabarmati in 1917.
He lived in Sabarmati or Wardha for a total of twelve years, in recognition of the significant influence on the Indian
independence movement, the Indian government has established the ashram as a national monument.
Significance of Sabarmati Ashram:
1. Location of Sabarmati ashram: The Sabarmati ashram is sited between a prison and a crematorium, and
Gandhi believed that a satyagrahi has invariably to go to either place.
2. Propaganda against untouchability: The Satyagraha Ashram, later renamed as Harijan Ashram, was started
in all earnest with a two-fold purpose-one was to carry on the search for Truth, and the other was to create a
non-violent group of workers, who would organize and help to secure freedom for the country.
3. Freedom movement: When Gandhi started his padayatra (foot march) in 1930 from Sabarmati Ashram to
Ahmedabad for the Salt Satyagraha, he decided not to return to Sabarmati till India achieved independence
4. Lead the example for lifestyle: The humble lifestyle of the Mahatma showed a model way of life for a young
country striving for independence. Satya and Ahimsa were his ideals and these ideals were reflected in the
ashram.
5. Model for Sanitation workers - The ashram always emphasized on swachhta on which a country gets
identified. Gandhi encouraged people to keep their surroundings clean and was instrumental in changing the
behaviour of people related to dogma attached to sweepers and other lower caste people.
6. Symbolises Gandhi’s ideals: It is the simple ashram with red roof symbolises the simplicity and signifies the
mantra of Gandhi i.e Simple living and high thinking.
7. Home to freedom fighters: Served as home to Acharya V. Bhave and many Satyagrahis, a significant number
of whom were women - thus also, promoting women's empowerment.
8. Self-sustaining economy model for future India : Envisages the Khadi and Village industry concept which
was in line with Bapu's thought of production by the masses rather than mass production, against cheap foreign
goods.
Significance of Dandi March:
1) United the nation: It united the entire nation for instance, in Tamil Nadu C. Rajagopalachari organised a march
from Tiruchirapalli to Vedaranniyam, Sarojni Naidu in Dharasana Salt March and similar marches were
organised in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces etc. The North eastern areas saw defiance of forest laws
such as grazing and timber restrictions and public sale of illegally acquired forest produce.
2) Boycott of foreign goods : Civil Disobedience in different forms continued in different provinces. Special stress
was laid on the boycott of foreign goods.
3) Reduced Imports: Imports from Britain had fallen considerably. For example, imports of cloth from Britain
had fallen by half.
4) Mass participation of wide sections: The movement was more widespread than the previous one. Mass
participation including women, peasants, workers, students, urban elements like merchants,
shopkeepers provided the Congress a new all-India status.
5) Contributions by vulnerable section: The support that the movement had garnered from the poor and the
illiterate both in the town and countryside was remarkable.
6) Women participation: For Indian women, the movement was the most liberating experience to date and can
truly be said to have marked their entry into the public space.
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7) Challenge to British rule: The march was the most significant organised challenge to British authority since
the Non-cooperation movement of 1920–22.
8) Impact on INC: After Gandhi’s arrest, the CWC sanctioned: non-payment of revenue in ryotwari areas; no-
chowkidar-tax campaign in zamindari areas; and violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces.
9) Fostering future struggle: It directly followed the Purna Swaraj declaration of sovereignty and self-rule by the
Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930.
10) World-wide recognition: It gained worldwide attention which gave impetus to the Indian independence
movement and started the nationwide Civil Disobedience.

The ashram and Dandi march serve as a source of inspiration and guidance, and stands as a monument to Gandhi’s
life mission and a testimony to others who have fought a similar struggle. Over the years, the Ashram has become home
to the ideology that set India free and has inspired nations and people in their own battles against oppressive forces.

137. Was mahatma Gandhi a mass leader, What made Gandhi a mass leader. Illustrate.

Hint-

A combination of factors contributed to the rise of Gandhi as a mass leader and may be discussed as under:
1. Role of 'rumour':
• According to Sumit Sarkar, rumour played its role in the backdrop of largely illiterate, poor and miserable
society. Gandhi came to be known as a Mahatma, a holy man, a sage with miracle powers.
• A CID report on the kisan movement in Allahabad in 1921 states that, "The currency which Mr. Gandhi's name
has acquired even in the remotest villages is astonishing. No one seems to know who or what he is, but it is an
accepted fact that what he says is so, and what he orders must be done."
• In this way, peasants could imagine that Gandhi could end zamindari exploitation and labourers could imagine
that he could provide land holdings to them.
2. Historical necessity for a 'saviour from above':
• Scholars argue that popular perceptions about Gandhi were also shaped by a historical necessity. That the
masses needed to be represented by a saviour from above and Gandhi filled this need.
• In the 1920s, many local leaders emerged but they needed a national level guiding force. This is explained by
what happened at Pratapgarh-Baba Ramchandra gave leadership to the masses at the local level and got
bedakhali (forced eviction) stopped.
• Gandhi or the Congress leadership had little to do with it directly. Yet, he attributed his success to Gandhi.
3. Gandhi's political strategy:
• Bipan Chandra attributes Gandhi's popularity to his political strategy. He writes that Gandhi was a political
leader and it was through his political practice that he was able to move the masses into political action.
• Further, he writes that Gandhi's political strategy was guided by a deep understanding of the nature of British
rule and the nature of Indian masses. He realized that the British had consciously nurtured political passivity in
the masses for a stable colonial rule.
• So, Gandhi aimed to win the hearts and minds of the masses and instil in them a national consciousness. He
declared: "people can have Swaraj for the asking when they have attained the power to take it." He aimed to
bring the masses from remote corners of India onto the vortex of National politics.
• The British had also nurtured twin notions of 'benevolence' and 'invincibility of the British rule. Gandhi attacked
both these notions. He attacked 'benevolence' by exposing the exploitative nature of the colonial rule. He
attacked 'invincibility' by introducing law- breaking mass movements. In this way, Gandhi's political strategy
contributed to his popularity.
4. Long drawn nature of Gandhian struggle:
• Bipan Chandra adds that the long-drawn nature of Gandhi's struggle also contributed to his popularity, During
the 'passive phases', he carried out intense ideological work. This involved training the masses for nationalist
struggle, inculcating national consciousness and capacity building of the masses in general. As a result, he was
able to produce thousands of full-time workers who devoted their entire lives to the freedom struggle.
5. Gandhi's Constructive Programme:
• Gandhi's constructive program was built a spinning and khadi, village industries, boycott of foreign goods and
liquor. It was also centred on social reform such as upliftment of the poor, women and Harijans, Hindu- Muslim
unity, etc.

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• This constructive program helped in sustaining his mass movements in many ways. During the passive phase
of a movement, constructive work helped in diverting the energies of the masses into productive work.

6. Role of Ahimsa and participation of Women:

• Gandhi's struggle was essentially a non- violent struggle. He had adopted ahinsa as a matter of principle. This
was another reason for his popularity as the masses could join a non-violent struggle while the same was not
possible for a violent-armed struggle. This was particularly true in the case of women.

138. Trace the events leading to the withdrawal of non-cooperation movement. Discuss the causes of failure
and impact caused by it.
Launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement:

Hint-
o On 1st August, 1920, Gandhi had launched the Non-Cooperation Movement against the government.

• It involved using swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods, especially machine-made cloth, and legal,
educational and administrative institutions, "refusing to assist a ruler who misrules".
▪ the Chauri Chaura Incident:

o On 4th February, volunteers congregated in the town, and after the meeting, proceeded in a procession
to the local police station, and to picket the nearby Mundera bazaar.

• The police fired into the crowd killing some people and injuring many volunteers.
• In retaliation, the crowd proceeded to set the police station on fire.
• Some of the policemen who tried to escape were caught and battered to death. A lot of police
property, including weapons, was destroyed.
▪ Reaction of the British:
o The British Raj prosecuted the accused aggressively.
o The news shocked Gandhi too much. Not happy with the increasingly violent trend of the movement,
he immediately announced the withdrawal of the movement.
o Most of the nationalist leaders including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhash Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru,
however, expressed their disagreement at Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the movement.
o In March 1922, Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in jail.
Causes of Failure of the Movement
▪ No Negotiations by Government: The movement began showing signs of fatigue as it was not possible to
sustain any movement at a high pitch for very long.
o The Government seemed to be in no mood for negotiations.
▪ Loss of Relevance of Khilafat Issue: The central theme of the agitation, the Khilafat question, dissipated soon.
o In November 1922, the people of Turkey rose under Mustafa Kamal Pasha and Ghazi Mustaffa
Kamal deprived the Sultan of political power. Turkey was made a secular state.
o A European style of legal system was established in Turkey and extensive rights were granted to
women.
o Education was nationalised and modern agriculture and industries developed.
o In 1924, the Khilafat was abolished.
▪ Lack of Active Response: In places like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, which were centres of elite politicians,
the response to Gandhi’s call was very limited.
o The response to the call for resignation from the government service, surrendering of titles, etc., was
not taken seriously.
▪ No Abstinence from Violence: People had not learnt or fully understood the method of non-violence.
o The Chauri-Chaura incident marred the spirit of the movement leading to the withdrawal of Non-
Cooperation movement.
Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement
▪ Maximum Extent of the Movement:
o With the Non-Cooperation Movement, nationalist sentiments reached every nook and corner of the
country and politicised every strata of population: the artisans, peasants, students, urban poor, women,
traders etc.

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▪ Establishment of Swaraj and Swadeshi Institutions:
o National institutions like Gujarat Vidyapith, Kashi Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapitha, the Bengal National
University, Jamia Milia Islamia and the National Muslim University were established.
o It gave birth to the strongest idea of having Swaraj, the love for the use of Khadi and becoming a
Swadeshi.
▪ Instilling Unity among Indians:
o The country had been united by specific anti feelings, grievances against the British projecting Gandhi
as the only unchallenged leader of the century.
o The Khilafat issue was not directly linked to Indian politics but it provided the immediate declaration
to the movement and added advantage of cementing Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.
▪ Impacts on the Economic Front:
o Foreign goods were boycotted and the import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922.
o In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.

139. Critically examine the withdrawal of non-cooperation by Gandhiji. Was it the internal part of strategy
itself.

Hint-

Reasons for Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement

1. The Chauri Chaura violence proved that the countrymen were not yet properly trained in the lesson of non-
violence. It was clear that revolution was in the air and yet, no revolutionary leadership existed. In such a
situation, it was feared that further continuation of the movement would only lead to chaos.
2. It was also felt that the movement was gradually deflecting from its original path and turning into a no-rent
movement against the zamindars. The original aim was a mass movement involving various classes and not
a class revolution.
3. Despite Gandhi's repeated requests to remain non-violent at all times, random incidents of violence
continued. It was feared that such incidents could be cited as examples by the government to launch a massive
round of repression. This could upset the entire strategy of non-violent non-cooperation which relied on the
principle that repressive forces will invariable lose for raising arms against peaceful protestors.
4. Had the movement not been withdrawn, it was likely to have been brutally crushed leading to mass
demoralisation and questioning of the very principle of non-cooperation.
5. Gandhi's decision was also partly influenced by the fact that, by the end of 1921, the movement had begun
to show signs of ebbing. Students had begun to drift back to schools and colleges, lawyers and litigants back
to courts, the businessmen had become weary of mounting stocks of foreign cloth, attendance had dwindled in
meetings and rallies.

Critics of Gandhi fail to recognise that mass movement are inherently cyclic in character and have a tendency to ebb
after reaching a certain height since the capacity of the masses to sacrifice and withstand repression is not unlimited.
The ebb comes as a breathing space to regain energy for the next round of struggle. Thus, withdrawal should not be
taken as betrayal but as an inherent part of the strategy itself.

140. Who were swarajist and no changers. Evaluate their role in the freedom struggle.

Hint-

Swarajists and No Changers

• Following Gandhi's arrest in March 1922, nationalist ranks disintegrated, disorganized, and demoralized. A
debate began among Congressmen about what to do during the transition period, also known as the movement's
passive phase.
Swarajists
• One group, led by C R Das, Motilal Nehru, and Ajmal Khan, wanted to end the boycott of legislative councils
so that nationalists could enter them to expose the fundamental flaws of these assemblies and use them as a
platform for political struggle.

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• They wanted to 'end or mend' these councils, which meant that if the government did not respond to the
nationalists' demands, they would obstruct the councils' work.
• Their only intention was to use the councils as a forum for political struggle; they had no intention of using the
councils to gradually transform colonial rule.
• The Swarajists were those who advocated for inclusion in legislative councils.
No Changers
• The 'No-changers' were those who opposed council entry.
• They advocated for a focus on constructive work while maintaining the boycott and noncooperation.
• They also advocated for the quiet resumption of the suspended civil disobedience programme.
• The 'No-changers' were a school of thought led by Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari,
and M.A. Ansari.

Aims of the Swaraj Party

The Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party or the Swaraj Party aimed for:
• Attaining dominion status.
• Obtaining the right to frame a constitution.
• Establishing control over the bureaucracy.
• Obtaining full provincial autonomy.
• Attaining Swarajya (self-rule).
• Getting people the right to control government machinery.
• Organising industrial and agricultural labour.
• Controlling the local and municipal bodies.
• Having an agency for propaganda outside the country.
• Establishing a federation of Asian countries to promote trade and commerce.
• Engaging in the constructive programmes of the Congress.

Significance of Swaraj Party

• Gandhiji and both the pro-changers and the no-changers realised the importance of putting up a united front
in order to get reforms from the government.
• So, it was decided that the Swarajists would contest elections as a separate ‘group’ within the INC.
• The Swaraj Party won 42 out of 104 seats to the Central Legislature in 1923.
• The party’s programme was to obstruct the government. They wanted to create deadlocks on every measure.
• They boycotted all official functions and receptions held by the government.
• They voiced their grievances and aspirations in the Legislative Assembly.

Swaraj Party and its Achievements

• Swarajist Vithalbhai Patel became speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925.
• They outvoted the government many times even in matters related to budgetary grants.
• They were able to defeat the Public Safety Bill in 1928.
• They exposed the weaknesses of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.
• They gave fiery speeches in the Assembly on self-rule and civil liberties.

Drawbacks of Swaraj Party

• They could not coordinate their struggle inside the Assembly with the mass freedom struggle outside.
• They totally relied on newspapers to carry their work and message in the Assembly to the outside world.
• Some of them could not resist the perks of power. Motilal Nehru was a member of the Skeen Committee and
A Ramaswamy Iyengar was a member of the Public Accounts Committee.
• Their policy of obstructionism had its flaws and limitations.
• The death of C R Das in 1925 further weakened the party.
• There were internal divisions among the Swarajists.
o They were divided into the responsivists and the non-responsivists. The responsivists (M M
Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, N C Kelkar) wanted to cooperate with the government and hold offices,
whereas the non-responsivists (Motilal Nehru) withdrew from legislatures in 1926.
• The party was in shambles when it went into the 1926 elections, and as a result, did not perform well.
• The party’s failure to support the peasant cause in Bengal led to a loss of support of many members.
• The party merged with the Congress in 1935.

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Swarajist Arguments
• Entering the councils would not negate the noncooperation program; rather, it would be like continuing the
movement in a different way by opening a new front.
• During a political vacuum, council work would serve to enthuse the masses and keep morale high.
• The presence of nationalists would deter the government from populating the councils with undesirable elements
who could be used to legitimise government actions.
• There was no intention of using the councils as organs for gradual transformation of colonial rule; they could
be used as a venue for political struggle.
Swarajists Activities in Councils
• The Swarajist position gradually weakened as a result of widespread communal riots and a split among
Swarajists along communal and Responsivist-Non-Responsivist lines.
• The government's strategy of dividing Swarajists—the more militant from the moderate, Hindus from
Muslims—was successful.
• Many Muslims abandoned the Swarajists after the party refused to support the tenants' cause against the
zamindars in Bengal (most of the tenants were Muslims).
• Communal interests also joined the party. The death of C.R. Das in 1925 weakened it even more.
• Swarajists who advocated cooperation with the government and holding office wherever possible included
Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and N.C. Kelkar. They also wished to safeguard so-called Hindu
interests.
• The communal elements accused leaders such as Motilal Nehru, who opposed joining the council, of being anti-
Hindu, while Muslim communalists accused the Swarajists of being anti-Muslim.
• Thus, the main leadership of the Swarajist Party reaffirmed their belief in mass civil disobedience and
withdrew from legislatures in March 1926, while another section of the Swarajists entered the 1926 elections
as a party in disarray and did not fare well overall.
• They won 40 seats in the Centre and some seats in Madras, but were defeated in the United Provinces, Central
Provinces, and Punjab.
• The Swarajists finally walked out in 1930 as a result of the Lahore Congress resolution on purna swaraj and the
start of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Achievements and Drawbacks

Achievements
• They outvoted the government several times, including on budgetary grants, and passed adjournment motions
with coalition partners.
• They agitated through powerful speeches on self-government, civil liberties, and industrialization.
• Vithalbhai Patel was elected speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925.
• A notable accomplishment was the defeat of the Public Safety Bill in 1928, which sought to empower the
government to deport undesirable and subversive foreigners.
• They filled a political void at a time when the national movement was regaining strength.
• They exposed the Montford scheme's hollowness.
• They demonstrated how councils could be used creatively.
Drawbacks
• The Swarajists lacked a strategy for coordinating their militancy within legislatures with the mass struggle
outside. They communicated with the public entirely through newspaper reporting.
• An obstructionist strategy had drawbacks.
• They were unable to progress with their coalition partners due to competing ideas, which further limited their
effectiveness.
• They were unable to resist the benefits and privileges of power and position.
• They failed to support the peasants' cause in Bengal and lost support among their Muslim constituents.
No changers Arguments
• The No-Changers argued that parliamentary work would lead to a loss of revolutionary zeal and political
corruption.
• Constructive work would help everyone prepare for the next phase of civil disobedience.
Constructive works by No Changers
• Ashrams sprang up, where young men and women worked among tribals and lower castes (particularly in
Gujarat's Kheda and Bardoli areas), popularising the use of charkha and khadi.
• National schools and colleges were established to train students in a non-colonial ideological framework.

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• Significant progress was made toward Hindu-Muslim unity, the abolition of untouchability, the boycott of
foreign cloth and liquor, and flood relief.
• As active organisers, the constructive workers were the backbone of civil disobedience.
Gandhi’s Attitude
• Gandhi initially opposed Swarajist council entry. However, after being released from prison for health reasons
in February 1924, he gradually moved toward reconciliation with the Swarajists.
• He believed that public opposition to the council entry programme would be ineffective.
• The Swarajists won 42 out of 141 elected seats and a clear majority in the Central Provinces provincial assembly
in November 1923. They won a majority in legislatures by working with the Liberals and independents such as
Jinnah and Malaviya.
• The Swarajists' courageous and uncompromising approach convinced him that they would not become just
another limb of colonial administration.
• Toward the end of 1924, the government cracked down on revolutionary extremists and Swarajists, which
enraged Gandhi, and he expressed his solidarity with the Swarajists by surrendering to their wishes.
• Both sides agreed in 1924 that the Swarajists would work in the councils as an integral part of the Congress.
Conclusion
Despite the obstacles and changing socio-political climate, the Swarajists managed to achieve and strengthen their hold
for a period of time, giving momentum to the emerging nationalist movement. They played a significant role in public
discourse and legislation, which served as a guiding principle for future national movement leaders such as J.Nehru. It
also served as a springboard for numerous other forms of struggle, such as peasant movements, trade movements, and
so on, in the near future.

141. Analyse the factors responsible for the Civil Disobedience movement (1930-31). How far were its aims
released in the Government of India Act of 1935?
Hint-

Gandhi started the Civil Disobedience movement on 12th March,1930 with the Dandi march and Salt Satyagraha.
On 6 April 1930, by picking up a handful of salt, Gandhiji inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Factors responsible for Civil Disobedience Movement-

1. Lord Irwin Turned down of Gandhi’s 11-point ultimatum which was manifestation of grievances against
the British rule by every section of the people such
1. Regressive Salt Tax - on common people
2. High military and administrative expenditure increased tax pressure
3. High Rupee-Sterling exchange rate hampering indigenous businessman and traders
4. High land revenue made peasant condition miserable
2. After Non-Cooperation movement Congress was facing crisis of unity, this movement would give a sense of
unity among members to renew struggle after truce period
3. Major crisis in exported oriented colonial economy due to Great Depression affected all section of country like
income of the peasantry was down, traders was also making losses in addition with crop failure and famine like
situation made people angry towards the British rule
4. Failure of the Simon Commission and Nehru Report also failed to satisfy the young brigade of Congress who
were ready to join a nationalist struggle
5. Constructive programme of Gandhiji also prepared the ground for a band of Satyagrahi to launch struggle at
bigger level

During the Civil Disobedience movement, a three round table congress was organized by the British 1932-33 for the
next round of constitutional reform in the form of Govt of India act.

How much aims of Civil Disobedience Movement was achieved in GOI Act 1935 -
1. Purna Swaraj the goal of the Congress was not achieved ,foreign rule continued as before only few popularly
elected ministers were to be added in British administrative structure
2. Discretionary power was in the hand of Governor, Congress termed the act “had all brakes and no engine”
3. The British wanted to create more divisions through separate electorate for Women, depressed classes, labour -
conceded most of Jinnah’s fourteen point demand to win Muslims support.

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4. It didn’t mention even dominion status as promised during the Civil Disobedience movement
5. Net effect was to divert Congress attention to provinces while maintaining strong imperial control in the centre,
However when election happened and Congress formed ministries in 8 provinces they tried to improve condition of
people within narrow limits
1. The Congress Ministries reduced their own salaries drastically to Rs. 500 per month, most of them travelled
second or third class on railways to reduce administration cost
2. The paid greater attention to primary, technical, and higher education
3. They helped the peasant by passing anti-usury and tenancy legislation
4. They promoted civil liberties, freedom of press was enhanced
5. Political prisoners was released and there was “relaxation of police and secret service raj”

The Civil Disobedience movement may not have achieved all its aims through GOI Act 1935 but certainly it pushed the
Indian freedom struggle in the next phase by broadening the masses and weakening the British empire.

142. Discuss the growth of communalism in the 1930s 1940’s. Assess the efforts of nationalist to combat it.

Hint-

Communalism was handcrafted and introduced by the British under their broad policy of Divide and Rule through
separate electorates and restricted franchise starting with the Morley-Minto Act of 1909.
Growth of Communalism in 1930-1940-
1. Communal Award of Ramsay McDonald - emboldened separatist feeling by cementing separate electorate
of Muslims
2. GOI Act,1935- By incorporating most of the demand of Jinnah’s 14 points the British tried to balance out
Congress by winning support of Muslims
3. 1935 Election Results - Muslim Leagues debacle in 1935 election results made Jinnah to go for communal
propaganda like Hindu majority will engulfed Muslims minority,”Hindus and Muslims are to separate nations
can never live together”
4. 1940 Muslims League Pakistan resolution - It demanded for Pakistan as separate country for Muslims after
independence
5. Reaction from Hindu Mahasabha - a strong reaction to match the propaganda by Muslims League,Hindu
Mahasabha also echoed the Muslism communalists.They declared India was the land of Hindus and opposed
giving any safeguards to minority to remove fear of majority domination.For example Nehru said - “mass
contact programme to Muslims was sabotaged by Mahasabhaites”
6. Hindu Mahasabha and Muslima League joined hands to work against Congress and their efforts to remove
communalism from society.
7. Spread of Communalism - Muslism league was only strong in areas where muslims were in minority and in
North West Frontier province,Bengal,Punjab,Sindh they were weak but after 1935 election Both communalist
group from Hindus and Muslims form ministry to keep Congress away from government
8. Jinnah’s role - He became the sole spokesperson of Muslims wellbeing and succeeded to propagate a collective
sense of fear and dissatisfaction among Muslims.in 1939 when Congress ministries resigned Jinnah decided to
celebrate it as Deliverance day
9. Shariat Act -1937 - It gave symbolic ideological basis for Muslim solidarity on a national scale
10. Virtual veto to Muslims League during Second World War - Muslims league stuck to its demand and British
gave them veto over negotiations from August Offer, Cripps proposals, Shimla conference and Cabinet
Mission Plan
11. Direct Action Day on 16th august,1946 was the culmination of communalism which ultimately forced
Congress to accept the partition of India

Efforts of Nationalist to combat Communalism:

The nationalist leaders firmly opposed the communal forces
1. Negotiation with communal leaders but failed to conciliate or appease communalism
2. Efforts to appease on communalism led to growth of another in the form of backlash
3. Between 1937-1939 the Congress leader repeatedly met Jinnah to conciliate him but he put forward impossible
demand like first Congress had to accept that it was HIndu party

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4. Lucknow Congress in 1936, Nehru urge Congress to accept Socialism as its goal and to bring itself closer to
the peasantry and the working class - it was the best way of weaning away the Muslim masses from the influence
of their reactionary communal leaders
Lacunas in the effort
1. Need was an all out ideological political struggle but did not do so except sporadically
2. Congress refused to share power with Muslim League in minority state like United Province.
3. Nehru commented “there are only two parties in Indian political scene Raj and Congress” showed the arrogance
which pushed League to apply radical approach
Despite best efforts from Nationalist leaders Communalism succeeded partitioning the country however India after
independence built a secular polity and society by enacting a secular constitution.

143. Discuss the developments that took place during the 1927-29 which reflect the beginning of a new stage
of anti imperialist struggle in india.

Hint-
During the anti imperialist struggle of India the 1927-29 years witnessed emergence of new trends from growth of
socialism to emergence of youth participation in the freedom struggle gave new push for independence.

Beginning of new stage :-

1. Growth of Socialist and Marxist ideas - Rise of new left wing in Congress under the leadership of Nehru and
Subhas.They didn’t confine its attention to the struggle against imperialism but simultaneously raised the
question of internal class oppression by capitalists and landlords
2. Emergence of Indian youth - All over the country youth leagues were being formed and student conferences
held. The first all bengal student conferences was presided over by Nehru in 1928.Youth were attracted to
socialist ideology due to dissatisfaction over Gnadhian ideas,Russian revolution and newly found Commmunist
party in 1925
3. Peasant movement - In Uttar pradesh there was large scale agitation among tenants over revision of tenancy
laws, reduction of lower rents,protection from eviction and relief from indebtedness.The famous Bardoli
Satyagraha also occurred this time under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
4. Growth of Trade Unionism - All India Trade Union organised many strikes such as strikes in railway workshop
in Kharagpur, Tata Iron and Steel Works,Bombay Textile Mills where 1.5 lac workers went on strikes for over
five months
5. Socialist turn of Revolutionary movements - Hindustan Republican Association which was formed after 1924
changed to Hindustan Scoailist Republican Association in 1928 under the leadership of Chandra Shekhar Azad
and changed political objectives to revolution by masses. Bhagat SIngh and B.K.Dutt threw harmless bomb
to make “deaf hear” and used court as forum for revolutionary propaganda
6. Boycott of Simon Commission,1927 - all white Simon commission which was formed for further constitutional
reform .It angered all Indians as violated principle of self-determination and was an deliberate insult to self-
respect of Indians
7. Nehru Report ,1928- First Indian attempt to enact a Constitution by all important Indian leaders and parties
8. Poorna Swaraj Resolution - During Lahore session 1929 under presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru Congress
passed Poorna Swaraj -’Complete Independence’ resolution. It fundamentally changed the goal of the Congress.

The years 1920-29 fundamentally changed the character of Indian freedom struggle from emergence of youth
participation and their leadership in Congress to the objective of complete independence. It filled the country with new
hope and exhilaration and the determination to be free.

144. The Champaran Satyagraha was the first intersection of peasant unrest and the national movement.
Comment.
Hint-
The Champaran satyagraha of 1917 opened a new phase in the national movement by joining it to the great struggle
of the Indian peasantry for bread and land. Agrarian issues rarely formed the part of the political discourse earlier.
However, Gandhiji led the struggle of indigo workers as India’s first satyagraha that set the pace for inclusion of peasant
struggles to the national movement.

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• The early freedom fighters, earlier moderates and later extremists focused exclusively on political question of
freedom struggle.
• The movement was mostly motivated by and catered to the certain intelligentsia, educated, the urban middle
class only and asked for certain concessions from British government like an increased representation of Indians
in government, freedom of press, through tools like sending representatives, petitions etc.
• The masses were neither involved in the struggle nor were their problems addressed.
• The Champaran movement was the first Satyagraha, taken up by Gandhiji in India, to free indigo workers
from excesses of indigo planters under tinkathia system who were trying to exploit peasants by increasing rent
after falling of indigo prices due to coming of synthetic dyes.
• Gandhiji spearheaded the movement non-violently and through political means, thus exposing peasants to
political tools of struggle and paving the way for such other struggles.
It proved to be a watershed in the Indian freedom struggle by bringing peasants directly in its fold on one hand through
the formation of Kisan Sabhas and inspiring future peasant movements based on political agitation on the other
(Kheda, Bardoloi etc.) The freedom struggle from hereon became truly Indian by the inclusion of masses.

145. What was the significance of the Champaran movement in India’s journey of freedom struggle?
Hint-
Gandhiji returned to India in January 1915 after gaining experience in South Africa with his agitational protest methods.
After coming to India, he decided to travel India and not to take any position on any political matter for at least one
year. In 1917 Gandhiji was requested to look into the problems of the farmers in context of indigo planters of
Champaran in Bihar.
Issue of tinkathia system: The European planters had been forcing the peasants to grow indigo on 3/20 part of the total
land (called tinkathia system).
Significance of Champaran movement
First lesson in disobedience movement: Gandhi travelled across the district to different villages, meeting farmers and
taking note of their sufferings and complaints against the forced indigo cultivation.
• He was given an ultimatum by the British government to leave Champaran. Gandhi refused to leave and
responded that he was ready to bear "the penalty of civil disobedience".
• As Gandhi was arrested scores of Champaran tenants turned up in protest outside the jail, police stations and
courts. Troubled by this unusual form of resistance that spilled no violence, the government was forced to let
go of Gandhi. Gandhiji here remarked "The country, thus, had its first direct object-lesson in Civil
Disobedience,".
Beginning of Mass movement era:
• Champaran movement marked the beginning of mass movement era as from now onwards masses were part of
national movement. Gandhi through Champaran movement reposed faith in common masses unlike Congress
which did not considered masses were yet ready for mass movement.
Emergence of Mass leader:
• Gandhiji built on his South African experience and established his reputation as mass leader beginning with
Champaran and later Ahmedabad and Kheda movement. He found his feet among the masses and came to have
a surer understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the masses.
First demonstration of Non- violent Satyagraha:
• Gandhi demonstrated to the people the efficacy of his technique of satyagraha.

Champaran movement is landmark event in Indian independence movement as from here on masses became
permanent part of movement. Earlier doubts about the capacity of masses were relinquished by Congress to create a
genuinely mass based freedom struggle leading to Independence from British rule.

146. “It was like a hungry man, expecting bread, being offered stones”. Examine the given statement in light
of the Rowlatt Act imposed by the British government in 1919, along with its impact.

Hint-
The given statement is in the context of the Rowlatt Act (Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919) imposed
by the British Government in India in March 1919. Earlier, In 1918, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State, and Lord
Chelmsford, the Viceroy, produced their scheme of constitutional reforms (famously called Montagu-Chelmsford
reforms) which led to the enactment of the Government of India Act of 1919.

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Indian nationalists had, however, were no longer willing to be satisfied with the shadow of political power. The Indian
National Congress met in a special session at Bombay in August 1918 under the president-ship of Hasan Imam to
consider the reform proposals. It condemned them as “disappointing and unsatisfactory” and demanded effective self-
government instead.
• Instead of addressing the demands of the nationalists, the British government armed itself with more far-
reaching powers, which went against the accepted principles of rule of law, to be able to suppress those
nationalists who would refuse to be satisfied with the official reforms.
• In March 1919 it passed the Rowlatt Act even though every single Indian member of the Central Legislative
Council opposed it. It was enacted during the First World War in order to control public unrest and root out
conspiracy based on the recommendations of Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt.
• This Act authorized the government to imprison any person without trial and conviction in a court of law.
The Act thus also enabled the government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus which had been the foundation
of civil liberties in Britain.
• The Rowlatt Act came like a sudden blow. To the people of India, promised extension of democracy during
the War, the government step appeared to be a cruel joke.
• Unrest spread in the country and a powerful agitation against the Act arose under the able leadership of
Mahatma Gandhi, who called it a Black Act.

Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act:

• Gandhi on 26 February issued an 'open letter' to all the Indians urging them to join the satyagraha. He decided
to launch a nationwide movement, starting with a general strike or Hartal on 6 April.
• The government had no prior experience of handling such wide-spread mass agitation. To avoid trouble they
arrested Gandhi, but that provoked mob fury in cities like Delhi, Bombay, Ahmedabad.
• Gandhi's trusted volunteers could not control this mass violence and were themselves swayed by it. The
government response was varied, In Bombay, the response was restrained, while in Punjab, Sir Michael
O'Dwyer unleashed a ‘reign of terror’.
• The worst violent incident was the massacre of Jallianwalla bagh in Amritsar on 13 April, where General Dyer
opened fire on a peaceful gathering of satyagrahis, killing 379 people, in a bid to break their morale.
Limitations of the Satyagraha:
• It failed to secure its only aim, i.e., the repeal of the Rowlatt Act.
• The whole of India was not affected and the movement was more effective in the cities than in the rural areas
and here again the strength of the movement was due more to local grievances, like price rise or scarcity of
basic commodities, than to protest against the Rowlatt Bills, about which there was very little popular awareness.
• It also lapsed into violence, although it was meant to be non-violent.
• Gandhiji admitted to having committed a Himalayan blunder by offering the weapon of satyagraha to a people
insufficiently trained in the discipline of non-violence.
• Gandhiji was overwhelmed by the atmosphere of total violence and withdrew the movement on April 18,
1919.
Significance of the Rowlatt Satyagraha:
• It was the first nationwide mass strike, marking the beginning of a transformation of Indian nationalist politics
from being the politics of some restricted classes to becoming the politics of the masses.
• Gandhiji during his extensive tours in many parts of India made personal contact with local leaders, through
which his messages spread. However, local leaders failed to control mass emotions once these were aroused.
• It gave a crucial lesson to Gandhiji about limitations in inculcating the concept of Satyagraha in the masses
during a mass movement. Gandhiji used the lessons learned in the subsequent movements.
• The failure of anti-Rowlatt Act agitation made Gandhiji realize the need for an impersonal political
organization such as Congress.
Rowlatt Act and the subsequent violence, especially the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre is one of the darkest moments in
modern Indian history and is a specimen of the barbarism of the colonial regime in India.

147. Gandhi believed firmly that Indian women could easily outlast men in the peaceful fight for suffrage.
Comment.

Hint-

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Swaraj, in Gandhi's eyes, was more than just freedom from foreign dominion. It has several different dimensions.
Swaraj means self-control over passion and desire on an individual level, the abolition of untouchability and communal
violence on a social level, democratic decentralizations on a political level, mass production on an economic level, and
the acceptance of all cultures and religions on a cultural level.
Women are the torchbearers for establishing Swaraj, according to Gandhiji. Despite India being a very patriarchal
society, Gandhian activities were vital in empowering women in the social, economic, and political spheres.
Gandhiji’s view on women's empowerment:
• According to Gandhiji, traits like perseverance and peaceful resistance of authority should be the ideals of
women in India. They are the symbol of moral power.
• Gandhian movements helped women shed their deep-rooted sense of inferiority and rise to dignity and self-
esteem.
• Gandhiji was against evil socio-religious practices like child marriage, purdah system, dowry system, etc.

Influence of Gandhian ideas on women:

• Women’s active participation in mass movements began with the Swadeshi Movement in 1905 and only grew
in later movements. Women played an active role in the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
• Women had a special role in Gandhi’s constructive program like the promotion of Khadi, ending untouchability.
Some women leaders during the Gandhian struggle are as follows:
• Anusuya Ben — Accompanied Gandhi in his tours and actively participated in 1918 Ahmedabad Textile milk
strikes.
• Sarojini Naidu — Led the raid on Dharasana salt works during the Civil Disobedience Movement following
Gandhi’s arrest.
• Some other women leaders like Lakshmi Menon, Sushila Nayyar, and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur rose to
prominence adhering to Gandhian ideas.
Gandhi once said that women's nonviolent involvement into national politics produced miraculous effects. Women
discovered their inherent strength, and at the same time, the process introduced moral and personal qualities into politics.
Women played a major role in the swaraj movement and the Gandhian movement. Women had a significant role in
popularizing Gandhian tactics for struggle including fasting and prayer.

148. Instead of being "crusaders," women have played the role of "helpers" in the Indian freedom struggle.
critically assess

Hint-
Without referencing the contributions of women, the history of the Indian Conflict would be lacking. The sacrifice made
by the Indian women will take precedence. When the majority of the male freedom fighters were incarcerated, the
women stepped forward and took over the fight. To secure our independence, they battled valiantly and bravely in the
face of numerous exploitations, tortures, and sufferings.
The role played by women in Indian freedom struggle- ‘Crusaders’ not just ‘helpers’ –
Early struggles:
• Woman's participation in India's freedom struggle began as early as in 1817. Bhima Bai Holkar fought bravely
against the British colonel Malcolm and defeated him in guerilla warfare. Many women including Rani
Channama of Kittur, Rani Begam Hazrat Mahal of Avadh fought against British East India company in the
19th century; 30 years before the “First War of Independence 1857”.

The First War of Independence (1857-58):

• Even though the British succeeded in crushing it within a year, it was certainly a popular revolt in which the
Indian rulers, the masses and the militia participated so enthusiastically. Rani Lakshmibai was the great heroine
of the First war of India Freedom.
• She showed the embodiment of patriotism, self-respect and heroism. She was the queen of a small state, but the
empress of a limitless empire of glory.
Non-cooperation movement launched (1920):
• Gandhi ji returned to India from South Africa in 1915 and took up the demand for self-rule and non-cooperation
movement. Sarla Devi, Muthulaxmi Reddy, Susheela Nair, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Sucheta Kripalani and
Aruna Asaf Ali are some the women who participated in the non-violent movement.
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• Kasturba Gandhi, the wife of Mahatma Gandhi, and the women of the Nehru family, Kamla Nehru, Vijaya
Lakshmi Pandit and Swarup Rani, also participated in the National Movement. Lado Rani Zutshi and her
daughters Manmohini, Shyama and Janak led the movement in Lahore.
Civil Disobedience and the Dandi Salt March (1930):
• The women started their march on the road to liberty by breaking salt laws, forest laws, taking out Prabhat
Pheries, processions picketing schools, colleges, legislative councils and clubs. Sarojini Naidu was specially
nominated by Gandhiji to initiate raid upon Dharasana Salt Works in May 1930.
• During the movement, Kamla Devi addressed meetings, prepared salt and picketed foreign cloth and liquor
shops. Nari Satyagraha Committee, Mahila Rashtriya Sangha, and Ladies Picketing Board played important
role during the period.
Revolutionary Activities:
• The organization of the revolutionaries was very active in Dhaka, Comila and Chittagong and young college
girls came into its fold. The famous group of the women revolutionaries consisted of Samiti and Suniti, Bina
Das, Kalpana Dutta and Preetilata Waddedar
The Quit India Movement (1942):
• The resolution to Quit India, adopted in opposition to the British, specifically mentioned women as "disciplined
soldiers of Indian liberation," needed to keep the battle going. Usha Mehta, a devoted patriot, established The
"Voice of Freedom," a radio transmitter, to broadcast the "mantra" of the freedom-war.
• The public was informed of demonstrations, arrests, the actions of young nationalists, and Gandhi's iconic "Do
or Die" call to arms for the Quit India struggle. Up until their incarceration, Usha Mehta and her brother kept
up their broadcasting work.

Women played a crucial role in India's war for independence. They organized picketing of stores selling foreign
booze and goods, attended public gatherings, marketed Khadi, and actively supported national movements. They entered
jails while standing valiantly up to the police baton. Numerous Indian women dedicated their life to the cause of their
country's independence.

149. What were the Self Respect Movement's main goals? Analyze the accomplishments of this movement
critically.

Hint-
The Self-Respect Movement was an active social movement that sought to completely overthrow the modern Hindu
social structure and establish a new, logical society devoid of caste, religion, and deities.
E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker founded the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu in 1925. It was an egalitarian
movement that promoted the ideas of ending Brahminical hegemony, granting equal rights to women and members of
the underprivileged classes, and reviving Dravidian languages including Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam.
Key Objectives:
The objectives of the Self-Respect Movement have been outlined and stated in two pamphlets “Namathu Kurikkol”
and “Tiravitakkalaka Lateiyam” which have been given below:
• The movement aims to do away with such social structure of the society where one class of people claim to be
superior to others and some men claim to be of higher birth than others.
• It aims to work for getting equal opportunities for all people, irrespective of their communities it will strive to
secure equal status for women along with men in life and according to law.
• All people should be given equal opportunities for growth and development.
• It aims to completely eradicate untouchability and to establish a united society based on brotherhood and
sisterhood.
• Friendship and fellow feeling should be natural among all the people.
• To establish and maintain homes for orphans and widows and to run educational institutions.
• To discourage people from building new temples, mutts, chlorites or Vedic Schools. People should drop the
caste titles in their names. Common funds should be utilized for educational purposes and for creating
employment opportunities for the unemployed.
The Self-Respect Movement played a significant role in the political, social and religious life of the people of South
India. It brought the message of the Tamil Nationalism to the masses.
• The monopoly of power and influence enjoyed by the Brahmins was slowly lost due to E.V.R.’s unceasing
propaganda against orthodoxy. It filled with the sense of self-respect and above all self-confidence, to fight
against social injustice perpetrated by the Brahmins of the day.

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• It led to the promotion of inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and legalization of marriages without
Brahman priest. Post-independence, Tamil Nadu passed a law and became the first state to legalise Hindu
marriage without Brahmin priest.
• The system of allotting separate places for Harijan members in the Municipal Councils was also discontinued.
• Due to relentless fight of supporters of the movement, the name boards of the hotels were changed from
“Brahmins Hotel” to “Vegetarian Hotel”.
• People started taking pride in giving up their caste name.
• However, the movement failed to liberate women as well as the lower caste and secured equal rights for them.
It failed to strengthen the economic condition of the poor and depressed classes. Since, the movement was
limited to Tamil Nadu, it had very limited influence.
Is political freedom truly freedom? was one of several queries posed by the Self-Respect Movement. Will it result in
an egalitarian society? Will it enable the treatment of women with dignity? The sad fact is that we still don't know the
answers to these queries. The nation's educated and enlightened youth must now assume responsibility for eliminating
societal ills and realizing the goals of the self-respect movement.

150. The Salt Satyagraha, which shook an empire, was more than just a symbolic act of breaching the salt
rule. Examine

Hint-
Gandhiji was given full authority by the Congress Working Committee to start the Civil Disobedience Movement at
the beginning of 1930. Since there was no other product, outside water, that could be taxed to feed the millions of people
who were starving, Gandhiji made salt the foundation of the movement. He thought that was the most inhumane tax.
The salt satyagraha was more than just a symbolic act of breaching the law because it:
An act of civil disobedience:
• The violation of the law was seen as a symbol of the Indian people’s resolve not to live under British-made
laws and therefore under British rule. Gandhi asked the people to make salt from sea water in their homes and
violate the salt law.
A Mass Movement:
• It was an act to mobilize masses by choosing to oppose the tax which impacted poorest of poorest. By choosing
a tax which was non divisive unlike no rent campaign which pitted farmers against landlords, Gandhi ensured
mass participation.
Upheld principle of self help:
• It was an act to allow people to generate important income for the poor through self-help by making salt.
Gandhiji had already popularized Khadi as a source of income generation for rural poor. By making salt a
centerpiece of civil disobedience, he reiterated the importance of self help especially for communities living
along the coast.
A non violent satyagraha:
• The Gandhian approach to social activism and protest against injustice was highlighted by the Salt Satyagraha.
The Dandi March has become synonymous with non-violent resistance. Through the straightforward process
of producing salt, the salt satyagraha reinforced the idea of an independence movement without violence.
Truth, sacrifice, nonviolence, selfless service, and cooperation make up the Gandhian strategy, and the Salt Satyagraha
brought these qualities to light and upended the British Empire.

151. Draw attention to the Civil Disobedience Movement's importance. Are these movements still essential
today? Comment.

Hint-
The Dandi March, sometimes referred to as the Salt March and the Dandi Satyagraha, was a nonviolent civil
disobedience action that was begun by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. The march, a direct action movement of tax
resistance and peaceful protest against the British salt monopoly, lasted from March 12 to April 6, 1930.
Following that, civil disobedience spread throughout India and quickly involved millions of Indians, leading to the
arrest of more than 60,000 people by British officials. Despite Gandhiji's own incarceration on May 5th, the satyagraha
went on without him.
significance of the Civil Disobedience Movement
• Civil Disobedience in different forms continued in different provinces. Special stress was laid on the boycott
of foreign goods. As a result, Imports from Britain had fallen considerably. For example, imports of cloth from
Britain had fallen by half.
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• In eastern India, payment of chowkidari tax was refused. This no-tax campaign became very popular in
Bihar. In Bengal, J.N. Sengupta defied Government laws by reading openly the books banned by the
government.
• Defiance of forest laws assumed a mass character in Maharashtra.
• The movement had taken a fire hold in provinces of U.P., Orissa. Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Assam.
• The movement was more widespread than the previous one. Mass participation including women, peasants,
workers, students, urban elements like merchants, shopkeepers provided the Congress a new all-India status.
• The support that the movement had garnered from the poor and the illiterate both in the town and countryside
was remarkable.
• For Indian women, the movement was the most liberating experience to date and can truly be said to have
marked their entry into the public space.
• Although the Congress withdrew the Civil Disobedience in 1934, the movement received global attention and
marked a critically important stage in the progress of the anti-imperialist struggle.

152. Investigate how Gandhiji's past experiences in South Africa influenced the Indian liberation movements,
from the moderate phase to the Gandhian phase.

Hint-
Gandhi traveled from South Africa to India in January 1915. Gandhi's ascent to prominence on the Indian political
scene marked a significant turn in the fight against imperialism in India in favor of a broad-based popular opposition.
• Gandhi was present in South Africa when white people treated Asian immigrants who had come there as
laborers with scorn and humiliation. He made the decision to organize the Indian workers so they could stand
up for their rights.
• Gandhi organized a large-scale protest against the Transvaal Immigration Act and other policies in South
Africa that discriminated against Indians, such as the requirement for Indians to always carry certificates of
registration with their fingerprints, restrictions on Indian migration, poll taxes, and invalidating Indian
marriages.
Gandhi’s experience in South Africa:
• Gandhi saw that the public had a tremendous potential for participation in and sacrifice for a cause that moved
them
• He was successful in bringing Indians from many social backgrounds, religions, and genders together under his
guidance.
• He also realized that sometimes leaders must make choices that their ardent supporters may not agree with.
• Without being constrained by the resistance of competing political currents, he was able to develop his own
brand of politics, leadership, and new fighting tactics on a small scale.
• Gandhi gradually adopted his distinctive Gandhian techniques of protest—truth, nonviolence, civil obedience,
and non-cooperation—as he assumed leadership of the Indian National Movement after developing them in
South Africa.
• As he was aware of the inner strength of women, Gandhi also included women in the Indian National cause
while organizing a protest in Africa.
Gandhi's experiences in South Africa thus validated his conviction in the strength of the masses as fighters. The
Gandhian strategies of non-cooperation, civil disobedience, and persuasion by attacking the oppressor's conscience
were adopted by him as he was able to forge his own political beliefs, leadership style, and tactics for the mass-based
struggle, moving away from the moderate methods of petition and prayer.

153. To change the rural economy, Mahatma Gandhi advocated mass production rather than mass
manufacturing. Examine.
Gandhi argued that the cause of all contradictions is centralism. It can be described as an instance in which a small
number of people have the resources and authority to make choices that have an impact on a large number of excluded
parties.
Gandhian economics questions commonplace assumptions and precepts. It is a workable substitute for conventional
economic theories for fostering economic development without emphasizing material aims or endangering human
development.

Advantages of Mass Production-

Gandhian self-sufficiency principles:

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• The goal of Gandhian development is to create a self-sufficient community. Every community should be self-
sufficient. Gandhi considered a five-mile radius to be the primary unit of self-containment. Each basic unit's
production should be related to the natural consumption requirements of those who live in it.
Gandhi's balanced growth theory:
• It is directed by the goal of balanced growth, which is more important than the goal of pure economic gain. It
provides the greatest level of protection against unfair distribution of trade advantages among states. Given the
prevalence of excessive inequality, achieving greater balance would necessitate income redistribution
techniques.
Gandhian trusteeship doctrine:
• Trusteeship offers a mechanism of changing society's current capitalist order into an egalitarian one; it gives
no quarter to capitalism while giving the current owning class a chance to reform itself. It is based on the belief
that human nature may always be redeemed.
Gandhian sarvodaya scheme:
• True economics is concerned with social justice and moral principles. He stated that apathy must be replaced
with sympathy, exploitation with benevolence, and profit with welfare. Linking human growth with materialism
development
Decentralization principle:
• It improves efficiency and the execution of development strategies. It increases sensitivity and adaptability
while also institutionalising people's engagement. It promotes more equitable resource allocation and income
distribution.

A critical examination of Gandhian development Rural economic theory:

• His economic theory lacks technical expertise that is analytically valuable. He was a practical idealist who was
instantly engaged in resolving his country's problems of poverty and inequality.
• The rich are unable to rid themselves from the drive for profit by accepting sarvodaya ideals. And production
does not expand because of outmoded manufacturing technologies. It results in perpetual stagnation.
Gandhi believed that rural change and rural development were essential to saving the Indian economy. Given India's
current obsession with economic growth and the general trend of economic development around the world, it appears
that this cannot be accomplished. A prosperous community and country are built on the foundation of a vibrant rural
economy.

154. Discuss the viability of the Gandhian self-sufficient village economy as a substitute for the current system
of government.
OR
Q. Examine the relevance of Gandhian model of self-sufficient village economy in 21st century.
OR
Q. Discuss the relationship between self-sufficient village economy and balanced economic growth. also suggest
alternative model for balanced economic growth.

Hint-
• Simpleness, decentralization, self-sufficiency, cooperation, equality, nonviolence, human values, self-sufficient
village units, nationalization of basic industries, Swadeshi, and the trusteeship idea are the cornerstones of the
Gandhian Economic Order. These will then address problems with labor, capital, production, distribution, and
profit, among other things. We have been following a market-oriented free economic system since 1991, but
old problems have yet to be solved, and higher growth has yet to be achieved, so there is an urgent need to find
some other alternative solution to current economic problems." Various economists, including Gunnar Myrdal,
believe that following Gandhi's guidelines can help to solve India's and other developing countries'
socioeconomic problems.
• Even today, Gandhian ideas are more relevant because both nationalisation and privatisation have failed to
tackle numerous problems such as poverty, unemployment, inequality, and environmental destruction. Growth
programmes based on science and technology are materialistic rather than humanistic, and hence there is a need
to reconsider Gandhi's self-sufficient village economic model in order to solve all of our problems.
Self-Sufficient Village Economy:
• Gandhi anticipated the dangers posed by the millions of people residing in congested urban areas. Urban life
has been more characterized by crime, violence, and exploitation due to the concentration of urbanization in
towns and cities, as well as the widening wealth and poverty disparity.
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• Gandhi advised "every hamlet to provide and utilize all its need and in addition created a set amount as its
contribution to the requirements of the city," which encompasses all of their fundamental requirements.
Decentralisation:
• Gandhi supported small-scale cooperative and decentralised organisations to counteract the negative effects
of centralised enterprises. To end the concentration of economic power in a select few hands, cottage and village
industries were developed as a means of decentralising authority.
• He opposed the widening wealth and income gaps brought on by the expansion of large-scale businesses. People
can enjoy the benefits of progress while maintaining social fairness; everyone has an equal chance to develop
their capabilities and experience complete freedom.
Capitalist mode of production:
• According to Gandhi, the current techniques of distributing the output among many components are also
violent. The method used aims to allocate a factor unit's share in accordance with the contribution that it has
made.
• Naturally, this results in stark income disparities and leaves little room for other, less effective production units.
One enjoys a lavish lifestyle, while the other goes hungry. This violent form of distribution ought to be
abandoned in favour of a nonviolent one where such financial disparities are unlikely to occur.
• In response to the negative effects of machines, Gandhi said, “I will not have the enrichment of a few at the
expense of the community. At present, the machine is helping a small minority to live on the exploitation of the
masses.” "I desire the concentration of riches, not in the hands of few, but in the hands of everybody," he said.
Today's technology only enables a select few to ride on the shoulders of millions.
Gandhi's perspective:
• The labor-intensive method of production was the obvious choice for a quick fix to rural India's serious issues
with extreme poverty, unemployment, and underemployment, as well as his social goals for establishing self-
sufficiency.
• The heavy, basic, and nationally significant core industries would be handled by the state on a no profit, no
loss basis. The village industries would be scattered throughout rural areas; the urban industries might be
privately owned, but they wouldn't compete with the rural industries. The purpose of minor and big enterprises
is to balance one another. Gandhi advocated mass manufacturing through self-employment in small-town
businesses.
Relevance of Trusteeship:
• The Gandhian concept of trusteeship bans an owner from misusing his resources, in contrast to the capitalist
system. Only the fraction of the money set aside by the government that is necessary for his survival is his.
• On the one hand, the Gandhian economic system strives to make the average man into a self-sufficient, moral
individual who values peace and the dignity of work, while simultaneously putting a stop to exploitation and
going after the root of the problem. Gandhi argued that those who are wealthy and have accumulated large sums
of money should share it with as many people as possible for the sake of the entire community.

Swadeshi as an Alternative:
• Swadeshi thinking is necessary to protect the interests of the common public. The nation's elite are fully fixated
on foreign products. These days, they are prized as prestige symbols. Such a way of thinking is unhealthy and
would prevent the country from progressing and developing.
• We revert to being slaves and misplace our sense of self. We must therefore revive the Swadeshi spirit,
encourage the use of Indian resources and products, and progress indigenous technology.
• Swadeshi consumption is essential for creating a self-sufficient economy. The benefits of Swadeshi should
serve as the basis for reconstructing our economy. The Swadeshi ideology is not based on geographical or
limited factors. if everyone makes use of locally produced goods all the goods produced in the world will be
locally consumed.

Sarvodaya:
• The Gandhian economic theory proposes two steps for achieving the ultimate goal of human progress. The
first stage is achieving political independence, and the second entails achieving economic self-sufficiency (the
essentials of life) through the restoration of cottage and village industries that may ensure an absolutely crucial
minimum level of income for every family. Therefore, swaraj would ensure that during the early phases of
development, both political and economic freedom are guaranteed.
• The second stage of development is a more advanced level marked by a greater standard of life and opportunity
for everyone to develop equally. In the same sentence, Jayprakash Narayan explains Sarvodaya, saying, "What
we want is the building of a society where there would be no exploitation, perfect equality, and each person will
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have equal opportunities for development. He went on to say that Sarvodaya aims to establish a society devoid
of caste, class, and exploitation.
Growth and development:
• Gandhi had a highly open-minded view of what development was, including not only economic but also
social and human development. Gandhi believed that economic expansion without consideration for everyone's
welfare is not development at all. Accordingly, the Gandhian concept of development may be expressed as
follows:
Sarvodaya + Economic Growth = Development
• Gandhi believed that political power was the capacity to direct national affairs through legitimately elected
authorities. National life is expected to become self-regulating at some point since it will be so wonderful.
• Gandhi, however, favored reforming the existing political system based on nonviolence and decentralization
up until the ideal state of statelessness was realized. Gandhi was against granting the government any substantial
obligations. A casteless, classless, and stateless society, in his opinion, would also be a just one.
• Capitalist, metropolitan, and large industrial centered economic policies are to blame for the majority of
today's problems. The solution to all of these problems is the Gandhian economic order.

155. Gandhiji was not just a politician who led large-scale rallies; his ideas and worldview helped lay the
groundwork for contemporary democracies. Analyse

Hint-
Mahatma Gandhi, a political figure, emphasized the necessity of both the sympathy and support of the non-
participating masses as well as the general populace's active participation.
He opposed colonialism and all other types of authoritarian authority using nonviolent means. He built his idea of
democracy around the values of justice and truth.
In contrast to a violent revolution, which could be carried out by a small group of determined cadres and troops, he
focused on a nonviolent revolution that highlighted the power of inner conscience and values. The majority of people
largely backed it passively, and millions were politically mobilized. He acted as the movement's moral and ethical
defender.
Influence and ideologies
Nonviolence:
• The national movement's commitment to nonviolence contributed to the development of a democratic culture
in the country. Discussion, debate, and persuasion based on public opinion were emphasized as essential tactics
for enacting political and social change.
Satyagraha:
• The idea of satyagraha placed emphasis on both the value of seeking the truth and the power of the truth. It
suggested that if the cause was just and the fight was being led against injustice, using physical force to subdue
the oppressor was not necessary. Without seeking vengeance or using violence, a satyagrahi could win a war
by using nonviolence. By appealing to the oppressor's conscience, this could be accomplished. Gandhi had the
authority to publicize Satyagraha as a tool for emancipation and change on a global scale.
Decentralization and representation at the local level:
• His views on representative democracy and the full range of civil liberties for each individual were deeply
ingrained in Indian political thought. By emphasising the Panchayati Raj, it promoted democracy at the local
level. During the fight for independence, this was also reflected in the split of Congress Working Committees
based on language.
Swaraj,
• or "self-rule," has been practised in India since the village level, expanding representativeness. The emphasis
on intense, small-scale, individual, and varied farming as well as a cattle-based economy was made in order to
eradicate poverty through the revival of village economies. The Directive Principles of State Policy were
therefore established.
Religion:
• His ideas about intercommunal harmony contributed to the secularization of India's democracy. The separation
of religion and politics in India, which served as the social definition of secularism, was a reflection of his belief
that religion was a matter of personal choice.
Social empowerment of marginalised communities:
• The Indian national movement opposed all forms of injustice, prejudice, and oppression based on gender and
caste, which was a reflection of Gandhian values. Populations who are marginalized are socially empowered.
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By prohibiting child marriage and untouchability, his "Sarvodaya" concept embraced the social independence
of women and members of lower castes.
Impact on other democracies:
• The Gandhian virtues of compassion and forgiveness, which Gandhi himself first displayed while he was there,
inspired Nelson Mandela in South Africa. Nationalist figures in West Africa, such as Kwame Nkrumah in the
British colony of the Gold Coast, were inspired by Gandhi's achievements. Lech Walesa, the Polish Solidarity
Movement's leader, worked assiduously to incorporate Gandhian strategies into his movement. Along with
democracies, Gandhian ideologies have an impact on significant movements like the Arab Spring.
Racism:
• Gandhi's opposition was essential to both the struggle to eliminate apartheid in South Africa and the struggle
for Indian independence.

Institutions and processes that permit the expression, assessment, and transformation of everyone's voice and
perspective were developed under the influence of Gandhian ideologies. He argued that in a democratic society,
everyone has the same possibilities. The values of voluntary cooperation and respectful and peaceful coexistence have
been adopted in a number of other modern democracies. Furthermore, in contemporary Indian politics, his emphasis on
religious and political tolerance is still important.

156. Talk about the role that women played in the struggle for freedom, particularly during the Gandhian
era.

Hint-
The Indian liberation fight served as a metaphor for a cauldron in which different facets of society contributed in
accordance with their capacity to infuse nationalism. Women have a hugely important part in this situation. Women's
participation in the national movement went through several stages as they were given varied roles. In the early phases,
writers like Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyaya's Anand Nath referred to Indian women as "Mother" and associated it
with "Bharat Mata." The ideal mother, wife, and sister were portrayed in the 19th-century reform movements.

The Swadeshi Movement in 1905 marked the beginning of women actively participating in mass movements, which
only increased in subsequent movements. Women were given a unique role by Gandhiji in the NCM and CDM. He
accepted their biological and social limitations but exalted their strength. The perception of women during Gandhi's
fights shifted from motherhood to sisterhood. Gandhiji gave them the Sita and Damayanti examples to give them
courage.
Following are a few examples of women who led throughout the Gandhian struggle:

• Anusuya Ben — Accompanied gandhiji in his tours and actively participated in 1918 Ahmedabad Textile milk
strikes.
• Sarojini Naidu — Led the raid on Dharasana salt works during civil movement following gandhiji arrest along
with his son Manilal.
• Mridula Sarabai — A Gandhian who worked with Vanara Sena (Organised by Indira Gandhi).
• Besant — Helped Gandhiji organised Rowlatt Satyagrahs through Home Rule Leagues.
In addition to these Gandhian leaders, women also participated in freedom struggle in other capacities:
• Revolutionary Extremists — Kalpana Dutta (Chittagong Armoury raid), Bina Das/shot Bengal governor point
blank, Durga Bhabhi/member of HSRA) etc.
• Women during Quit India Movement — Usha Mehta (Congress Radio), Sucheta Kriplani/Underground
movement) etc.
• Indian National Army’s Rani Jhansi regiment led by Lakshmi Swaminadhan (Sehgal).

157. Since the 1920s, the national movement has absorbed many ideological currents, broadening its social
base in the process. Discuss.

Hint-
The Indian National Movement experienced a turning point in its history during the 1920s. The decade's events and
developments were significant because they significantly altered the trajectory of the independence movement.

Ideologies that inspired the fight for freedom

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• Gandhian: The national movement was introduced to new methods of Ahimsa (non-violence) and non-
cooperation by Mahatma Gandhi. The first real nationwide movement was the Non-Cooperation Movement in
the early 1920s.
• Communism: A powerful left-wing group developed in India in the late 1920s and 1930s. The stream of the
struggle for independence and that of the struggle for social and economic emancipation of the suppressed began
to come together. The establishment of organisations like Communist Party of India (1925), All India Trade
Union Congress (1920) and Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties (1927) extended the reach of communism
throughout India among workers and peasants.
• Communalism: After 1922, communalism reared its ugly head, and the nation frequently saw racial unrest.
Both new and old communal organizations were established. The Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha started
advancing their personal agendas.
• Revolutionary activism: The failure of peaceful mediums had frustrated the youth. They began to mobilise
with secret organisationslikeHindustan Republic Association (1923) andHindustan Socialist Republic
Association (1928). RamPrasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh among others
actively engaged in anti-colonial activities and encouraged youth to join the cause.
Expansion of social base
• For the first time, Gandhiji transformed the national movement into a mass movement. The protests attracted
participants from all walks of life. Peasants (Eka movement) and tribal people (Alluri Sitaram Raju) actively
involved in resisting British control.
• Due to this new awakening, the suppressed social classes asserted theirrightin society. Movementslike Vaikom
Satyagraha of Kerala (1924), Adi-dharma movement of Punjab (1926) were the outcome of the aspirations of
the suppressed and Dalits.
• Freedom warriors like Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Sucheta Kripalani, and Aruna Asaf Ali actively participated
and helped to create the national movement, breaking the taboo of women being limited to the home.
• Earlier, the middle class and intelligentsia made up the majority of the independence movement's restricted
socioeconomic base. People from all social strata began to identify with the expanding social base in the 1920s
through many ideological characteristics. The battle became more inclusive and energetic as a result of
widespread participation.

158. During the Gandhian Phase, numerous voices helped to develop and advance the nationalist cause.
Elaborate.

Hint-
Because of the viewpoint Gandhiji gave the populace and the manner he led the freedom warriors using truth and
nonviolence, the Gandhian Phase of the Indian freedom movement is unquestionably remarkable.
However, a number of additional concurrent causes boosted Gandhi's efforts and supported the nationalist movement.
Voices that enriched and deepened the nationalist movement include:
• The Khilafat Movement (1919–1922) was started by Indian Muslims to put pressure on the British government
to uphold the Ottoman Sultan's position as the Caliph of Islam. Despite the fact that this event is credited for
bringing the topic of religion into the freedom struggle, Gandhi and other Congress leaders saw it as an
opportunity to strengthen Hindu-Muslim cooperation and include Muslims in the National Movement.
• The ideological differences between the Swarajists and the No-Changers within the congress led to serious
changes and contribution. No-changers continued their constructive programme of spinning, temperance,
Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability etc whereas Swarajists won the election of Central Legislative
Assembly in november 1923 filling the political void while the national movement was regaining its strength.
• Marxism and other socialist ideas spread rapidly in 1927 under J.L. Nehru and S.C. Bose’s leadership. The
left wing did not confine its concern to freedom struggle only but raised the question of internal class oppression
by the capitalists and landlords. It strengthened the voices of the marginalised and poor of the country and
connected them to the movements.
• Revolutionaries like R.P. Bismil, C.S. Azad and Bhagat Singh among others took the responsibilities of
informing people about a necessary revolution to uproot British Empire. The Extremist Movement in Bengal
led by Surya Sen is notable because of the role of revolutionary women who participated.
• Students and peasant parties got involved and propagated Marxist and communist ideas while remaining
an integral part of the national movement and the Congress. In 1928, Bardoli Satyagraha occurred under the
leadership of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel bringing forward farmers’ concerns.

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• There was rapid growth of trade unionism under the leadership of All India Trade Union Congress and many
strikes took place during 1928 like Kharagpur, Jamshedpur and Bombay Textile Mill strike is the most
important. The traders and workers contributed to the struggle for independence.
• Women from all over India were not left alone. They came forward and equally contributed to the national
movement. Kasturba Gandhi, VIjay Laxmi Pandit, Aruna Asaf Ali, Bhikaji Cama are some of the most
prominent who assumed leadership at different fronts.

Even the Business elite took part, contributing money and avoiding purchasing imported items. Every social group,
political ideology, and age range participated in the national movement and made contributions. The movement was
somewhat harmed by the fragmentation and internal ideological conflicts, but it was primarily strengthened by the
addition of new voices and ideas. One of the factors contributing to the movement's success in 1947, when all the
previously unheard voices were finally heard, is its multifaceted nature.

159. Shed some insight on the relevance of Mahatma Gandhi's ideas to the current.

Hint-
Gandhian principles place a strong emphasis on finding the most humane solution to many of the problems that plague
our society, as can be seen from the list given below:

Gandhian Thoughts Significance

When remaining silent or working together
seems to be the only viable option in the face of
Satyagraha
any injustice, the moral framework of resistance
that defined satyagraha is extremely important.
Since violence starts a cycle of oppression and
injustice, it is important for people, nations, and
Non-violence
international organizations to act in accordance
with the principle of nonviolence.
The concept of Swaraj, which had economic,
social, spiritual, and political implications, is still
important in a day when markets are flooded with
Swaraj goods centered on creating and satisfying social
approbation instincts and when the public
imagination is growing more and more open to
demagogues.
Indian public life continues to be marked by
caste discrimination. It is necessary to advance
Eliminating Untouchability
the Gandhian ideal of social consciousness in
order to eradicate it.
With glass-ceiling still far from being shattered
in the public sphere, the Gandhian thought of
Women Emancipation
women emancipation continues to hold
relevance.

The other Gandhian ideas that still hold true in our day of conflict, procrastination in both public and private lives,
and a careless attitude toward hygiene are those of compassion, punctuality, and sanitation.
Gandhian ideas are especially important in this period, which some have dubbed the post-truth era, because all of the
Mahatma's beliefs and ideas were arrived at by him through a process of lifelong experimentation with truths.

160. What significant global political, economic, and social events drove India's anti-colonial struggle?

Hint-
India had to become more open to a global system in the 19th century due to global capitalism. Evidently, from the end
of the 19th century onward, significant political, economic, and social developments on a global scale had an impact on
India as well.
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Political Events-
• Political developments like Russia's defeat by Japan and Italy's defeat by Ethiopia changed the game
significantly because they dispelled the idea that western countries were unbeatable. In the early 20th century,
these occasions fueled political extremism in India.
• Likewise the First World War, on the one hand, added further fuel to the fire of revolutionary nationalism,
on the other hand, it paved the way for the Rowlett satyagraha movement of Gandhi. Furthermore, the Second
World War created a big challenge to British Rule by encouraging Quit India Movement.
Economic Factor-
• Industrial revolution in Britain and resultant economic exploitation and drain of wealth from India and
Realisation of this and the drain of wealth theory promulgated by early nationalists → cut the root and branch
of the moral authority of the British rule.
• At the global level, phenomena like Marxism, Leninism and World Economic Depression gave a new
direction to Indian politics in the 1920s and 1930s. Marxism and Leninism paved the way for the rise of the
leftist movement in India while World- Economic Depression made a further contribution to it as it discredited
the capitalist system. Their cumulative effect was Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhi and so many
peasant movements in the 1930s.
Social Factor-
• As a societal component, the Khilaphat problem in Turkey and the struggle against racial discrimination in
South Africa affected the course of action in India. The Khilafat issue served as the impetus for the first large-
scale Indian National Congress agitation.
• In this sense, the political, economic, and social events occurring at the international level served as an
inspiration for the Indian national movement during nearly all of its phases.

161. Bring to light Gandhi's benevolent initiatives from the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience
movements.

Hint-
In the struggle for civil disobedience and non-cooperation to end British rule, Mahatma Gandhi played a crucial part.
One of the largest mass movements for independence was this one. The concept of Swaraj, or self-rule, was the driving
force behind both civil disobedience and non-cooperation. Gandhi urged people to develop self-reliance in order to fight
for their independence in order to make these movements widespread and successful. These initiatives served as the
movements' skeleton structure, unifying the Indian populace and igniting the country's freedom war. Indians' pride was
rekindled, and it restored their dignity.

To achieve Swaraj, in 1941, he wrote a book “Constructive Program” and through this book, he suggested different
topics which were supposed to make the masses more independent and provide them with a better lifestyle.

1. Communal Harmony
• Divide and rule strategies were very effective with the British. In such a situation, Gandhiji's principal goal
was to bridge the gap between many religions and unite them in a common battle. Gandhiji united the Non-
Corporation movement and the Khilafat restoration movement by bringing them together.
• Gandhi vouched for “Unbreakable heart unity”. He asked congressmen to cultivate personal friendships
with people from different religious faiths and respect every community like his own.
• No separate rooms for Hindu and non-Hindu students, Inhibition of communal schools, and the overall
prohibition of discrimination based on religion were encouraged.
• There was equal participation of people from different religions in the political sphere. The legislative
assemblies were the center of political power. It was essential to have a substantial representation of people
from diverse communities. Gandhiji asked Congress to put up candidates from the religious minorities.
2. Popularization of village industries and khadi
• The use of Khadi was not only to produce indigenous textile but also to promote the idea of the Swadeshi
mentality. It averted the exploitation of thousands of textile workers by providing cheap and self-contained
alternatives. It provided women with a new way to earn their livelihood by producing and selling khadi-based
textiles.
• The feel of homegrown clothes provided identity to individuals and restored their self-esteem. Khadi worked
as a symbol of unity, provided economic freedom, and spread the idea of self-sustainability in the far-off
villages.

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• Thousands of spinning wheels were distributed in the villages to people from different castes and religions.
Congressmen were given broad rules for the production, promotion, and distribution of Khadi by Gandhiji.
• Along with Khadi, there was enough stress upon establishing village-based industry to promote economic
liberation. Like, Industries of soap making, paper making, and matchmaking to fulfill the demands from
villages.
• Gandhi also made, Khadi a national symbol. A symbol for indigenous identity. Due to the popularity of the
Civil Disobedience movement, a nationwide boycott of foreign goods stayed for years. Public burning of foreign
clothes, denouncing the despotic foreign culture, and opting for made-in-India products was a regular event.
3. Rural sanitation and health and hygiene education
• The message of sanitation was not just for the environment, but also for the mind, in that it purified one's mind
from bad thoughts and allowed one to engage in nonviolence. Gandhiji wished for everyone to have a clear
conscience and experience spiritual liberation.
• Along with the practice of hygiene, education in health and hygiene was also a central focus of the constructive
program for a well-ordered society. People needed to obtain health knowledge to improve the practice of
hygiene and prevent various diseases.
• Various practices like- breathing fresh air, establishing a balance between body and mind, standing erect,
and consuming clean food and water were proposed through the constructive programs.
4. Women's Emancipation and the Function of Adult Education
• Gandhi's concept of Satyagraha freed women all around the country. The Non-Cooperation Movement and
civil disobedience both saw significant participation from women. Not just in villages, but also in cities, women
took the lead. They engaged in village activities like khadi product production, community education, and
village sanitation awareness raising. They obtained significant positions in congress while protesting in the
cities.
• Congressmen were asked to treat their wives as equal partners in the national cause and begin by empowering
women from their own houses. Men, Women, Mothers, and Daughters were expected to obtain liberal education
and progressive ideas.
• Education was the foundation of Swaraj for Gandhi. The new education program was aimed at the cultural
and social context within India contrary to the Eurocentric education policy.
• According to Gandhi, Adult political education was needed in villages as well in cities to develop a
consciousness against the foreign rule and build the civil disobedience movement stronger.
5. Improving the plight of Kisaan and Laborers
• Because India was an agrarian culture, Gandhi thought that if Farmers were made politically aware, it would
lead to a significant nonviolent campaign against the British.
• Gandhi’s Kisan movement in Champaran, Kheda, Bardoli, and Borsad exemplified an effective method of
organizing Farmers. He asked to create a separate department to address specific problems related to farmers.
• Gandhi immensely valued the Ahmedabad labor union and their use of nonviolent strikes. He hoped to
regulate all the labor unions on a similar model and make an All India Union unite people together.
6. Mass Student Participation
• Gandhi believed that students are the nation's future. Students abandoned their schools and colleges in large
numbers to join various movements against the British government. Students' participation in the
demonstrations generated fresh ideas and large public gatherings.
• Students organized huge processions against the government. They also boycotted foreign goods and clothes.
They led a powerful agitation against the Cunningham circular which asked students and their parents to submit
undertaking of good behavior.
Through this program, Gandhiji instructed students to do the following things:
✓ Learn the national language and enrich their mother tongue.
✓ Use and promote khadi and village products.
✓ Remove untouchability and communalism from their soul.
✓ Clean the neighborhood villages and educate people.
✓ Behave nicely with the female fellow students.
7. Harijan Sevak Sangh
• Mahatma Gandhi’s grave concern was the practice of untouchability in Hinduism. For the abolition of
untouchability, he urged individuals to approach orthodox Hindus with “friendliness”. To attain Swaraj,
Harijans were to be befriended and included in the civil disobedience and noncooperation movement.
• To follow this path institutionally, Gandhiji founded Harijan Sevak Sangh in 1932 to eradicate untouchability
and uplift the depressed classes.

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8. Prohibition of Alcohol and Opium
• Alcohol prohibition enhanced the freedom struggle, reunited families, and brought alcoholics back into
society.

Conclusion:
Gandhi inspired everyone to contribute to movements like civil disobedience and the noncooperation movement by
means of these positive initiatives. Along with social and moral wrong, it was also directed towards British people.
Gandhi established the foundation for Swaraj and reached out to even the remote rural communities by building new
educational institutions. It was crucial to the success of the Satyagraha movements and the nonviolent battle for India's
independence.

162. Discuss the successes and shortcomings of the 1920 non-cooperation movement. How it affected India's
future liberation movements before independence

Hint-
The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation mass movements, both headed by Mahatma Gandhi, marked the beginning of the
third and last phase of the Indian national struggle in 1920–1921.
• Both movements, despite arising from distinct reasons, embraced a similar course of action against the British,
namely the use of non-violent mass struggle.
• Disappointment with the Montagu Chelmsford Reforms, post-war hardships, the Rowlatt Act, the
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, and Khilafat wrongs served as the context for the movements' formation.
• These events greatly disillusioned Gandhi and turned him from a cooperator, into a non-cooperator.

Achievements OF NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

It is true that the movement's primary objectives of Khilafat restoration and swaraj achievement were not met.
However, the Non-Cooperation Movement marked a turning point in many aspects of India's political, social, and
economic struggle for independence:

In the social field,

• the impact of the Movement was immense. Gandhi emphasised on the need for unity among Indians and
removal of barriers of caste, class, religion and gender.
• Consequently, in meetings and processions, people of all castes and communities worked and ate together. For
the first time, the lower classes raised their head and worked shoulder to shoulder with all others, accelerating
social mobility and reform.
• The Hindu-Muslim unity reached its peak and many-a- times it was difficult to distinguish between Non-
cooperation and Khilafat gatherings. Swami Shraddhanand, an Arya Samajist, was asked by Muslims to preach
from the pulpit of Jama Masjid at Delhi, while Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, a Muslim, was given the keys to the
Golden Temple
In the economic field,
• the economic boycott proved to be more successful than the one during Swadeshi Movement of 1905-08.
While this created panic among British industries, the Indian industries immensely benefitted due to promotion
of swadeshi.
• The Indian textile industry particularly benefitted from the popularisation of charkha and khadi. Emphasis on
village reconstruction and self-help through panchayats brought about overall economic revival.

In the political field,

• the movement emerged as the first true mass involving all classes and communities in India. The national
awakening, for the first time, reached the remotest corners of the country with the commoners participating
in the mainstream national movement.
• The INC emerged as a true mass party and the charge of it representing 'a microscopic minority could never
be hurled at Congress again.
• The movement also demonstrated the capacity of "poor dumb millions" of Indians to part in a national
movement on modern lines. The movement demonstrated that the urge for freedom was not merely a preserve
of the educated elite but the cry of the nation.

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The above positive gains in the social, economic and political fields immensely increased the self-confidence and
self-esteem of the Indian people. It replaced the feelings of bondage and suppression with those of freedom and national
dignity. Gandhi had rightly said that the movement had achieved in one year what could not be done in thirty years by
earlier methods.

The Non-Cooperation Movement withdrew on February 12, 1922, ending a fight but not the war. Gandhi stated, "It is
high time that the British people were made to realize that the war that was started in 1920 is a fight to the finish, whether
it lasts one month, one year, or many months or many years," in an article published in Young India on February 23.

Failures:
✓ At first, the movement was driven by members of the middle classes, but later, they expressed strong resistance
to Gandhi's program.
✓ Gandhi's call received virtually little support in cities where elite politicians congregated, including as
Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
✓ The reaction to the call for title surrender, resignation from government service, etc., was not taken seriously.
✓ Big business as a whole continued to be sceptical of the movement. They appeared to be concerned about strikes
occurring in their factories.

People weren't fully trained or understood how to utilize non-violence. In February 1922, violence in Chauri-Chaura
harmed the movement's reputation. Gandhi's response was to end the non-cooperation campaign because he believed
that most people still lacked the ability to practice non-violence.
Even if the professed objectives of the non-cooperation movement were not achieved, Mahatma Gandhi's strategic and
leadership role gave India's freedom struggle new dimensions.
The common people were taught to pursue political aims without fear, and Swarajya was given primacy, which was the
movement's biggest achievement.

163. how the civil disobedience movement and the non-cooperation movement differed. Discuss.

Hint-
The third and final stage of the Indian national struggle began in 1920–1921 with the establishment of the Khilafat
and Non-Cooperation mass movements, both led by Mahatma Gandhi.
• Though emerging out of separate issues, both the movements adopted a common program of action against
the British, i.e. use of non-violent mass struggle.
• The movements were launched in the backdrop of disappointment with Montagu Chelmsford Reforms, Post-
War miseries, the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and the Khilafat wrongs.
• These events greatly disillusioned Gandhi and turned him from a cooperator, into a non-cooperator.
• On the other hand, the Civil Disobedience Movement was the mass movement launched by the Congress after
a gap of 8 years and on the withdrawal of Non-cooperation Movement in February 1922.
• There were several factors that prepared the ground for the CDM, starting from the sudden withdrawal of the
Non-Cooperation movement to the non-acceptance of Nehru Report by the British government.

Differences Between NCM and CDM

NCM CDM
Aim ✓ Non-cooperation movement was ✓ Civil disobedience movement
launched to unify Hindu and was launched to attain ‘Purna
Muslims and to attain Swaraj. Swaraj’ or complete
independence.
Methodology ✓ Non Cooperation movement aimed ✓ The Civil Disobedience
at the refusal to cooperate with the Movement was aimed at breaking
government. certain laws like the Salt Laws.
✓ Main agenda of the Movement were ✓ People also refused to pay taxes at
surrender of titles and the boycott of some places.
government controlled schools,
offices and courts.
Mass ✓ There was large scale participation ✓ The growing proximity of the
Participation of Muslim working class in the Congress party & Hindu
Non-Cooperation movement. Mahasabha and british policy of
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✓ In the Non-Cooperation Movement, divide and rule prevented the
women did not participate on a large Muslims from participating in the
scale. Civil Disobedience Movement.
✓ But large scale participation of
women is one of the most
significant features of the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
Geographical ✓ It remained geographically confined ✓ The civil disobedience movement
Spread to certain parts of India. saw widespread geographical
✓ Areas that were particularly active coverage and mass participation
were UP, Bihar, Orissa, Assam in comparison to the non-
and even Bombay. cooperation movement.
✓ However, the response to the
movement remained relatively
weak in traditional areas of
Indian politics such as Bengal,
Maharashtra and Madras
Withdrawal of ✓ Due to the Chauri-Chaura incident ✓ The movement was withdrawn
the Movement the movement was called off in after the signing of the Gandhi-
1922. Irwin pact in 1931.

The achievements made in the social, economic, and political arenas considerably increased the people's self-
confidence and self-esteem, despite the fact that the civil disobedience movement and the non-cooperation movement
were extremely different from one another and both failed to achieve their immediate aims. These activities were also
successful in uniting the populace in anticipation of a future movement for independence and busting the myth of the
benevolent dictatorship of the British raj.

POLITICS OF SEPARATISM AND TOWARDS

INDEPENDENCE- 1940-TILL INDEPENDENCE
164. Describe the popular uprising during the INA trials and the struggle for liberation.

Hint-
India experienced a great deal of agitation, strikes, hartals, and protests during the INA trials in 1945–1946.
There were three significant events:
1. On November 21, 1945, the INA trials took place in Calcutta.
2. On February 12, 1946, INA officer Rashid Ali appealed his seven-year sentence in Calcutta.
3. Royal Indian Navy ratings strike in Bombay on February 22, 1946
Pattern of Upsurges
1. The involvement of large numbers of people, such as when the whole city of Calcutta took to the streets to
demand the release of INA prisoners and virtually no government authority was present for three days.
2. In support of the revolting naval ratings, Bombay observed a complete hartal and general strike in industry
and offices.
3. There was also large scale labour unrest all over the country for instance in postal and telegraph workers,
Railway workers in South India
4. Army was called in to suppress the popular upsurges and over 250 people were shot dead on the street in 48
hours

The three upsurges were significant in many ways:

• Fearless action by the masses was an expression of militancy in the popular mind.
• Revolt in the armed forces had a great liberating effect on the minds of people.
• The RIN revolt was seen as an event marking the end of British rule.

These upsurges prompted the British to extend some concessions:

• On December 1, 1946, the government announced that only those INA members accused of murder or brutal
treatment of fellow prisoners would be brought to trial.
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• Imprisonment sentences passed against the first batch were remitted in January 1947.
• Indian soldiers were withdrawn from Indo-China and Indonesia by February 1947.
• The decision to send a parliamentary delegation to India (November 1946) was taken.
• The decision to send Cabinet Mission was taken in January 1946.
Limitation
• These upsurges were in the nature of direct and violent conflict with authority, which had obvious limitations.
Only the more militant sections could participate. These upsurges were short-lived and were confined to a few
urban centres while the general INA agitation reached the remotest villages.
• The communal cohesiveness that was visible was more organizational than it was interpersonal. Muslim
ratings went to the League for counsel, while the Congress and Socialists received the remainder.
• Although the bureaucracy's morale had significantly declined, the British infrastructure to repress remained
in place. They soon had the issue under control.
While the earlier activity was a peaceful show of national unity, these uprisings were violent challenges to the power.
These additionally demonstrated the Indian people's assurance and resolve to not give up until freedom was achieved.

165. Describe Congress' response to World War II, including how they felt when Britain declared India to be
on its side.

Hint-
When Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939 as part of Hitler's plan for German expansion, the Second World War
began.
Without consulting the National Congress or the elected officials, the Indian government joined the conflict right away.

Congress's position on World War II -

1. Congress supported democratic forces in their fight against the fascist state and had sympathies for anti-fascist
groups.
2. Congress criticized the way India was included in the conflict without even seeking its consent.
3. Congress questioned how a country which itself a colony could help others to gain their independence, and
demanded freedom first or at least effective power in Indian hands
4. British didn’t amend and pitted Muslims and princely states against Congress in protest Congress ministers
resigned in 1939
5. Gandhiji started individual satyagraha in 1940 for limited protest as not wanted to embarrass Britain’s war
effort by mass upheaval
6. Gandhiji wrote to Viceroy, “vast majority of the people not interested in the war and make no distinction
between Nazism and the double autocracy that rules India”
7. Subhas Chandra Bose led a different faction of the Congress that wanted to engage in a massive uprising and
seize the chance by establishing the Forward Bloc.
8. Congress asked that authority be transferred immediately and that there be complete independence following
the war when Japanese aggression neared the Indian border in order to fully collaborate with ally forces during
the war.
Later, the British made two unsuccessful attempts to win Congress' support in the shape of the August Offer and Cripps
plan, but there was no mention of India's liberation or power transfers. As a result, Gandhiji launched the Quit India
movement on August 8, 1942.

166. Discuss the shift in global politics and the British perception of India following World War 2.

Hint-
India's fight for independence entered a new chapter in 1945, when the war in Europe came to a conclusion. The
immense loss and devastation seen around the world impacted the political atmosphere of the world as well as British
attitude.

Changes in the global political environment

1. Not Britain, but the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two major powers after the War, and
both backed India's aspiration for independence.
2. Many colonies gained independence, and new nations appeared as a result of perceptions that colonialism was
a contributing factor to the catastrophic war.

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3. 3.The policy of self-determination, which was based on US President Wilson's 14-point plan to ensure
international peace, was upheld after the war.
4. When the Cold War first broke out, liberal democratic leaders backed the end of colonialism in those nations
to prevent them from joining the Communist bloc because the Soviet Union's communist leader was supporting
the liberation movement in the colonies.
Change in British attitude towards India
1. Even though Britain was on the winning side its economic and military power was shattered. It would take
Britain year to rehabilitate
2. Change in government in Britain Conservative replace by Labour party who were sympathetic to Congress
demands
3. British soldiers were weary and tired and they had no desire to shed more blood as doing it for past six years
away from their home
4. Officials feared another Congress revolt, a revival of the 1942 situation
5. The Indian staff members of the British-Indian government's civil administration and armed services could no
longer be relied upon to stifle the national movement.
6. The INA had demonstrated that the professional Indian army, which served as the main tool of British
authority, had been infiltrated by patriotic individuals.
7. Above all, it was now clear that the Indian people were in a confident and resolute state. The humiliation of
foreign domination would no longer be accepted. They would not stop until independence was achieved.
After the Second World War, the British had to leave India quickly, and the Naval Mutiny in 1946 hammered the final
nail in the coffin of the British empire in India.

167. Talk about the effects of INA. Analyze the extent to which the INA movement drove British people out
of India.

Hint-
In Southeast Asia during World War II, Indian nationalists and Imperial Japan established the Indian National Army.
To secure Indian independence from British domination was its main objective.
Massive movement was sparked in India by the bravery and heroism of INA and the INA trials that followed.
Impact of INA

• Bose emerged as most revered leader – On Azad Hind Radio he called for youths to be ready for dying for
India’s freedom.
• INA Trials – Took place at Red Fort, heavily covered in press. It united all parties who demanded release of
INA prisoners. Movement touched even the remotest places like Coorg, Baluchistan and Assam. Inspired youth
to carry out processions in many parts of the country.
• Communal Harmony – Trial of P.K. Sahgal, G.S. Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan sent a fresh wave of
communal harmony in the country.
• Naval ratings of HMIS Talwar went on a hunger strike in protest of poor food and racial prejudice as a result
of the RIN Mutiny and INA trials. The sympathetic attacks on the Army and Air Force made it very evident
that the Army can no longer be utilized at the British government's discretion.

Assessment
• Indisputable evidence that the British could no longer rely on Indian sepoys to maintain their hold in India
came with the formation of the I.N.A. and its valiant resistance.
• The British were rudely surprised by the widespread support shown for the I.N.A. officers when they were
prosecuted for treason in the Red Fort in Delhi.
• The British understood that they were perched on the edge of an active volcano that may explode at any time.
• Their eventual choice to leave India was heavily influenced by this factor. This is clear from the fact that the
Cabinet Mission Plan was summoned to negotiate the transition of power shortly after the RIN Mutiny.

168. Examine the events between 1942 and 1947 that resulted in India's independence and division.

Hint-
The years 1942 to 1947 were a turbulent time. It was a good opportunity to advance the Indian National Movement,
which was complicated by the Second World War and Japan's presence on the country's eastern frontiers.
Circumstances that led to freedom and partition
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Second World War:
• • The start of the Second World War offered the Nationalists a chance to seize the moment as Britain was
exposed and Nazi Germany advanced quickly in the early stages of the conflict.
• This provided leaders of the movement a negotiating handle which resulted into August Offer and Cripps
Mission.
Quit India Movement:
• Failure of Cripps Mission was evidence of British lack of will. This led Gandhiji to prepare Indian masses for
Quit India Movement, with a call to “Do or Die”.
INA Trials and RIN Mutiny:
• SC Bose takes over Indian National Army from Rashbihari Bose, INA flag hoisted on Indian soil.
• With retreat of Japan on Indian front and end of Second World War, the INA Trials begin which infuse
another wave of resistance against the British Government.
• RIN Mutiny by Naval ratings and consequent violence made clear that the Indian Armed forces could not be
trusted to keep British empire for long.
Cabinet Mission Plan
• Proposed grouping of existing assemblies into three sections A, B, C. Its objective was peaceful transfer of
power and suggested measures for the formation of a constitution making machinery and also to set up the
Interim Government.
Muslim League and extremist ideologies
• Headed by Jinnah who was adamant on formation of Pakistan, Muslim League called for Direct Action
Day. This led to extreme communal violence. This was further made complicated by other Hindu fundamentalist
groups.
Mountbatten Plan
• Two dominions to be created if partition is to take place, with two Constituent Assemblies
• Freedom to be granted on August 15, 1947.

169. RIN Mutiny was not just a short-lived event, it had psychological impact as well that forced British to
change policy in transfer of power. Discuss.

Hint-
The Naval Ratings of HMIS Talwar mustered the fortitude to go on a hunger strike in February 1946 in protest of poor
food and racial prejudice after being inspired by the INA Trials at the Red Fort. The RIN Mutiny is a well-known name
for this. The uprising quickly spread to additional naval outposts.

The RIN mutiny was, however, short lived, but it had dramatic psychological repercussions

1. Displayed Political Consciousness –

▪ Although it did not immediately result in an open uprising in the Indian army, it demonstrated that the ratings
were politically aware and that it was impossible to completely rule out the potential of an open revolt.
▪ A committee of inquiry found that the INA trials had a significant impact on the majority of the ratings.
▪ The fact that the Indian Army can no longer be utilized at will was made abundantly plain by sympathetic
attacks on the Air Force and Army.

2. Reaction of Congress –

▪ Socialists like Aruna Asaf Ali sympathized with the rebels during the RIN mutiny, but Gandhi denounced the
bloodshed and Patel convinced the ratings to submit.
▪ INA officers, according to Sardar Patel, were patriotic but "misguided"; they could only be reintegrated into
Congress if they "placed their swords back into the scabbard."
▪ For Sardar Patel the preferences were clear: "discipline in the Army cannot be tampered with .... We will want
Army even in free India"

3. Response of the Government

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• Even while it is challenging to prove a causal connection between the INA agitation, the ensuing naval mutiny,
and the political unrest they caused and any apparent shift in imperial policy, it is quite likely that the scenario
"lead to the sending of a Cabinet Mission."

Furthermore, the RIN Mutiny served as a clear warning that the nation's armed forces could no longer be relied
upon, and that British forces may wind up bearing the brunt of any potential popular uprising. Thus, it did
nothing more than hasten the shift of power.

170. Who may be held accountable for the division of India? What resulted from it? Does it still have an
impact today?

Hint-
Due to the significant loss of life and the massive migration of people, the 1947 partition of India is regarded as a stain
on Indian history. Its causes and perpetrators included a number of elements.

Responsibility of Partition

1. Congress
a. Congress's failure to integrate Muslims into society. The Muslim community was not very active in the
majority of other nationalist groups, with the exception of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
b. The Pirpur report, which showed the opposition to Congress, shows that the 1937 Congress ministries failed
to win over Muslims.
c. In 1946, Congess was certain they could gain a majority vote in elections without the help of Muslims.
Muslim leaders were alarmed by this, believing that Hindu supremacy was being covered up by Congress'
secular nationalism.
2. Muslim League
a. Attempts of Congress to come to an amicable solution were discarded by adamant Muslim league leaders. It
closed doors of any reconciliation. E.g. C Rajagopalchari formula was rejected.
b. “Direct Action Day” call by Jinnah caused communal violence across the nation pose dangers of civil war.
3. British Policies
a. Divide and rule policy of Britishers: As early as 1940s, Winston Churchill hoped that Hindu-Muslim
antagonism would remain “a bulwark of British rule in India”
b. Separate electorate created a deep division in the society.
4. Role of Hindu Mahasabha – stoked the fear of Hindu domination among Muslims.

Immediate Effects of Partition

1. Large scale communal violence – over 2 million people lost lives.
2. Displaced between 10 and 12 million people along religious lines, creating overwhelming refugee crises
3. Social segregation – clearly visible agglomeration of Muslim communities within a particular locality in cities.
Ghettos in cities have emerged with concentration of minority population.
4. Perpetual enmity between India and Pakistan – the two countries have fought four wars till now and still the
tension continues
How the effects are still felt today
1. Kashmir issue considered to be unfinished business of partition and cross border sponsored terrorism by
Pakistan.
2. Indian Muslim community is frequently suspected of harbouring loyalties towards Pakistan.
3. Non-Muslim minorities in Pakistan are increasingly vulnerable due to its islamization.
4. Recent CAA and NRC Bills have remnants of the Partition of India.

171. The fundamental conflict between colonialism and the interests of Indian people gave rise to the Indian
national movement. Comment

Hint-
The Indian national movement engaged in a widespread conflict with British colonial rule. People from different regions
who had been exploited economically and socially as a result of regressive colonial policy participated in it.

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Indian National Movement: a product of contradiction between colonialism and the interest of Indian
people: -
• British was using political control to subordinate Indian economy to serve mother country which led to
underdevelopment and regressing Indian society
• Exploitation by economic policy happened through three modes
o Plunder, taxation and employment of Englishmen in India
o One-way free trade in favor of British industry and no protection of indigenous industry led to de-
Industrialization
o Investment of British capitals to gain profit from Indian economy
• Drain theory propounded by Dadabhai Naoroji ,R.C. Dutt, Ranade explained how Indian resources had been
extracted and went to British economy without benefitting Indian people led to poverty and famine situation in
India
• Goals of colonial power and its prudential nature which described as economic development of the country
proved myth to the people and it made people understand colonial rule is not in their interest
Other rights and interests which contradicts with colonialism are
• Civil liberty – Freedom of speech and freedom of Press which was scuttled through various regressive acts like
Vernacular Press Act
• Democracy – Universal adult franchise which was India’s demand also not fulfilled in various piecemeal acts
passed by British
• Mass education – British never took interest in mass literacy as their only goal was to employ people in lower
rung of administrative office to reduce cost and gain profit
• Industrialization – British colonial policy didn’t push for industrial development to improve socio-economic
condition of people rather used India as source of raw material and market for manufacture goods
• Indian Capital – Not allowed to develop Indian capital market which resulted in nascent indigenous industry
and profit and dividend transferred to British economy

Beginning with a mild economic critique, awareness of colonialism's negative consequences on Indians spread during
Gandhiji's mass-based fight, inspiring the Indian masses to join the independence struggle in enormous numbers.

172. Discuss the ideals of the National movement that embodied the Indian constitution.

Hint-
Indian Constitution was introduced on 26 January 1950, after year long deliberation in the Constituent assembly under
the guidance of Jawaharlal Nehru and BR Ambedkar. It incorporated the visions of our freedom fighters to shape the
future of free India.

Ideals of National movement embodies in Indian Constitution

1. Civil liberties - Indian national movement always demanded for freedom of speech,expression,freedom of press
which was incorporated under Fundamental rights in the form of Article 19
2. Democracy - Congress session always followed democratic way of functioning where after debate, discussion
any action or programme was taken for example moderate and extremist debate during Swadeshi movement.
Free India adopted Democratic form of government to give that expression.
3. Universal Adult Franchise - During freedom movement citizen demanded self-determination principle and
right to vote which has been incorporated in the constitution through article 325
4. Secular principle during freedom movement incorporated through right to freedom of religion under
fundamental rights
5. Socialist country as a goal was passed through resolution in Congress session thus socialist democracy
upholded through Directive Principle States policy
6. Principle of Equality - demanded by freedom fighter during movement placed in the constitution under Article
14,15,16 in part 3 Fundamental rights
7. Rights of weaker section and upliftment of downtrodden was one of the constructive programmes of Gandhi
which sanctified in the constitution by abolition of untouchability and reservation of weaker section in
parliament and legislature for political justice and reservation in education and jobs for social justice
8. Peasants demand of reduction of rent, abolition of zamindari, reduction of land revenue got due recognition in
the constitution in the form of directive principles to prohibit accumulation of wealth and concentration of means
of production
9. National movement always advocated international peace and friendship which got mention in Article 51

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The Indian Constitution was indeed the result of our protracted freedom struggle, protecting and enacting all the
liberties and rights for which many freedom fighters gave their lives so that succeeding generations might live in an
independent India.

173. Examine the context, goals, and reasons behind the 1942 Cripps Mission Plan's failure.

Hint-
To enlist Indian support for World War II, a delegation led by Stafford Cripps was dispatched to India in March
1942 with constitutional recommendations. Due to Britain's setbacks in South-East Asia, the Japanese threat to invade
India felt serious at this point, making Indian help essential. The Allies (the USA, USSR, and China) put pressure on
Britain to enlist the help of India. In exchange for fast and large power transfers and unconditional independence after
the war, Indian nationalists had agreed to support the Allies.
Main proposals of the mission
• The establishment of an Indian Union with dominion status, which would be free to choose how it interacted
with the Commonwealth and take part in UN and other international organisations.
• To frame a new constitution after the war, a constituent assembly would be called. Through proportional
representation, the provincial legislatures would elect some members of this assembly while the princes would
nominate others. Members would all be Indians as a result.
• The British government would accept the new constitution subject to two conditions:
o (i) any province not willing to join the Union could have a separate constitution and form a separate
Union, and
o (ii) the new constitution-making body and the British government would negotiate a treaty to effect the
transfer of power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities.
• In the meantime, defence of India would remain in British hands and the Governor-General’s powers would
remain intact.
Reasons of its Failure
The Congress objected to:
• The offer of dominion status instead of a provision for complete independence;
• Representation of the princely states by nominees and not by elected representatives;
• Right to provinces to secede as this went against the principle of national unity; and
• Absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power and absence of any real share in defence; the Governor-
General’s supremacy had been retained, and the demand that the Governor-General be only the constitutional
head had not been accepted.
The Muslim League
• Criticised the idea of a single Indian Union;
• Did not like the machinery for the creation of a constituent assembly and the procedure to decide on the
accession of provinces to the Union; and
• Stated that the proposals denied the Muslims the right to self-determination and the creation of Pakistan.
Other roadblocks for its acceptance were
• Other groups also objected to the provinces’ right to secede. Further, the incapacity of Cripps to go beyond
the Draft Declaration and the adoption of a rigid “take it or leave it” attitude added to the deadlock.
• The procedure of accession was not well-defined.
• It was not clear as to who would implement and interpret the treaty affecting the transfer of power.
• Talks broke down on the question of the viceroy’s veto.
Even while they still felt empathy for the victims of fascist brutality, the Indian people left behind by Stafford Cripps
thought that the current state of their nation had become unacceptable and that the moment had come for a last-ditch
attack against imperialism. As a result of the mission's failure, Indians refused to aid Britain in its war efforts, sparking
the national launch of the Quit India Movement.

174. The British defeat of the Revolt of 1857 marked the beginning of a protracted process that culminated in
the partition of India in 1947. Comment

Hint-
The first significant Indian rebellion against British rule occurred in 1857. It led to a restructuring of the British
government's administrative system and policies, which had enormous effects on India.
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Policies soon following the 1857 uprising:
• The Army, which was in charge of the revolt, underwent a comprehensive reorganisation, and "division and
counterpoise" finally took over as the primary military doctrine in Britain.
• Under the theory of divide and rule, distinct entities were created based on caste, community, or region.
• Following the Wahabi and 1857 uprisings, Muslims were subjected to persecution and repression at the hands
of the British government and were generally despised.
Following the 1870s, British policy
▪ As Indian nationalism began to show symptoms of development after the 1870s, the government changed its
stance on the persecution of Muslims.
▪ Through measures of concessions, favours, and reservations, the British administration decided to enlist their
support and use them as a weapon against nationalist forces. To fight the growing influence of the Congress,
the government employed individuals like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.
▪ Sir Syed Ahmed Khan initially had a liberal and reformist viewpoint, but with time he became to embrace the
colonial administration and urged the Muslim masses to avoid the Congress and avoid being politicised.
▪ Additionally, he began to discuss the distinct interests of Muslims and Hindus.
Separate electorates
• Agha Khan led a Muslim delegation to the viceroy, Lord Minto, in 1906 to request separate electorates for
Muslims at all levels of government and that Muslim representation be commensurate not only with their
numerical strength but also with their "political importance and their contribution to the British Empire."
• The demand for separate Muslim electorates was met by the Morley-Minto Reforms, which became law in
1909.
• The distinct electorates for Sikhs, Christians, and Anglo-Indians were further expanded by the Montague-
Chelmsford reforms in 1919.
• The ideas of "communal electorates" and "weightage" were further enlarged to encompass the underclass
through constitutional amendments in the 1940s.
Wavell Plan
• Negotiations under the Wavell Plan, which was created to decide on Indian self-government, were permitted
to start. The Muslim League used the power to veto provisions of the constitution that were not in its best
interests, which the British granted it, to make absurd demands such barring Muslim delegates from the
executive council who were not League members.
• Wavell formally granted the League a veto by announcing the breakdown of negotiations. The 1945–46
elections are proof that this strengthened the League's position.
1946 Cabinet Mission
▪ The Cabinet Mission arrived in Delhi on March 24, 1946, to decide on interim governance as well as the
guidelines and tactics for creating a new constitution that would grant India independence. In order to resolve
the constitutional dilemma since the Congress and the League were unable to come to an agreement, the mission
put out its own alternative.
▪ Although the League rejected Mission's suggestion for an interim government, Wavell covertly incorporated
the Muslim League into the Interim Government on October 26, 1946.
▪ The League was allowed to join despite its rejection of the Cabinet Mission's long-term and short-term aims,
as well as its insistence on compulsory grouping.
3 June 1947, Mountbatten Plan
▪ Mountbatten suggested the freedom-with-partition formula. In order to create Pakistan, the League's demand
was partially satisfied, and in order to keep Pakistan as small as possible, the Congress' position on unity was
taken into account. The goal of Mountbatten's partition strategy was to keep India as united as possible.
▪ Thus, a number of causes contributed to the partition of India, the most significant of which was the British
government's 'divide and rule' policy, which started as a result of Indian nationalism in 1857 and was intended
to increase their colonial dominance in India.

175. Examine how British imperial authority impacted the 1940s process of power transition and how it was
complicated.

Hint-
The promise of independence made to the Indian National Congress in exchange for Indian resources and the Indian
army during World War Two, post-war financial and political exhaustion, a change in political power at the centre (the

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Labour Party), whose ideology favoured the Congress party, rising international pressure, and the inability to break the
will and efforts of Indian leaders ultimately led to Indian independence.
However, Britain had never wanted to leave India. However, Britain was successful in making the transfer of power so
difficult and complicated that India is still affected by it.

Cabinet Mission
• Sir Stafford Cripps was responsible for drafting the Cabinet Mission Plan, which proposed a complicated
system for India with three tiers- the provinces, provincial groupings and the centre. The centre’s power was
confined to foreign affairs, defence, currency and communication only.
• Three major groups of provinces: Group A, to include the Hindu-majority provinces; Group B, containing
the Muslim-majority provinces (western Pakistan); and Group C, to include the Muslim-majority Bengal
(eastern Pakistan).
• Even though both Nehru and Jinnah eventually refused to accept it, Lord Wavell authorised a cabinet with
Nehru as the Interim Prime Minister which enraged Jinnah who in turn resorted to direct action of sparking riots
and massacres.
Partition
• In July, 1947 the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act which provided for the demarcation
of India and Pakistan by midnight of August 14–15, 1947, in just one month. Two Nations Theory was an
important factor here and fuelled communalism.
• The task of demarcating the boundaries was given to a British lawyer, Sir Cyril Radcliffe who had never visited
the country before and was clueless about the social and political consequences of his decision. Two boundary
commissions were set up for it.
• During partition, there was a large-scale communal violence and forced migration of people, probably the
biggest in history.

Autonomy to Princely States

• The British paramountcy over the princely states and all of the agreements the British had with them before
their independence was granted in 1947.
• Princely states, which were not a part of British India, attained independence and had the choice to either unite
with Pakistan or India, or to maintain their independence.
• Few princely states like Kashmir, Junagadh, and Hyderabad provided some severe obstacles in the already
turbulent times, despite the efforts of Lord Mountbatten, Nehru, and Patel.
• It was difficult to let go of the primary resource provider and the market consumer, but when the odds were
not in Britain's favour, it granted India independence while making sure to raise some divisive concerns as it
left India.
The complications the British imperial power caused in the 1940s are the source of many modern-day issues, including
the issue of the enclaves with Bangladesh, the migration problem, the Kashmir issue between India and Pakistan, etc.

176. What aspects of the naval mutiny served as the final blow to British imperial ambitions in India? Explain.

Hint-
Indian sailors rose up in the Royal Indian Naval Ratings or Naval Mutiny against higher-ranking British officers. The
first uprising was against British authorities' racial prejudice, but it quickly evolved into a rebellion and spread
throughout India.

Reasons and aspects of revolt

• Abuse by higher officials

• Unsuitable food for Indians
• Racial discrimination with respect to payment
• Use of Indian troops in foreign lands
• Trial of INA officers
• Role of Naval mutiny in ending British colonial aspirations

Communal unity

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• The Naval Mutiny demonstrated that the communal division that the British had sowed among Indians was
insufficient to support their consolidation of power. The nation's ability to stand together in opposition to the
British military forces was clearly demonstrated. Even the Muslim league helped to support the uprising.
End of dedication by armed forces
• The committed support of the army and police for the government was the British administration's greatest
strength in India. Following the Naval Mutiny, this altered. Indian soldiers were no longer reliable to defend
British interests. Future British hopes took a significant hit from this.
Sympathy towards mutiny
• The nation as a whole, including several members of the British political establishment, praised the ratings' act
of defiance. The British government were uneasy about their capacity to maintain control in India as a result.
Growing militant nature
• The rise of INA was a sign of the Indian independence movement's developing militant nationalism. The militant
trend continued after Axial forces were routed, and it instead spread to British soldiers in the shape of Naval
Ratings. This was a warning that a conflict between Indian soldiers and British forces would break out.
Thus, in a way, the Naval Mutiny was a warning of what would happen if independence was not gained. The British
were less confident in keeping India, one of the most valued possessions of the crown, as a result of their defeat in World
War II.

177. To what extent is it accurate to claim that colonial legacies contributed to the communalism issue in
contemporary India?

Hint-
The term "communalism" is used to describe attempts to create a sense of religious or ethnic identity or to provoke
conflict among those who identify with various communities.
In contemporary Indian society, communalism frequently manifests as violence, hostility, and a barrier to social
cohesion among various religious sects. Since its inception, India has maintained a multireligious, plural society
free of religious violence and pogroms, but the arrival of colonisation disturbed this social peace.

• In many ways, colonial times can be seen as the origin of contemporary communalism. Due to its diversity,
India provided a means for the British and other colonial powers to divide and control.
• The main goal of this programme was to sever ties between Muslims and Hindus, the two largest religious
communities. They used a variety of strategies to do this, including historical revisionism, racial appeasement,
linguistic restrictions, etc.
• The English gave a skewed account of Indian history, claiming that Buddhism and Jainism were not practised
in ancient India, and that despotic Muslim kings ruled during the Middle Ages.
• The 'Hindi-Urdu' conflict, which the British also started, established Hindi as the language of Hindus and
Urdu as the language of Muslims.
• British control attempted to sever the political union of the two main religious communities through the division
of Bengal and the establishment of a separate electorate based on religion.
• Their endorsement of the "two-nation idea" and the subsequent partition of India in 1947 marked the
culmination of all of this.

Despite being a secular, democratic country, India nevertheless struggles with societal tensions due to the British-
sown seeds of communalism. Thus, reinforcing our constitutional ideas is necessary to eradicate communalism from
Indian society. Indians need to be made aware of their syncretic culture and assimilationist heritage, which resulted in
thriving social dialogue and cultural appropriation.

178. More than anything else, the "Quit India" movement brought the Indian people together in opposition
to British rule. Discuss.

Hint-
At a meeting of the All-India Congress Committee in Mumbai on August 8, 1942, Mahatma Gandhi issued a call to
action for the abolition of British rule and announced the formation of the Quit India Movement.
In his address at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, Gandhiji issued the command "Do or Die."
What caused the movement?

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• The failure of Cripps Mission served as the movement's immediate catalyst. The mission was a failure since
it proposed split as well as partial freedom for India.
• The Indian National Congress did not agree with the British idea that India would provide them with unwavering
assistance during World War II.
• The masses of Indians had begun to embrace the anti-British sentiments and the call for complete independence.
• Lack of Essential Commodities: World War II had left the economy in ruins.

Progress made by the Movement

Rise of Nationalism:
• As a result of the Quit India Movement, there was a stronger sense of brotherhood and solidarity. Many college
and high school students dropped out, and many adults quit their jobs and withdrew money from the banks.

Participation of Women:
• The movement saw considerable involvement from women. Usha Mehta, among other female activists,
contributed to the establishment of an underground radio station that sparked awareness of the movement.
Rise of Future Leaders:
• Leaders who later became well-known leaders, like as Ram Manohar Lohia, J.P. Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Biju
Patnaik, and Sucheta Kriplani, were involved in underground operations.
Paved the way for Independence:
• The British came to the crucial conclusion that India was uninhabitable in the long run as a result of the costs
of World War II, which helped pave the way for independence even though the Quit India campaign was
defeated in 1944 and the British refused to grant immediate independence, saying it could only happen after the
war had ended.
In the end, it helped pave the road for India's independence by altering the nature of political negotiations with the
British.

Failure of the Movement

Brutal Repression:
• The movement saw some unplanned acts of violence in several locations.
• The British forcefully put an end to the movement; people were shot, lathi-charged, villages were set on fire,
and hefty fines were levied.
• In order to quell the unrest, the authorities used brutality and imprisoned nearly 100,000 individuals.
Lack of Support:
• The movement was not supported by the Hindu Mahasabha, the Communist Party of India, or the Muslim
League. The movement was also not supported by the Indian bureaucracy.
• Subhas Chandra Bose organised the Azad Hind administration and the Indian National Army while operating
from outside.
• Since they opposed Mahatma Gandhi's concept, many Congress members, including C Rajagopalachari,
resigned from their positions in the province legislature.
In contrast to other Gandhian campaigns like non-cooperation and civil disobedience, the Quit India movement saw
the spontaneous participation of the general public. The main contribution of this historic movement was to bring the
demand for independence to the forefront of the current national struggle.
After "Quit India," there was no turning back. Freedom was no longer up for negotiation. And after World War II,
this became very evident.

179. Discuss how the Gandhian philosophy was departed from by the Quit India Movement.

Hint-
The August Revolution, also known as the Cripps Mission, was unsuccessful in ending the constitutional deadlock,
which sparked the Quit India Movement. The resolution demanding the expulsion of the British and a peaceful non-
cooperation movement against any Japanese invasion was written by Mahatma Gandhi.
Gandhiji was given permission by the Congress Working Committee to lead the nonviolent mass movement at the
Wardha assembly. This choice was endorsed by the Congress assembly that convened in Bombay's Gowalia Tank on
August 8, 1942.
Expansion of Movement

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• ‘Do or Die’ mantra: The iconic Gandhi quote, "We shall either free India or perish in the attempt; we shall not
live to see the prolongation of our enslavement," prompted the early morning hours of August 9, 1942, arrests
of all the leading Congress officials, who were then taken to unidentified locations.
A spontaneous outburst of mass anger:
• An unforeseen event on August 9, 1942, caused a popular upsurge that lasted for six or seven weeks across the
nation as a result of the arrest of leaders.
Methods:
• People came up with many different ways to display their rage. In several locations, large crowds stormed
government symbols such police stations, post offices, courts, railroad stations, and others.
• In defiance of the police, national flags were forcibly flown on public buildings. Cities, towns, and villages
everywhere saw the anger of the populace.
• Bihar and Eastern United Province had the highest levels of violence (now Uttar Pradesh).
Parallel governments :
Many locations established parallel governments,
• including Ballia (under Chittu Pandey for a week in August 1942).
• Jatiya Sarkar provided cyclone aid in Tamluk (Midnapore), sanctioned grants for schools, distributed grain from
the wealthy to the needy, organised Vidyut Vahinis, etc.
• "Prati Sarkar" in Satara, which ran from mid-1943 to 1945, was organised by figures like Y.B. Chavan and
Nana Patil, among others.
Mahatma Gandhi hesitated to condemn the disturbance in the community and attributed it to the government.
The Quit India movement failed because of the government's repressive methods, bad organisation, a lack of
leadership, and an ambiguous strategy.
Thus,
• The Quit India movement saw the spontaneous engagement of the whole public, unlike prior Gandhian
initiatives like non-cooperation and civil disobedience.
• There was no turning back after the "Quit India" movement, which made its main contribution by elevating
the demand for independence to the forefront of the ongoing national conflict.
• Freedom was no longer a bargaining chip. Furthermore, this became abundantly visible following World War
II.

180. The Mountbatten administration's quick actions led to irregularities in the partition's planning and failed
to stop the killing. Analyze critically.

Hint-
Because he was given more informal discretionary authority than his predecessors, Mountbatten was able to make
decisions more quickly and decisively. Another thing working in his favour was the British government's steadfast
determination to depart as soon as possible.

He had until October 1947 to research the advantages and disadvantages of both a united and divided nation before
advising the British government on the manner of power transfer.

The Indian Independence Act, which was influenced by the Mountbatten Plan, was passed by the British Parliament
on July 5, 1947, and received royal assent on July 18, 1947. President Truman signed the Act into law on August 15,
1947. who's major clauses were:

✓ On August 15, 1947, the Act established India and Pakistan as two separate, sovereign nations.
✓ The governor-general of each dominion was charged with seeing that the Act was carried out as intended.
✓ The current Central Legislative Assembly and the Council of States were to be automatically dissolved, and the
constituent assembly of each new dominion was to wield the functions of that dominion's legislative.

Although the Punjab slaughter may have been avoided if events hadn't moved at such a rapid pace under Mountbatten,
they hadn't been.

The Disastrous 72-day Timetable

1. From 3rd June to 15th August 1947, i.e. in 72 days-both the transfer of power and the partition of the country
were hurried through at lightning speed.
2. From the Indian standpoint, this proved disastrous.
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3. According to some senior British officers (including the Commander-in-Chief Auchinleck), a minimum period
of say a few years was needed to carry out a peaceful partition.
4. The Plan provided for no institutional framework for resolving issues arising out of partition.
5. Jinnah worsened matters by refusing to allow Mountbatten to act as a common Governor-General for both India
and Pakistan as he wanted that position for himself.
6. In December1947, the Joint Defence machinery also broke down.
7. By then, Kashmir had already become a ground for military conflict.
8. There were no transitional institutional institutions within which partition problems could be resolved;

Massacres- the Tragedy of Partition

The tragedy of partition, which included extensive Hindu-Muslim riots and massacres, was caused by a number of
circumstances, including the ones listed below.
Mountbatten's Role: Two Mountbatten decisions were made on the 15th of August in advance.
Refusal to accept the finality of partition:
✓ Millions of people refused to accept partition long after it was announced, making it a last-minute frenzied
affair.
✓ Even leaders such as Gandhi and Nehru believed the partition to be only temporary.
✓ The delay in announcing the Boundary Commission Award, played a key role in worsening situation in Punjab.
✓ As per senior British officers including Commander-in Chief Lockhart, the Punjab tragedy would not have
occurred had the partition been delayed for a year.
✓ Further, even though the Boundary Commission Award was ready by 12th August, Mountbatten withheld the
announcement until transfer of power, to forsake responsibility of further disorder.
✓ As a result, people living in the villages between Lahore and Amritsar continued to live in their homes thinking
that they were on the right side of the border.
✓ Once the award was announced at the last minute, migrations took place in frenzy, often culminating in
massacres.
✓ The officials too were busy arranging their own transfers rather than serving on duty which might have
prevented the tragic killings.

Belief that partition will be peaceful:

✓ Most unrealistically, it was simply assumed that the partition would be a peaceful one.
✓ Once Pakistan was granted, what was there to fight for?
✓ No preparations were made for transfer of population and no riots anticipated.

The Urgent Requirement for Separation :

✓ Leaders then thought that Only a swift change of leadership will stop the growth of 'direct action' and
community violence. Due to the Interim Government's near-collapse, the idea of Pakistan became all but
unavoidable.
✓ The princely states' potential independence was seen as a larger threat to Indian unity and was therefore excluded
from the partition plan.
✓ The League's advocacy of a separate Muslim state was met with a series of incremental concessions, the last
of which was acceptance of division.

The period of partition was one of India's darkest. The horrors of the separation persist today despite efforts to
transfer power peacefully. August 14 has been designated as Partition Horror Remembrance Day by India.

180. Assess the main administrative issues and socio-cultural problems in the integration process of Indian
Princely States.

Hint-
Princely States were the name given to the monarchies that were ruled by British India. To suggest that the monarchs
were subject to the British Crown, the adjective "princely" was purposefully kept in use during the British government.

Administrative issues:
Lapse of British Paramountcy:

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• The Indian Independence Act of 1947, which was based on the Mountbatten Plan, called for the British Crown's
supremacy over the Indian states to cease. The departure of the British was seen by many of the monarchs as the
perfect opportunity to declare autonomy and establish their own states as nations on the international map.
Signing of Instruments of Accession:
• The instruments of accession executed by the rulers, provided for the accession of states to the Dominion of India
(or Pakistan) on three subjects, namely, defence, external affairs and communications.
Power and Prestige:
• The prospect of ceding their reputation and clout did not sit well with the princely realms. Before independence,
among of these states that presented issues included Jodhpur, Bhopal, and Travancore; after independence,
Junagarh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir.
• Natural resource availability: Some of the Princely States had good natural resource reserves and thought they
could subsist independently, thus they desired to maintain their independence.
People Resentment:
• The Instrument of Accession was signed by the Maharaja of Manipur and the Indian government. The Maharaja
of Manipur held elections in June 1948 as a result of pressure from the populace, and the state eventually adopted
the constitutional monarchy system. Without consulting the Manipur Legislative Assembly, which was elected by
the people, the Indian government was successful in pressuring the Maharaja into signing a merger agreement in
September 1949.
Connectivity and Agrarian Support:
• The Rajput princely state, despite having a Hindu king and a large Hindu population, strangely had a tilt towards
Pakistan. Jinnah offered free access to the Karachi port, to arms manufacturing and importing along with military
and agrarian support.

Socio-cultural challenges:
Kashmir: This princely nation was ruled by a Hindu king over a predominately Muslim populace that had resisted
joining either of the two dominions.
Hyderabad, which occupied a sizable chunk of the Deccan plateau, was the biggest and richest of all princely states. In
the princely state, Nizam Mir Usman Ali was in charge of a populace that was primarily Hindu.
Peasant Protest:
• The Telangana Rebellion of 1946–1951 was a peasant uprising against the princely state of Hyderabad in the
Telangana region that was led by communists and developed out of agitations. It served as a reminder of the
sacrifices made by the residents of this area in the struggle against the authoritarian rule of the Nizam of
Hyderabad and brought the struggles of the peasantry to the fore.
The majority of the state's leaders decided to join the Union of India by signing an agreement known as the "Instrument
of Accession." The princely states of Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir, and Manipur were the most challenging to
incorporate than the others.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN COLONIAL INDIA

BETWEEN 1858-1935

181. What factors led to the birth of Indian council act of 1861 ? highlight the significance of the act.

Hint-
Factors Leading to the INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1861
• As a result of the Act of 1833, all territorial laws were now made by the central legislature, which had been
decentralised previously. Having lost the ability to enact its own laws, Bombay and Madras The province
governments objected to this centralization of legislative authority.
• The central legislature was also unsuited for the role since, in addition to being unaware of local situations, it
lacked the time and motivation to create national standards for legislation.
Act of 1853
• The Legislative Council, which was established by an act of 1853, evolved into a miniature parliament or
debating society.
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• With time, it adopted all the niceties of parliamentary procedure and established a complex process for doing
business, including three readings and committee referrals, all of which added significantly to the delay.
• To the embarrassment of the Home Government, it also occasionally withheld supplies in an effort to serve as
an independent legislative.
The Act of 1858
• simply altered the Home Government; it had no impact on India's administrative structure. It was believed that
significant modifications to the constitution were necessary following the Revolt of 1857.
• A lack of communication and comprehension between the government and the governed was also perceived.
The federal government finally recognised the risks associated with excluding Native Americans from the
nation's legal system.
• Even in 1858, the idea of including Indians in the legislative councils was raised, but it was abandoned out of
concern that the change might be linked to the anxiety the uprising had caused.
To address the above issues, further changes were made in the next Act in 1861.
Significance of the Act
From the constitutional perspective, the Act was important on account of the following reasons:
• It introduced the process of legislative devolution which gradually gave more and more legislative functions
to the provinces and culminated in the grant of autonomy to provinces by the Act 1935.
• It initiated a process of Indian association in legislation.
• It initiated recognition of local needs and local knowledge by means of local councils.
• The local councils also ensured publicity and discussion throughout the law-making process.
The Governor general could pass laws for all of India, and it is remarkable that no attempt was made to divide the
legislative authority of the Central and Local Legislatures. The initially established local councils were merely advisory
and support groups for legislative action. The Act's author, Charles Wood, made it clear that the intended local councils
would operate more like an Indian ruler's Darbar, where the nobility might voice their opinions but were not required to
follow them.

182. Discuss the factor that led to the Indian council act of 1892 ? highlight its significance.
Factors Leading to the Act

Hint-
Political pressure for more reforms was largely responsible for the creation of the Indian Constitution following the Act
of 1861. Governmental constitutional compromises were consistently considered to be insufficient, leading to increased
discontent and calls for more reforms. Act after Act saw the same scenario play out until, at long last, the Act of 1947
finally gave in to the demand for total independence.
Dissatisfaction with the Act of 1861:
• It goes without saying that the Act of 1861 fell short of the expectations of the Indian populace. The Central
Legislature's declared majority was upheld. Even if it was insignificant, the non-official element did not even
speak for the populace. It was made up of high-ranking natives who could not ostensibly comprehend the
requirements of the Indian populace.
Famine of 1876-78:
• A devastating famine struck the nation in 1877, maybe the worst to that point, and affected the areas of Madras,
Mysore, Hyderabad, Maharashtra, western UP, and the Punjab. In various regions of the nation, there was a severe
lack of food grains, and India's economy was rapidly deteriorating, which led to a severe anger of the government.
Growth of national consciousnesses:
The second half of the 19th century saw the flowering of national consciousness in India. A number of factors were
responsible for this growth.
• The brutal repression of the Revolt of 1857 had caused widespread resentment against the government.
• The arrogant and racist behaviour of the ruling class, particularly the civil servants, also embittered the Indians
against the British.
• In 1878, the twin Acts of Repression were passed namely the Vernacular Press Act and the Indian Arms Act
which further antagonised the people of India.
• Reactionary policies of Lord Lytton, the controversy regarding abolition of 5% cotton duties in favour of
Lancashire manufacturers as well as the controversy over the Ilbert Bill well demonstrated the hollowness of
British sense of justice and fair play and proved that justice could not be expected from the British when their
own interests were involved.

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• In 1857, Universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay had been established that had led to the spread of English
education, Western ideas and political awakening in India. Year after year, they produced an increasing number
of qualified Indians who were now demanding a greater share in governance and administration.
• By now, certain Englishmen like AO Hume believed that masses were seething with discontent and some
educated young men were likely to lead them to a national revolt. Thus in 1885, the Indian National Congress
had been formed with the support of Hume to vent such aspirations through moderate channels.
• Other cumulative factors that furthered the growth of national consciousness included socio-cultural
awakening and faith in India's glorious past, the influence of Indian press and nationalist literature; development
of means of communication and holding of imperial darbars.
The Act of 1892 was passed as a result of a combination of all these reasons. In order to further liberalise the Councils,
Lord Dufferin covertly forwarded a proposal to England after realising the significance of the trend the Congress had
started. Nevertheless, he affirmed that he was not thinking of establishing a parliamentary system in India.
Significance of the Act of 1892
The Act proved significant in many ways:
• The size of the legislatures, both at the Centre and in the Provinces was enlarged.
• The provisions of the Act proved liberal enough to enable many Indians to enter the councils. These included
Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, WC Banerjee, Surendranath Banerjee, Asutosh Mookerjee, Rash
Behari Ghosh and Lalmohan Ghosh.
• The non-official members aptly demonstrated the patriotism of educated Indians, gave a good account of their
debating skills and took up every opportunity to advance the Indian point of view.
• The Legislature was given some control over the Executive.
• The introduction of the 'elective principle', though veiled, was a significant constitutional measure and paved the
way for introduction of representative government in the future.
However, the Act was criticised by the INC during its sessions in 1892 and 1893, notably since the idea of direct election
had not been adopted. It also had other flaws and fell short of meeting the expectations of the Indian nationalists.
Additionally, the legislators' powers were severely constrained. The members had no significant power over the budget,
were not permitted to ask follow-up questions, and any inquiry might be rejected. Extremists soon started to demand
additional legislative revisions as the national movement's leadership now fell into their hands.

183. What factor led to the morley-minto reform of 1909 ? critically examine the provisions of the act.

Hint-
Factors leading to Morley-Minto Reforms
Tremendous rise in national consciousness:
• From 1885 to 1906, India had a sevenfold growth in the number of students completing the matriculation exam,
going from 1286 to 8211.
• The number of newspapers and journals published also increased, which suggests that a greater proportion of
Indians are now likely to be aware of their rights as citizens and the obligations of the government.
• However, the educated Indians were denied any participation in government administration or services, far from
receiving their fair share.
Economic critique of colonial rule:
• The incisive economic critiques "The Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India" and "The Economic History of India"
by economists Dadabhai Naoroji and RC Ditt were published in 1902, respectively.
• According to Naoroji's thesis of the drain of wealth, the British were robbing and draining India. The drain was
the target of a furious campaign that used every medium of public discourse. The agitation was extremely well-
liked by the general public and succeeded in eroding the moral foundation of British authority in India.
Role of Curzon's reactionary policies:
• The Governor general from 1898 to 1905, Lord Curzon, was a fervent imperialist. He fostered disdain for the
aspirations of educated Indians and the Indian National Congress while promoting the centralization policy.
• His unpopular policies included the Official Secrets Act of 1904, the Indian Universities Act, and the Calcutta
Corporation Act of 1899. However, it was his proposal to divide Bengal that sparked previously unheard-of
hostility;
• It was interpreted as a challenge to Bengali identity and led to an uprising. During the anti-partition agitation,
the Extremists, who had now revived the cry of swaraj, swadeshi, boycott, and national education, gained control
of the Congress.

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Rise of the extremists and the revolutionaries:
• The last decade before reforms (1899–1909) was also a turbulent time when militant nationalism and
revolutionary Extremism rose to prominence.
• Political rights will have to be fought for, Tilak had said, denouncing the Congress' moderate attitude.
According to the Moderates, these can be won by persuasion. We believe that pressure can be used to win these.
Other significant factors:
• In addition to the aforementioned, a number of additional reasons also had a role in the Act's passage. In 1904-
05, the Asian powerhouse Japan beat the Western superpower Russia, inspiring fresh optimism throughout Asian
colonies.
• The maltreatment of Indians abroad in South Africa and other British colonies also infuriated the Indian
populace, who had come to believe that they could not expect to be respected or treated fairly outside of India
until they were free in their own nation.
• India saw the horrors of hunger and the bubonic plague in the final years of the 19th century, partly as a result of
negligence and poor administration on the part of the government.
• All these events had been carefully covered by the Indian press, free since 1882, and had ignited national outrage
against the foreign rule.
Rise of Liberal Party to Power in Britain:
• The Liberal Party won the British election at the end of 1905, and two Liberals—Lord Minto (GG) and Secretary
of State John Morley—took office.
• Morley and Minto shared the same opinions about Indian policy. Both thought the division of Bengal was a
terrible mistake that had spread anti-down among the populace and removed an English commander from the
top position that governed India.
• They feared that he was quickly losing this feeling of hostility. They were also conscious that an imperialist
framework could not accept the Congress demand that India be governed in the interests of the Indian people.
• Thus, they concluded that the British policy in India was badly in need of a 'new departure, the contents of
which were clear in their mind-they had to appease the Moderates, suppress the Extremists, raise new pillars of
support for the British rule (the Indian princes and the Zamindars) and weaken the nationalist movement by
counterpoising Muslims against the Hindus.
Simla Deputation, 1st October 1906:
• A deputation headed by Khan met Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla on 1st October 1906. The deputationists
expressed loyalty to the British Crown but also expressed apprehension that if the principle of election' was
introduced without conceding reservation for Muslims it would prove detrimental to their interests.
• Thus, the deputationists demanded reservation of seats for Muslim Community not only on the basis of their
population but also on the basis of their political importance and their 'services in the defence of the British
Empire".
• The British saw in these demands a promising counterpoise to the increasing demands of the Congress. Grasping
the opportunity, Lord Minto readily accepted these demands and promised not only separate communal
representation but also representation much in excess of their population on account of their services to the
Empire'.
• Minto's response to the deputation may be seen as the first official manifestation of the policy of divide and
rule. Both Lord Morley and Lord Minto felt that time was now ripe for further reforms.
• Under the policy of conciliation, another demand of the Indian leaders was fulfilled even before the act was
passed and without introducing any statutory change. This was the appointment of two Indians to the Council of
the Secretary of State for India and of the Governor General and Provincial Governors.
• Hence in August KG Gupta and Syed Hussain Bilgrami were appointed to the Secretary of State's India Council.
Under this provision, comparatively unimportant portfolios like education and law were given to the Indians.

Critical Analysis of the Provisions

• The Morley-Minto Reforms were a great improvement upon the Act of 1892. The provisions under the Act
proved liberal enough to enable several Indian leaders to enter the legislative bodies. Some of the prominent
members of the Central Legislative Council were: GK Gokhale, DE Wacha, Surendranath Banerjee, Madan
Mohan Malaviya, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Srinivas Shastri, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Nawab Saiyid Mohammad
Bahadur, Raja of Mahudabad and Mazharul Haque.
• The members used the debates on bills to manifest their debating skills and often placed the official members in
an embarrassing situation. Their arguments found wide coverage in the press and helped in eroding the moral
foundations of the Raj.

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• Though the British had hoped that an assortment of classes in the councils would act as counterweights against
one another. However, their legislative behaviour mostly belied British expectations and they tended to unite,
rather than divide, on issues of national significance.
• Nevertheless, the Act failed to satisfy the aspirations of the people in several ways. The Act gave no answer to
the demand for responsible government. Narrow franchise and indirect elections failed to instil in the members a
sense of responsibility. The Councils had no real power and were merely debating bodies that could air certain
criticisms.
• In its actual working, the reforms created much confusion. Since no responsibility was conceded, it led to
thoughtless and irresponsible criticism of the government by Indian leaders, throwing the British government and
the Indian community into two antagonistic camps.
• The act was passed to appease the moderates, the Muslims and the elite sections (the landholders) with the aim
of raising them as new pillars of support for the British rule.
• At first glance, it appeared as though the British had been successful in uniting the aforementioned classes, but
they soon realised this was not the case. The Morley-Minto Reforms quickly left the Moderates disappointed, and
many of them offered outside support to the Home Rule Movement.
• Following the Lucknow Pact in 1916, the Congress's leadership firmly fell into the hands of the Extremists.
Although historians disagree on the extent to which the British were successful in separating the politically
engaged Hindus and Muslims, there is no denying that the weighting and distinct electorates plan was an
imperialist coup. It made sure that Indian politics would remain divisive for years to come.
• Constitutional The other communities began to struggle for their rights and even assert that they had provided the
empire with superior services as a result of Muslim voters having their own electorates.
• the Sikhs received special representation under the Act of 1919. The Act of 1935 gave the Harjans, Indian
Christians, Anglo Indians, and Europeans separate representation. As a result, the Act of 1909 provided the Indian
people "the shadow rather than the substance" and created a patchwork of representative governance.

184. Discuss the factor leading to the reform through the act of 1919.

Hint-
Factors leading to Reforms of 1919

Disillusionment with the Act of 1909:

• The Act of 1909 exacerbated the public's demand for self-government and left them feeling deeply disillusioned.
• The Morley-Minto Reforms were so widely despised that they worsened India's political climate and prompted
the adoption of a number of repressive laws, including the Indian Press Act of 1910, the Seditious Meetings
Act of 1911, and the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act of 1913. Particularly oppressive was the Defence of India
Act of 1915, which mandated the incarceration of suspects and a forceful bench trial of revolutionaries without
the right to appeal.
Congress-League Pact 1916:
• Muslims began to feel unsatisfied with the British over time as well. The British were extremely agitated by the
debate over the establishment of a Muslim university in Aligarh and the invalidation of the 1911 partition of
Bengal.
• Additionally, several international circumstances harmed relations between the English and Muslims. These
included England's antagonistic behaviour toward Turkey during the Turco-Italian War (1911–1912) and the
Balkan Wars (1912–1913), which was frequently depicted as a conflict between the Cross and the Crescent.
• The Congress and the League grew closer as a result of the Muslims' estrangement from the British, and they
finally joined forces in 1916 under the terms of the Lucknow Pact.
Outbreak of the First World War:
• When the war broke out in August 1914 in Europe, Indian automatically got involved in it. India helped Britain
with men, money and material during a crucial time and this gesture naturally increased their expectations.
• Not because they were obedient workers who merited payment from their masters, but rather because they had
aided the British on an equal footing, shattering the notion of racial superiority and boosting the self-esteem of
the Indian populace.
Emergence of Various Schemes of Constitutional Reform:
• So charged was the atmosphere that many Indian political theorists themselves began formulating new schemes
for the Indian political problem:

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• Gokhale's Scheme: It was one of the first but published posthumously in 1917 and advocated substantial
measure of self-government.
• The Round Table Scheme: The Round Table was a group formed to study imperial problems of British Empire.
Its members such as Lionel Curits and Williams Duke felt that any further extension of elected majorities
without giving them any responsibility would only create permanent opposition in the councils. Thus, they
forwarded the idea of 'dyarchy' in the provinces (the Greek term 'dyarchy' refers to a form of government in
which any two persons or bodies are jointly vested with supreme powers).
• Joint Scheme of the Congress and Muslim League: After the Lucknow Pact in December 1916, Congress
and Muslim League also came up with a Joint Scheme for constitutional reforms.

The War Time Politics in India:

• The war sparked a wave of nationalism across various segments of Indian society, and as a result, India's war
years became a time of intensive political activity.
• The populace had come to understand that swaraj was not something the British would bestow upon them.
Since Britain was having trouble, many nationalists believed that India had a chance.
• During the years of the war, the Home Rule Movement and the Ghadar Movement arose and heated up Indian
politics.
British demand for one million pounds towards War Fund:
• The government of India was asked to contribute one million pounds to the war fund and it was felt that some
concessions would have to be given in return.
Change in government attitude and Montagu Declaration:
• The above factors and the intensification of the Home Rule Movement made political atmosphere tense and
forced the government to adopt a soft line as indicated by the historic declaration of Montagu (the new Secretary
of State) in the British House of Commons regarding the goal of British Government in India.
• In his proclamation, Montagu also said that some significant efforts toward achieving the stated goal would be
made right away, while further developments in that direction would be decided by the British Parliament based
on Indians' performance.
• Montague made the decision to travel to India and draught his own plan for constitutional improvements. As a
result, Montagu travelled to India in November 1917 and met with Viceroy Chelmsford, officials, and Indian
leaders to discuss the situation. He created the Report often known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Report or just
the Montford Report, based on these discussions.

185. Critically examine the provisions of act of 1919. highlight its significance.

Hint-
Criticisms of the Act of 1919
The Act of 1919 had the following major defects:
1. The Centre lacks any form of accountable government.
2. The Montford Report proclaimed separate electorates to be a very serious obstacle to the growth of the self-
governing concept, yet separate electorates have continued and even expanded.
3. The Governor's unique abilities. The idea of responsible government could not be implemented with these powers.
4. The emergence of dyarchy.
Failure of Dyarchy:
• The Dyarchy was implemented between April 1921 and April 1937, albeit it did not last long in two
provinces: Bengal (1924–27) and the Central Provinces (1924-26).
• Dyarchy was a complete failure in its operation. The official committee established to evaluate the operation
of the dysarchy, headed by Sir Alexander Muddiman, reaffirmed this.

It reported the following defects:

1. Interference of the 'reserved half of the government on the 'transferred half and vice versa:
o This problem arose due to lack of division of subjects along scientific lines, Firstly, such a division of
administration into two halves is opposed to political theory and it was not possible to divide the functions of the
state into water tight compartments the difficulty was further compounded by illogical and irrational division.
o For instance, when education was transferred subject, European and Anglo-Indian education were reserved
subjects. While agriculture was a transferred subject, land revenue and irrigation were reserved subjects, though

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the two cannot be separated for obvious reasons, Further, whenever conflicts arose, the Governor was to act as
arbitrator and he generally sided with the reserved half.
2. Excessive control exercised by the Finance Department (a reserved subject) over the transferred departments:
o The finance department did not restrict itself to furnishing financial advice but constantly tried to control the
policy of the Ministers by withholding funds. While reserved departments got all the money they wanted, the
ministers kept requesting for funds.
3. Failure of the Indian Civil Service to cooperate with the Ministers:
o This was perhaps the most unwholesome feature of dyarchy. The ministers had to implement their policies
through the services. But they had no control over civil servants even in transferred departments.
o The members of the Indian Civil service were recruited by the Secretary of State and were responsible only to
him. They did not owe any great responsibility to the ministers.
o Further, the departmental secretaries had direct access to the Governor further undermined the Minister's
position. This privilege made the services insubordinate and defiant in attitude.
4 Failure to encourage joint deliberation between two halves of the government:
o Joint deliberation was not made a necessary part of the system. Initiative on this rested with the Governor and
only a few Governors encouraged this practice.
5. Weak position of the Ministers:
o The position of the ministers was greatly weakened by the overriding powers of the Governor, the Governor
General and the Secretary of State Further, the governor looked upon the Ministers as mere advisors and dismissed
them as and when he liked. This struck at the very root of ministerial responsibility.
o The position of ministers was also made very complex as they were made to serve two masters-while they were
appointed by the governor and could be dismissed by him, they were made responsible to the legislature.
6. The absence of joint responsibility of the Ministers:
o The principle of joint responsibility of ministers was not secured and was not possible either since the Ministers
were not selected on the basis of any organised political parties but on individual basis.
o Dyarchy was further confounded when it was rejected by the Congress. Congress was against dyarchy and its
representatives refused to accept Ministership. As a result, most of the ministers came from smaller parties or
were independents and had no majority to back them in the legislature.
o The sword of successful no-confidence motion hung above their heads. In such circumstances, they could not
be expected to do any useful work for the people. Hence ministership under dyarchy only trained Indians in
flattery rather than in science of responsible government. In fact, dyarchy became so unpopular that it became
fashionable to deride it.

Significance
Despite above criticisms, the Act of 1919 marked a major milestone in the history of constitutional development in India
for several reasons:
• The administration announced its goals with regard to strengthening ties with Indians and fostering the growth
of institutions that can govern themselves in India. It would be a commitment breach to retract this statement.
The proclamation thereby ensured upcoming improvements.
• The Act established provincial and federal legislative bodies. Indian viewpoints were presented in these
legislatures and disseminated via the press all over the country.
• The conducting of elections and the appointment of Indian ministers also familiarised Indians with the
parliamentary system, and the eloquent and frequently logically unassailable arguments played a vital role in
the destruction of the moral foundation of the British Raj in India.
Despite all the criticism, the best transitional mechanism that came to light after thorough research into the Indian
situation was arguably dyarchy itself.

186. In terms of administrative structure, the Government of India act of 1858, … meant more continuation
than change." Do you agree? Substantiate.

Hint-
It was abundantly evident from the Act of 1853 that the Crown was free to intervene at any time and seize the Company's
Indian holdings.

Factors Leading to the Act

• The Revolt of 1857 dealt the old form of government a fatal blow and accelerated calls for the transfer of
authority from the Company to the Crown.
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• Lord Palmerston, the then-Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, initially introduced the Bill for the handover
of the Government of India from the East India Company to the Crown. However, even before the Bill could
be passed, Palmerston was forced to resign over a different matter.
• Another measure, originally known as "An Act for the Better Government of India," was later proposed by
Edward Henry Stanley (who would go on to become the first Secretary of State for India), and it was passed on
August 2nd, 1858.

Main Provisions
• The Act brought an end to the Company's reign in India and transferred authority to the Crown.
• The Court of Directors and the Board of Control were disbanded, and the Principal Secretary of State for
India and the India Council (a 15-member Council that serves as the Secretary of State's advisory and support
body) now have those positions' authority.
• The Crown was to appoint 8 of the 15 members, while the Court of Directors was to appoint 7 of the members.
• In the name of the Crown, they were to rule India. As a member of the British Cabinet, the Secretary of State
answered to the Parliament. Periodic reports on India's moral and material development were due from him.
• The Governor-General was given the title of Viceroy because he was now the Crown's official representative.
The Crown, the Secretary of State in Council, and the Indian authorities shared patronage according to the Act.
• The Secretary of State for India was deemed under the Act to be a corporate entity that could be sued in both
India and England.

Significance of the Act

• The Act marked the end of the Company's dominion in India and the beginning of a new era in Indian history.
The transfer of authority was less "substantive" and more "formal" at the same time. It was intended for the
name change to immediately excuse the past and provide the empire with a new beginning.
• In actuality, the Act barely made a few superficial adjustments in England and had little meaningful impact
on India. Beginning with the Regulating Act of 1773, the British Parliament gradually reduced the Court of
Directors' authority through a number of acts, and by 1858, the majority of the laws regulating India had already
been enacted by the British Parliament. In other words, the Company was already a political corpse before 1858;
all that was left of it was its skin, and even that was eliminated in that year.
• The Queen Victoria's proclamation came after the Act. At a lavish Darbar held in Allahabad on November
1, 1858, the royal proclamation was made public. The agreement, which established the future course of British
administration in India, is also referred to as the "Magna Carta of the People of India."

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DIFFERENT ASPECT OF FREEDOM STRUGGLE
187. Development of the press in India was a rollercoaster ride. Analyse how the press became a symbol of
national unity and voice in the Indian freedom struggle?

Hint-
The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser, published in 1780 by James Augustus Hickey, was the first
newspaper in India. In its early years, the press was primarily an outspoken critic of the wrongdoings of the British
government and its personnel.
Some examples of early newspapers are: Payam-e-Azadi” or the Message of Freedom (1857) by Nana Saheb Peshwa,
The Hindu and Swadesamitran by G. Subramaniya Aiyar, The Bengalee by Surendranath Banerjea, Voice of India by
Dadabhai Naoroji, Kesari (in Marathi) and Maharatta (in English) under Balgangadhar Tilak.

Contribution of Indian Press:

Propagation of national ideology:
• The early nationalist movement, which lasted from around 1870 to 1918, had more of an emphasis on political
education and propaganda than on actual public mobilisation through open meetings. In its early years, the
Indian National Congress entirely relied on the press to publicise its decisions and sessions.
Connected the masses:
• The newspaper's influence extended beyond cities and towns; these publications made it to isolated villages,
where each news item and editorial was carefully studied and discussed in the "local libraries."
• The press connected the nation's people thanks to its extensive reach. Through his journals, Bal Gangadhar
Tilak was one of the first to urge enlisting the lower middle classes, peasants, craftsmen, and labourers in the
Congress.
Spread Awareness:
• Government Acts and policies were subject to critical examination in these newspapers. They served as a
group that was opposed to the government. The media raised awareness of colonial exploitation.

Restrictions by Government
• On its side, the government had implemented a number of harsh regulations, such as Section 124 A of the
Indian Penal Code, which stated that anyone attempting to sow discord against the British Government in India
would be transported for life or for any term, or imprisoned for up to three years.
• In order to "better control" the vernacular press and effectively punish and repress seditious writing, the
Vernacular Press Act (VPA) of 1878 was created. The "gagging Act" became the moniker for the law. The
Act provided no right of appeal and discriminated against vernacular and English-language journalism.
• Action was taken against Som Prakash, Bharat Mihir, Dacca Prakash, and Samachar under the VPA. To
avoid the VPA, Amrita Bazar Patrika transformed into an English newspaper over night. Surendranath
Banerjea was the first journalist from India to be imprisoned in 1883.
• The press played an important role since it served as a fertile ground for Indian discontent voices that
perceived the dominant narrative of the colonial authority as wrong and wanted to express their opposition.
• Through their journals and editorials, nationalist leaders like Tilak and Gandhi used this opportunity to reach
readers in the most rural areas of India. so inspiring a sense of nationalism and inspiring the populace to fight
for the liberation of a "Nation"—an idea that had already captured the minds of the majority in both urban and
rural areas.

188. Discuss the elements of colonial legacy in post-independent India.

Hint-

India obtained independence from Britain in August 1947 after nearly a century of being directly under British
administrative rule. British imperialism, however, had a number of profound effects on the area.
The economic and social standing of the nation are still being affected by these repercussions of British control.
Elements of Colonial Legacy
English Language Usage: English served as the nation's official language during the British rule.
• English is still the official language of the country. It is used in higher education and acts as the universal
language.

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• The English language has, nevertheless, widened the economic and social gap between urban and rural
India.
The three foundations of British rule were:
The British rule made a significant influence by providing law and order. The British Raj in India was based on the
administration, police, and army in this.
• The Indian Administrative Service, which replaced the Indian Civil Service, continues to be the "steel
frame" on which the stability and progress of the independent country primarily depend.
• However, the attitude of police toward the general populace still retains a colonial character.
Partition:
The most significant colonial legacy is the division of India and Pakistan. As a result, there is still animosity
between the two nations.
• As a result, South Asia continues to be one of the world's most fractured areas.
• Furthermore, British policies are also the root cause of the Kashmir issue.
Constructing a unified administrative system:
For the first time, the British united the entire subcontinent under one imperial administration,
• enabling a single administrative framework that extended to the farthest reaches of the nation.
• Although we have been independent for almost 75 years, we still adhere to several rules that were passed
while Britain was in power.
While some colonial legacies had good effects on India, many were caused by British imperial interests being put
before domestic ones, which resulted in an uneven pattern of growth and a feeble central administration.
Therefore, it might be said that a century of foreign rule may have had a negative impact on the country's development.

189. Discuss the Ideological Differences and Similarities between Gandhi and Ambedkar.

Hint-

Gandhi, the principal architect of the Indian freedom struggle, and B.R. Ambedkar, the principal architect of the
Constitution of independent India, shared many ideas, though in many ways they held different beliefs. There is a
striking similarity in the symbolism involved in some of the actions of both individuals.

GANDHI AMBEDKAR
Views of • Gandhi viewed the untouchables as an • Ambedkar regarded the untouchables as a
Untouchability integral part of the Hindu whole. religious minority and not a part of the
• To Gandhi, untouchability was one of the Hindu community, and preferred to call
many problems confronted by Indian society. them a ‘political minority’ or ‘minority by
• Gandhi treated untouchability as a moral force’.
stigma and wanted it to be erased by acts of • To Ambedkar, untouchability was the
atonement. Gandhi had little use of legal/ major problem that captured his sole
constitutional modes; he looked to morality attention.
and thus supported conscience to remedy the • Ambedkar wanted to solve the problem of
evil. untouchability through laws and
constitutional methods
Use of language • Gandhi spoke in plain local vernacular, • Whereas Ambedkar spoke in English.
View on laws • To disobey the law to make the law more just • Ambedkar was more inclined towards the
was a Gandhian principle; its outward observance of law and constitutionality in
manifestations were noncooperation, hartal, the political process.
satyagraha and civil disobedience.
Views on • Gandhi was apprehensive about the • Attributed the evil effect of machinery to
mechanisation dehumanising impact of mechanisation and wrong social organisations that gave
of production held it responsible for the creation as well as sanctity to private property and the
sustaining of exploitative socioeconomic pursuit of personal gains.
orders in the world. • Ambedkar was of the firm belief that
machinery and modern civilisation were
of benefit to all, and held that the slogan
of a democratic society must be

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machinery and more machinery,
civilisation and more civilisation.
Means-End • Whereas in Gandhian perception it was purity • Ambedkar believed in purity of ends
paradigm of means that determined the end. and justified means as just when the ends
were just.
View on non- • Whereas Gandhi never made such a • Ambedkar held absolute non-violence as
violence distinction and was an avowed opponent of an end and relative violence as a means,
violence of any kind.
View on power • Gandhi too believed in limited sovereign • Ambedkar envisaged limited sovereign
of state power of the State. According to him, power of the State and, following from
absolute sovereign power of the State would that, limited authority for the government.
annihilate the spirit and personality of an According him, legal sovereign power
individual. should be limited and people should be the
• Gandhi, in fact, believed in least governance ultimate sovereign.
being the best governance.
Views on • Gandhi held that caste system in Hinduism • Ambedkar denounced the Vedas and
Hinduism has nothing to do with religious precepts and other Hindu scriptures. He believed that
spirituality. For Gandhi, caste and varna are the Hindu scriptures do not lend
different, and caste is perversive themselves to a unified and coherent
degeneration. understanding, and reflect strong
contradictions within and across sects.
And the caste system and untouchability
were the manifestations of the Hindu
religious scriptures.

development • When Gandhi named the depressed classes • Ambedkar claimed that for Gandhi
for deprived and the untouchables as ‘Harijan’, Ambedkar removal of untouchability was only a
classes denounced it as a clever scheme. platform, not a sincere programme.

Views on • For Gandhi, ‘Gramraj’ was ‘Ramraj’ and • But for Ambedkar, the status-quoist
Villages real independence for Indians. nature of the Indian villages denied
equality and fraternity and also liberty.
• As the scourge of casteism and
untouchability was most dominant in the
rural areas of India, Ambedkar believed
that ‘Gramraj’ would continue the social
hierarchy based on discrimination and
inequality. So he vehemently propagated
that there was nothing to be of proud of the
Indian village system.
Understanding • Whereas the Gandhian politics tried to show • Ambedkar’s politics tended to highlight
of Society the aspect of Indian unity. the aspect of Indian disunity.
• In ‘Hind Swaraj’, Gandhi tries to prove that • Ambedkar, on the other hand, believed in
India has always been a nation prior to the the notion that Indian unity was the by-
beginning of the imperial rule and it was the product of the legal system introduced by
British rule who broke this cultural unity. the imperial state.

Ideaology • Gandhi had no rigidities of ideology or • Ambedkar had certain principles which
principles except the uncompromising notion were very rigid,
of non-violence.

Democracy as a • Gandhi had little regard for the parliamentary • Ambedkar supported popular democracy
form of system of administration, Gandhi said that because it could put pressure on the
government: democracy often transforms into a form of government by advancing the interests of
"mass democracy" with a penchant for the oppressed.
tyranny by leaders.

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• Ambedkar had pushed for in a newly
independent India.
Views on • Whereas Gandhi believed that freedom was • Ambedkar anticipated that freedom would
Freedom never to be bestowed but rather to be wrested be granted by the imperial rulers,
Struggle from the power by the people who seek it.

Symbolism • Gandhi's burning of foreign clothing stood in • Ambedkar's burning of Manusmriti

for India's bondage. should not be viewed as sentimental
gestures. It is against Enslavement.

Similar views:
• Both denounced in theory and thinking anything that either decried or diminished the role of religion in the
life of an individual or in the life of society.
• In political precepts, Ambedkar believed in freedom of religion, free citizenship and separation of State and
religion. Gandhi also endorsed the idea of freedom of religion, but never approved a separation of politics
and religion. But religion as an agent of social change was well accepted by both leaders.
• The idea of social transformation – through democratic and peaceful means got support from Ambedkar as
well as Gandhi. They never sought a violent overthrow of any kind.
• Ambedkar desisted from pleading a blunt destruction of the social order, however, evil it was. And like
Gandhi, he wanted to solve the problem of social disharmony and disintegration through peaceful
rehabilitation of the oppressed classes.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FEUDALISM ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
RENAISSANCE ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
CHARACTERISTICS OF RENAISSANCE ............................................................................................................................................... 6
ENLIGHTENMENT....................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
BASIS OF ENLIGHTENMENT................................................................................................................................................................. 6
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ....................................................................................................................................................................... 6
THE REVOLUTION BEGINS IN ENGLAND................................................................................................................................................ 7
SOME MAJOR SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES ................................................................................................................................................ 7
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: ............................................................................................................................................ 7
POSITIVE OUTCOMES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: .................................................................................................................... 9
NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: .................................................................................................................. 9
AFTER EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION : ............................................................................................................................. 9
CAPITALISM: ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
ORIGIN OF CAPITALISM:...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
THE CONCEPT OF CAPITALISM: ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
CONSEQUENCES OF CAPITALISM AND COLONIZATION: ............................................................................................................... 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF CAPITALISM :................................................................................................................................................ 10
MERITS OF CAPITALISM: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 11
DRAWBACKS OF CAPITALISM: ........................................................................................................................................................... 11
SOCIALISM ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
RISE OF SOCIALISM: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
REASONS FOR GROWTH OF SOCIALISM: .......................................................................................................................................... 11
SOCIALISTS AND ORGANIZATIONS: .................................................................................................................................................. 12
MARXIAN SOCIALISM: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 12
REVOLUTIONS OF 1848: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 12
THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL AND IT’S IMPACT: .............................................................................................................................. 13
PARIS COMMUNE (1871): ...................................................................................................................................................................... 13
THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL AND IT’S IMPACT: ......................................................................................................................... 13
AMERICAN REVOLUTION ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14
REASONS FOR AMERICAN REVOLUTION:......................................................................................................................................... 14
THE SEQUENCE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS LEADING TO AMERICAN REVOLUTION : .................................................................. 16
SIGNIFICANCE OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION: .................................................................................................................................. 17
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
EVENTS LEADING TO CIVIL WAR: ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
COURSE OF THE CIVIL WAR:............................................................................................................................................................... 20
REASONS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOUTH'S DEFEAT: ............................................................................................................................. 20
OUTCOME OF WAR: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 20
ROLE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN: ........................................................................................................................................................... 20
BACKGROUND: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
HIS ROLE IN SLAVERY ABOLITION: .............................................................................................................................................. 20
FRENCH REVOLUTION:............................................................................................................................................................................. 20
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR FRENCH REVOLUTION: ................................................................................................................... 21
IMPORTANT EVENTS DURING FRENCH REVOLUTION: .................................................................................................................. 23
TENNIS COURT OATH: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 23
FALL OF BASTILLE (14 JULY 1789): ................................................................................................................................................ 23
PEASANT REVOLT: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 23
DRAFTING OF CONSTITUTION (1791): ........................................................................................................................................... 23
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SIGNIFICANCE OF FRENCH REVOLUTION: ................................................................................................................................... 25
FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON BONAPARTE........................................................................................................................................ 25
TIMELINE OF THE NAPOLEONIC ERA: .......................................................................................................................................... 25
FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON: .............................................................................................................................................................. 26
BLUNDERS OF NAPOLEON AND HIS SUBSEQUENT FALL:.............................................................................................................. 27
END OF NAPOLEON: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 28
IMPACT OF NAPOLEON: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 28
FAMOUS QUOTES BY NAPOLEON: ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
EUROPE AFTER NAPOLEON ..................................................................................................................................................................... 29
VIENNA CONGRESS: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 29
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR AGREEMENT IN VIENNA CONGRESS: ........................................................................................ 29
CONSEQUENCES OF VIENNA CONGRESS: .................................................................................................................................... 30
RISE OF NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: ............................................................................................................... 30
CAUSES OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM: ............................................................................................................................................ 31
FORMATION OF NEW IDENTITIES: ..................................................................................................................................................... 31
IMPACT OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE:............................................................................................................................................. 31
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY ............................................................................................................................................................... 32
ZOLLVEREIN- AN INVINCIBLE FORCE OF UNIFICATION: .......................................................................................................... 32
MERGER OF NORTHERN STATES:....................................................................................................................................................... 33
MERGER OF SOUTHERN STATES: ....................................................................................................................................................... 33
UNIFICATION OF ITALY ....................................................................................................................................................................... 33
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY: ..................................................................................................... 34
ITALIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT: ...................................................................................................................................................... 35
EMERGENCE OF MAZZINI: .............................................................................................................................................................. 35
ROLE OF COUNT CAVOUR: ............................................................................................................................................................. 35
REVOLUTIONARY COUNCIL OF 1860: ........................................................................................................................................... 35
GARIBALDI AND HIS FORCE:.......................................................................................................................................................... 36
RISE OF NEW IMPERIALISM: ............................................................................................................................................................... 36
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEW IMPERIALISM:................................................................................................................................. 36
IMPACT OF NEW IMPERIALISM:..................................................................................................................................................... 36
IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM: .................................................................................................................................................... 37
COLONIALISM ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
BASIC FEATURES OF COLONIALISM: ................................................................................................................................................ 37
STAGES OF COLONIALISM: ................................................................................................................................................................. 38
RELATION BETWEEN COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM: ............................................................................................................. 39
PATTERN OF COLONIAL DOMINATION: DIRECT RULE:.................................................................................................................. 39
COLONIALISM IN AFRICA: .................................................................................................................................................................. 40
FRENCH COLONIALISM IN AFRICA: ALGERIA ................................................................................................................................. 41
COLONIALISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA:................................................................................................................................................. 41
DUTCH COLONIALISM IN INDONESIA: .............................................................................................................................................. 41
FRENCH COLONIALISM IN CAMBODIA: ............................................................................................................................................ 42
PATTERN OF COLONIAL DOMINATION: INDIRECT RULE (LATIN AMERICA) .............................................................................. 42
RELATION BETWEEN CAPITALISM AND IMPERIALISM:................................................................................................................. 43
THE FIRST WORLD WAR........................................................................................................................................................................... 44
THE WORLD IN 1914.............................................................................................................................................................................. 44
THE EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE WAR: ....................................................................................................... 45
WHAT CAUSED THE WAR, AND WHO WAS TO BLAME? ................................................................................................................. 46

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COURSE OF THE WAR........................................................................................................................................................................... 47
WHY DID THE WAR LAST SO LONG? ................................................................................................................................................. 48
WHY DID THE CENTRAL POWERS LOSE THE WAR? ........................................................................................................................ 48
END OF THE WAR.................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
PEACE TREATIES ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR AND THE PEACE TREATIES ........................................................................................................... 50
TO WHAT EXTENT CAN GERMANY BE CONSIDERED RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OUTBREAK OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR? .. 51
LEAGUE OF NATIONS ............................................................................................................................................................................... 52
ORGANIZATION OF THE LEAGUE....................................................................................................................................................... 52
SUCCESSES OF THE LEAGUE .............................................................................................................................................................. 52
WHY DID THE LEAGUE FAIL TO PRESERVE PEACE? ....................................................................................................................... 53
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
THE WORLD FROM 1919 TO 1939 ............................................................................................................................................................. 55
ATTEMPTS MADE TO IMPROVE THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THEIR SUCCESS ........................................................... 55
HOW DID FRANCE TRY TO DEAL WITH THE PROBLEM OF GERMANY BETWEEN 1919 AND 1933? .............................................. 57
HOW DID RELATIONS BETWEEN THE USSR AND BRITAIN, GERMANY AND FRANCE DEVELOP BETWEEN 1919 AND 1933?... 58
THE FOREIGN POLICY OF USA BETWEEN 1919-1933 ............................................................................................................................ 59
RELATIONS BETWEEN JAPAN AND CHINA ........................................................................................................................................... 60
MUSSOLINI'S FOREIGN POLICY............................................................................................................................................................... 61
HITLER'S AIMS IN FOREIGN POLICY....................................................................................................................................................... 63
WHY WAS IT THAT HITLER WAS ALLOWED TO GET AWAY WITH ALL THESE VIOLATIONS OF THE VERSAILLES
SETTLEMENT? ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
HOW COULD APPEASEMENT BE JUSTIFIED? ........................................................................................................................................ 64
EXAMPLES OF APPEASEMENT AT WORK .............................................................................................................................................. 64
MUNICH TO THE OUTBREAK OF WAR: SEPTEMBER 1938 TO SEPTEMBER 1939 .............................................................................. 65
WHY DID WAR BREAK OUT? WERE HITLER OR THE APPEASERS TO BLAME? ................................................................................ 65
THE SECOND WORLD WAR, 1939-45........................................................................................................................................................ 66
OPENING MOVES: SEPTEMBER 1939 TO DECEMBER 1940............................................................................................................... 66
THE GERMAN INVASION OF SOVIET UNION .................................................................................................................................... 67
THE USA ENTERS THE WAR, DECEMBER 1941 ................................................................................................................................. 67
THE BATTLE OF STALINGRAD ............................................................................................................................................................ 68
WHAT CONTRIBUTION DID AIR POWER MAKE TO THE DEFEAT OF THE AXIS? ............................................................................. 68
THE AXIS POWERS DEFEATED: JULY 1943 TO AUGUST 1945 .............................................................................................................. 69
WHY DID THE AXIS POWERS LOSE THE WAR? ..................................................................................................................................... 70
THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR ...................................................................................................................................................................... 71
THE COLD WAR ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
REASONS WHICH PROMPTED THE COLD WAR ................................................................................................................................ 74
HOW DID THE COLD WAR DEVELOP BETWEEN 1945 AND 1953? ................................................................................................... 74
THAW AFTER 1953 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 77
THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE AND THE CUBAN MISSILES CRISIS {1962}............................................................................................ 78
THE PHASE OF DÉTENTE .......................................................................................................................................................................... 79
END OF COLD WAR ................................................................................................................................................................................... 79

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WORLD BEFORE 18TH CENTURY
Europe in the medieval era was characterized by unhealthy influence of religion and church in the public as well as the
private sphere. Therefore, medieval Europe was famously known as the Dark Age by some scholars. The beginning of
18th century was however characterized by:
● Start of decline of feudalism.
● Rise of towns and cities which lead to increase in production and demand of goods.
● Period of intellectual, social, and political ferment. This time is often referred to as the Age of Enlightenment.
● Beginning of Mercantile Capitalism
● Transition to a money-based economy from land-based economy of Feudalism.
● Decline in power of the Catholic Church.

FEUDALISM
● The social and economic system that arose in Europe in medieval times is known as the feudal system.
● It was essentially a rural system in which the peasants had to give a part of their produce to the lords in the form
of rent or taxes or had to labor for the lords without any payment.
● In a feudal society, land was the source of power.
● The feudal society developed a hierarchy. At the top stood the king.

● The king bestowed fiefs or estates on a number of lords known as dukes or earls.
● The knights formed the lowest category of feudal lords.
● The relationship from top to bottom was one of allegiance. No vassal owned any land; he only held the land as
of his overlord.
● Each feudal lord was all powerful within his fief. He had his own soldiers; levied taxes and even acted as a
judge.
● The result was that there was very little political unity in feudal countries and a strong central power was not
allowed to develop.
● Eventually, this system became hereditary. The sons of a lord were lords and the vassals’ sons were vassals.
Thus, grew up a rigid society, somewhat similar to our caste system.
● Peasants formed the lowest class in feudal society and the largest section of the population. They cultivated
the land of their lords.

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● The peasants or the serfs had to perform any service that the lord wanted them to perform. These services were
forced labour as the serfs could not ask for payment.
● The serfs were tied to the land and could only change their masters if the land changed hands.

RENAISSANCE
● The term ‘Renaissance’ literally means rebirth and is used to describe the revival of interest in the learning of
the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome.
● It was marked by a series of new developments in the field of art, literature, religion, philosophy, science, and
politics.
● The revival first began in Italy. A very important reason for this was that the revival of trade between Europe
and the East had brought the greatest prosperity to Italian cities which virtually controlled this trade.
● The Italian cities had grown up in an atmosphere of freedom from feudal control. Freedom encouraged thinking
and a spirit of adventure. The rulers of Italian states were patrons of learning and the arts.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RENAISSANCE
● Humanism- It was the heart and soul of renaissance. It meant a decisive shift in concern for human as distinct
from divine matters. It emphasised on centrality of man as opposed to religious asceticism and defending the
rights of man.
● Art and Architecture – Renaissance found brilliant expression in art forms. The artists looked upon art as an
imitation of life. Leonardo da Vinci was one of the greatest geniuses of all time.
● Invention of Printing- Invention of printing press encourages interest in writing of books and in reading.
Printing made books available to more people, which led to the dissemination of new ideas of renaissance.
However, a vast majority of people remained illiterate as the printed books were expensive.
● Beginning of modern science- The renaissance thinkers rejected the blind acceptance of authority. They
asserted that knowledge could be gained ‘by going out and studying manually and mentally the Book of Nature’,
and not by speculation. One of the first achievements in science during renaissance was an exposition by
Copernicus, of the rotation of earth on its axis and its motion around the sun.
● Secularism- It signified the rolling back of the church from the public sphere. It was an attack on Pope, nuns,
bishops etc. who became corrupt & lived like princes as well as on the Church as they owned & amassed huge
property

ENLIGHTENMENT
● Enlightenment (Age of Reason) was a European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries in which
ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and humanity were synthesized into a worldview that gained wide assent
in the West and that instigated revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics.
● Central to Enlightenment thought were the use and celebration of reason.
● The goals of rational humanity were knowledge, freedom, and happiness.
● Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Voltaire questioned accepted knowledge and
spread new ideas about openness, investigation, and religious tolerance throughout Europe and the Americas.
BASIS OF ENLIGHTENMENT
● Social Basis
a) Rise of the middle class due to commercial revolution.
b) Middle class was ambitious and wanted to share political power. So, began the decline of monarchy as limited
monarchy was most suitable for them.
c) Freedom to profess their religion without any interference from church

● Scientific Basis- Renaissance started a scientific revolution. As a result, there was formation of several scientific
societies like, ‘Royal Society of London’, ‘French Academy of Science’ etc. These societies encouraged
development of progressive and rational thinking.
Thus, the ideas that dominated Enlightenment thought, included rationalism, empiricism, progressivism, and
cosmopolitanism.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
● During the later half of the 18th Century, there began a series of changes which revolutionized the techniques
and organization of production. These developments resulted in the rise of an industrial economy.
● The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ is used to describe the transformation in the method of production – from
manmade to machine made. It was a revolution in the economic processes of production of goods in the
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economy, aided by the technological innovations, and their spread, which gave a boost to the pace at which
goods could be produced.
● A British scholar Arnold Toynbee used the term Industrial Revolution. But certain other scholars made an
objection to the term industrial revolution. They said that the changes took place over a long period of time. It
means it was a slow process. Then why the term ‘revolution’?
a) It was relatively fast process than many of the substantial changes that the world witnessed in the past
b) It affected a larger part of society and economy.
c) It had a profound impact all over the world as it was not limited to Europe.

THE REVOLUTION BEGINS IN ENGLAND

The Industrial Revolution began in England in about 1750. It was the beginning of a ‘machine age.’ England in the 18th
century was in the most favorable position for an industrial revolution because of the following reasons:
● Geographical location of England- England is an island cut-off from the mainland Europe so it was less
affected by territorial wars going on in Europe. Because of being an island, England had a natural barrier to
protect it from the invasions.
● Role of overseas trade- Through her overseas trade, including trade in slaves, Britain had accumulated vast
profits which could provide the necessary capital to fuel the industrial revolution.
● Acquisition of colonies- She had acquired colonies which ensured a regular supply of raw materials.
● Enclosure movement of the 18th century- big land owners wanted to consolidate their land holdings. In this
process, small land holders were ousted and a large army of landless unemployed people was created. Thus,
there was no shortage of labor force to work in the factories.
● Stable system of government- which had developed as a result of the Glorious Revolution of 1688 was no
longer under the domination of the feudal classes. Commercial classes had acquired more power and there was
no danger of government interference.
● Vast reserves of natural resources- England had plenty of natural resources, such as iron and coal, essential
for industries. The source of iron and coal existed side by side and this saved England from many difficulties
faced by other countries.
● England developed a large shipping industry and had no problem of transportation.

SOME MAJOR SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES

FIELD INVENTOR TECHNOLOGY
Textile Hargreaves Developed machine which
speeded up spinning.

Textile Arkwright He adapted Hargreaves'

machine for running with water.
Developed Steam Engine in
Industry James Watt
1769
Steam engine to haul coal from
Transport George Stephenson
mines to port by railways.
Pucca Road (Macadamized
Transport Mc Adam
Roads)
Communication Rowland Hill Penny Post and Postage Stamp
Communication Graham Bell Telephone
Communication Samuel Morse Telegraph
Cash crops, steel plough and
harrow, mechanical drill for
Agriculture
seeding, intensive manuring
and crop rotation.

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:

● Industrial revolution also resulted in increased contact between the Industrialized and non-industrialized
world. But this contact was not based on equality.
● The demand for raw materials and export markets made the Colonial powers to look for more territories to
colonize.In the 19th century, the rest of Europe witnessed the Industrial Revolution, there was a race for
colonies among European nations.
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● The Industrial Revolution played an important role in the emergence of Imperialism whereby the Colonial
powers tried to establish much stronger control over the colonies by use of military power, direct rule and rule
by intermediaries.
● Many colonies were treated as an extension of their own territory by colonial powers.
Impact on Economy:
● Industrialisation encouraged the policy of Laissez Faire in Britain, and in 1846 Britain officially accepted the
policy of free economy. (Industrial Capitalism)
● Centre of the economy shifted from rural to urban areas, connection with land severed and the self-sufficiency
of villages was broken. (Urbanization)
● Growth of trade, commerce, means of transportation, communication, banking.
● Average income and population began to reveal unparalleled sustained growth. Several economists stated that
the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was enhancement of living standard for the general
population; although other group of scholars have said that it did not begin to profoundly improve until the late
19th and 20th centuries
Impact on society:
● Feudal society transformed into Industrial Society
● It also led to gross inequality. The British PM Disraeli spoke of 'existence of two nations in England - rich and
the poor'
● An empowered middle class emerged in Britain. An industrial worker class also emerged parallel to it. They
demanded reforms but sometimes there were conflicts as well between these two classes.
● Means of production were controlled by factory owners. Landless, toolless workers were now dependent
on employers. He could be hired or fired at will and enjoyed no rights, job security or social benefits. Their
plight is well illustrated by Charles Dickens in his novels. Their working conditions were deplorable and they
lived in filthy conditions.
● The Industrial Revolution created modern Western society. Harold Perkin has witnessed that "the Industrial
Revolution was no mere sequence of changes in industrial techniques and production, but a social revolution
with social causes as well as profound social effects" (The Origins of Modern English Society, 1780-1880
(1969).
● There was increased migration from the villages to the cities in search of employment. More people now
lived in cities and worked in factories and this population was not connected to the land.
● The urban areas now became the centers of production and were no more limited to being the center for
trade and administration. A downside of this process was the crowding in cities, which led to problems of
housing and sanitation.
Impact on Women:
● The Industrial Revolution marked a dramatic change for women as many of them entered the workforce for
the first time. Women had to compete with men for jobs.
● Female factory workers often made only one-third as much as men. Women began leading reforms to change
this. As women became more involved in politics, some began to demand suffrage, the right to vote.
International Impact:
● Race for new colonies started. This led to the policy of colonialism and imperialism.
● Brought countries and people together. World became interconnected and growth of international
consciousness took place.
● The events in one part of the world affected another. For example, slowdown in England in 1830 led to the
revolutions in other parts of Europe.
Impact on Religion:
● The Industrial Revolution broke the monopoly of religion. It was relegated to a private affair.
● Some countries like France totally prohibited any show of religion in public affairs.

Industrial Revolution in Other Countries:

● The United States: The United States had introduced machines and started factories before 1800— after
gaining independence from England. By 1860 she had well established textile, steel, and shoe industries. The
American industries grew very rapidly after 1870.
● Russia: Russia was the last of the big European powers to have an industrial revolution. She was rich in mineral
resources but lacked capital and free labour. After she freed the serfs in 1861, she obtained capital from foreign
countries and Russian industry moved ahead. However, it was only after Russia’s 1917 Revolution that rapid
industrial development started.
● France: France, by 1850, was developing the iron industry though she had to import both iron ore and coal.

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● Germany: Germany had, by 1865, occupied second place as a producer of steel, but with England far ahead in
the lead. After a late start, Germany’s industrial development took an amazing leap after 1870 when the German
states were finally welded into one nation. Soon Germany was to become England’s rival.

POSITIVE OUTCOMES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:

● Factories that produced superior products have increased in numbers rapidly. The production rate increased
because of the invention of machinery. As a result of the mass production of goods, the price of products
reduced resulting in enhanced quality living.
● Comfortable, strong and cheaper houses were built every day. Cheaper and fashionable houses were growing.
● The means of transportation reformed extremely. It became cheaper, faster and very comfortable. Easier
travel opened up new areas to many people.
● The increase in production was related to the hike in trade. It offered new jobs and it increased the employment
rate.
● Men became free to develop their capabilities in areas other than farming.
● It brought countries and people together. There was an international awareness among people because
developments in one country influenced the others
● Cities developed and offered a lot of work and opportunity.
● Better transport, communications and mechanized goods made life comfortable for man.

NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:

● Industrialization led to pollution.
● Factories, automobiles and aircrafts produced unacceptable levels of air pollution in some progressive
cities of the world.
● Chemicals and wastes that were not properly disposed causes water and land pollution. Such a polluted
environment led to degradation of the life of humans around the globe.
● Industrialization brought a negative influence on culture, values and morality of humankind. Technology
drives the change in philosophies, beliefs and faith.
● Society became divided into rich and poor, the 'Haves' and the 'Have-Nots'.
● Women and child labour were badly exploited.
● Workers suffered from long working hours, low wages, and unemployment, unsafe conditions of work, with
no rights to vote strike or form trade unions

AFTER EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION :

● The middle and upper classes prospered immediately from the Industrial Revolution.
● For the workers it took longer, but their lives gradually improved during the 1800s. Labor eventually won higher
wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions.
● The development of a middle class created great opportunities for education and democratic participation.
Greater democratic participation, in turn, fueled a powerful movement for social reform.
● In Britain, the industrial revolution had many disadvantages as there were poor living conditions, poor working
conditions, and class tensions.
● A large dissimilarity developed between the industrialized west and the rest of the world. Britain led in
exploiting its foreign colonies for resources and markets. As a result, other European countries, the United
States, Russia, and Japan followed Britain's lead, grabbing colonies for their economic resources.
● Imperialism was born out of the cycle of industrialization, the development of new markets around the world,
and the need for resources to supply the factories of Europe.

CAPITALISM:
The history of capitalism:
● The history of capitalism is diverse and has many debated roots, but fully fledged capitalism is generally
thought by scholars to have emerged in Northwestern Europe, especially in Great Britain and the Netherlands,
in the 16th to 17th centuries.
● Over the following centuries, capital accumulated by a variety of methods, at a variety of scales, and associated
with much variation in the concentration of wealth and economic power.
● Capitalism gradually became the dominant economic system throughout the world. Much of the history of the
past 500 years is concerned with the development of capitalism in its various forms.

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ORIGIN OF CAPITALISM:
● The origins of capitalism have been much debated. The traditional account, originating in classical 18th-century
liberal economic thought and still often articulated, is the 'commercialization model'.
● This sees capitalism originating in trade. Capitalism emerged from earlier trade, once merchants had acquired
sufficient wealth (referred to as 'primitive capital') , they began investing in increasingly productive technology.
● This account tends to see capitalism as a continuation of trade, arising when people's natural
entrepreneurialism was freed from the constraints of feudalism, partly by urbanization.
● It traces capitalism to early forms of merchant capitalism practiced in Western Europe during the Middle
Ages.

THE CONCEPT OF CAPITALISM:

● Capitalism began as a theory about how the economy functions. It was both descriptive and prescriptive – it
offered an account of how money worked and promoted the idea that reinvesting profits in production
leads to fast economic growth.
● But capitalism became far more than just an economic doctrine. It now encompasses an ethic – a set of
teachings about how people should behave, educate their children and even think.
● Its principal tenet is that economic growth is the supreme good, or at least a proxy for the supreme good,
because justice, freedom and even happiness all depend on economic growth.
● Capitalism is often thought of as an economic system in which private actors own and control property in
accord with their interests, and demand and supply freely set prices in markets in a way that can serve the best
interests of society.
● The essential feature of capitalism is the motive to make a profit at any cost.

CONSEQUENCES OF CAPITALISM AND COLONIZATION:

● Discovery of new lands:The discovery of new lands and the establishment of colonies had resulted in
unprecedented expansion of trade and accumulation of wealth by merchants.
● Slave trade: The trade included the trade in human beings, that is, slave trade.
● Colonization and plunder of wealth: The colonization was accompanied by the plunder of the wealth of
the people who were colonized. For example, the treasures of the Inca and the Aztec civilizations were
plundered by the Spaniards.
● Mining of precious metals: Mines in the newly conquered areas in the Americas were also exploited for
precious metals like gold and silver. Large numbers of native people were worked to death in these
mines.Colonization of Asia caused similar havoc and devastation.During a few decades of Dutch rule, the
population of a province of Java in Indonesia was reduced to less than one-fourth of its former size.
● Defeat of local rulers: The defeat of the Nawab of Bengal by the English in 1757 was followed by years
of naked plunder of the wealth of Bengal.According to estimates of the English government at that time,
the English Company and its officials received 6,000,000 pounds as gifts during the period of 1757-1766.
● Famines: The plunder by the English contributed to a famine in 1769-70 in which about a quarter of the
population of Bengal perished. Thus a lot of wealth was accumulated in Europe for investment to make
more profit.It can be said that it is an economic system based on survival of the fittest.
● View of Karl Marx, “The treasures captured outside Europe by undisguised looting, enslavement, and
murder, floated back to the mother country and were there turned into capital.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF CAPITALISM :
● Private ownership: Private individuals are the owners of the means of production, which is, land, labor,
capital, entrepreneurship. These owners decide what to produce, in what quantities, how it is going to be
produced, and the rewards of labor. It is demand and supply that determines the price of the finished goods.
● Decentralized Decision making: In a capitalist economy, the process of decision making takes the
structure of devious decentralization. Individuals make the decision with their self-interest. However, the
government controls these decisions by manipulating its respective environment that is, affecting prices,
taxes, subsides
● Freedom of choice: Capitalism also referred to as a market economy, which highlights on the freedom
of the individual, both as a consumer and as an owner of the factors of production.Principally, an individual
can work wherever he or she wants, while entrepreneurs are also free to set up enterprises of their own
choice.Within a market economy, decisions or choices are mainly determined by material
encouragements.

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● Capitalism is an economic system in which each individual in his capacity as a consumer, producer and
resource owner is engaged in economic activity with a great degree of economic freedom.

MERITS OF CAPITALISM:
● Economic growth: There was economic growth through an open competitive market that provided
individuals with far better opportunities of raising their own income.
● Innovations: Leading to firms producing only the best, and a capitalist economy is believed to encourage
innovations in technology and industry.
● Consumer choices and more competition: Priority to consumer choice where individuals choose what to
consume, and this choice leads to more competition and better products and services.
● Efficiency: Efficiency of economics in which Goods and services produced based on demand creates
incentives to cut costs and avoid waste.
● Improved living standards: Economic growth and expansion in Capitalistic economy increases the gross
national product and leads to improved living standards.
● Economic Progress: Capitalism encouraged society to utilize the natural resources more and more. The
people exerted themselves to the maximum to earn money. This had led to many inventions in the field of
industry, agriculture and business which have contributed to economic growth.
● Exchange of Culture: Capitalism intends to encourage all people to partake in activities that appear
beneficial to them. Capitalism facilitates international trade and exchange of know-how. The development
of the means of transport and communication has facilitated contacts among the peoples of the world thus
leading to exchange of ideas and culture.

DRAWBACKS OF CAPITALISM:
● Inequality: There tends to be a rise in disparity as benefits of capitalism are not fairly distributed. As wealth
tends to redound to a small percentage of the population, the demand for luxury goods is often limited to a
small percentage of the workforce, one of the main capitalism disadvantages.
● Irrational Behavior: People tend to get caught up in hypothetical suds but disregard economic
fundamentals, leading to illogical behaviour.
● Monopoly Behaviour: Other major drawback of capitalism is that companies gain monopoly over power
in a free market allows and exploit customers by charging higher prices. They often pay lower salaries to
labours.
● Immobility: Main issue of capitalism is that a free market is supposed to be able to easily move factors of
from an unprofitable sector to a new profitable industry. However, this is much more difficult practically.
● Unfair competition: Employment rights are compensated with the aim of higher productivity and some
believe that because of fierce competition in capitalist economies it can give rise to unfair competition.
Effect of Capitalism on Society

SOCIALISM
● Socialism is a social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of
property and natural resources.
● According to the socialist view, individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one
another.
● Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes
to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it.
● Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members.

RISE OF SOCIALISM:
● The greatest challenge to laissez faire or free market doctrine came from socialism which grew in the
beginning as a reaction against evils of capitalism.
● The idea appealed to workers. A complete re-ordering of society was felt necessary.
● While recognizing the importance of machines and making them even better it also aimed at solving the
problems created by capitalism by building new social order.

REASONS FOR GROWTH OF SOCIALISM:

● Vast majority of workers had no right. Their conditions of work were miserable and were fired and hired
on according to the needs of the capitalists.
● They had no job security. There were laws against workers combining themselves.
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● Belief that capitalism is evil and the means of production should be owned by the society as a whole and
not by a few individuals. This led to revulsion against inequality.
● The French revolution and its promise of equality had given new impetus to ideas. However, there was
a wide gap between the aims of FR and the actual conditions after the revolution.

Rise of Trade Unions:

● Workers began to organize themselves into trade unions to protect the common rights.
● Several countries passed laws to protect them from unsafe conditions and limit the number of working
hours.
● Movement to break the machines by Luddites led by Ned Ludd. They believed that destruction of
machines would end their misery.
● There was a Chartist Movement in Britain for political rights.

Babeuf's Conspiracy:
● Babeuf was born in 1760 and participated in the French Revolution. He organized a secret body called
Society of the Equals. He was executed in 1797 but his ideas influenced the growth of socialist movement.
● "Nature gave everyone an equal right to the enjoyment of all good. In a true society there is no room for either
rich or poor. Time has come for republic of equals whose doors will be open for all"

SOCIALISTS AND ORGANIZATIONS:

● Saint-Simon (1760-1825): He gave the slogan of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his
needs"
● Charles Fourier (1772-1837): He is credited with Utopian Socialism and ideas of Feminism.
● Louis Auguste Blanqui (1805-81) : He believed that through a revolutionary conspiracy, power could be
captured to bring about socialism.
● League of Just: It had members in many parts of Europe. Its motto was - "All men are
brothers". Internationalism was one of the most important features. In 1847 its name was changed to the
Communist League and it declared its aim as "downfall of bourgeoisie, the rule of proletariat, overthrow of
the old society of the middle class based on class distinction and establishment of a new society without classes
and without private property". Its journals carried the slogan "Proletarians of all lands, unite!"They viewed
property in relation to the usefulness to society. They visualized a society free from any exploitation of any
kind. The methods advocated by them were impracticable and ineffective and they came to be known as utopian
socialists.

MARXIAN SOCIALISM:
● Karl Marx (1818-83) and Fredrick Engels (1820-95) gave a new direction to socialist ideology. Their view of
socialism is known as Scientific Socialism.
● Marx published Communist Manifesto in 1848 whose impact on socialism is unrivaled. It stated that the aim
of workers all over the world was the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of socialism.
● Socialism was not merely desirable but also inevitable. Capitalism does not serve the needs of man and would
be replaced by a system better suited to human needs.
● Marx analyzed the working of capitalism in his famous book Das Kapital and pointed out the characteristics
that would lead to its destruction. According to it, workers produce more value than they get in return in the
form of wages, the difference being appropriated by capitalists in the form of profits. This constitutes the basic
conflict in capitalist society.
● Interests of workers and capitalists are irreconcilable. Economic crisis was inevitable under capitalism. The
situation could be resolved only if private ownership is abolished and profit motive is eliminated. Production
should be carried on for social good and not for profit.
● He envisioned a classless society where there would be no difference between what was good for the individual
and for the society as a whole. Emancipation of the working class would emancipate the whole human race from
all traces of social injustice.

REVOLUTIONS OF 1848:
● Toward the middle of the 19th century, France was not the only country to have found itself embroiled in
uprisings, revolts, and revolutions. The Revolutions of 1848, as they are now remembered, were a series of
political upheavals that took place throughout the continent of Europe. Although they were widespread,
many of these revolutions fizzled out and collapsed within a year of their start date.

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● The countries to find themselves in the midst of revolution included France, Germany, Poland, Italy,
Denmark, and the Austrian Empire.
● The primary causes for these revolutions stemmed from dissatisfaction with the monarchies which were at
the helm of each country.
● The citizens were tired of feeling oppressed and controlled, and there was a widespread demand for
democracy, versus a monarchy. Others were overwhelmingly angry at how neglectful their country’s
monarchy could be, as food shortages and economic turmoil spread throughout various areas.
● A strong sense of nationalism, in this case referring to the support of a country’s own political independence,
was growing due to the fact that some countries had leaders belonging to other nations (for example, when
Napoleon Bonaparte of France made his brother the King of Spain). Finally, the people had a demand for various
liberties, such as freedom of the press.
● Aimed at overthrow of autocratic governments and establishment of democracy. One of the major forces
in these revolutions were the workers who had been inspired by the ideas of socialism.
● The Communist League participated in these revolutions but all these were suppressed.One of the outstanding
features of socialist movement was its internationalist character.
● Society of Fraternal Democrats in Britain in 1846: It had close links with other similar organizations in
Europe and the Chartists in Britain. They emphasized the idea that the cause of the working class in all countries
was the same.

THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL AND IT’S IMPACT:

● International Working Men's Association or the First International in 1864. Marx drafted "An Address to the
Working Classes".
● The central aim was declared to be the total "abolition of all class rule". The emancipation of the working
classes must be won by the working classes themselves.
● The address ended with the slogan: "Proletarians of all lands, unite!"
● The governments considered it a menace and declared it illegal in many countries.
● During a short period of its existence it exercised tremendous influence on worker's movements in Europe
and North America. Bonds of international solidarity got strengthened.
● One of the finest examples of workers' solidarity was evident during the Prussia and France War in 1870.
The war was condemned both by the German and French workers as a crime committed. The French and
German branches of International sent messages of good wishes and solidarity to each other. German workers
protested against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine from France. All the leaders of German workers were
arrested.

PARIS COMMUNE (1871):

● The Paris Commune was a revolutionary government that seized power in Paris, the capital of France, from
18 March to 28 May 1871.
● After the war in 1871 a new government agreeing to the terms and conditions of Bismarck came to power
and declared itself a republic. It was dominated by propertied class.
● The workers regarded the surrender to Germany as treacherous and refused to surrender. France took the help
of Germany to crush the movement.
● Workers of Paris elected a council which on 28 March 1871 assumed the title of the Paris Commune. It was
elected by Universal Adult Franchise and represented workers and lower middle class. All public offices
were elected by universal suffrage with people having the right to recall.
● The commune was finally exterminated and defenders of the commune were slaughtered in thousands. Marx
declared that "Working Men's Paris, will be ever celebrated as the glorious harbinger of a new society".
● The extermination of the Commune was followed by systematic attempts to destroy the International in
almost every country of Europe. It was split in 1872 and finally dissolved in 1876.

THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL AND IT’S IMPACT:

● During the 1870s and the 1880s almost all the countries in Europe saw the formation of socialist parties. Some
of them became quite strong and had an impressive representation in the parliament.
● Prominent among them were the German Socialist Party, Socialist Democratic Federation in Britain, the
Socialist League and Fabian Society in France. Socialist movement began to take root in Japan in the 1890s.
● Membership of Trade Unions increased and there were many strikes.
● Congress was held in Paris on 14 July 1789 the centenary of the French revolution . It marked a new stage
in the history of socialism.
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● 1st May was declared every year as a day of working class solidarity. On 1st May 1890, millions of workers
all over Europe and America struck work and held massive demonstrations.
● Last decade of the 19th century saw growing militarism and race for acquiring colonies. This was the main
cause of conflict. Capitalism was the root cause of the war. Campaign against militarism and war and in
asserting the principle of the basic equality of all peoples and their right to freedom and national independence.
● It was decided that socialist should utilize the "economic and political crisis created by the war, to rouse
the masses and thereby hasten the downfall of capitalist rule"
● International solidarity of workers became a fundamental principle. They called for a general strike to prevent
their countries from waging war.
● During the 1904 session the Japanese and Russian delegations were made joint president when both these
countries were at war with each other. The session was also attended by Dadabhai Naorji who highlighted
the plight of India under British rule.
● After the Second International the socialist and workers movement had become a major force in almost
every country of Europe. Jean Jaures, the great leader of French socialists, was assassinated on the eve of
WWI for campaigning against the war.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION
● American Revolution, also called United States War of Independence or American Revolutionary War,
(1775–83), was an insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies won political
independence and went on to form the United States of America.
● The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and a large and
influential segment of its North American colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater control
over colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy of salutary neglect.
● The main significance is that the war ended the “Divine Right of Kingship”. America overturned Monarchy
(rule by kings) and it became a Republic (head of the state is not hereditary).

British rule in Americas

● Before 1492, the entire focus of history was limited to the old world. It contained the whole of the world’s
landmass without the Americas. There was no land route available to the New World. So, it remained isolated
from the major cultures and civilisations of the old world.
● Discovery by Columbus: This changed when the sea route to America was discovered by Christopher
Columbus in 1492. After that, various European powers established colonies in North America, prominent
among them being Spain, Holland, France and England.
● The colonies were populated mainly by European migrants who were landless peasants, people facing
religious persecution, traders, explorers, and others seeking adventure and profit in these new found lands.
● There were constant clashes between the hegemonic powers to establish control over as much land as
possible and control trade supply lines. Since these powers were locked in conflicts across the globe, a new
theatre of war was inaugurated in the Americas.
● Seven years’ war: The rivalry was especially strong between England and France, which culminated in the
seven years’ war (1756-63). It is known as the “first true world war” and was fought in Europe, West Africa,
the Americas, India and the Philippines.
● Battle of Wandiwash: The war concluded with the Battle of Wandiwash (1760) with the decisive British
victory. This ushered in an era of British supremacy across the globe.
● Treaty of Paris: Both parties signed the Treaty of Paris (1763), bringing an end to the war. In North
America, Britain consolidated all colonies lining the Atlantic coast and drove the French out of Canada.

REASONS FOR AMERICAN REVOLUTION:

1. Economic Causes:
● America was completely under the control of England which led to economic exploitation of Americans
which hampered growth and development.
● Navigation Law of 1651 - Compulsory for American ships to attend British ports before leaving for other
ports of the world.
● Exim Policy - Britain had a trading monopoly in crucial products of America like Potato, Tobacco, Cotton
etc
● Industrial Policy - Americans were not allowed to establish big production units.

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● Stamp duty – In 1765, the British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act. It was made mandatory to affix stamps
on every legal document. This led to widespread protest, many of them turning violent.
● Rent – The aristocrats from England bought most of the land in North America and prohibited land
ownership rights of the colonisers in the west. They wanted to keep the colonizers as rentiers for perpetuity.
● American resistance-The British attempts to levy taxes were resisted. Upon objection, Britain was forced
to withdraw most taxes except that for the tea. This led to protests like Boston Tea Party
2. Social Causes:
● It became a land of opportunity. Creation of a new social structure which was different from Europe. It
became melting pot of all sorts of people, ideas, religion and tradition. This led to a liberal attitude in society.
● Migration: People were detached from their mother land. The large part of the population consisted of
rebels, refugees, convicts who were in search of the future. Large scale migration took place. e.g Pilgrim
Fathers - Protestant groups which had escaped to save itself from operation of catholic saints
● Dynamism of society - Turned barren land into an area of plantations and production which forced
Europe to rely on American goods and products.
● Dissatisfaction – as the Fruits of American labor were snatched away by Britain.

3. Political Causes:
● Resource draining of the colonies – The seven years’ war (1756-63), though ended in the British victory,
had drained her resources. She turned to colonies to offset the losses. Since the major colonies were in North
America, they suffered the most. The fledgling industries of the colonies were especially penalised. This
was under the lobbying of native industrialists in Britain.
● Taxation without representation – since the colonies were not represented in the British parliament, many
people asserted that the British government had no rights to tax the colonies. They used the slogan ‘No
Taxation without Representation’.
● Protests – Through protests like the Boston Tea Party (1773), where tea cartons carried by British ships
were thrown at the sea, Britain’s right to levy taxes was eroded over time. This power was assumed by
respective local governments.

4. Intellectual Awakening:
Thomas Paine Benjamin Franklin Henry Patrick

● He published a ● He established ● Patrick Henry was an

journal called philosophical American attorney,
Common Sense. society of planter, politician
● He explained the America to and orator known for
economic create awakening declaring to the
exploitation of and awareness Second Virginia
America by Britain Convention: "Give
me liberty, or give
me death!"

5. External Events:

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● The seven year war between France and Britain wrecked Britain economically. It gave promotion to
American goods and industry. For the first time America got a free hand to take their product directly to the
world market. This increased the status of America and energized its people.
● Defeat of French in the North. It ended the French fear for American colonies.

THE SEQUENCE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS LEADING TO AMERICAN REVOLUTION :

1. Grenville Policy:
■ Britain was going under a financial crisis after the Seven year war and was desperately needing money.
Grenville (British PM) imposed new taxes on America e.g stamp duty, sugar duty.
■ Imposed old restrictions on American trade and commerce like the Navigation law of 1651.
■ Americans raised the issue of the Englishman Resolution (1689) which promised representation in the
Parliament to the tax paying section. Americans raised the slogans of No Taxation Without Representation.
■ Formation of organizations like Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty which raided stamp vendors and
burnt down stamps.

2. Ruckingham Declaration:
■ Britain failed to see the real cause for agitation and through this declaration abolished stamp duties.

3. The Townshend Acts (or Townshend Duties):

■ These were a series of British acts of Parliament passed during 1767 and 1768 introducing a series of taxes
and regulations to fund administration of the British colonies in America. They are named after the Chancellor
of the Exchequer who proposed the program.

4. Boston Massacre:
■ Samuel Adams led a mass protest in Boston. Britain made the mistake of taking military action which led to
the Boston Massacre.
■ It was the beginning of a new political phenomenon i.e. protest by the people for their rights from the ruler. This
was not possible in pre modern age because of the concept of divine rights.

5. Boston Tea Party:

■ Britain imposed tax on tea imports in America. This was widely resented.
■ Samuel Adams disguised himself and others as native Indians, entered the port and threw all Tea into the
Atlantic Ocean. Britain closed the Boston port and this led to further protests.

6. Philadelphia Convention of 1774:

■ Formation of the American Union. Unity of American colonies against exploitation of Britain.
■ Americans sent the Olive Branch Petition. They were still ready to be under the parentage of Britain on the
condition that restriction on trade should be removed and representation in parliament.
■ However, The King declared their action a mutiny and ordered troops to be sent to suppress it. The colonies
then planned for military defense with local troops or militia.

7. Second Philadelphia Convention:

■ The Declaration On 4 July 1776, the Second Continental Congress asserted ‘that all men are created equal,
Congress adopted the Declaration that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that
among these rights are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’.
■ The Declaration also stated that the American colonies had been oppressed by the English government and that
‘these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states.’

8. Battle of Lexington and Concord:

■ The American army was led by George Washington. After some initial reverses they were able to defeat
English.
■ They were helped in this cause by the French who wanted to seek revenge from their old foe.
■ Later Spain also joined hands in defeating Britain.
■ The war ended in 1781 when the English commander, Cornwallis, later to become governor-general in India,
surrendered.

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9. Paris Treaty:
■ This treaty, signed on September 3, 1783, between the American colonies and Great Britain, ended the
American Revolution and formally recognized the United States as an independent nation.

10. Third Philadelphia Convention (1787):

■ American Colonies turned into the American Union which was later called the United States.
■ The result of the convention was the creation of the Constitution of the United States, placing the
Convention among the most significant events in American history.
■ The convention took place in the old Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in
Philadelphia.
■ There was a Republic. Head of the state was to be elected.
■ Birth of manmade constitution based on the principle of humanism providing liberty and equality of the
people.

SIGNIFICANCE OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION:

● If Industrial Revolution is termed as economic revolution, American Revolution is termed as Political
Revolution
● The words of the Declaration of Independence regarding the equality of all men and the ‘inalienable rights’ of
man electrified the atmosphere in America and outside. Lafayette, the French general who fought on the side
of American revolutionaries, was soon to become a hero of the French Revolution. Thomas Paine also
participated in the French Revolution.
● By its example, the American Revolution inspired many revolutionaries in Europe later in the 19th century.
It encouraged Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central and South America to rebel and gain their
independence.
● The main achievement of the American Revolution was the establishment of a republic. This republic was,
however, not truly democratic. The right to vote was limited. Negroes— most of them still slaves—American
Indians, and women had no vote.
● Election laws in all states favored men of property for many years. But progress towards democracy had
begun. In some states, state religion was abolished, along with religious qualifications for holding public
offices.
● Promotion to modern political ideology like liberty, equality and Fundamental Rights. Beginning of
demand for rights from common people.
● Dominance of common man in administration and politics. Slogan of govt of the people, by the people and for
the people

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

Mason-Dixon Line
● Mason-Dixon Line, also called Mason and Dixon Line, originally the boundary between Maryland and
Pennsylvania in the United States.

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● In the pre-Civil War period it was regarded, together with the Ohio River, as the dividing line between slave
states south of it and free-soil states north of it.
● The term Mason and Dixon Line was first used in congressional debates leading to the Missouri Compromise
(1820).
● Today the Mason-Dixon Line still serves figuratively as the political and social dividing line between the North
and the South, although it does not extend west of the Ohio River.

Expansion of the USA after American Revolution:

● Louisiana, the largest state, was purchased from Napoleon in France in 1803.
● Florida was taken from Spain.
● Native Indians were removed from their territories and were sent to the west of the Mississippi river.
● Mexico was defeated in a war during 1846-48 and states of Nevada, California, Colorado etc. were
incorporated.
● Thus, the US grew from 13 states to 48 states by the middle of the 19th century.

Economic Situation in Northern and Southern States:

Sr.No. Northern States Southern States

1. These states were New York, New Jersey, These states were South Carolina, Georgia,
Michigan etc. Mississippi, Florida and Texas

2. They were industrialized, rich, followed They were Economically backward and
capitalism and had access to vast natural here Feudalism dominated
resources.
3. There were 1200 cotton mills. Business, Economy was agriculture based. Mostly
banking and shipping sectors developed. plantation dominated. Cotton, Tobacco
were dominant crops
4. Demanded strong tariff policy to protect They opposed increase of tariff duty as
industry from European competition. they imported their agricultural tools from
Europe
5. These states received a large number of Employed large number of slaves on
immigrants from Europe who were liberal farms. Slaves were mostly brought from
and had progressive outlook. West Africa.
They had no right and could not become
free. They were subjected to torture and
flogging.

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They wished to abolish slavery out of They were against the abolition of slavery
humanitarian concern. Feared that western and considered any such move to be
states would also come under slavery. harmful to their economy and as evil
designs of northern territory.

Northern and Southern States: View of system of slavery

Sr. No. Northern States Southern States

1. Northern condemned slavery as it was There were 4.5 million slaves. Southern
against their conscience. Britain had states viewed slavery as a source of
outlawed slavery in 1833. sustenance and believed that without
plantation workers their economy would be
doomed.
2. i. Number of anti-slavery societies The Fugitive Slave Act (1850) forced the
were formed in cities e.g New northern states to arrest the escaped
England Anti-Slavery Society slaves and hand back to the owner.
(1832) and American Anti-Slavery
Society (1833).
ii. William Garrison started an anti-
slavery newspaper- The Liberator
iii. Uncle Toms Cabin, a novel by Ms.
Stowe reflected the miserable
condition of slaves in Southern
States
3. Northern states were afraid that slavery They blamed Northern States for
would spread to newly conquered territories. encouraging revolt of the states

EVENTS LEADING TO CIVIL WAR:

1. Missouri Agreement (1820)
● This legislation admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a non-slave state at the same time, so as not
to upset the balance between slave and free states in the nation.
● It also outlawed slavery above the 36º 30' latitude line in the remainder of the Louisiana Territory.

2. Dred Scott Incident (1857)

● Dred Scott, a slave, went to the north and lived there for some time. He petitioned the Supreme Court to
make him a free citizen on the ground that he had lived in free states.
● SC denied him free citizenship.
● SC declared Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress had no power to decide on
the issue of slavery.

3. Rise of Republican Party

● Republican Party was born to end slavery in US.
● At that time Congress was dominated by members from the South.
● Republicans desired introduction of high tariffs on imported goods to protect business interest in the North
whereas southern states were dead against it.

4. Seven States Leave the Union

● South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi etc. left the union and formed the Federation of States in 1861.
● Abraham Lincoln stated that states had no right to secede from the union. He declared that the Union
was older than the Constitution.
● Southern states formed a Confederacy and declared Jefferson Davis as its President. It hoped to gain support
from Britain and France.

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COURSE OF THE CIVIL WAR:
● The war broke when southern states attacked Fort Sumter. The fall of the fort led Lincoln to declare war
against the south.
● Lincoln declared a state of emergency and suspended all civil liberties enjoyed by citizens.
● He raised a force of 30,000 troops and ordered them to march to Richmond, Virginia which was the
capital of Confederates. The Union troops were however defeated.
● James Brown raided military arsenal and supplied arms and ammunition to slaves to fight against their
masters. A large number of liberated slaves helped Union forces during the war as volunteers.
● Commander Ulysses Grant led a major campaign and captured Confederate forts. This was followed by victory
in the famous Battle of Gettysburg in 1863.
● The victory in Gettysburg ended the war

REASONS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOUTH'S DEFEAT:

● The North had a population of 23 million which was wealthy compared to poor Southern states which
had only 9 million population.
● The North enjoyed a better communication system, railroad and weapons. The industrial development gave
an edge over backward south.
● Britain remained neutral during the war. The South expected Britain to intervene as it was a major importer
of cotton from the south. Britain hailed the emancipation proclamation by Lincoln.
● The relationship between Britain and the North eased. Britain imported sufficient quantities of cotton from
India and wheat from Northern States.
● The Northern generals adopted a better strategy and had a better navy through which it imposed naval
blockade which prevented flow of arms and ammunition to southern states.

OUTCOME OF WAR:
● After the passage of 13th Amendment slavery was abolished. The unity of the union was preserved.
● Both sides suffered heavy casualties. The South was totally devastated and its economy collapsed.
● Through 14th and 15th amendment civil rights were extended to former male slaves.
● It acted as a catalyst for industrialization of the US. By the end of the 19th century the US became an
industrial giant.
● In the South unlawful and anti-social organizations like Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White
Camellia (white supremacist groups) took to kidnapping and torturing black people. The prejudice towards
blacks manifested for a long time.
● Civil war was the message of efficient handling of internal crises by mature leaders.

ROLE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN:

BACKGROUND:
● Lincoln (1809 - 1865) was born in a poor family in Kentucky and did not have any formal education. He
showed keen interest in studies and passed bar examination and started practicing as a lawyer in 1836. He
impressed people with his "shrewdness, common sense and honesty". He earned the nickname "Honest Abe".
● He became a member of House of Representatives and joined Republican Party in 1856.
● He stood for Presidential election and defeated Stephen Douglas (ardent supporter of slavery). He became
the 16th President of the USA.

HIS ROLE IN SLAVERY ABOLITION:

● He argued that slavery was morally wrong and opposed its extension into new territories.
● He stated that an important priority for him was the American union which was formed by the sacrifice of
ancestors. This created an emotional wave.
● He took military action against the south. He took help of volunteers to propagate the cause of American
union.
● He succeeded in moving the 13th amendment in 1865. By this amendment slavery was abolished in
America. He showed exemplary leadership and maturity in handling internal crises.
● After the civil war he planned the reconstruction of the south.He was assassinated on 14 April, 1865.

FRENCH REVOLUTION:
● The French revolution was an answer to those questions which had been waiting before Europe up to 1789.
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● These questions included the nature of relationship between monarchy & aristocracy, the monarchy & the
middle class, the aristocracy & middle class and the middle class & lower class.
● The French revolution answered some of the questions but some remained unanswered (the relationship between
middle & lower class) which the later Russian revolution tried to answer.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR FRENCH REVOLUTION:

Economic Causes:
● Disastrous policies of Louis XVI. Participation of French forces in the American war of Independence had
completely ruined the French economy.
● Louis XIV declared himself the state and fought innumerable wars. The king was interested in worldly
pleasures and did not care for the welfare of the people.
● Irresponsible expenditure of royal households worsened the situation. The palace of Versailles was called
the graveyard of the national income. The government resorted to borrowing from the public and defaulted on
its debt.
● Queen Marie Antoinette lived in luxury and did not care for the plight of the masses. She is associated with
the famous remark - "If they don't have bread let them eat cakes?"
● To meet expenditure Louis XVI tried to impose new taxes on people which met wide resistance.
● Church owned 20% of land in France and enjoyed its revenues. Any attempt to levy tax on the church was
threatened with the reply: "Do not make us choose between God and the King, for you know what the answer
will be."
● Peasants paid close to 86% of their income in the form of taxes.

Political causes:
● Weakening administration led to anarchy in the country.
● No representation of Third Estate in the governance of the country. The upper middle resented being left
out of the civilian and military administration.
● The first two estates i.e. nobility and clergy did not have to pay any taxes.
● The king enjoyed power over life by issuing the notorious letter de cachet by which persons were imprisoned
without any trial.
Social causes:

● Differences between privileged and non-privileged class. In France in the late 18th century,
socioeconomic conditions were highly uneven and oppressive.
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● The first two Estates, which included the nobility and clergy, represented the most privileged segments of
French society. They were exempt from making tax payments to the State.
● On the other hand, the Third Estate, which was made up of farmers and laborers, made up the bulk of the
populace. They were assessed exorbitant levies and denied access to social and political rights. They were
therefore utterly unhappy.
● A leading cause of social stress in France during the Revolution was its large population.
● A majority of bishops lived a life of luxury.

Age of Reason / Role of Intellectuals:

Voltaire Montesquieu

● Creativity is the biggest force. ● Rejected autocratic government and

● Freedom of expression. called for responsible government.
● Newton and Galileo are bigger than ● This could only be achieved through
Alexander and Caesar. separation of power.
● The best way to promote creativity is
through Freedom of Expression.

Rousseau Diderot
● Social Contract theory ● He prepared an encyclopedia of the
● Kingship is not the gift of God to the problems faced by France along with
kings. It is the outcome of the contract solutions to those problems.
between the rulers and the ruled and ● He denounced the role of religion in
the king should respect the will of the polity and administration. He
people. promoted the concept of secularism.
● This can be only respected by giving
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity to the
people.
● "Man is born free but everywhere in
chains"

Immediate Cause:

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● The drought of 1788-89 broke the peasant's back. A loaf of bread now costs his full day's wage. Peasants
left their villages for cities in the hope of getting their problems resolved.
● The success of the American Revolution inspired the French. Many of the French generals had
participated in the American war.

IMPORTANT EVENTS DURING FRENCH REVOLUTION:

TENNIS COURT OATH:
● Amidst political deadlock, Louis XVI tried to use force against people. He started ruling France through
the Ordinance which gave birth to riots in different parts. People demanded the invitation of estate generals.
● Louis XVI invited the estates general. Large number of people started moving towards Paris. People demanded
change in voting pattern as 5% of the population enjoyed 2/3rd vote and the voice of common people were
ignored. They demanded voting rights as per population ratio and voting rights based on One Person, One
Vote.
● Louis XVI closed the doors of the assembly. People gathered in a nearby Tennis court and declared
themselves as national representatives aspiring to frame the constitution for France. Thus, a national
assembly was born.
● Louis XVI committed blunders: He dismissed Necker who was a sympathizer of common man. This sent a
wrong message to the people that the king was acting against people. He started gathering troops in Paris.

FALL OF BASTILLE (14 JULY 1789):

● Bastille was a fort cum prison and a symbol of royal despotism. The motive of the people was to release
political prisoners and to gather arms and ammunition. Fall of Bastille became the inspiration for direct action
in France. Old ruling class Manors (residing place of feudal lords) became the special target of the people.
● Formation of National Guards under General Lafayette. This was the biggest development as the army
came under the command of the common people. The Tricolor flag of the revolution was adopted.
● Beginning of the modern administrative system as the people in Paris established the Municipal Corporation
in Paris to manage the city. This was called the Paris commune.
● It signified victory of common man over autocracy and aristocracy.
● When the King heard about the fall of Bastille, he said - "This is a great revolt" but his minister replied - "No,
Sir, It's a great revolution!"
● The King had to recognise the National Assembly and took Necker into service.
● Some liberal minded nobles and clergy came forward to renounce their rights and privileges

PEASANT REVOLT:
● Great Fear, (1789) in the French Revolution, a period of panic and riot by peasants and others amid rumors of
an “aristocratic conspiracy” by the king and the privileged to overthrow the Third Estate.
● The gathering of troops around Paris provoked an insurrection, and on July 14 the Parisian rabble seized the
Bastille. In the provinces the peasants rose against their lords, attacking and destroying feudal documents.
Peasants rose against the nobles and burnt their castles.
● To check the peasants, the National Constituent Assembly decreed the abolition of the feudal regime and
introduced the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
● Municipal governments were formed on the Paris model in all towns.
● Feudalism, titles, serfdom stood abolished.

DRAFTING OF CONSTITUTION (1791):

The power center in France after the Fall of Bastille was the National Assembly and it drafted the first constitution of
France in 1791.
The important features were:
● It included the "Declaration of the Rights of Man".
● It asserted that "all men are free and equal".
● Freedom of expression, Judicial Rights, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity were cherished.
● Constitutional Monarchy: People were not against monarchy but against inequality and exploitation.
● A single assembly instead of bicameral legislature was formed. The members were elected by indirect election
through the electoral college. King became only the nominal head and had limited veto right.
● There was no universal suffrage and voting rights were restricted to those who paid taxes.
● A decentralised system of government was introduced.

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● Religion was subordinated to the state as people got the right to elect the priestly class and they took the oath
of loyalty to the state. Pope became the superficial religious head and church property was nationalised.
● Mixed Economy: Equal respect for capitalism and socialism. It started the new currency Assignats (paper
currency).

King Flees:
● Louis XVI had enough and he hatched a plan to escape and win back his empire.
● However, he was caught escaping and brought back to Paris. This further infuriated the masses as they labeled
King as traitor and as someone who was deserting them in the need of hour.

Political Clubs:
● Two prominent clubs Jacobians and Cordelier were born.
■ Jacobians: Jacobians consisted of assembly members and local politicians. Maxmillian Robospierre was
the most influential leader of the Jacobin club. Jacobians gained control over the assembly and forced it
to obey their wishes.It had more than 2000 branches all over France.
■ Cordelier: The members of Cordelier were from lower strata of society. It thought of establishing a
republic with the worker's support. Danton was its popular leader. It remained restricted to Paris only
and did not have any branches.

Revolutionary Wars:
● European countries like Prussia, Austria declared war against France as they did not want to meet the same
fate as Louis XVI. They wanted to contain the spread of the nationalist movement and restore monarchy
in France.
● Declaration of Pillnitz :
■ The joint declaration issued on August 27, 1791, by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick
William II of Prussia, urged European powers to unite to restore the monarchy in France; French
King Louis XVI had been reduced to a constitutional monarch during the French Revolution. They made
a declaration of Pillnitz (1791). It threatened the success of the revolution and led to a dangerous
situation.
■ The French government largely interpreted it as a threat to its sovereignty, and a series of
provocations ensued, culminating in France declaring war on Austria (over which Leopold ruled) in April
1792.

Reign of Terror:
● Marat, a Jacobian leader, used to publish furious and provoking messages in the newspaper. He called for
the execution of anti-revolutionaries. Robospierre was the man in charge. He unleashed bloodshed by
conducting trials and putting to death all anti revolutionist and sympathizers of monarchy.
● Laws were passed that defined those who should be arrested as counterrevolutionaries, and committees of
surveillance were set up to identify suspects and issue arrest warrants.
● Later laws suspended the rights of suspects to both legal assistance and public trials and mandated
execution of all those who were found guilty.
● Other laws set up government control of prices, confiscated lands from those found guilty of failing to
support the Revolution, and brought public assistance to the poor and disabled.
● The French republican calendar was adopted as part of a program of de-Christianization. About 300,000
people were arrested, and 17,000 of them were tried and executed. As many as 23,000 more were
killed without trial or died in prison.
● All dissenters were put to death and a special machine Guillotine was designed to cause speedy, pain
free death.
● Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette were executed.

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●
● Ultimately people became fed up with the violence and Maxmillian Robospiere the chief architect of the
revolution was himself put to death. This ended the cycle of violence and restored temporary peace.

National Convention (1792 - 95):

● France became a Constitutional republic as there was no king in France.
● The country was to have 2 houses: Upper House and Lower House. The proposals were to be made in the
upper house but they can be only passed in the lower house.
● Religion became a personal affair and lost all support from the state.
● Prices of food grains and goods were fixed by the "laws of maximum".
● Complete abolition of feudal custom and manners and everybody was addressed as citizens.
● Capitalists were declared enemies and prices of commodities were fixed. Emphasis on communism.
● Slavery was eradicated.
● Compulsory military service and a code of law for the whole country was introduced.
● However, the convention had several shortcomings:
● The interference of the state in the personal lives of people was resented.
● Doing away with the authority of the church irritated the catholic population.
● Emphasis on communism frightened the capitalist class.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FRENCH REVOLUTION:

● It was a landmark event in the history of mankind. It was an attempt to build a new society on the principles
of liberty, equality and fraternity.
● It rejected tyranny, divine right and feudalism.
● It wished to establish an egalitarian society.
● Total separation of religion from the state was brought about. It laid the foundation of the modern secular
state. The education system was built on secular foundations.
● It ushered in the era of nationalism and liberalism and paved the way for revolutions in other parts of Europe.

FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

Napoleon Bonaparte:
● Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769 in the island of Corsica. The island was a colony of France. Napoleon
secured a scholarship to study at Royal Military College. He had once contemplated joining the English East
India Company.
● Napoleon Bonaparte, a French general, first consul (1799–1804), and emperor of the French (1804–1814/15),
one of the most celebrated personalities in the history of the West.
● He revolutionized military organization and training; sponsored the Napoleonic Code, the prototype of later
civil-law codes; reorganized education; and established the long-lived Concordat with the papacy.

TIMELINE OF THE NAPOLEONIC ERA:

TURLOM EXPEDITION:
● Napoleon was sent to Turlom to repel the British naval fleet. There was certainly a vacuum and
opportunity for officers who could prove themselves under fire. He successfully handled the situation.

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● The British fled and Turlom was recaptured. In just 3 months he rose from Captain to Brigadier General.
He was finally made Commander of the army after he successfully thwarted a revolt in Paris and saved the
National Convention.
● He married Marie Josephine, a 32-year-old widow. She was a member of high society and had political
links and was mistress of the ruler.
ITALIAN EXPEDITION:
● Italy was under the control of Austria. Napoleon was sent to the Italian Alps. His assignment was to
challenge the power of the allies of Prussia. Everyone made fun of him because the French army was ill
equipped. Napoleon was in no condition to win anything. However, through his inspirational speeches he
transformed the French Army into a fighting machine.
● Within just 2 weeks he won 6 battles. He was hailed as a "liberator" in Italy.
Treaty of Campo Formio:
After the victory in Italy, he dictated the terms of the treaty with Austria and signed the Treaty of Campo
Formio and he turned into a hero of France. According to the treaty:
● Rhineland became the natural frontier of France. France got control of the Coal and Iron deposits of the
region.
● He was accepted as guardian of the Italian republic.
● He also got control of the Netherlands and Lombardy.
● He gifted the area of rich natural resources to France at the time of crisis and that too free of cost. The
expenditure of the whole expedition was borne by the defeated forces.

EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION:
●He landed in Egypt in a hope to disrupt British trade routes with India. Egyptians were part of the
Turkish empire ruled by Mamluks who were known for their cruelty. Napoleon defeated them in the Battle
of Pyramids (1798). He led his army into Cairo and wasted much time in enjoyment.
● His dreams were quickly shattered. His fleet of warships was destroyed by the British fleet led by Nelson,
the famous British admiral.
● After this defeat he spent a lot of time studying Egypt. Egypt was an enigma for Europeans. He brought
remarkable groups of mathematicians (e.g Cauchy), architects and scientists. They produced 24 volumes on
Egypt. Rosetta stone was the most important discovery.
● In 1799 he took his army to Syria. He assaulted Acra. French soldiers perished in bubonic plague. He had
to return to Acra.
● He secretly returned to France leaving 30,000 soldiers in Egypt. The government in Paris was in disarray.
He dreamed of rescuing France. The campaign in Egypt, a military disaster, was projected as a
successful campaign. The people hailed him as the conqueror of Egypt.
COUP D'ETAT:
● Napoleon was aware that the rule of Directory was highly unpopular. The debt was mounting, bandits
roamed the countryside. He planned a military coup and found a way to seize power.
● Coup of 18–19 Brumaire, (November 9–10, 1799), coup d’état that overthrew the system of government
under the Directory in France and substituted the Consulate, making way for the despotism of
Napoleon Bonaparte. The event is often viewed as the effective end of the French Revolution.With the help
of his brother he overthrew the Directory in 1799.
● A provisional three councils were set up. Later he dismissed the 2 councils and made himself the head of
the state.
● He organized Sainklu Convention and became the first council in 1799. He later crowned himself King.
Just 15 years back French people had executed the King and now they crowned a new one !
● Napoleon divorced his wife and married the daughter of the ruler of the Habsburg empire in order to have
a son.

FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON:

1. Economic reforms:
● Peace with Europe: Appealed to the rulers of Austria and England asking them the utility of war in the era of
prosperity and development. Treaty of Ameims between England and France leading to friendly relations
between two countries.

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● Agricultural reforms: He took steps for increasing fertility of the soil, barren and unproductive lands were
brought under cultivation. He also adopted liberal attitude towards farmers.
● Banking and Currency: Established Bank of France to strengthen and manage currency system.
● Taxation: The Chamber of commerce and commercial exchange was founded. He improved the system of
taxation.
● Industrialization and Urbanisation: France also witnessed the industrial revolution. Means of transport and
communications were improved. Many canals, roads and bridges were built. Napoleon was particularly
interested in beautiful cities and made Paris the most attractive city in Europe.
● He never bothered about land reforms and did not promote industrialisation. The French economy was still
backward and weak.
● He ignored the advice of Fulton to introduce Steam Boats in France.

2. Political reforms:
● Turned France from republic to monarchy. He organized the Plebiscite in France. He got 30 lakh votes in
support and on this ground, he became the emperor of France in 1804
● He established 4 Houses: Council of States, Senate, Tribunate and Legislative Body and introduced a Unique
voting system known as 10 % law.
● Bureaucrats were called Prefects. Appointment and transfers of these officers was in the hands of Napoleon
and they were only responsible to Napoleon.
● It was a democracy only in name. It was completely under the control of Napoleon.
● Centralisation was the chief characteristic of his rule.
● He sold Louisiana territory in North America to the USA as he was in need of money.

3. Educational reforms:
● The National Assembly took out education from the hands of religion when it established the National
Education Council. Napoleon established a secular institution for education for primary to higher education.
● Napoleonism was part of the syllabus. Glorification of Napoleon was done in schools.
● A number of technical schools were founded in France.
● He neglected primary education.

4. Legal reforms:
● Napoleon Code: He codified modern law and set up Code of Civil and Criminal Procedure, Commercial code
etc. His codes are still relevant and followed.
● It provided individual rights and duties and organized all spheres of social life and institutions. The duties of
parents and children were defined.

5. Others:
● Started the Legion of Honour – Highest French Order of Merit, both military and civil
● Concordat Agreement -
○ Concordat of 1801, agreement reached on July 15, 1801, between Napoleon Bonaparte and papal
and clerical representatives in both Rome and Paris, defining the status of the Roman Catholic
Church in France and ending the breach caused by the church reforms and confiscations enacted
during the French Revolution. The Concordat was formally promulgated on Easter day, 1802.
○ Pope was accepted as the nominal religious head of the Nation. Catholic religion was declared as the
religion of the majority.
● He misbehaved with the Pope during his coronation ceremony at Notre Dame.
All his reforms were basically meant to strengthen his position. France still lagged behind in economy, polity and culture.

BLUNDERS OF NAPOLEON AND HIS SUBSEQUENT FALL:

● Continental Policy:
○ One of the first moves in attempting to conquer or gain an advantage over much of Europe came with the
Continental System.
○ This decree, enacted by Napoleon, was meant to weaken England. In it, he encouraged any countries who
were either neutral (meaning they didn’t take sides) or who were allies with France to stop doing business with
England. It was his hope that England would suffer economically.

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○ The Continental System, however, failed, due in part to the fact that England had natural resources to sustain
itself. The country that was weakened, ironically, was France.
○ It proved to be harmful because Britain had a huge market outside of Europe. On the other hand, import
of industrial goods harmed France and European countries and caused economic hardships.
● Peninsular War:
○ From 1808 to 1814, France was engaged in the Peninsular War against Spain and Portugal, who were
aided in the conflict by Great Britain.
○ Napoleon had set his sights on conquering the Iberian Peninsula and actually succeeded in doing so when he
conquered Spain in 1808.
○ He installed his older brother, Joseph as the King of Spain. His short rule lasted from 1808 to 1813.
○ This upset the Spaniards, who had once been allies with France. The Peninsular War turned out to be
quite costly, and although the French won against Spain, this was a turning point in Napoleon’s reign: it was
a moment in which his previous allies realized how land-greedy he was becoming.
● War against Russia:
○ In 1812, the French under Napoleon embarked on an invasion of Russia. He had hoped to gain political
advantage with both Russia and Poland as a result of this invasion, and to defeat Russian troops.
○ It was, however, a total disaster. Not only was it freezing cold, but the Russians were certainly not open to
any engagements with the French.
○ They retreated, but not before enacted a “scorched earth” policy, one in which they burned all of the crops
as they moved further away from the French.
○ This left Napoleon’s troops with little to eat. All totalled, the French army would lose hundreds of thousands
of men during the six-month invasion.
● Battle of Waterloo:
○ By June of 1815, Napoleon’s list of enemy countries had grown to include Britain, Austria, Prussia, and
Russia due to his actions.
○ The four countries all braced themselves for what they assumed would be a war with Napoleon’s forces, and
when he got wind of this, he thought he might catch them by surprise and try to defeat them.
○ He subsequently invaded Belgium, the spark which ignited the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon and his forces
were defeated at this battle, which would mark the final defeat of his reign.

END OF NAPOLEON:
● The Battle of Leipzig (16–19 October 1813), also known as the Battle of the Nations, was the largest military
engagement fought until the twentieth century. It marked the end of the Napoleonic Empire. Strategically, it
was more important than Waterloo.
● Prussia, Britain, Russia inflicted a crushing defeat on Napoleon in the Battle. He renounced his throne in
1814. He drank the poison but did not die.
● He was imprisoned in Elba and was expected to spend rest of his life here. He became Emperor of isle of Elba
and regained work and action. He set up a miniature court and even a flag!
● He returned back and ruled France for 100 days. He was finally defeated at Waterloo by a combined force
of Prussia and Britain. He was captured and deported to island of St. Helena where he died in 1821.

IMPACT OF NAPOLEON:
● Took the ideas of the French Revolution to different parts of Europe through his 40 wars. He promoted
Nationalism in these countries.
● Promotion to Education and Law.
● Defeated and wipedout smaller states which ultimately became the cause for unification of Germany and Italy.

FAMOUS QUOTES BY NAPOLEON:

● "I found the crown of France in gutter and I picked it up"
● "The Man of Genius always gets back to his feet"
● "There is always one step between sublime and ridiculous"
● "My power depends on my glory and glory depends upon victory"
● "Everything on earth is soon forgotten except the opinion we leave imprinted in history. There is no immortality
but the memory that we leave in the minds of the men"
● "Conquest alone made me what I am and conquest alone would keep me where I am."
● "Religion is excellent stuff for keeping people quiet."
● "It is better to Eat than to be Eaten."
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● "Liberty cannot be secured unless criminals lose their head."
● "Great men become great because they have mastered Luck."

EUROPE AFTER NAPOLEON

VIENNA CONGRESS:
● After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, a European Congress met from 1814 to 1815 at Vienna (capital
of Austria).
● The French revolution and Napoleonic conquests had changed Europe to such an extent that an all European
congress became necessary to discuss the future arrangement in Europe.
● This congress came to be known as the Vienna congress.
● Austria, Prussia, Russia and Great Britain, the four powers that were chiefly instrumental in the
overthrow of Napoleon, had concluded a special alliance among themselves with the Treaty of
Chaumont, on March 9,1814, a month before Napoleon’s first abdication.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR AGREEMENT IN VIENNA CONGRESS:

● To put the house in order and strengthen the existing political system in Europe.
● Maintain checks on events like French Revolution and Napoleon
● Maintain a balance of power in Europe.

Europe in 1812

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CONSEQUENCES OF VIENNA CONGRESS:
PRINCIPLE OF LEGITIMACY:
● Return back to the old state to their original ruling houses.
● Louis XVIII became emperor of France.
● Holland was returned to the Orange family.
● Papal states were restored back to the Pope.

PRINCIPLE OF COMPENSATION:
● Powers that fought with Napoleon wanted their share of profit and compensation. As a result Russia got
Finland and control on Poland.
● Sardinia and Prussia got large shares in their areas which finally compelled them for unification of
Germany and Italy.
● Austria got Venice and Lombardy and it also became the head of German states.

PROMOTION TO ALLIANCE SYSTEM:

● It was formed to handle events like the French Revolution and Napoleon.
● Holy Alliance: Proposed by Czar Alexander I of Russia. Motive was to unite Christian powers of Europe
on grounds of religion. It was not taken seriously
● Quadruple Alliance: Included Russia, Austria, Prussia and Britain. Finally, France was also admitted. It
was called the Concert of Europe.

SUPPRESSION OF NATIONALISM:
● Nationalism was the binding force for common people so it became the main target for the reactionary
forces in Europe. e.g Suppression of revolt in Naples in 1820
● The Vienna convention was thus the victory of reactionary forces and provided peace in Europe for the
next 30 years.

RISE OF NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY:

● Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, in 1848 prepared a series of prints visualizing his dream of a world made up
of democratic and Social Republics.

Courtesy: NCERT Class X

1. The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long train and offering
homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass it. The torch of Enlightenment was carried by a female
figure in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
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2. On the earth in the foreground lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
3. In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through
their flags and national costume.
4. The procession was led by the United States and Switzerland, followed by France and Germany.
Following the German people are the people of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy,
Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
5. From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They have been used by the
artist to symbolize fraternity among the nations of the world.
● During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought huge changes in the political and
mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state.
● The term nationalism comes from the word nation. It means people having emotional and psychological
attachment towards a region or territory. Nationalism represents the spirit of unity among people. Alan
Bullock, a British historian, says that nationalism represents “feeling of belongingness to a group united by
common racial, linguistic, and historical ties, and usually identified with a particular territory.
● In Modern times, nationalism came to the fore during monarchical tyranny. For example, the English and the
French overthrew their tyrannical rulers in the 1648 and the 1789 revolutions respectively.

CAUSES OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM:

● The French revolution with its modern ideas given birth to Nation state consciousness in which rebellion
against Clergy & Romantic scope inspired the masses & Intellectuals in many European nations
● Concepts like - Liberty, Equality, Fraternity and the idea of one language, one Culture and one Nation led
to rise of nationalism and formation of National Identity.
● Napoleon’s victories in Europe gave the French a sense of national pride while the countries he defeated
felt humiliated and they suffered from Napoleon’s oppressive rule. So, feelings of nationalism roused in these
countries.
● Industrialization brought new social groups - working-class and middle classes who supported ideas of national
unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges & economic nationalism.
● The Industrial Revolution in Europe during the 19th century increased the national competition in economic
sphere and brought the nation-states in conflict with each other for acquisition of colonies

FORMATION OF NEW IDENTITIES:

● Greece, Serbia won their Independence from the Ottoman Empire.
● The Poles fought against Russians, Slavic nationalism against the Hapsburgs and the Irish against the British
● Revolutions broke out across Europe under charismatic personalities like Mazzini (Young Italy) & Garibaldi,
sparked by severe famine and economic crisis and mounting popular demand for political change.
● The German (Bismarck) & Italian nationalism, began as a reaction to French military occupation by Napoleon
and his restructuring of the lands into a smaller number of states & provided a sense of unity and nationalism

IMPACT OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE:

● Conservatism – Formation of Vienna Congress:
● In 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism. Conservatives believed in
monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and that the family should be preserved.
● A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom
could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
● In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria met in Vienna to draw
up a settlement for Europe.
● The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
● The major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticized the new conservative order, was freedom
of the press.
● The Liberals and nationalists throughout Europe started launching open revolts against conservative
governments. In most of these revolts, the liberal middle class led the struggle for constitutional government
and the formation of nation-states.
● In 1831, Belgium obtained independence from the Netherlands. Over the next two decades nationalism
developed a more powerful voice
● In 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was underway. Men and women of the liberal
middle class demanded creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the
press and freedom of association.

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UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
● The Vienna Settlement with regard to Germany was hopelessly disappointing from the point of view of
German Liberals and patriots. They had been hoping for a unified Germany but instead, they got a German
Confederation of 39 States. Provision was made for a Federal Diet which was to be presided over by Austria.
● Austria opposed the idea of German unification as it saw this as a threat to its own empire. Although they were
a minority, there was a significant percentage of German-speakers in the empire. If they broke away to join a
unified Germany, Austria would be smaller and weaker.

ZOLLVEREIN- AN INVINCIBLE FORCE OF UNIFICATION:

● Zollaverein was a custom union. Before 1818, each district in Prussia had its own customs and there were as
many as 67 tariff areas in Prussia alone.
● The result of the reform of 1818 was that Prussia became a free trade area. Internal trade increased and the
revenue of the State also showed a rise.
● By 1837, most of the States had joined the Zollverein. Only Hanover, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, and the Hanse
towns remained outside the Zollverein

The Berlin Revolution of 1848 and it’s consequences :

● Agitations: From 1830 to 1848, there were persistent agitations in the smallest States of Germany. The object
of the agitation was two-fold, viz., the unification of Germany and the establishment of constitutional and
liberal governments in the States.
● Reforms: As far as Prussia was concerned, there was some trouble in Berlin in March and the King gave a liberal
constitution. There was a dash between the people and the troops and ultimately the King of Prussia had to
remove the troops from the capital. He also promised to become the leader “of a free and new-born German
nation.” It was also decided to call a national parliament to frame a constitution
● Increased representation: The details were to be filled up by a Constituent Assembly of Germany to which
representatives were to come from all over the country on the basis of one member for 50,000 of the population.
This was done and the popular assembly met at Frankfurt.
● Failure of parliament: The Frankfurt parliament failed, which convinced the Germans that some other method
had to be followed to bring about the unification of the country.
● Restoration of German confederation: In March 1850, a German Parliament met at Erfurt However,
Schwarzenberg, and the new Chancellor of Austria was determined to establish the Austrian hold over Germany
and consequently was not prepared to allow the activities of the King of Prussia to continue. The King of Prussia
was forced to surrender by the convention of Olmutz. He agreed to dissolve the “union” and the German
Confederation of 1815 was restored.

THE POLICY OF BLOOD & IRON: WILLIAM I & BISMARCK COMBINATION:

● Appointment of Bismarck: The humiliation of Prussia at the hands of Austria had convinced William I that
if Germany was to be liberated, that could be done only if Prussia came to have a very big army. In 1849, he
had observed thus “Whoever wishes to rule Germany must conquer it and that cannot be done by phrases.”It
was in these circumstances that Bismarck was appointed the Minister-President of Prussia in 1862.
● His primary aims were to:
▪ Unify the north German states under Prussian control
▪ Weaken Prussia’s main rival, Austria, by removing it from the Bund
▪ Make Berlin the center of German affairs – not Vienna
▪ Strengthen the position of the King of Prussia, William I, to counter the demands for reform from the
Liberals in the Prussian parliament (the Reichstag).
● Formation of North German Confederation : In 1867, Bismarck formed the North German Confederation.
It united 22 German states but excluded the Southern German states like Bavaria, which remained independent.
● The Southern states: The Southern states followed a pro-Austria policy but were forced to unite after the German
victory in Franco-Prussian war of 1870
● France- Germany war: In 1870 the French monarchy was tattering and the conditions were ripe for another
revolution for establishment of a democratic republic. The French King Louis Bonaparte declared war on
Germany in 1870. He wanted to use a war victory to divert attention of the public and to use the consequent war
gains to lend credibility to his regime. On other hand, Bismarck was also partially responsible for provoking
the French for war.

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● Defeat of France: The result was that France was defeated and it declared itself a republic in 1871. The war and
the consequent German victory allowed Bismarck to absorb the rest of the German states into a united Germany
(1871).

MERGER OF NORTHERN STATES:

● Battle of Sadowa (1866) – Bismarck came to the conclusion that for having efficient control over the region
of northern German states Austria should be overpowered by Prussia.
● So, he consciously provoked a war with Austria through creating some controversy on the Gestein
agreement of 1865.
● Then in the battle of Sadowa which is known as the "Battle of six weeks" as well, Prussia gave a crushing
defeat to Austria.
● After that the Treaty of Prague was signed between the two parties in March 1866. Consequently, northern
German states were integrated with Prussia.

MERGER OF SOUTHERN STATES:

● Battle of Sedan (1870) – Then Bismarck provoked a war with France & French emperor Louis Napoleon
III desperately came into the battlefield without proper preparation. So Prussia defeated France in the battle
of Sedan in 1870.
● With this victory the integration of southern German states with Prussia became possible
● Above all the coronation of German Emperor William I took place in the Palace of Mirrors (Versailles) near
Paris and it was the French emperor Louis Napoleon II who put the crown on the head of William I with his
own hand. Not simply that, on the basis of the treaty of Frankfurt concluded in 1871 France lost the region
of Alsace & Lorraine.
● So, it became a bone of contention between France and Germany leading to two world wars. So simultaneously
it gave a big lesson to the imperialist powers of the future.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY
● Prince Metternich referred to Italy in the most contemptible phrase, “mere geographical expression”. Ever since
the fall of the Roman empire, her territory was subjected to a series of invasions by barbarians.
● Italy witnessed the worst treatment at the hands of King Charles VIII. Her native princes, being too busy with
their quarrels, neglected the protection of national borders. It was this fact which made Machiavelli record his

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observations in his famous book, The Prince. Italy “became the cockpit of Europe, where foreign powers
contended for mastery”
● Italian unification or the Risorgimento, meaning “the Resurgence” or “revival”, was the political and social
movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy
in the 19th century

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY:

● Historical Consciousness: Italian region had a consciousness of unity right from the time of the Roman
Empire and that of Renaissance.
● Role of Napoleon Bonaparte: After capturing Italy, Napoleon reorganized the region and introduced new
institutions. The former instilled unity in the region while the latter created a reaction which finally
developed in the form of Italian Nationalism.
● Role of the Vienna Congress:
■ It consciously divided Italy in order to make it, in Metternich’s term, merely a geographical expression.
■ In Italy, Piedmont – Sardinia was a powerful state. It was ruled by the House of Savoy.

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■ The Vienna congress separated the region of Lombardy and Venetia in northern Italy and placed it
under the control of Austria.
■ In central Italy, Parma, Modena and Tuscany were put under the control of the Habsburg dynasty.
Some regions in this area were also put under the control of the Pope of Rome so that the northern and
southern part would remain divided.
■ In the southern part, Naples and Sicily were put under the Bourbon kings.
● Role of 1848 Revolts:
■ The 1848 revolts were led by intellectuals and liberals who were against the reactionary Austrian
control and wanted a liberal government.
■ These revolts did usher in democratic reforms, but neither did this result in independence from Austria
nor the consolidation of the states into a united Italy.

ITALIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT:

● The earliest movement directed towards achieving freedom from foreign rule was confined to a small
section, the Carbonaris (meaning Charcoal-burners).
● They organized secret societies and encouraged people to revolt against tyranny of foreign rulers.
● They successfully staged a revolt against King Ferdinand of Naples, after which the king was forced to grant
a liberal constitution. However, the success was temporary because of lack of internal and external support.

EMERGENCE OF MAZZINI:
● For Guiseppe Mazzini nothing seemed more repugnant than the foreign rule in his country.
● He joined the Carbonaris and participated in their secret activities.
● In 1830, he was arrested and sent to prison for six months. There He planned to involve the youth of Italy
into the mainstream of patriotic struggle for achieving national unity. So, Mazzini established the Young
Italy Movement and its branches all over the country.
● Through his speeches, writings and appeals he inspired the youth and made them aware of their rights
which were denied to them by foreign governments.

ROLE OF COUNT CAVOUR:

● No one could grasp the political situation prevailing in Italy in 1848, better than Count Cavour.
● He founded a journal, Il Risorgimento (meaning Rebirth), in Piedmont, to awaken the Italians and carry
on the struggle for achieving unity, independence and constitutional reforms,
● After getting elected in the elections to the Assembly in 1848, he went on to become Prime Minister of
Piedmont.
● Count Cavour was already convinced that Piedmont alone would not be in position to liberate the country.
He was also convinced that Mazzini’s plan and Garibaldi’s adventure would come to nothing unless
properly supplemented with diplomacy.
● Hence, he was convinced to secure help from a powerful country like Britain or France and wait for an
opportunity, which came in the form of Crimean war
● Crimean war was an opportunity for Cavour to internationalize the issue of Italian unification. He took
a political gamble to side with Britain and France during Crimean war. He provided the Sardinian army to
fight for Britain and France.
● With Russia's defeat, the Paris Peace conference was organized and Cavour was invited as a
representative of Italy. he wanted European support for Italian unification.
● Italy was born in marshy lands of Crimea as Italy got acceptance of European community with this war and
Cavour got assurance from Britain and France to get help in this ambition of Italian Unification.
● Yet practically there was no sign of help from Britain and France. So, Cavour now focussed on Napoleon
III and by Treaty of Plombieres, Napoleon III assured Cavour of France's help in Italian unification. But
during the war between Piedmont and Austria, Austria convinced Napoleon III about the ill consequences
of Italian unification. Due to this, Napoleon III pulled out from Italy of Plombiers and this ended the dream
of Cavour of Italian unification by war with Austria.

REVOLUTIONARY COUNCIL OF 1860:

● The phase starts as an impact of revolts 1830s and 1848 which emphasized on the will of the people. This led
to formation of revolutionary councils in Italy (1860), which adopted the path of Plebiscite (means each
and every decision should be taken with the help of eligible voters in that particular area or territory).

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● But this was not successful as important Italian states like Naples, Venice or Venezia, Sicily etc. refused to
budge to 'will of the people'.

GARIBALDI AND HIS FORCE:

● Final role was played by Garibaldi and his powerful force of thousands which attacked the adamant states.
They also got inside mass support and completed the task of Italian Unification.
● In this way, Germany and Italy were new nations in Europe in 1870s. it was changing the political equation and
it laid the foundation of World War I.

RISE OF NEW IMPERIALISM:

● New Imperialism is a period of intensified imperialistic expansion from the latter half of the 19th century
until the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
● The renewed push to expand territorial control included not only the earlier colonial powers of western Europe
but also newcomers such as Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the United States.
● During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers (and Japan) individually conquered almost all of
Africa and parts of Asia. The new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers,
the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a "civilizing mission" ethos. Many of the colonies
established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed World War II.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NEW IMPERIALISM:

● Technology: One necessary condition that characterized this New Imperialism is technological. Prior to the
1870s, Europeans could overawe native peoples along the coasts of Africa and Asia but lacked the
firepower, mobility, and communications that would have been needed to pacify the interior.
● Industrial Revolution: Apart from the ability to now expand into uncolonized regions, technological
advances from the co-occurring second Industrial Revolution also enabled newcomers to the imperialist
drive to compete with the old powers. Mass-produced steel, electric power and oil as sources of energy,
industrial chemistry, and the internal-combustion engine helped additional states, including Germany, the
United States, and, eventually, Japan, to join the colonial scramble on roughly equal footing. Both the new
technology and the added competition also contributed to the rapid speed of New Imperialism.
● Capital investment: To operate efficiently, the new industries of the second Industrial Revolution required
heavy capital investment in large-scale units. Accordingly, they encouraged the development of capital
markets and banking institutions that were large and flexible enough to finance the new enterprises.
● Transport of goods: Advances in ship construction (steamships using steel hulls, twin screws, and
compound engines) made feasible the inexpensive movement of bulk raw materials and food over long
ocean distances.
● Global trade: Self-contained economic regions dissolved into a world economy, involving an
international division of labor whereby the leading industrial nations made and sold manufactured
products and the rest of the world supplied them with raw materials and food.
● Colonial rivalries: Renewed colonial rivalry, moreover, brought an end to the relatively peaceful
conditions of the mid-19th century, with the South African War (the Boer War), the First Sino-Japanese
War, the Spanish-American War, and the Russo-Japanese War among those that ushered in this new era.
● Annexations and consolidation of territories: The annexations during this new phase of imperial growth
differed significantly from the expansionism earlier in the 19th century. While the latter was substantial in
magnitude, it was primarily devoted to the consolidation of claimed territory (by penetration of continental
interiors and more effective rule over indigenous populations) and only secondarily to new acquisitions. On
the other hand, the New Imperialism was characterized by a burst of activity in carving up as yet
independent areas, taking over almost all Africa, a good part of Asia, and many Pacific islands. This new
vigor in the pursuit of colonies is reflected in the fact that the rate of new territorial acquisitions of the New
Imperialism was almost three times that of the earlier period.

IMPACT OF NEW IMPERIALISM:

● Industrial capitalism: Industrial capitalism began to grow, and it spread to colonies also. Industrial
capitalists started investing their capitals in colonies. In 1913, Britain’s overseas investment touched 20
billion dollars.
● Expansion of communication systems: In India, the British capitalists started building railways. Their
ventures brought huge profits.Similarly, other imperial powers started building railways, undertook mining
and managed communication systems and so on, in the colonies of Africa and Asia.
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● Race for colonization: The manifold profits derived by exploiting the colonies in Africa and Asia resulted
in a headlong race for acquiring more colonies during the 19th century. “Trade follows the flag” became
the maxim.The New Imperialism was similar to the old in many respects. The motives behind acquiring
colonies were “gospel, gold and glory”.
● Exploitation of the natives: Colonial rivalries characterized the age of new imperialism. The imperialist
did not look forward to the establishment of colonies in the new continent. This time they were bent on
exploiting the colonies of Africa and Asia. Thanks to the advancement of science and technology, these
western powers were able to easily defeat the native rulers in Africa and Asia.

IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM:

● Colonialism is where one country physically exerts complete control over another country and
Imperialism is formal or informal economic and political domination of one country over the other.
● Colonialism is as modern a historical phenomenon as industrial capitalism in Britain. The two developed
together.
● Colonialism is a distinct historical stage or period in the modern historical development of the colony that
intervenes between the traditional economy and the modern capitalist economy.
● It is a well- structured whole, a distinct social formation in which the basic control of the economy and
society is in the hands of a foreign capitalist class.
● This functions in the colony through a dependent and subservient economic, social, political, and
intellectual structure whose forms can vary with the changing conditions of the historical development of
capitalism as a worldwide system.
● The colony became an integral part of the world capitalist system but this integration did not lead to the
development of a capitalist economy in the colony.
● Capitalism was introduced in the colonies but not capitalist development. The old structures were
uprooted. The new ones, however, failed to encourage development. Instead, they proved to be regressive.
● The colony did not take part in the industrial revolution. So, imperialism introduced capitalist relations
of production in many spheres, but capitalist development did not take place.
● Productive forces did not develop in the colony. Thus, colonialism is not like capitalism, an advanced
stage of social development. It is an image of metropolitan capitalism, but it has its negative image, its
opposite; and its non-developmental side.
● Capitalism develops productive and social forces. Colonialism on the other hand, does not develop the
productive and social forces. Its inner contradictions arise from the lack of their development.

COLONIALISM
● Colonialism is defined as “control by one power over a dependent area or people.”
● It occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it, often while
forcing its own language and cultural values upon its people.
● By 1914, a large majority of the world's nations had been colonized by Europeans at some point.

BASIC FEATURES OF COLONIALISM:

o Integration of Colonies : Integration of the colony with the world capitalist system in a subordinate or
subservient position. The needs of the metropolitan economy and its capitalist class determine the basic
issues of the colony's economy and society. This subordination is more crucial than linkage with the world
market. After all, even independent capitalist and socialist economies are linked with the world market.
o Colonies as supplier of raw materials: Arghiri Emmanuel and Samir Amin have encompassed colonialism
in the twin notions of unequal exchange and internal disarticulation of the colonial economy and the
articulation of its different disarticulated parts through the world market and imperialist hegemony with the
metropolitan economy. The metropolis produced high technology, high productivity, and high wage goods
while the colony produced low technology, low productivity, and low wage goods. International trade thus
became an instrument of exploitation. Similarly, the colony specialized in the production of raw
materials while the metropolis produced manufactured goods.
o Drain of wealth: The third feature of colonialism is the drain of wealth or the unilateral transfer of surplus
to the metropolis through unrequited exports. Thus, production of surplus is in the colony but is accumulated
abroad. This process has been described by Hamza Alavi as deformed extended reproduction.
o Domination : The fourth basic feature is foreign political domination or the existence and role of the
colonial state.

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STAGES OF COLONIALISM:
● Marx, in his writings, had referred to two stages of colonialism-
1. Monopoly in trade
2. Free trade.
● R. Palme Dutt in his seminal book, India Today, added a third stage, that of finance imperialism, basing
himself on Lenin. Others theorize as if only the third stage constituted colonialism.
● Stages do not exist in a pure form nor is there a sharp hiatus between stages. The time frame of the stage
can vary from colony to colony.
● They were also the result of changing patterns of metropolis' own social, economic, and political
development and of its changing position in the world economy and polity. The colony's own historical
development also played a role in determining the stage.

First Stage: Monopoly of the trade and Direct appropriation of revenue or surplus through the use of
state power.
o In India, for example, monopoly of trade was necessary to enable the East India Company to
buy Indian goods cheap.European competitors were kept out by waging wars against them.
Political conquest was undertaken to prevent Indian traders from taking part in the lucrative trade.
o The money needed to wage wars could only be raised from the revenue of the colony. Colonial
products were also bought from revenues collected from the colony. The reason for this was that
the metropolis did not produce anything of value and spending gold and silver to purchase the goods
of the colony went against the prevalent mercantilist wisdom.
o The political conquest of the colony enabled plunder and seizure of surplus. The high salaries
of officials and the profits of merchants and corporations were all drawn from the revenues of the
colony.
o Also, there was no basic change in the system of administration. The only changes made were
in military organization and technology and in the top level of revenue administration.
o The reason for this lack of intervention was that colonialism in the first stage could be superimposed
over the traditional system of economy and polity. There was no need to penetrate the villages
deeper than earlier rulers had done, as long as their economic surplus was extracted.

Second Stage: Stage of free trade

o The industrial bourgeoisie, which had replaced the trading companies as the foremost class,
was interested in the markets available for their manufactured goods. For this, it was necessary to
increase exports from the colony to pay for their purchase of imported manufactured goods.
o The metropolitan bourgeoisie also wanted to develop the colony as a producer of raw materials
to lessen dependence on non-empire sources.
o Trade was to be the mechanism by which the surplus was to be appropriated.
o The colony was to be integrated with the world capitalist economy and the mother country.
Foreign trade was to be freed of all restrictions and tariffs. Capitalists were allowed to develop
plantations, trade, transport, mining and industries.
o Capitalist farming was introduced. The system of transport and communications was developed
to facilitate the movement of massive quantities of raw materials to the ports for export.
o Railway expansion was undertaken and a modern post and telegraph system was set up.
o Capitalist commercial relations were to be enforced. The legal system was to be improved so as
to ensure upholding the sanctity of contract. However, no change was made in the sphere of
personal law.
o Modern education was introduced to produce men who would man the new administration. It
was also expected that westernization would increase the demand for imported goods.
o In the field of political ideology liberal imperialism was the watchword.

Third Stage: Finance Capitalism

o The third stage of colonialism led to more intensive control over the colony. In the sphere of
ideology, the mood was one of reaction.
o The administration became more bureaucratic, detailed and efficient as the need for intensive
control increased.

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o There was no more talk of self-government, instead benevolent despotism was the new ideology,
according to which the colonial people were seen as a child people who would need guardians
forever.
o Modernisation and Western education, which were the watchwords of the second stage, were no
more heard of.
o The third stage often did not take off. Many of the older colonies continued to export capital.
o One major reason for this was that colonialism had so wrecked the economies of these colonies that
they could not absorb capital investment to any appreciable extent. Hence capital was invested in
those products that had a ready market abroad or in infrastructure for such exports.
o In many colonies the older forms of exploitation continued. In India, for example, the earlier two
forms remained more important even in the third stage.

RELATION BETWEEN COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM:

● Imperialism refers to the process of capitalist development which leads the capitalist countries to conquer
and dominate pre-capitalist countries of the world. It is used to denote or describe the relations of political
and economic domination between a metropolis and the country it subjugates or dominates. The country
which is so subjugated by a metropolitan capitalist country is described as a colony, and what happens
in a colony is colonialism. The total system of imperialist domination of a pre-capitalist country is
colonialism. Other differences between the two are:
● Colonialism is when one country physically exerts its domination, either through a combination of war
and diplomacy, over another country with a view to exploiting its resources, while Imperialism is just
about exerting control over the conquered regions either through direct governance or through indirect
control mechanisms.
● Imperialism is far older than colonialism dating back to ancient empires in history but is more commonly
associated with the Roman Empire.

PATTERN OF COLONIAL DOMINATION: DIRECT RULE:

Colonialism in India:
● India was an example of a classic colony. It served as a market for British goods, as a source of supply
of raw materials and foodstuffs and as a field of investment of British capital. Foreign companies
controlled trade, industry, mining, banking, insurance, shipping and transport. The Indian army
defended the British empire all over the world and the Indian administration offered avenues of
employment to large numbers of British youth. The consequence was that India became underdeveloped
while Britain developed rapidly to become the most advanced nation in the world.
First Stage:
o The first stage was characterized by a concern to ensure the monopoly of trade with India and the East.
Both the rival European trading companies and the Indian merchants were to be kept out.
o War was the means used to eliminate the competition from the European rivals. As far as Indian
merchants were concerned, the Company used its superior naval power to ensure that their rivals were
eliminated from the lucrative coastal and foreign trade.
o Political power was used to compel the craftsmen to sell at very cheap prices and to drive Indian merchants
out.
o The impetus for conquest came from the quest for financial resources. The money for the wars in India and
for maintenance of the naval and military establishments could only come from India.
o The search ended with control over Indian revenues.
o Expansion of territory was a mechanism for raising large amounts of money through taxes.
o Money was also needed to finance the industrialisation of Britain.
o With the conquest of Bengal and South India, both these objectives, of controlling financial resources and
wielding a monopoly of trade, were fulfilled.
o The policies followed in the field of administration were that of minimal interference in the existing
customs and systems.
o As long as surplus could be extracted reasonably efficiently there was no need to effect any changes in the
fields of law and administration or in the organization of production.
o There was no attempt to introduce Western ideas or English education.

Second Stage:

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o It was the phase of free trade. An intense struggle developed between manufacturing and trading interests
in the beginning of the nineteenth century over which class of British society would control India.
o A series of regulatory acts severely limited the hold of the Company and brought the Crown in as the
power controlling India.
o The Crown in turn championed the interests of the newly emergent industrial capitalist class whose power
and influence had increased vastly with the success of the Industrial Revolution.
o This stage has been described as the imperialism of free trade as all tariff duties were removed on British
goods. Inordinately high duties were levied on Indian products imported into Britain.
o India now became a producer of agricultural raw materials and consumer of British manufactured goods.
o The transformation of the economic, social and administrative structure was necessary for the colony
to be serviceable. In the economic sphere, free trade was introduced.
o Fundamental changes were introduced in the sphere of administration. Maintenance of law and order
was essential to ensure free movement of goods across the country.
o In the field of law, basic changes were brought about to introduce capitalist notions of ownership, property,
contract etc.
o This was the period when the new legal codes were drawn up.
o Western education was introduced to supply clerks and junior functionaries for the vast bureaucracy that
now runs the country.
o Means of transport and communication underwent modernisation and expansion. Railways were set up
under government initiative.
o The political ideology was one of liberal imperialism, i.e., it was believed that the economic exploitation of
the colony could continue even after it became politically independent. Hence there was much talk of self-
government in this period.
o The earlier forms of exploitation - continued from the first stage. Indian revenues were needed for the
further conquest of India and to pay the high salaries of the officials.
Third Stage:
o It was the phase of foreign investment and international competition for colonies.
o Three developments led to the ushering in of the third stage of colonial exploitation.
1. The first development was the industrialisation of the rest of the developed world like in the
countries of Europe, USA, Russia and Japan.
2. The second development was that major technological developments took place in the nineteenth
century that increased the need for raw materials and foodstuffs.
3. Thirdly, capital had accumulated on a significant scale in the developed capitalist countries and
needed outlets for investment.
o Within the colony this period saw the revival of conservative ideologies as imperialist control was sought
to be wielded with firmness.
o Curzon was only the last of a line of Viceroys who introduced policies of suppression and regulation.
This was also necessary for ensuring safety for British foreign investment in the railways, plantations,
mining, jute, shipping, trade and banking.
o Firm control was also vital as the army was sought to be maintained as a weapon for the defense and
expansion of the empire.
o There was no more talk of self-government; instead it was declared that the people of India were a 'child
people' who would never be fit to rule themselves.

COLONIALISM IN AFRICA:
o The conquest of Africa took place in the last decades of the nineteenth century.
o As late as 1880, only a small part, 20 percent of Africa, had come under European rule.
o The European powers had been content to trade with Africa and wield informal political influence where
necessary.
o However, the spread of the Industrial Revolution in Europe brought to the fore new political ambitions and
rivalries.
o Direct political control was the watchword of the era of the “new imperialism” and rival capitalist
monopolies.
o The conquest of Africa was made possible by superior European technology, financial and military
resources and relative stability in Europe.
o A continent of over 28-million sq. km. was partitioned and occupied by European powers by a
combination of two strategies, treaties and conquest.

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o A series of treaties marked out spheres of influence of the European powers like Anglo-German treaties of
1890 and 1893, Anglo-Italian treaty of 1891, the Franco-Portuguese treaty of 1886, the German-Portuguese
treaty of 1886 etc.
o Three eras can be distinguished.
1. The first phase, 1880-1919: was one of conquest and occupation. The colonial system was consolidated
after 1910.
2. The second phase, 1919-1935, was the period of accommodation.
3. The third phase, 1935 onwards, was that of the independence movements.
o Within forty-five years from 1935, the colonial system was uprooted from over 94 percent of Africa.

FRENCH COLONIALISM IN AFRICA: ALGERIA

o Algeria was the first colony of France in North Africa. Charles X sent an expedition in 1830. In the
following years the civilian administration was organized.
o By 1839, 70,000 Frenchmen were concentrated in Algeria.
o French colonization began after 1839 when the lands of the subdued tribes were given over to French
colonists who established large estates and built huge palaces.
o Initially, France only controlled towns along the coast. Gradually, they conquered most of the country.
o Algeria was developed as an agrarian appendage of France. Raw materials were produced there and
French manufactures sold at great profit.
o The domestic industry and trade that existed prior to the French conquest were destroyed. Artisans were
ruined.
o Acquisition of land was the main form in which control was expressed.
o By 1871, colonial settlers had been given 480,000 hectares of land. French capitalist companies acquired
extensive lands.
o However, despite concentration of land in the hands of big capitalist companies, Algeria remained a
backward agrarian economy.
o Exploitation of Algeria's mineral wealth was another source of profit. French companies exploited iron
ore and phosphorite deposits.
o Railways were laid to facilitate trade and for military and strategic purposes.
o The growth of foreign trade from 1871 to 1914 was marked, suggesting that Algeria's utility as a colony
was increasing.
o Imports consisted primarily of cloth, indicating that Algeria was a consumer of French manufactures.
o After the failure of the Arab and Berber uprising in 1871 and the collapse of the Paris commune, followed
by colonial misrule at its worst and imperialist exploitation at its height.
o Seizure of land from the Arabs consolidated the position of the French colonists greatly.
o The native peasants and nomads were forced into the inhabitable areas and perished in great numbers.
o The French colonists were given political privileges that were denied to the Arabs and Berbers. The
former were citizens while the latter were subjects.
o They were subject to different laws and different rates of taxes.
o The native Algerians who demanded equality and democracy resisted this.

COLONIALISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA:

o Colonialism in SouthEast Asia lasted from the late fifteenth to the mid-twentieth century.
o Europe's military and naval superiority enabled her to dominate the rest of the world. The cannon and
the steam-powered gunboat outmatched the weapons of the Asian countries.
o Motives were wealth, prestige and converts to Christianity.
o Even after the heyday of the spice trade, South East Asia remained significant for Europe as she supplied
raw materials for European industry - oil, rubber, metals, rice, coffee, tea and sugar.
o Ancient states were dismantled, patterns of commerce were transformed and the cultural and
intellectual assumptions of Asian civilisations were challenged.

DUTCH COLONIALISM IN INDONESIA:

o The spice trade was extremely lucrative and attracted the European powers.
o The Portuguese came to Malacca in the early sixteenth century but their power was broken by 1600.They
were the first to introduce maize, tobacco, sweet potato and cocoa.
o The Dutch merchants formed a company in 1594. The companies were amalgamated in 1602 and given
a common charter.

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o Territorial expansion followed as an offshoot of trade. A secure base was needed to conduct trade and
keep rivals away.
o Revenue collection provided important financial resources.
o Competition with the French and British continued till 1682 when the British and French withdrew.
o The Dutch monopoly system was broken in 1784 under the provisions of the Treaty of Paris.
o The Javanese peasants were forced to cultivate export crops. The native people were forced to work for
a pittance and buy food at exorbitant prices from the Dutch traders.
o All agricultural exports were to the Netherlands. The peasant could not grow cash crops without permission
from the colonial authorities.
o Dutch patrols destroyed any unlicensed trees of cloves and nutmeg.
o There was very little capital investment in the colony. Mineral development was in its infancy. Railways
developed in the 1860s. By 1900, there were 3000 km of railways. The telegraph service was started in
1856 and the postal service in 1866.
o Colonialism fatally weakened the old political order in the archipelago, opening the way for new
structures. Dutch colonial rule paved the way for a modern state by suppressing the old kingdoms.

FRENCH COLONIALISM IN CAMBODIA:

o France occupied Saigon in 1859. In 1861, Cambodia became a French protectorate. The Union
Indochinoise was formed in 1887- Cochin China, Annam and Tonkin.
o Tariffs were imposed by France to benefit its own industries, especially textiles, iron and steel and
machinery. The result was an extremely slow tempo of industrialisation.
o Mining of coal, tin and zinc attracted French capital. Timber extraction and rubber planting developed.
o Between 1911 and 1920, 19.6 percent of exports from the region were to France. By 1938, this had gone
up to 53 per cent.
o Peasant ownership was replaced by landlordism. Landlords controlled 80 per cent of the land and employed
200,000 as sharecroppers.
o Absentee landlordism was rampant. Overpopulation. undernourishment and progressive pauperisation
of the countryside were the inevitable result.
o Taxation was extremely heavy.
o French colonial policy was to "Gallicise" (Frenchify) their territories. In contrast, the British and the
Dutch maintained traditional ways.

PATTERN OF COLONIAL DOMINATION: INDIRECT RULE (LATIN AMERICA)

o While large parts of Asia and Africa were brought under direct colonial rule, there were other areas where
colonialism took an indirect form.
o Indirect rule: This form of rule. which is also sometimes called semi-colonialism was one in which the
actual process of running a country remained in the hands of the local rulers, however weak and
inefficient they might be, while the imperialist powers concerned themselves with obtaining the
maximum economic gain by extracting raw materials according to their requirements and carving out a
market for their manufactured goods.
o The relationship was clearly exploitative - one in which, through different strategies and clever moves,
the economies of the semi-colonies were made to yield benefits to the metropolis-i.e., the imperialist power.

Indirect rule in Latin America:

o Technological advancements facilitating only exports :As in the case of all the backward colonies
coming into contact with the industrialized world in the nineteenth century, there was technological
modernization in Latin America as well. Electricity was introduced, as also steamships on the
waterways, telegraph lines were laid and a railway network created, which linked the interior regions to
the coast. However, these railway lines only facilitated the movement of exports and internal
communication did not under go much change.
o Impact on agriculture: The impact of imperialism upon agriculture was manifold. Railway construction
encroached on farm and pasture land. To finance the cost of the railways, more taxes were levied on the
farmers. As farmers took more and more to the export market, they produced less and less food for the
local market. This made them deeply vulnerable to the fluctuations of the international market.
o Dependency on Exports market: The market for these exports was unstable in the extreme and sometimes
a crash in international prices would spell the ruin of an entire nation's economy, like in Chile, wheat
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exports were adversely affected by the sudden closing of the wheat markets of California and Australia
between 1858 and 1861.
o Local powerful groups: In the case of practically all the Latin American countries, there were and still are
local economically powerful groups which were allied to the imperialist powers.
o Chilean economy : Andre Gunder Frank has provided evidence to show that in Chile, for instance, until
the 1929 depression, the Chilean economy was dominated by "three legs of the national economic table"
namely
▪ The mining exporters of the north,
▪ The agricultural and livestock exporters of the south and
▪ The large import firms which were usually located in the center, in Santiago and Valparaiso, but
which operated in the whole country.
▪ They lived a life of luxury, imitating the lifestyle of the elite in Europe. None of the three groups had
the least interest in developing indigenous industries.
▪ They were committed to free trade and to the development of more and more trade rather than any
internal development.
▪ They dominated the economic, political and social scene until the 1930s.
▪ Gunder Frank has termed them as the "pseudo- capitalist bourgeoisie" who replicated the same
metropolis-satellite relationship within the colony vis-a-vis the ordinary Chilean people.

RELATION BETWEEN CAPITALISM AND IMPERIALISM:

● Colonialism and imperialism evolved in different parts of the world, especially in the last quarter of the 19th
century.
● During this time, there were rivalries between various powers in Europe and elsewhere in an attempt to
gain supremacy at the world stage. Since no single country was powerful enough to emerge supreme, it led to
the formation of alliances which ultimately resulted in the outbreak of the war in 1914.
● Capitalist mode of production: In Das Kapital, Marx had shown that the capitalist mode of production was
driven by the need to extract surplus value from a class of wage laborers. This surplus value had to find a
market for the commodities which it produced.
● Capitalism leading to imperialism:
● Hobson developed this theme in his work Imperialism in 1902 and showed how in countries which had
seen the growth of capitalism, the distribution of national income was unequal.
o There was a large class of people with much less income than what they would have had, if there had
been an equitable distribution of wealth.
o The capitalist would soon find that he could not sell his products in his home country due to low
incomes.
o He would then look for markets in other European countries but as those countries became
industrialized, he would face competition there.
o Consequently, he would turn towards those countries which had no industries of their own and could
not protect themselves.
● Another motivating factor for imperialism, according to Hobson, was the constant desire of the capitalist
to maximize his profits.
● After successive rounds of investment and reinvestment, the capitalist would find it no longer profitable to
invest in his own country and he would therefore be compelled to seek avenues for investment elsewhere.
● Hobson concluded that it was in the nature of capitalism itself to create imperialism.
● Lenin's work was intended to show that the First World War was basically an imperialist war for the
partition of the world and for the distribution and redistribution of colonies, of "spheres of influence",
of finance capital etc.
● Imperialism was the consequence of European power politics, which was reflected in a policy of mutual
deterrence followed in the countries of Asia and Africa.
● Sometimes they would mutually agree not to occupy a territory but to share it among themselves -as in China.
The European powers, while fighting among themselves, would occupy all vacant spaces in a preemptive
manner so that the rival power would not come in or get an unfair advantage.

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THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Introduction: In 1914, a war began in Europe which soon engulfed almost the entire world. It was a total war
in which all the resources of the warring states were mobilized. It affected the economy of the entire world. The battles
were fought in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Because of the unprecedented extent of its spread and its
total nature, it is known as the First World War.
THE WORLD IN 1914
● Europe still dominated the rest of the world in 1914
⮚ Most of the decisions which shaped the fate of the world were taken in the capitals of Europe. Germany
was the leading power in Europe both militarily and economically. She had overtaken Britain in the
production of pig-iron and steel.
⮚ Russian industry was expanding rapidly but had been so backward to begin with that she could not
seriously challenge Germany and Britain.
⮚ In 1914, the USA produced more coal, pig-iron, and steel than either Germany or Britain and now
ranked as a world power.
⮚ Japan too had modernized rapidly and was a power to be reckoned with after her defeat of Russia
in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5.

● The political systems of these world powers varied widely

⮚ The USA, Britain and France had democratic forms of government.
⮚ Germany had an elected lower house of parliament (Reichstag), but real power lay with the
Chancellor (a sort of prime minister) and the Kaiser (emperor).
⮚ Italy was a monarchy with an elected parliament, but the franchise (right to vote) was limited to wealthy
people.
⮚ Japan had an elected lower house, but here too the franchise was restricted, and the emperor and the
privy council held most of the power.
⮚ The Tsar (emperor) of Russia and the Emperor of Austria (who was also King of Hungary) were
autocratic or absolute rulers.

● Imperial expansion after 1880

⮚ Imperialism is the building up of an empire by seizing territory overseas.
⮚ Most of Africa was taken over by the European states in what became known as the 'the Scramble for
Africa' to get control of new markets and new sources of raw materials.
⮚ There was also intervention in the crumbling Chinese Empire; the European powers, the USA and
Japan all, at different times, forced the helpless Chinese to grant trading concessions.
● Europe had divided itself into two alliance systems- European countries began to form themselves into
opposing groups. In 1882, the Triple Alliance was formed. As opposed to this emerged the Triple Entente
(meaning an ‘understanding’).
The Triple Alliance The Triple Entente
Germany Britain
Italy France
Austria-Hungary Russia

In addition, Japan and Britain had signed an alliance in 1902. Friction between the two main groups (sometimes
called 'the armed camps') had brought Europe to the verge of war several times since 1900.
● Causes of friction
⮚ There was naval rivalry between Britain and Germany.
⮚ The French resented the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany at the end of the Franco-Prussian War
(1871).
⮚ The Germans accused Britain, Russia, and France of trying to 'encircle' them; the Germans were also
disappointed with the results of their expansionist policies. Although they had taken possession of
some islands in the Pacific and some territory in Africa, their empire was small in comparison with
those of the other European powers.

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⮚ The Russians were suspicious of Austrian ambitions in the Balkans and worried about the growing
military and economic strength of Germany.
⮚ Serbian nationalism was probably the most dangerous cause of friction.

● Pan-Slav and Pan-German movement

⮚ The Balkan had been under the rule of the Ottoman Turks. However, in the nineteenth century, the
Ottoman rule had begun to collapse.
⮚ Russian Czars hoped that these areas would come under their control once the Ottomans were ousted.
They therefore encouraged a Pan-Slav movement which was based on the theory that all the Slavs of
eastern Europe were one people.
⮚ Many areas in Austria-Hungary were inhabited by the Slavs. Russia, therefore, encouraged movements
both against the Ottoman empire and Austria-Hungary. Serbia led the movement for uniting the
areas inhabited by the Slavs.
⮚ Other major powers in Europe were alarmed at the growth of the Russian influence in the Balkans which
they wanted to check. Meanwhile, Austria-Hungary had plans of expansion in this area.
⮚ Corresponding to the Pan-Slav movement was the Pan-German movement which aimed at the
expansion of Germany all over central Europe and in the Balkans.
Arising from all these resentments and tensions came a series of events which culminated in the outbreak of war in late
July 1914.
THE EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE WAR:
● The Moroccan Crisis (1905-6)
⮚ With the signing of the Anglo-French 'Entente Cordiale' (1904), it was agreed that France would
recognize Britain's position in Egypt in return for British approval of a possible French takeover of
Morocco
⮚ The Germans announced that they would assist the Sultan of Morocco to maintain his country's
independence, and demanded an international conference to discuss its future. A conference was duly
held at Algeciras in southern Spain.
⮚ The Germans did not take the 'Entente' seriously because there was a long history of hostility between
Britain and France. But to the amazement of the Germans, Britain, Russia, Italy, and Spain supported
the French demand to control the Moroccan bank and police. It was a serious diplomatic defeat for
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● The British agreement with Russia (1907)
⮚ Russia's defeat by Japan in the war of 1904-5 seemed to suggest that the Russians were no longer much
of a military threat. The outbreak of revolution in Russia in January 1905 had weakened the country
internally.
⮚ The Russians were keen to end the long-standing rivalry and anxious to attract British investment for
their industrial modernization program.
⮚ In October 1905, when the Tsar granted the Russian people freedom of speech and the right to
have an elected parliament, the British began to feel more kindly disposed towards the tsarist system.
It made agreement possible.
⮚ It was not a military alliance and not necessarily an anti-German move, but the Germans saw it as
confirmation of their fears that Britain, France, and Russia were planning to 'encircle' them.

● The First Balkan War (1912)

⮚ The war began when Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria (calling themselves the Balkan League)
launched a series of attacks on Turkey. They soon captured most of the Turkish territory in Europe.
⮚ Together with the German government, the British Foreign Secretary arranged a peace conference in
London. He was anxious to avoid the conflict spreading.
⮚ The resulting settlement divided up the former Turkish lands among the Balkan states. However, the
Serbs were not happy: they wanted Albania, which would give them an outlet to the sea.
⮚ The Austrians, with German and British support, insisted that Albania should become an independent
state. This was a deliberate Austrian move to prevent Serbia becoming more powerful.

● The Second Balkan War (1913)- The Bulgarians were dissatisfied with the peace settlement. They had been
hoping for Macedonia, but most of it had been given to Serbia. Bulgaria therefore attacked Serbia, but their plan
misfired when Greece, Romania and Turkey rallied to support Serbia. The Bulgarians were defeated, and by
the Treaty of Bucharest (1913), they forfeited most of their gains from the first war. It seemed that Anglo-
German influence had prevented an escalation of the war, however, the consequences of the Balkan Wars
were serious:
⮚ Serbia had been strengthened and was determined to stir up trouble among the Serbs and Croats living
inside Austria-Hungary;
⮚ the Austrians were equally determined to put an end to Serbia's ambitions;
⮚ the Germans took Britain’s willingness to co-operate as a sign that Britain was prepared to be detached
from France and Russia.

● The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand

⮚ This tragic event took place in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, on 28 June 1914, and was the
immediate cause of Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia, which was soon to develop into
the First World War.
⮚ The Austrians blamed the Serb government and sent a harsh ultimatum. The Serbs accepted most of the
demands in it, but the Austrians, with a promise of German support, were determined to use the incident
as an excuse for war.
⮚ On 28 July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The Russians, anxious not to let the Serbs
down again, ordered a general mobilization.
⮚ The German government demanded that this should be canceled, and when the Russians failed to
comply, Germany declared war on Russia and on France.
⮚ When German troops entered Belgium on their way to invade France, Britain (who in 1839 had
promised to defend Belgian neutrality) demanded their withdrawal. When this demand was ignored,
Britain entered the war. Other countries joined later.
WHAT CAUSED THE WAR, AND WHO WAS TO BLAME?
There are differing opinions on who was to blame, however, the point which is beyond dispute is that the quarrel
between Austria-Hungary and Serbia sparked off the outbreak of war. The Austro-Serb quarrel explains the outbreak of
the war, but not why it became a world war. Here are some of the reasons which have been suggested for the escalation
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(a) The alliance system or 'armed camps' made war inevitable- Suspicions mounted between the two opposing
camps. Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany got themselves into situations which they could not escape from without
suffering further humiliation; war seemed to be the only way for them to save face. However, many historians think
this explanation is not convincing; there had been many crises since 1904, and none of them had led to a major war. In
fact, there was nothing binding about these alliances.
(b) Colonial rivalry in Africa and the Far East- The argument that German disappointment with their imperial gains
and resentment at the success of other powers helped cause the war is not convincing. Although there had certainly been
disputes, they had always been settled without war. In early July 1914 Anglo-German relations were good. However,
there was one side effect of colonial rivalry which did cause dangerous friction - this was naval rivalry.
(c) The naval race between Britain and Germany- Germans made a determined effort to expand their navy. The rapid
growth of the German fleet probably did not worry the British too much at first. However, the introduction of the
powerful British 'Dreadnought' battleship in 1906 changed all this because it made all other battleships obsolete. The
resulting naval race was the main bone of contention between the two right up to 1914.
(d) Economic rivalry- It has been argued that the desire for economic mastery of the world caused German businessmen
and capitalists to want war with Britain, which still owned about half the world's tonnage of merchant ships in
1914.
(e) Russia made war more likely by supporting Serbia- Russia was the first to order a general mobilization, and it
was this Russian mobilization which provoked Germany to mobilize.
(f) German backing for Austria was crucially important- It is significant that Germany restrained the Austrians from
declaring war on Serbia in 1913, but in 1914 encouraged them to go ahead.
(g) A 'tragedy of miscalculation'-Most of the leading rulers and politicians seemed to be incompetent and made bad
mistakes:
● The Austrians miscalculated by thinking that Russia would not support Serbia.
● Germany made a crucial mistake by promising to support Austria with no conditions attached
● Politicians in Russia and Germany miscalculated by assuming that mobilization would not necessarily mean
war.
Nevertheless, probably most historians, including many Germans, accept Fritz Fischer's theory as the most convincing
one: that the outbreak of war was deliberately provoked by Germany's leaders. The Kaiser and his leading advisers
and generals believed that time was running out for them as Russia's vast armament plans neared completion. It was a
war to ensure survival, rather than a war to secure world domination, and it had to take place before Germany's position
among the Great Powers deteriorated too far for the war to be won.
COURSE OF THE WAR
● Germany had hoped that she would be able to defeat France within a few weeks and then turn against Russia.
The plan seemed to succeed for a while.
● Russia had opened attacks on Germany and Austria. Soon the German advance on France was halted and the
war in Europe entered a long period of stalemate.
● In the meantime, the war had spread to many other parts of the world such as West Asia, Africa, and the Far
East.
● After the halt of the German advance, a new type of warfare developed. The warring armies dug trenches
from which they conducted raids on each other.
● On the Western Front, which included eastern France and Belgium, the troops for nearly four years without
any side being able to dislodge the other.
● On the Eastern Front, Germany and Austria succeeded in repulsing the Russian attack and capturing parts of
the Russian empire.
● Outside Europe, there were campaigns against the Ottoman empire in Palestine, Mesopotamia, and Arabia
and against Germany and Turkey in Iran where they were trying to establish their influence.
● Japan occupied German possessions in east Asia, and Britain and France seized most of the German colonies in
Africa.
● Many new weapons were introduced such as machine guns and liquid fire. The British introduced the use of
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● Both the warring groups tried to block each other’s supplies of food, manufactures and arms and sea warfare
played an important part in this.

● USA Enters the War

⮚ In April, 1917, the USA declared war on Germany. In 1915, German U-boats had sunk a British
ship. Among the 1153 passengers killed, 128 were Americans. This incident aroused anti-German
feelings in the USA.
⮚ Entente countries had raised vast amounts of loans in the USA. Many Americans had subscribed to
these loans which could be paid back only if these countries won the war. Therefore, economic
considerations were also a reason.
⮚ Moreover, there was also a fear that if Germany won the war, she would become a serious rival to the
USA.
● In 1917, Russia withdrew from the war after the October Revolution. The Russian revolutionaries had opposed
the war since the beginning. The day after the Bolshevik government came to power, it issued a Decree of
Peace with proposals to end the war without any annexations and indemnities.
● Russia signed a peace treaty with Germany in March 1918. Germany imposed very harsh terms on Russia but
the Russian government accepted these terms.
WHY DID THE WAR LAST SO LONG?
There are several reasons why the conflict lasted so long.
● The two sides were evenly balanced, and although the main theater of war was in Europe, it quickly
became a global conflict.
● For example, Italy (May 1915), Romania (August 1916), the USA (April 1917) and Japan joined the
Allied side, while Turkey (November 1914) and Bulgaria (October 1915) joined the Central Powers.
● To complicate matters further, troops from the British Empire - from India, Australia, New Zealand,
Canada, and South Africa - all played their part in the fighting, which eventually spread into the eastern
Mediterranean, Asia and Africa.
● The main countries involved in the war had very strongly held war aims which they were absolutely
determined to achieve. The Germans aimed to take territory from Poland in the east and Belgium in
the west to act as buffer zones against Russia and France. The French were obsessed with taking back
Alsace-Lorraine, which the Germans had taken in 1871.
● Propaganda helped to motivate and encourage the general public as well as the military on both sides.
Morale was boosted and support for the war sustained by newspapers, posters, films, and
advertisements
WHY DID THE CENTRAL POWERS LOSE THE WAR?
The reasons can be briefly summarized:
● Once the Schlieffen Plan had failed, removing all hope of a quick German victory, it was bound to be a strain
for them, facing war on two fronts.
● Allied Sea power was decisive, enforcing the deadly blockade, which caused desperate food shortages among
the civilian population and crippled exports, while at the same time making sure that the Allied armies were
fully supplied.
● The entry of the USA brought vast new resources to the Allies and made up for the departure of Russia from
the war. It meant that the Allied powers were able to produce more war materials than the enemy, and in the
end this proved decisive.
● Allied political leaders at the critical time were more competent than those of the Central Powers. Eventually,
too, there was a great improvement in the coordination between infantry, artillery, and aerial observation.
● The continuous strain of heavy losses told on the Germans - they lost their best troops in the 1918 offensive and
the new troops were young and inexperienced. At the same time the forces available to the Allies were increasing
as more Americans arrived, bringing the total of American troops to around two million.
● Germany was badly let down by her allies and was constantly having to help the Austrians and Bulgarians.
The combination of military defeat and dire food shortages produced a great war-weariness, leading to mutiny
in the navy, destruction of morale in the army and revolution at home.

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END OF THE WAR
Many efforts were made to bring the war to an end. Though these efforts did not get any positive response from the
governments of the warring countries, anti-war feelings grew among the people. There was widespread unrest and
disturbances.
● In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson, the then President of the USA, proposed a peace program. This has
become famous as Wilson’s Fourteen Points. These included:
⮚ Open diplomacy without secret treaties
⮚ Economic free trade on the seas during war and peace
⮚ Equal trade conditions
⮚ Decrease armaments among all nations
⮚ Adjust colonial claims
⮚ Evacuation of all Central Powers from Russia and allow it to define its own independence
⮚ Belgium to be evacuated and restored
⮚ Return of Alsace-Lorraine region and all French territories
⮚ Readjust Italian borders
⮚ Austria-Hungary to be provided an opportunity for self-determination
⮚ Redraw the borders of the Balkan region creating Romania, Serbia and Montenegro
⮚ Creation of a Turkish state with guaranteed free trade in the Dardanelles
⮚ Creation of an independent Polish state
⮚ Creation of the League of Nations

● Britain, France, and the USA launched a military offensive in July 1918 and Germany and her allies began to
collapse.
● Bulgaria withdrew from the war in September, and Turkey surrendered in October.
● Austria-Hungary surrendered in November because of growing political discontent in their country.
● In Germany, revolution broke out. She became a republic and the German emperor Kaiser William II fled to
Holland. The new German government signed an armistice on 11 November, 1918 and the war was over

PEACE TREATIES
The victorious powers (the Allies) met in a conference first in Versailles and later in Paris between January and
June 1919. Though 27 countries were represented at the conference, the terms of the peace treaties were really decided
by 3 countries- Britain, France, and USA. The terms were thus imposed on the defeated by the victors.
● Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919.
⮚ Lorraine was returned to France.
⮚ It declared Germany and her allies guilty of aggression.
⮚ Alsace-The coal mines in the German area called Saar were ceded to France for 15 years while the area
was to be governed by the League of Nations.
⮚ Germany also ceded parts of her pre-war territory to Denmark, Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.
The area of Rhine valley was to be demilitarized.
⮚ Disarming Germany: the strength of her army was to be limited to 100,000 and she was not required
to have any air force and submarines.
⮚ She was disposed of all her colonies which were taken over by the victors. For instance, Togo and
Cameroon were divided between France and Britain, while German colonies in the Pacific were given
to Japan.
⮚ China was aligned with the Allies during the war but her areas under German possession were not
restored to China; instead, they were given away to Japan.
⮚ Germany was also required to pay for the loss and damage suffered by the Allies during the war and
the amount of reparations was fixed at £6,600,000,000.
● Separate treaties were signed with allies of Germany. Austria-Hungary was broken up and Austria was
required to recognize the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland. She had to cede
territories to them and to Italy.
● Baltic states which earlier formed parts of the Russian empire were made independent.

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⮚ The treaty with Turkey stipulated the complete dismemberment of the Ottoman empire. Britain was
given Palestine and Mesopotamia and Syria to France as what were called ‘mandates.
⮚ An important part of peace treaties was the Covenant of the League of Nations. It was intended as a
world organization of all independent states and aimed at preservation of peace and security and
peaceful settlement of international conflicts, and bound its members not to resort to war.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR AND THE PEACE TREATIES
● Unprecedented devastation- The number of persons who fought the war is estimated between 53 and 70
million people. The total number of those killed in the war are estimated at about 9 million. The air raids,
epidemics and famines killed many more.
● Transformed political map of the world, particularly Europe – Austria and Hungary became separate
independent states. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia emerged as independent states. Poland was re-formed as an
independent state.
● Beginning of End of European Supremacy- Economically and militarily, Europe was surpassed by the USA
which emerged from the war as a world power.
● Strengthening of Freedom movements in Asia and Africa- The weakening of Europe and the emergence of
the Soviet Union which declared her support to the struggles of national independence contributed to the
growing strength of these struggles.
● Gave birth to feelings of discontentment- The First World War had been believed to be ‘a war to end all
war.’ However, the peace treaties failed to ensure this. On the contrary, extremely harsh terms were imposed
on the defeated countries which sowed the seeds of further conflicts.
● Imperialism was not destroyed- The victorious powers had in fact enlarged their possessions. The factors
which caused rivalries between imperialist countries leading to the war still existed.
● Emergence of Soviet Union was considered a danger to the existing social and economic system in many
countries.

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These factors, combined with certain developments that took place in the next twenty years, created conditions for
another world war.
TO WHAT EXTENT CAN GERMANY BE CONSIDERED RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OUTBREAK OF
THE FIRST WORLD WAR?
Germany was significantly responsible for the outbreak of World War One in 1914.

⮚ It all began in 1870, which was the year of the Franco-Prussian War. This war led to the unification of a
powerful and dynamic Germany, which threatened the balance of power in Europe.
⮚ France was defeated, humiliated, and isolated in this war, resulting in Germany obtaining French territory
of Alsace-Lorraine. France was determined to acquire Alsace-Lorraine back (revanchism). But France could
not afford another war. These events created great tensions between Germany and France, which in many
ways provoked the First World War.
⮚ Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Germany, had intentions to establish as many allies as possible.
However, after his resignation in 1890 his plans were destroyed and the political status of Germany deteriorated,
which meant the downfall of peace.
⮚ Germany did not renew the reinsurance policy with Russia, resulting in Russia feeling isolated. The Dual-
Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary made the Russians feel threatened, and as a response they
joined a Rival-Alliance with France. This put Germany in a position of threatening peace in Europe.
⮚ In the late 1900, Kaiser Wilhelm II was certain to enforce his new policy ‘Weltpolitik’ which was a foreign
policy of colonial expansion and imperialism. In 1894, Germany passed a naval law that was to double the
size of the navy; soon after he suggested that the navy should be quadrupled. This created tension between
Germany and Britain and provoked a ‘naval race.’
⮚ Alfred von Schlieffen, equipped Germany with an offensive war plan named ‘The Schlieffen Plan.’ The plan
called for Germany to concentrate about 90 percent of its forces against France at the beginning of a

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European war. 10 percent of German forces were left as a defense against Russia. This plan called for suspicion
in Europe.
⮚ As Kaiser Wilhelm II wanted to continue his ‘Weltpolitik,’ he interfered with France in Morocco in 1911.
This caused a series of tensions around Europe.
However, on the other hand, there were a few events that provoked the First World War, but could not be entirely blamed
on Germany.
● Bosnian crisis of 1908 to 1909- As Austria was the only ally Germany had and did not want to lose, Germany
was unwillingly forced into supporting Austria-Hungary to capture Bosnia-Herzegovina against Serbia.
Yet other countries believed that Germany could have remained in a neutral position. As a result, Russia
supported Serbia in taking Bosnia, yet Germany did not retreat forces until Russia retreated, creating tensions,
and unwillingly provoking the First World War.
● During these years there was a lot of nationalism, and due to the Alliance systems, such as the Triple Entente,
separatism existed in Europe. These can be seen as minor events that may have provoked the First World War.
● The spark began in 1914 with the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-
Hungarian throne, and his wife. Austria-Hungary did not take this as well, and instead of reaching an agreement
it declared war on Serbia. This then created a chain reaction of other European Powers joining the war, the
Central Powers (Germany and Austria) against the Allies.
● Germany was significantly responsible for the outbreak of World War One in 1914. Also, Germany as well as
Austria-Hungary preferred a war over a peaceful agreement. However, other events also played a significant
role in provoking the war.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS
● The League of Nations formally came into existence on 10 January 1920, the same day that the Versailles
Treaty came into operation. It was headquartered in Geneva in Switzerland.
● The League was the brainchild of the American President Woodrow Wilson.
● The League had two main aims:
⮚ To maintain peace through collective security: if one state attacked another, the member states of the
League would act collectively, to restrain the aggressor, either by economic or by military sanctions.
⮚ To encourage international co-operation, in order to solve economic and social problems.
ORGANIZATION OF THE LEAGUE
There were 42 member states at the beginning and 55 by 1926 when Germany was admitted. It had five main organs.
(a) The General Assembly- It met annually and contained representatives of all the member states, each of which had
one vote. Its function was to decide general policy. An advantage of the League Assembly was that it gave small and
medium-sized states a chance to raise issues that concerned them and have their say on world developments.
(b) The Council- This was a much smaller body, which met more often, at least three times a year, and contained four
permanent members - Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. The USA was to have been a permanent member but
decided not to join the League. It was the Council's task to deal with specific political disputes as they arose.
(c) The Permanent Court of International Justice- This was based at the Hague in Holland and consisted of 15 judges
of different nationalities; it dealt with legal disputes between states, as opposed to political ones.
(d) The Secretariat- This looked after all the paperwork, preparing agendas, and writing resolutions and reports so that
the decisions of the League could be carried out.
(e) Commissions and committees- these were formed to deal with specific problems. The main commissions were
those which handled the mandates, military affairs, minority groups and disarmament. There were committees for
international labor, health, economic and financial organization, child welfare, and women's rights.
The main function of the League was meant to be peacekeeping. It was intended that it would operate in the following
way: all disputes threatening war would be submitted to the League, and any member which resorted to war, thus
breaking the Covenant, would face collective action by the rest.
SUCCESSES OF THE LEAGUE
(a) It would be unfair to dismiss the League as a total failure:

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⮚ Many of the committees and commissions achieved valuable results and much was done to foster
international co-operation. One of the most successful was the International Labour Organization
(ILO). Its purpose was to improve conditions of labor all over the world by persuading governments
to fix a maximum working day and week, specify adequate minimum wages; introduce sickness and
unemployment benefits etc.
⮚ The Refugee Organization solved the problem of thousands of former prisoners of war marooned in
Russia at the end of the war; about half a million were returned home. After 1933, valuable help was
given to thousands of people fleeing from the Nazi persecution in Germany.
⮚ The Health Organization did good work in investigating the causes of epidemics, and it was
especially successful in combating a typhus epidemic in Russia.
⮚ Not all were successful, however; the Disarmament Commission made no progress in the near-
impossible task of persuading member states to reduce armaments, even though they had all promised
to do so when they agreed to the Covenant.

(b) Political disputes resolved- Several political disputes were referred to the League in the early 1920s. In all but two
cases, the League's decisions were accepted. In fact, during this same period, the League found itself twice
overruled by the Conference of Ambassadors, based in Paris, which had been set up to deal with problems arising
out of the Versailles Treaties. The League made no response to these acts of defiance, and this was not a promising
sign.

WHY DID THE LEAGUE FAIL TO PRESERVE PEACE?

Unfortunately, the League faced several challenges during the 1930s:
(a) It was too closely linked with the Versailles Treaties- It made the League seem like an organization created
especially for the benefit of the victorious powers. In addition, it had to defend a peace settlement which was far from
perfect. It was inevitable that some of its provisions would cause trouble, for example, the territorial gains of the Italians
and the inclusion of Germans in Czechoslovakia and Poland.
(b) It was rejected by the USA- In March 1920, the US Senate rejected both the Versailles settlement and the League.
The absence of the USA meant that the League was deprived of a powerful member whose presence would have been
of great psychological and financial benefit.

Figure 2: Great power membership of the League of Nations

(c) Other important powers were not involved- Germany was not allowed to join until 1926 and the USSR only
became a member in 1934 (when Germany left). So for the first few years of its existence the League was deprived of
three of the world's most important powers.
(d) The Conference of Ambassadors in Paris was an embarrassment- on several occasions it took precedence over
the League.
● In 1920 the League supported Lithuania in her claim to Vilna, which had just been seized from her by the
Poles; but when the Conference of Ambassadors insisted on awarding Vilna to Poland, the League allowed it to
go ahead.
● A later example was the Corfu Incident (1923): this arose from a boundary dispute between Greece and
Albania, in which three Italian officials working on the boundary commission were killed. Mussolini blamed
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the Greeks, demanded huge compensation, and occupied the Greek island of Corfu. Greece appealed to the
League, but Mussolini refused to recognize its competence. He threatened to withdraw Italy from the League,
whereupon the Ambassadors ordered Greece to pay the full amount demanded.
(e) There were serious weaknesses in the Covenant- These made it difficult to ensure that decisive action was taken
against any aggressor. The League had no military force of its own, and though Article 16 expected member states to
supply troops if necessary, a resolution passed in 1923 held that each member would decide for itself whether or not to
fight in a crisis. This clearly made nonsense of the idea of collective security.
(f) It was very much a French/British affair- The continued absence of the USA and the USSR, plus the hostility of
Italy, made the League very much a French/British affair. The British Conservatives were never very enthusiastic about
the League. They preferred to sign the Locarno Treaties (1925), outside the League, instead of conducting negotiations
within it.
None of these weaknesses necessarily doomed the League to failure, however, provided all the members were prepared
to refrain from aggression and accept League decisions; between 1925 and 1930 events ran smoothly.
(g) The world economic crisis began in 1929- the Great Depression brought unemployment and falling living
standards to most countries, and caused extreme right-wing governments to come to power in Japan and Germany;
together with Mussolini, they refused to keep to the rules and took a series of actions which revealed the League's
weaknesses.
(h) The Japanese invasion of Manchuria- In 1931 Japanese troops invaded the Chinese territory of Manchuria. China
appealed to the League, which condemned Japan and ordered her troops to be withdrawn. When Japan refused, the
League appointed a commission under Lord Lytton which suggested that Manchuria should be governed by the
League. However, Japan rejected this and withdrew from the League (March 1933). The question of economic
sanctions, let alone military ones, was never even raised. Japan had successfully defied the League, whose prestige was
damaged, though not yet fatally.
(i) The failure of the World Disarmament Conference (1932-33)- This met under the auspices of the League, and its
failure was a grave disappointment. The Germans asked for equality of armaments with France, but when the French
demanded that this should be postponed for at least eight years, Hitler was able to use the French attitude as an excuse
to withdraw Germany from the conference and later from the League.
(j) The Italian invasion of Abyssinia (October 1935)- This was the most serious blow to the League's prestige and
credibility. The League condemned Italy and introduced economic sanctions; however, these were not applied to exports
of oil, coal, and steel to Italy. So half-hearted were the sanctions that Italy was able to complete the conquest of Abyssinia
without too much inconvenience (May 1936). A few weeks later sanctions were abandoned, and Mussolini had
successfully flouted the League. The results were disastrous:
● Mussolini was annoyed by the sanctions, and began to draw closer to Hitler;
● small states lost all faith in the League;
● Hitler was encouraged to break the Versailles Treaty by introducing conscription (March 1935) and sending
German troops into the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland (March 1936)
Neither matter was raised at the League Council, mainly because France and Britain were afraid that Hitler would reject
any decision that went against Germany, and they were reluctant to be forced into military action against the Germans.
CONCLUSION
● After 1935, therefore, the League was never taken seriously again. The League was only as strong as the
determination of its leading members to stand up to aggression; unfortunately, determination of that sort was
sadly lacking during the 1930s.
● However, some historians believe that the League should not be dismissed as a complete failure. They
consider it as a bold step towards international cooperation which failed in some of its aims but succeeded
comprehensively in others.
● It marked an important step on the road to our contemporary global system of international organization,
coordinated through the United Nations, which was built on the foundations of the League's experience.
● Expectations of what the League might achieve were far too high and unrealistic. It was unrealistic to expect
the League to deal with aggressors when it had no army of its own and no mechanism to compel member states
to provide their troops.

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● Rather than dwelling on its weaknesses or condemn its failings, we should applaud the League's successes,
while continuing to learn important lessons from its history.

THE WORLD FROM 1919 TO 1939

Between the two world wars, the relations among the nations fall into two distinct phases, with the division in January
1933, the month in which Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. The phase till 1933 can further be divided roughly
into three:
• 1919-23
• 1923-30
• 1930-3
(a)1919 to 1923
During this period, relations were disturbed by problems arising from the peace settlement.

⮚ Both Turkey and Italy were dissatisfied with their treatment; Turkey was prepared to defy the settlement.
The Italians, under the rule of Mussolini (1922), showed their resentment first by the seizure of Fiume, which
had been awarded to Yugoslavia, and then in the Corfu Incident; later, Italian aggression was turned against
Abyssinia (1935).
⮚ The problem of German reparations caused strained relations between Britain and France, because of their
different attitudes towards German recovery. France wanted a weak Germany; Britain wanted an
economically strong Germany which would be able to buy British exports.
⮚ Further, in 1923, the French troops occupied the Ruhr (an important German industrial region) to seize goods
that the Germans were refusing to pay in cash. This brought about the collapse of the German currency and
deteriorated the relations further.
⮚ The USA, which chose to remain politically isolated, still exercised considerable economic influence on
Europe, insisting on full payment of European war debts.
⮚ Russia was under Bolshevik (Communist) rule and was viewed with suspicion by the western countries. They
intervened against the Bolsheviks in the civil war which ravaged Russia during 1918-20.
⮚ The new states which came into existence as a result of the war and the peace settlement - these included
Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and Poland - all had serious problems and were divided
among themselves.
(b) 1924 to 1929
This phase saw an improvement in the international atmosphere as a result of:

⮚ Changes in political leadership- The new leaders were keen to improve relations. The result was the Dawes
Plan, worked out in 1924 with American help, which eased the situation regarding German reparations
⮚ Signing of the Locarno Treaties in 1925- The frontiers in western Europe were fixed at Versailles: this seemed
to remove French suspicions of German intentions.
⮚ Germany was allowed to join the League in 1926 and two years later, 65 nations signed the Kellogg-Briand
Pact, renouncing war.
⮚ The 1929 Young Plan reduced German reparations to a more manageable figure.
(c) 1930 to 1933
Towards the end of 1929 the world started to face economic difficulties, which negatively affected international
relations. Economic deterioration became a reason for:

⮚ Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931

⮚ Mass unemployment in Germany enabled Hitler to come to power.
In this unpromising climate, the World Disarmament Conference met in 1932, only to break up in failure after the
German delegates walked out (1933).

ATTEMPTS MADE TO IMPROVE THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THEIR SUCCESS

(a) The League of Nations
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The League played a significant role, settling several international disputes and problems. However, its authority seemed
to be weakened by the fact that many states seemed to prefer signing agreements independent of the League.
(b) The Washington Conferences (1921-2)
These were held to try to improve relations between the USA and Japan. The USA was suspicious of growing
Japanese power in the Far East, and of Japanese influence in China
● To prevent a naval building race, it was agreed that the Japanese navy would be limited to three-fifths the size
of the American and British navies.
● Japan agreed to withdraw from Kiaochow and the Shantung province of China, which she had occupied since
1914. In return she was allowed to keep the former German Pacific islands as mandates.
● The western powers promised not to build any more naval bases within striking distance of Japan.
● The USA, Japan, Britain, and France agreed to guarantee the neutrality of China and to respect each other's
possessions in the Far East.
At the time, the agreements were regarded as a great success, and relations between the powers involved improved.
However, Japan was left supreme in the Far East. The navies of Britain and the USA, though larger, were spread more
widely. This was to have unfortunate consequences for China in the 1930s when the USA refused to become involved
in checking Japanese aggression.
(c) The Genoa Conference (1922)
This was the brainchild of the British prime minister Lloyd George. He hoped it would solve the following problems:
● Franco-German hostility
● European war debts to the USA
● The need to resume proper diplomatic relations with Soviet Russia.
Unfortunately, the conference failed: the French insisted on full reparations payments; the Americans refused even to
attend, and the Russians and Germans withdrew.
(c)The Dawes Plan, 1924.
It was an attempt to break the general deadlock.
● No reduction was made in the total amount that the Germans were expected to pay, but it was agreed that
they should pay annually only what they could reasonably afford until they became more prosperous.
● A foreign loan of 800 million gold marks, mostly from the USA, was to be made to Germany.
● The French, now assured of at least some reparations from Germany, agreed to withdraw their troops from
the Ruhr.
The plan was successful: the German economy began to recover because of the American loans, and international
tensions gradually relaxed.
(e) The Locarno Treaties (1925)
These were several different agreements involving Germany, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Poland, and
Czechoslovakia.
● The most important one was that Germany, France and Belgium promised to respect their joint frontiers
● It was also agreed that France would help Poland and Czechoslovakia if Germany attacked them.
The agreements were greeted with enthusiasm all over Europe, and the reconciliation between France and Germany was
referred to as the 'Locarno honeymoon'.
However, no guarantees were given by Germany or Britain about Germany's eastern frontiers with Poland and
Czechoslovakia.
(f) The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
It proposed that France and the USA should sign a pact renouncing war. Eventually 65 states signed, agreeing to
renounce war as an instrument of national policy. This sounded impressive but was completely useless because no

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mention was made of sanctions against any state which broke its pledge. For instance, Japan signed the Pact, but this
did not prevent her from waging war against China only three years later.
(g) The Young Plan (1929)
● The aim of this initiative was to settle the remaining problem of reparations – the Dawes Plan had left the
total amount payable uncertain. It included plans of reducing Germany’s reparations.
● The plan was welcomed by many in Germany, but the Nazi party campaigned against accepting it, because they
thought it offered Germany far too little.
● The Wall Street Crash on the American stock exchange soon developed into a worldwide economic crisis -
the Great Depression, and by 1932 there were over six million people unemployed in Germany. At the
Lausanne Conference (1932), Britain and France released Germany from most of the remaining reparations
payments. However, in January 1933 Hitler became German Chancellor, and after that, international tension
mounted.
(h) The World Disarmament Conference (1932-3)
● The World Disarmament Conference met in Geneva to try and work out a formula for scaling down
armaments.
● The British said they needed more armaments to protect their empire.
● The French, alarmed by the rapid increase in support for the Nazis in Germany, refused either to disarm or to
allow Germany equality of armaments with them.
● Hitler, knowing that Britain and Italy sympathized with Germany, withdrew from the conference (October
1933). A week later Germany also withdrew from the League.
● In retrospect, even the 'Locarno spirit' proved an illusion, because so much depended on economic prosperity.
When this evaporated, all the old hostilities and suspicions surfaced again, and authoritarian regimes came to
power, which were prepared to risk aggression.

HOW DID FRANCE TRY TO DEAL WITH THE PROBLEM OF GERMANY BETWEEN 1919 AND 1933?
The French had suffered two German invasions in less than 50 years. They wanted to make sure that the Germans never
again violated the sacred soil of France. Hence, they tried different methods of dealing with the problem:
● trying to keep Germany economically and militarily weak;
● signing alliances with other states to isolate Germany, and working for a strong League of Nations;
● extending the hand of reconciliation and friendship.
In the end, all three tactics failed.
(a) Trying to keep Germany weak
The harsh peace settlement provided in the Treaty of Versailles did not benefit the French much.
● Americans were afraid that membership of the League might involve them in another war, and preferred a policy
of isolation. Consequently, they rejected the entire peace settlement. The British used this as an excuse to cancel
their promises
● France demanded that the Germans should pay reparations. However, financial troubles in Germany soon
caused the government to fall behind with its payments. The French, who claimed to need the cash from
reparations to balance their budget and pay their own debts to the USA, became desperate.
● France decided that drastic methods were needed to force the Germans to pay and to weaken their powers of
revival. In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr. The Germans replied with passive
resistance, strikes and sabotage.
(b) A network of alliances and a strong League
● The French tried to increase their security by building up a network of alliances, first with Poland (1921) and
later with Czechoslovakia (1924), Romania (1926) and Yugoslavia (1927). This network, known as the 'Little
Entente'.
● It did not amount to much because the states involved were comparatively weak. What the French needed was
a renewal of the old alliance with Russia.

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● The French worked for a strong League of Nations, compelling aggressive powers to behave themselves. French
disappointment was bitter when Britain took the lead in rejecting the Geneva Protocol, which might have
strengthened the League.
(c) Compromise and reconciliation
By the summer of 1924, when the failure of Ruhr occupation was obvious, the French were prepared to accept a
compromise solution to the reparations problem; this led to the Dawes Plan.
(d) A tougher attitude towards Germany
● In October 1929, the world economic crisis and the growth of support in Germany for the Nazis, alarmed the
French, and made them adopt a tougher attitude towards Germany.
● When, in 1931, the Germans proposed an Austro-German customs union to ease the economic crisis, the
French insisted that the matter be referred to the International Court of Justice, on the grounds that it was a
violation of the Versailles Treaty.
● At the World Disarmament Conference (1932-3) relations worsened and when Hitler took Germany out of the
Conference and the League, all was ruined.

HOW DID RELATIONS BETWEEN THE USSR AND BRITAIN, GERMANY AND FRANCE DEVELOP
BETWEEN 1919 AND 1933?
● For the first three years after the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia (November 1917), relations between the
new government and the western countries deteriorated to the point of open war. This was mainly because the
Bolsheviks tried to spread the revolution further, especially in Germany.
● They began to pour floods of propaganda into Germany to turn the masses against their capitalist masters.
● Lenin called together representatives from communist parties all over the world to conference in Moscow in
March 1919. It was known as the Third International, or the Comintern. Its aim was to bring the world's
communists under Russian leadership and show them how to organize strikes and uprisings.
● This sort of activity did not bore well with governments of countries like Britain, France, the USA, and Japan.
These states tried to destroy the Bolsheviks by intervening in the Russian civil war.
By the middle of 1920, however, circumstances were gradually changing:
⮚ the countries which had interfered in Russia had admitted failure and withdrawn their troops
⮚ communist revolutions in Germany and Hungary had failed
⮚ Russia was too exhausted by the civil war to think about stirring up any more revolutions for the time being.
At the Third Comintern Congress, in June 1921, Lenin acknowledged that Russia needed peaceful coexistence and
co-operation in the form of trade with, and investment from, the capitalist world. The way was open for communications
to be reestablished.
(a) The USSR and Britain
● Relations blew hot and cold according to which government was in power in Britain.
● The Labour governments (1924 and 1929-31) were more sympathetic to Russia than the others.
● With the signing of the Anglo-Russian trade treaty (March 1921), Britain became one of the first states to
acknowledge the existence of the Bolshevik government; it was to lead to similar agreements with other
countries and to full political recognition.
● The new rapprochement was soon shaken. At the Genoa conference (1922), Lloyd George suggested that the
Bolsheviks should pay war debts incurred by the tsarist regime. The Russians were offended; they left the
conference and signed the separate Treaty of Rapallo with the Germans. This alarmed Britain and France.
● Relations improved briefly in 1924 when MacDonald and the new Labour government gave full diplomatic
recognition to the communists. A new trade treaty was signed and a British loan to Russia was proposed.
However, this was unpopular with British Conservatives and Liberals who soon brought MacDonald's
government down.
● Under the Conservatives (1924-9), relations with Russia worsened. British Conservatives had no love for
the communists.
⮚ There was evidence that Russian propaganda was encouraging the Indian demands for independence.
⮚ Police raided the British Communist Party headquarters in London (1925) and claimed to have found
evidence of Russians plotting with British communists to overthrow the system.
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⮚ The government expelled the mission and broke off diplomatic relations with the Russians.
● Matters took a turn for the better in 1929 when Labour, encouraged by the new pro-western Foreign Minister,
Maxim Litvinov, resumed diplomatic relations with Russia and signed another trade agreement the following
year.
● The Conservative-dominated National government, which came to power in 1931, canceled the trade
agreement (1932), and in retaliation the Russians arrested four Metropolitan-Vickers engineers working in
Moscow. However, when Britain placed an embargo on imports from Russia, Stalin released them (June J 933)
because Stalin was becoming nervous about the possible threat from Hitler, and was therefore prepared to
take pains to improve relations with Britain.
(b) The USSR and Germany
● The USSR's relations with Germany were more consistent and more friendly than with Britain. This was
because:
⮚ the Germans saw advantages to be gained from exploiting friendship with the USSR
⮚ The Bolsheviks were anxious to have stable relations with at least one capitalist power.
● A trade treaty was signed (May 1921 ), followed by the granting of Russian trade and mineral concessions to
some German industrialists.
● The Rapallo Treaty,1922 was an important step forward:
⮚ Full diplomatic relations were resumed and reparations claims between the two states canceled.
⮚ Both could look forward to advantages from the new friendship: they could co-operate to keep Poland
weak, which was in both their interests.
⮚ The USSR had Germany as a buffer against any future attack from the west.
⮚ The Germans were allowed to build factories in Russia for the manufacture of airplanes and ammunition
⮚ In return, the Russians would supply Germany with grain.
● The Treaty of Berlin (1926) renewed the Rapallo agreement for a further five years; it was understood that
Germany would remain neutral if Russia were to be attacked by another power, and neither would use economic
sanctions against the other.
● About 1930, relations began to cool as some Russians expressed concern at the growing power of Germany;
the German attempt to form a customs union with Austria in 1931 was taken as an ominous sign of increasing
German nationalism.
● Russian concern changed to alarm at the growth of the Nazi party, which was strongly anti-communist. In
January 1934, Hitler abruptly ended Germany's special relationship with the Soviets by signing a non-
aggression pact with Poland
(c) The USSR and France
● The Bolshevik takeover in 1917 was a serious blow for France, because Russia had been an important ally
whom she relied on to keep Germany in check.
● Now Russia was calling for revolution in all capitalist states, and the French regarded the Bolsheviks as a
menace to be destroyed as soon as possible. The French sent troops to help the anti-Bolsheviks (Whites) in the
civil war, and it was because of French insistence, that the Bolsheviks were not invited to Versailles.
● The French also intervened in the war between Russia and Poland in 1920; helped to drive back a Russian
advance on Warsaw (the Polish capital), and afterwards the French government claimed to have stemmed the
westward spread of Bolshevism.
● The subsequent alliance between France and Poland (1921) seemed to be directed as much against Russia as
against Germany.
● Relations improved in 1924 when the moderate Herriot government resumed diplomatic relations. But the
French were never very enthusiastic, especially as the French Communist Party was under orders from Moscow
not to co-operate with other left-wing parties.
● Not until the early 1930s did the rise of the German Nazis cause a change of heart on both sides.

THE FOREIGN POLICY OF USA BETWEEN 1919-1933

● The American people were exhausted by the war and suspicious of Europe.
● The US Senate voted to reject both the Versailles peace settlement and the League of Nations.
● From 1921 until early 1933 the USA was ruled by Republican governments which believed in a policy of
isolation. America tried to avoid political disputes with other states and the signing of treaties - for example,
no American representative attended the Locarno Conference.
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● And yet despite their desire for isolation, the Americans found it impossible to avoid some involvement in
world affairs, because of overseas trade, investment and the thorny problem of European war debts and
reparations.
● American isolationism was probably more concerned with keeping clear of political problems in Europe than
with simply cutting themselves off from the world in general.
⮚ During the prosperous years of the 1920s, Americans tried to increase trade and profits by
investment abroad, in Europe, Canada, and in Central and South America. It was inevitable therefore,
that the USA should take an interest in what was happening in these areas.
⮚ The Washington Conferences (1921-2) were called by President Harding because of concern at
Japanese power in the Far East.
⮚ Allied war debts to the USA caused much ill-feeling. The Europeans hoped that the Americans would
cancel the debts. But the USA insisted that repayments be made in full.
⮚ Faced with the German financial crisis of 1923, the Americans had to change their attitude and admit
the connection between reparations and war debts. They agreed to take part in the Dawes and Young
Plans (1924 and 1929), which enabled the Germans to pay reparations.
⮚ The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) was another notable, though useless, American foray into world
affairs.
⮚ Relations with Britain were uneasy, because of war debts, and because the Conservatives resented the
limitations on British naval expansion. In a conference in London in 1930 which was also attended by
Japan, the three states reaffirmed the 5:5:3 ratio in cruisers, destroyers and submarines agreed at
Washington. This was successful in re-establishing friendship between Britain and the USA, but the
Japanese soon exceeded their limits.
⮚ The USA returned to a policy of strict isolation when the Japanese invaded Manchuria in 1931.
Although President Hoover condemned the Japanese action, he refused to join in economic sanctions
or to make any move which might lead to war with Japan. Throughout the 1930s, though acts of
aggression increased, the Americans remained determined not to be drawn into a conflict.

RELATIONS BETWEEN JAPAN AND CHINA

(a) The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931
The motives behind this were mixed. The province was a valuable trade outlet. Moreover, Japan had been involved
in the province since the 1890s, and was given Port Arthur and a privileged position in South Manchuria as a result of
the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5). Since then, the Japanese had invested millions of pounds in Manchuria in the
development of industry and railways. China seemed to be growing stronger under the rule of Chiang Kai-shek, and the
Japanese feared this might result in their being excluded from Manchuria.
(b) The Japanese advance from Manchuria
In 1933 the Japanese began to advance from Manchuria into the rest of north-eastern China, to which they had no claim
whatsoever. By 1935 a large area of China as far as Beijing (Peking) had fallen under Japanese political and commercial
control, while the Chinese themselves were torn by a civil war.

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Japanese expansion 1931-1942

(c) Further invasions

● After signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany (1936), the Japanese army seized the excuse provided
by an incident between Chinese and Japanese troops in Peking to begin an invasion of other parts of China (July
1937) and committed terrible atrocities against Chinese civilians.
● Meanwhile the League of Nations had again condemned Japanese aggression but was powerless to act.
● Britain and France were too busy coping with Hitler to take much notice of China, and the Russians did not
want full-scale war with Japan. The USA was still bent on isolation.

MUSSOLINI'S FOREIGN POLICY

● Mussolini came to power in 1922. Mussolini knew what he wanted, which was 'to make Italy ‘great, respected
and feared'. At first, he seemed to think an adventurous foreign policy was his best line of action, hence the
Corfu Incident and the occupation of Fiume in 1923.
● After these early successes, Mussolini became more cautious, perhaps alarmed by Italy's isolation at the time of
Corfu. After 1923 his policy falls roughly into two phases with the break at 1934, when he began to draw closer
towards Nazi Germany.
(a) 1923-34
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● At this stage Mussolini's policy was determined by rivalry with the French in the Mediterranean and the
Balkans, where Italian relations with Yugoslavia, France's ally, were usually strained.
● Another Italian fear was that the weak state of Austria, along her north-eastern frontier, might fall too much
under the influence of Germany; Mussolini was worried about a possible German threat via the Brenner
Pass.
● He tried to deal with both problems mainly by diplomatic means:
⮚ He attended the Locarno Conference (1925) but was disappointed when the agreements signed did not
guarantee the Italian frontier with Austria.
⮚ He was friendly towards Greece, Hungary, and especially Albania, the southern neighbor and rival of
Yugoslavia. Economic and defense agreements were signed. Albania was virtually controlled by Italy,
which now had a strong position around the Adriatic Sea.
⮚ He cultivated good relations with Britain: he supported her demand that Turkey should hand over Mosul
province to Iraq, and in return, the British gave Italy a small part of Somaliland.
⮚ Italy became the first state after Britain to recognize the USSR; a non-aggression pact was signed
between Italy and the USSR in September 1933.
⮚ He tried to bolster up Austria against the threat from Nazi Germany by supporting the anti-Nazi
government of Chancellor Dollfuss, and by signing trade agreements with Austria and Hungary. This
decisive anti-German stand improved relations between Italy and France.
(b) After 1934
● Mussolini gradually shifted from extreme suspicion of Hitler's designs on Austria to grudging admiration of
Hitler's achievements and a desire to imitate him. His changing attitude is illustrated by events:
● When Hitler announced the reintroduction of conscription (March 1935), Mussolini joined the British and
French in condemning the German action. Both British and French carefully avoided mentioning the
Abyssinian crisis; Mussolini took this to mean that they would turn a blind eye to an Italian attack on Abyssinia.
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement convinced Mussolini of British cynicism and self-interest.
● The Italian invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in October 1935 was the great turning point in Mussolini's career.
Mussolini's motives for the 1935 attack were:
⮚ Italy's existing colonies in East Africa (Eritrea and Somaliland) were not very rewarding, and his
attempts (by a treaty of 'friendship' signed in 1928) to reduce Abyssinia to a position equivalent to that
of Albania had failed.
⮚ Italy was suffering from the depression, and a victorious war would divert attention from internal
troubles and provide a new market for Italian exports.
⮚ It would please the nationalists and colonialists, avenge the defeat of 1896 and boost Mussolini's
sagging popularity.
● The Italian victory over the ill-equipped and unprepared Ethiopians was a foregone conclusion. Its real
importance was that it demonstrated the ineffectiveness of collective security. The League condemned Italy
as an aggressor and applied economic sanctions; but these were useless because they did not include banning
sales of oil and coal to Italy.
● Reasons for this weak stand against Italy were that Britain and France were militarily and economically
unprepared for war and were anxious to avoid any action (such as oil sanctions) that might provoke Mussolini
into declaring war on them. They were also hoping to revive the Stresa Front and use Italy as an ally against
Germany; so, their aim was to appease Mussolini. Unfortunately, the results were disastrous:
⮚ The League and the idea of collective security were discredited.
⮚ Mussolini was annoyed by the sanctions. He began to be drawn towards friendship with Hitler, who
had not criticized the invasion.
⮚ In return, Mussolini dropped his objections to a German takeover of Austria.
⮚ Hitler took advantage of the general preoccupation with Abyssinia to send troops into the Rhineland.
● When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Mussolini sent extensive help to Franco, the right-wing
Nationalist leader, hoping to establish a third fascist state in Europe and to get naval bases in Spain from which
he could threaten France. His justification was that he wanted to prevent the spread of communism.
● An understanding was reached with Hitler known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. Mussolini said that the Axis was
a line drawn between Rome and Berlin, around which 'all European states that desire peace can revolve'.
● In 1937 Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany and Japan, in which all three pledged
themselves to stand side by side against Bolshevism.

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● His popularity revived temporarily with his part in the Munich agreement of September 1938, which seemed
to have secured peace. But Mussolini failed to draw the right conclusions from his people's relief - that most of
them did not want another war - and he committed a further act of aggression.
● In April 1939 Italian troops suddenly occupied Albania, meeting very little resistance. This was a pointless
operation, since Albania was already under Italian economic control, but Mussolini wanted a triumph to imitate
Hitler's recent occupation of Czechoslovakia.
● Carried away by his successes, Mussolini signed a full alliance with Germany, the Pact of Steel (May 1939),
in which Italy promised full military support if war came.
Mussolini was committing Italy to deeper and deeper involvement with Germany, which in the end would ruin him.

HITLER'S AIMS IN FOREIGN POLICY

(a) Hitler aimed to make Germany into a great power again. He hoped to achieve this by:

⮚ destroying the hated Versailles settlement;

⮚ building up the army;
⮚ recovering lost territory such as the Saar and the Polish Corridor;
⮚ bringing all German-speaking peoples inside the Reich; this would involve annexing Austria and
taking territory from Czechoslovakia and Poland, both of which had large German minorities as a
result of the peace settlement.
(b) A series of successes
● Hitler began his foreign policy with an almost unbroken series of brilliant successes, which was one of the main
reasons for his popularity in Germany.
⮚ By the end of 1938 almost every one of the first set of aims had been achieved, without war and with
the approval of Britain. Only the Germans in Poland remained to be brought within the Reich.
⮚ Unfortunately, it was when he failed to achieve this by peaceful means that Hitler took the fateful
decision to invade Poland.
⮚ Given that Germany was still militarily weak in 1933, Hitler had to move cautiously at first. He
withdrew Germany from the World Disarmament Conference and from the League of Nations. At the
same time, he insisted that Germany was willing to disarm if other states would do the same, and that
he wanted only peace.
● Next Hitler signed a ten-year non-aggression pact with the Poles (January 1934). This was something of a
triumph for Hitler:
⮚ Britain took it as further evidence of his peaceful intentions
⮚ it ruined France's Little Entente which depended very much on Poland
⮚ it guaranteed Polish neutrality whenever Germany decided to move against Austria and
Czechoslovakia.
⮚ it improved relations between France and Russia, who were both worried by the apparent threat from
Nazi Germany.
● The Saar was returned to Germany (January 1935) after a plebiscite (referendum) resulting in a 90 per cent
vote in favor. Though the vote had been provided for in the peace settlement, Nazi propaganda made the most
of the success.
● Hitler's first successful breach of Versailles came in March 1935 when he announced the reintroduction of
conscription. Hitler announced that he would build up his peacetime army six times more than was allowed
by the peace treaty. Although the Stresa Front (consisting of Britain, France, and Italy) condemned this
violation of Versailles, no action was taken. The Front collapsed anyway as a result of Hitler's next success.
● Hitler realized how frail the Stresa Front was. He detached Britain by offering to limit the German navy to 35
per cent of the strength of the British navy. Britain eagerly accepted, signing the Anglo-German Naval
Agreement (June 1935).
● Encouraged by his successes, Hitler took the calculated risk of sending troops into the demilitarized zone of
the Rhineland (March 1936), a breach of both Versailles and Locarno.
● At the same time, aware of the mood of pacifism among his opponents, Hitler soothed them by offering a peace
treaty to last for 25 years.
● Later in 1936 Hitler consolidated Germany's position by reaching an understanding with Mussolini (the Rome-
Berlin Axis) and by signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan (also joined by Italy in 1937).

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● The Anschluss (political union) with Austria (March 1938) was Hitler's greatest success to date
⮚ Austrian Nazis staged huge demonstrations in Vienna, Graz, and Linz, which Chancellor Schuschnigg'
s government could not control.
⮚ Realizing that this could be the prelude to a German invasion, Schuschnigg announced a referendum
about whether Austria should remain independent.
⮚ Hitler decided to act before it was held; German troops moved in and Austria became part of the Third
Reich.
⮚ It was a triumph for Germany: it revealed the weakness of Britain and France, who again only protested.
All was ready for the beginning of Hitler's campaign to get the German-speaking Sudetenland, a campaign which ended
in triumph at the Munich Conference in September 1938.
WHY WAS IT THAT HITLER WAS ALLOWED TO GET AWAY WITH ALL THESE VIOLATIONS OF
THE VERSAILLES SETTLEMENT?
● The reason can be summed up in one word - appeasement.
● Appeasement was the policy followed by the British, and later by the French, to avoid war with aggressive
powers such as Japan, Italy, and Germany.
● The beginnings of appeasement can be seen in British policy during the 1920s with the Dawes and Young Plans,
and with the Locarno Treaties
● Appeasement reached its climax at Munich, where Britain and France were so determined to avoid war with
Germany that they made Hitler a present of the Sudetenland, and so set in motion the destruction of
Czechoslovakia. Even with such big concessions as this, appeasement failed.

HOW COULD APPEASEMENT BE JUSTIFIED?

● It was thought essential to avoid war
⮚ Another war was likely to be even more devastating, as the horrors of the Spanish Civil War
demonstrated.
⮚ Memories of the horrors of the First World War still haunted many people.
⮚ Britain, still in the throes of the economic crisis, could not afford vast rearmament and the crippling
expenses of a major war.
● Many felt that Germany and Italy had genuine grievances- Italy had been cheated at Versailles and Germany
had been treated too harshly. Therefore, the British should show them sympathy. They should try and revise the
most hated clauses of Versailles. This would remove the need for German aggression and lead to Anglo-German
friendship.
● Since the League of Nations seemed to be helpless, Chamberlain believed that the only way to settle disputes
was by personal contact between leaders. In this way, he thought, he would be able to control and civilize
Hitler and bring him to respect international law.
● Economic co-operation between Britain and Germany would be good for both. If Britain helped the German
economy to recover, Germany's internal violence would die down.
● Fear of communist Russia- Many of them believed that the communist threat was greater than the danger from
Hitler. Some British politicians were willing to ignore the unpleasant features of Nazism in the hope that Hitler's
Germany would be a buffer against communist expansion westwards.
● Underlying all these feelings was the belief that Britain ought not to take any military action in case it led to
a full-scale war, for which Britain was totally unprepared.

EXAMPLES OF APPEASEMENT AT WORK

● No action was taken to check the obvious German rearmament.
● The Anglo-German Naval Agreement condoning German naval rearmament was signed without any
consultation with France and Italy. This broke the Stresa Front, gravely shook French confidence in Britain.
● There was only half-hearted British action against the Italian invasion of Abyssinia.
● The French, though disturbed at the German reoccupation of the Rhineland, did not mobilize their troops.
They were deeply divided, and ultra-cautious, and they received no backing from the British, who were
impressed by Hitler's offer of a 25-year peace.
● Neither Britain nor France intervened in the Spanish Civil War, though Germany and Italy sent decisive help
to Franco.

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● Many in Britain saw Anschluss as the natural union of one German group with another. But Britain's lack of
action encouraged Hitler to make demands on Czechoslovakia, which produced Chamberlain’s supreme act of
appeasement and Hitler's greatest triumph to date - Munich.

MUNICH TO THE OUTBREAK OF WAR: SEPTEMBER 1938 TO SEPTEMBER 1939

This fateful year saw Hitler waging two pressure campaigns: the first against Czechoslovakia, the second against
Poland.
(a) Czechoslovakia
● It seems likely that Hitler had decided to destroy Czechoslovakia as part of his Lebensraum (living space)
policy.
● He detested the Czechs for their democracy and for the fact that they were Slavs.
● Their state had been set up by the hated Versailles settlement
● Its situation was strategically important – for Germany's military and economic dominance of central Europe.
The propaganda campaign in the Sudetenland
● Hitler's excuse for the opening propaganda campaign was that 3.5 million Sudeten Germans were being
discriminated against by the Czech government.
● The Nazis organized huge protest demonstrations in the Sudetenland, and clashes occurred between Czechs
and Germans.
● The French and British were determined to go to almost any lengths to avoid war, and they put tremendous
pressure on the Czechs to make concessions to Hitler.
● Eventually Benes agreed that the Sudeten Germans might be handed over to Germany. Hitler seemed to accept,
but at a second meeting he stepped up his demands: he wanted more of Czechoslovakia and the immediate
entry of German troops into the Sudetenland. Benes would not agree to this and immediately ordered the
mobilization of the Czech army.
The Munich Conference, 29 September 1938
● When it seemed that war was inevitable, Hitler invited Chamberlain and Daladier to a four-power conference,
which met in Munich.
● Here a plan produced by Mussolini was accepted. The Sudetenland was to be handed over to Germany
immediately.
● Britain and France agreed to Germany’s terms without the consent of Czechoslovakia.
● Neither the Czechs nor the Russians were invited to the conference. The Czechs were told that if they resisted
the Munich decision, they would receive no help from Britain or France.
● After the Munich Conference, Chamberlain and Hitler signed a statement, the 'scrap of paper', promising that
Britain and Germany would renounce warlike intentions against each other.
The destruction of Czechoslovakia, March 1939
As a result of the Munich Agreement, Czechoslovakia was crippled by the loss of 70 per cent of her heavy industry, a
third of her population, roughly a third of her territory and almost all her carefully prepared fortifications, mostly to
Germany. Soon after German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia
(b) Poland
● In April 1939 Hitler demanded the return of Danzig and a road and railway across the corridor, linking East
Prussia with the rest of Germany. This demand was rejected by the Poles.
● The British ratified their guarantee to Poland in case of German invasion, and Hitler took it as a bluff.
● When the Poles still refused to negotiate, a full-scale German invasion began, on 1 September 1939.
● Chamberlain sent an ultimatum to Germany: if German troops were not withdrawn from Poland, Britain
would declare war. Hitler did not even bother to reply; when the ultimatum expired, Britain was at war with
Germany. Soon afterwards, France also declared war.

WHY DID WAR BREAK OUT? WERE HITLER OR THE APPEASERS TO BLAME?
● The Versailles Treaty was blamed for filling the Germans with bitterness and the desire for revenge.
● The League of Nations and the idea of collective security have been criticized because they failed to secure
general disarmament and to control potential aggressors.
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● The world economic crisis has also been considered a factor responsible for war since without it, Hitler would
probably never have been able to come to power.
While these factors were surely responsible to some extent, it is worth noting that by the end of 1938, most of Germany's
grievances had been removed.
(a) Were the appeasers to blame?
Some historians have suggested that appeasement was largely responsible. They argue that Britain and France should
have taken a firm line with Hitler. It must not be forgotten that war in 1939 was declared by Britain and France on
Germany, and not the other way round. Britain and France had complex interests and motives for war.
● They too had to make decisions with one eye on public opinion and another on potential enemies.
● British and French policy before 1939 was governed primarily by national self-interest and only secondarily by
moral considerations.
● The British and French, just like the Germans, were anxious to preserve or extend their power and safeguard
their economic interests.
● In the end this meant going to war in 1939 to preserve Franco-British power and prestige.
(b) Did the USSR make war inevitable?
The USSR has been accused of making war inevitable by signing the non-aggression pact with Germany, which also
included a secret agreement for Poland to be partitioned between Germany and the USSR.
(c) Was Hitler to blame?
● By attacking Poland on all fronts instead of merely occupying Danzig and the Corridor, Hitler showed that he
intended not just to get back the Germans lost at Versailles, but to destroy Poland.
● It is argued that he hated communism and wanted to destroy Russia and control it permanently. In this way,
Germany would acquire Lebensraum (living space).
● War - the essence of the Nazi system which had developed under his leadership - was for Hitler inevitable.
What Hitler had in mind was 'a racial war of destruction.’ It began with the dismemberment of Poland, continued with
the attack on the USSR, and culminated in an horrific genocidal war - the destruction of the Jews and other groups which
the Nazis considered inferior to the German master race.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR, 1939-45

Unlike the 1914-18 war, the Second World War was a war of rapid movement and a complex affair, with major
campaigns taking place in the Pacific and the Far East, in North Africa and deep in the heart of Russia, as well as in
central and western Europe and the Atlantic.
OPENING MOVES: SEPTEMBER 1939 TO DECEMBER 1940
(a) Poland defeated
The Poles were defeated swiftly by the German Blitzkrieg (lightning war). Britain and France did little to help Poland
directly. When the Russians invaded eastern Poland, Polish resistance collapsed. On 29 September Poland was divided
up between Germany and the USSR.
(b) The 'phony war'
● Very little happened in Europe over the next 5 months. In the east the Russians took over Estonia, Latvia and
Lithuania and invaded Finland.
● Meanwhile the French and Germans manned their respective defenses - the Maginot and Siegfried Lines.
● Hitler seems to have hoped that the pause would weaken the resolve of Britain and France and encourage them
to negotiate peace. This lack of action pleased Hitler's generals, who were not convinced that the German army
was strong enough to attack in the west.
(c) Denmark and Norway invaded, April 1940
Hitler's troops occupied Denmark and landed at the main Norwegian ports in April 1940, shattering the apparent calm
of the 'phony war'. Soon after, Germany also invaded Norway.
(d) Hitler attacks Holland, Belgium, and France
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● The attacks on Holland, Belgium and France were launched simultaneously on 10 May.
● The Dutch surrendered after only four days. Belgium held out for longer, but surrendered at the end of May
● The British navy played a vital role in evacuating over 338 000 troops - two-thirds of them British - from
Dunkirk.
● The events at Dunkirk were important: a third of a million Allied troops were rescued to fight again, and
Churchill used it for propaganda purposes to boost British morale with the 'Dunkirk spirit'. In fact, it was a
serious blow for the Allies: the troops at Dunkirk had lost all their arms and equipment, so that it became
impossible for Britain to help France.
● Paris was captured on 74 June and France surrendered on 22 June.
(e) Why was France defeated so quickly?
● The French were psychologically unprepared for war, and were bitterly divided between right and left.
● There were serious military weaknesses.
⮚ France had to face the full weight of an undivided German offensive
⮚ The German divisions were supported by combat planes, another area neglected by the French.
⮚ The French generals made fatal mistakes.
⮚ There was poor communication between the army and air force.
(f) The Battle of Britain (12 August to 30 September 1940)
● The German air force tried to destroy the Royal Air Force. The Germans air force began bombing raid on Britain
in August 1940.
● The RAF conducted raids on German territories in retaliation. The RAF inflicted heavy losses on Germany
under the PM Winston Churchill.
● When it became clear that British air power was far from being destroyed, Hitler called off the invasion. Reasons
for the British success were:
⮚ Their chain of new radar stations gave plenty of warning of approaching German attackers.
⮚ The German bombers were poorly armed.
● The Battle of Britain was probably the first major turning point of the war for the first time the Germans
had been checked, demonstrating that they were not invincible.
(g) Mussolini invades Egypt, September 1940
Not wanting to be outdone by Hitler, Mussolini sent an army from the Italian colony of Libya which penetrated about
60 miles into Egypt (September 1940), while another Italian army invaded Greece (October). However, the British
soon drove the Italians out of Egypt, pushing them back far into Libya.
THE GERMAN INVASION OF SOVIET UNION
● Hitler's motives seem to have been mixed:
⮚ He feared that the Russians might attack Germany while his forces were still occupied in the west.
⮚ His desire for Lebensraum (living space).
⮚ Hitler coveted the vast territory and resources of the Soviet Union.
● Despite the initial successes, the German onslaught was halted. The Soviet Union had built up its industrial and
military strength. She resisted the German invasion.
● With the German invasion of the USSR, a new vast theater of war had opened. It led to an important
development which was the emergence of British-Soviet-American unity to fight against aggression.

THE USA ENTERS THE WAR, DECEMBER 1941

● The USA was brought into the war by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (their naval base in the Hawaiian
Islands) on 7 December 1941.
● The Japanese attack devastated the American Pacific Fleet, which was stationed there. American lost 20
warships and about 250 aircrafts. About 3000 persons were killed.
● The USA declared war on Japan and soon after Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.
● With this the Second World War became truly global.
● The Japanese achieved significant victories in the war in Asia. By the middle of 1942, the fascist powers had
reached the peak of their powers. After that the decline began.

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THE BATTLE OF STALINGRAD
● In January 1942, the representatives of 26 nations, including Britain, Soviet Union, and USA signed the United
Nations Declarations by which they resolved
⮚ To utilize all their resources to pursue war until victory was achieved.
⮚ To cooperate with one another against the common enemy.
⮚ Not to have a separate peace treaty.
● The Battle of Stalingrad (now called Volgograd) was one of the most important turning points.
● The German advance on Moscow was met with stubborn resistance and the invasion was repulsed.
● Germany then launched an offensive in southern Russia. In August 1942, Russian troops reached the outskirts
of Stalingrad. The battle raged for over five months.
● In February 1943, about 90,000 German soldiers and officers surrendered. This battle turned the tide of the
war.

WHAT CONTRIBUTION DID AIR POWER MAKE TO THE DEFEAT OF THE AXIS?
(a) Achievements of Allied air power
● The first significant achievement was in the Battle of Britain, when the RAF beat off the German attacks.
● The American air force together with the navy played a vital part in winning the Pacific war against the Japanese
● British and Americans later flew parachute troops in, to aid the landings in Sicily (July 1943) and Normandy
(June 1944), and provided air protection for the invading armies.
● Allied bombing of German and Japanese cities
● The most controversial action was the Allied bombing of German and Japanese cities. The Germans had bombed
London and other important British cities and ports.
● The British and Americans retaliated with what they called a 'strategic air offensive' - this involved massive
attacks on military and industrial targets.
● It certainly caused enormous civilian casualties and helped to destroy morale.

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THE AXIS POWERS DEFEATED: JULY 1943 TO AUGUST 1945

(a) The fall of Italy
● This was the first stage in the Axis collapse. British and American troops landed in Sicily and quickly captured
the whole island. This caused the downfall of Mussolini, who was dismissed by the king.
● However, the Germans rushed troops to occupy Rome and the north. The Allies landed a force south of Rome
and bitter fighting followed before Rome was captured.
● The elimination of Italy did contribute towards the final Allied victory:
⮚ Italy provided air bases for bombing the Germans in Central Europe and the Balkans.
⮚ German troops were kept occupied when they were needed to resist the Russians.
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● Operation Overlord - the invasion of France (also known as the Second Front) - began on 'D-Day', 6 June
1944.
● British and American troops landed on the coast of Normandy in France.
● The Russians had been urging the Allies to start this Second Front ever since 1941, to relieve pressure on them
and this would compel Germany to fight on other fronts also and thus hasten the defeat of Germany.
● From this time onwards, the German armies were on the run on all fronts.
(c) Unconditional surrender
No attempts were made to negotiate peace with either Germany or Japan until they had both surrendered. Many leading
Americans, including General Eisenhower, were against 'unconditional surrender' because they realized that it would
prolong the war
(d) The assault on Germany
● With the success of the Second Front, the Allies began to gather themselves together for the invasion of
Germany itself.
● The war was prolonged by desperate German resistance and by further disagreements between the British and
Americans.
● The Battle of the Bulge was important because Hitler had risked everything on the attack and had lost 250 000
men and 600 tanks.
● Early in 1945, Germany was being invaded on both fronts, from east and west.
● The British still wanted to push ahead and take Berlin before the Russians, but supreme commander Eisenhower
refused to be hurried, and Berlin fell to Stalin's forces in April.
● Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered.
Why did the Germans keep on fighting to the bitter end in 1945 long after it must have been obvious that the war
was lost?
The reasons can be summed up as below:
● A large section of German society was completely committed to the war effort
● The Nazi propaganda which believed that relations between states were a life and death struggle for survival
and supremacy.
● When it was all over, many Germans tried to blame the Allied policy of 'unconditional surrender' for their
determination to fight on.
● Many Germans kept going because they were afraid of the enemy, especially the Russians, but also because
they were afraid of Nazi officials. The Nazis hanged or shot people they described as defeatists, deserters, and
cowards, and terrorized the civilian population.
(e) The defeat of Japan
● On 6 August 1945 the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, killing perhaps as many as 84 000
people and leaving thousands more slowly dying of radiation poisoning.
● Three days later they dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki, which killed perhaps another 40 000; after this
the Japanese government surrendered.
● The dropping of these bombs was one of the most controversial actions of the entire war.
● Many historians believe that the bombings were not necessary, since the Japanese had already put out peace
feelers in July via Russia.
● One suggestion is that the real reason for the bombings was to end the fighting swiftly before the Russians
gained too much Japanese territory.
● The use of the bombs was also a deliberate demonstration to the USSR of the USA's enormous power.

WHY DID THE AXIS POWERS LOSE THE WAR?

The reasons can be summarized:
(a) Shortage of raw materials
Both Italy and Japan had to import supplies, and even Germany was short of rubber, cotton, nickel and, after mid-1944,
oil.

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(b) The Allies soon learned from their early failures
By 1942 they knew how to check Blitzkrieg attacks and appreciated the importance of air support and aircraft carriers.
Consequently, they built up an air and naval superiority and slowly starved their enemies of supplies.
(c) The Axis powers simply took on too much
● Hitler’s troops were spread too thinly - on the Russian front, on both sides of the Mediterranean, and on the
western coastline of France.
● Japan made the same mistake. They became stretched out far beyond their basic capacity for holding their
gains. For Japan was a small island state with limited industrial power.
● In Germany's case, Mussolini was partly to blame: his incompetence was a constant drain on Hitler's resources.
(d) The combined resources of the USA, the USSR, and the British Empire- These resources were so great that the
longer the war lasted, the less chance the Axis had of victory.
(e) Serious tactical mistakes
● The Japanese failed to learn the lesson about the importance of aircraft carriers, and concentrated too much on
producing battleships.
● Hitler should have defeated Britain before invading the USSR, which committed Germany to a war on two
fronts.
● Hitler failed to provide for a winter campaign in Russia and completely underestimated Russian resourcefulness
and determination.
● Hitler made a fatal mistake by declaring war on the USA after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.
(f) Nazi racial policy- Nazi treatment of Jews, gypsies, and homosexuals in occupied territories of the USSR alienated
many of the conquered peoples who, with decent treatment, could have been brought on board to fight the Stalinist
regime.

THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR

(a) Enormous destruction
● There was enormous destruction of lives, homes, industries and communications in Europe and Asia. Almost
40 million people were killed. A further 21 million people had been uprooted from their homes
● Though the cost was high, it did mean that the world had been rid of Nazism, which had been responsible for
terrible atrocities.
● The most notorious was the Holocaust – the deliberate murder in extermination camps of over five million Jews
and hundreds of thousands of non-Jews, mainly in Poland and Russia.
(b) There was no all-inclusive peace settlement
This was mainly because the distrust which had re-emerged between the USSR and the west in the final months of the
war made agreement on many points impossible. However, a few separate treaties were signed:
● Italy lost her African colonies and gave up her claims to Albania and Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
● Trieste, claimed by both Italy and Yugoslavia, was declared a free territory protected by the United Nations
Organization.
● Later, at San Francisco (1951), Japan agreed to surrender all territory acquired during the previous 90 years,
which included a complete withdrawal from China.
● However, the Russians refused to agree to any settlement over Germany and Austria.
(c)The war caused the production of nuclear weapons- The world was left under the threat of a nuclear war that
might well have destroyed the entire planet. It also prompted a nuclear arms race during the cold war era.
(d) Europe's domination of the rest of the world ended
● Germany was devastated and divided.
● France and Italy were on the verge of bankruptcy;
● Although Britain seemed strong and victorious, with her empire intact, the cost of the war had been ruinous.
● The USA had helped to keep Britain going during the war by sending supplies, but these had to be paid for later.
Britain had overseas debts of over £3000 million
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(e) Emergence of the superpowers
● The USA and the USSR emerged as the two most powerful nations in the world, and they were no longer as
isolated as they had been before the war.
● The USA had suffered relatively little from the war and had enjoyed great prosperity from supplying the other
Allies with war materials and food. The Americans had the world's largest navy and air force and they
controlled the atomic bomb.
● The USSR, though severely weakened, still had the largest army in the world. Both countries were highly
suspicious of each other's intentions.
● The rivalry of these two superpowers in the Cold War was the most important feature of international relations
for almost half a century after 1945, and was a constant threat to world peace.
(f) Decolonization
● The war encouraged the movement towards decolonization. The defeats inflicted on Britain, Holland and France
by Japan destroyed the myth of European superiority and invincibility.
● Asian peoples were not willing to return to European rule. Gradually they achieved full independence, though
not without a struggle in many cases.
● This in turn intensified demands for independence among the peoples of Africa and the Middle East, and in the
1960s the result was a large array of new states.
● The leaders of many of these newly emerging nations met in conference at Algiers in 1973, and made it clear
that they regarded themselves as Third World.
(g) The United Nations Organization (UNO)
This emerged as the successor to the League of Nations. Its main aim was to try to maintain world peace, and overall,
it has been more successful than its unfortunate predecessor.

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THE COLD WAR

● Towards the end of the war, the harmony that had existed between the USSR, the USA and the British Empire
began to wear thin and all the old suspicions came to the fore again.
● Although no actual fighting took place directly between the two opposing camps, the decade after 1945 saw
the first phase of what became known as the Cold War.
● Instead of allowing their mutual hostility to express itself in open fighting, the rival powers attacked each other
with propaganda and economic measures, and with a general policy of non-cooperation.
● Both superpowers, the USA, and the USSR, gathered allies around them and the world became bipolar (two
centers of power and two blocs in which the world was divided)
● The Cold War came to an end in 1989-91 with the collapse of the Soviet Union.
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REASONS WHICH PROMPTED THE COLD WAR
(a) Differences of principle
● The basic cause of conflict lay in the differences of principle between the communist states and the capitalist or
liberal-democratic states.
● The communist system of organizing the state and society was based on the ideas of Karl Marx. He believed
that
⮚ The wealth of a country should be collectively owned and shared by everybody.
⮚ The economy should be centrally planned
⮚ The interests and well-being of the working classes should be safeguarded by state social policies.
● The capitalist system operates based on private ownership of a country's wealth. The driving force is the
pursuit of making profits.
● The governments of most capitalist states viewed communism with mistrust and were afraid of communism
spreading to their countries since it advocated a revolutionary overthrow of the capitalist state.
(b) Stalin's foreign policies contributed to the tensions
● His aim was to take advantage of the military situation to strengthen Russian influence in Europe.
● As the Nazi armies collapsed, he tried to occupy as much German territory as he could
● In this he was highly successful, but the West was alarmed at what they took to be Soviet aggression; they
believed that he was committed to spreading communism over the globe.
(c) US and British politicians were hostile to the Soviet government
● Stalin suspected that the USA and Britain were still keen to destroy communism
● He felt that their delay in launching the Second Front was to keep pressure on the Russians
● Nor did they tell Stalin about the existence of the atomic bomb until shortly before its use on Japan,
● They rejected his request that Russia should share in the occupation of Japan.
● Above all, the West had the atomic bomb and the USSR did not.
Which side was to blame?
● During the 1950s, most western historians argued that Stalin's motives were to spread communism as widely as
possible through Europe and Asia, thus destroying capitalism.
● The West followed a policy of 'containment' of the USSR by political, economic, and diplomatic means. The
formation of NATO and the American entry into the Korean War in 1950 were the West's self-defense
against communist aggression.
● On the other hand, Soviet historians argued that the Cold War ought not to be blamed on Stalin and the Russians.
Their theory was that Russia had suffered enormous losses during the war, and therefore it was only natural that
Stalin would try to make sure neighboring states were friendly.
● Others believed that the Cold War was mainly caused by the USA's determination to make the most of its
atomic monopoly and its industrial strength in its drive for world hegemony.
● A middle view argues that both sides should take some blame for the Cold War. American economic policies
such as Marshall Aid were deliberately designed to increase US political influence in Europe.
● However, they also believe that Stalin was an opportunist who would take advantage of any weakness in the
West to expand Soviet influence. The crude Soviet methods of forcing communist governments on the states
of eastern Europe were bound to lend proof to claims that Stalin's aims were expansionist.
HOW DID THE COLD WAR DEVELOP BETWEEN 1945 AND 1953?
(a) The Yalta Conference (February 1945)
● This was held in Russia (in the Crimea) and was attended by the three Allied leaders, Stalin, Roosevelt, and
Churchill, to plan what was to happen when the war ended.
● At the time it seemed to be a success, agreement being reached on several points.
⮚ A new organization - to be called the United Nations - should be set up to replace the failed League
of Nations.
⮚ Germany was to be divided into zones - Russian, American, and British. Similar arrangements were
to be made for Austria.
⮚ Free elections would be allowed in the states of eastern Europe.

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⮚ Stalin promised to join the war against Japan on condition that Russia received the whole of Sakhalin
Island and some territory in Manchuria.
● However, there were ominous signs of trouble over what was to be done with Poland. No agreement was reached
on this point.
(b) The Potsdam Conference (July 1945)
● The atmosphere here was distinctly cooler. The three leaders at the beginning of the conference were Stalin, US
President Truman, and Churchill, soon replaced by Clement Attlee.
● It was agreed that Germany was to be disarmed, the Nazi party would be disbanded and its leaders tried as war
criminals.
● It was also agreed that the Germans should pay war damage. Most of these 'reparations' were to go to the
USSR.
● Decisions were also taken regarding the border between Poland and Germany. And the transfer of the
northern part of East Prussia to the Soviet Union and southern part to Poland.
(c) Communism established in eastern Europe
● In the months following Potsdam, the Russians systematically interfered in the countries of eastern Europe
to set up pro-communist governments. This happened in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania, and Romania.
● Stalin frightened the West further by a widely reported speech in February 1946 in which he said that
communism and capitalism could never live peacefully together, and that future wars were inevitable until the
final victory of communism was achieved.
● Churchill responded to all this in a speech of his own in which he said: 'From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste
in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent'. He called for a Western alliance against
the communist threat.
● The rift between East and West was steadily widening and Stalin was able to denounce Churchill as a
'warmonger'.
(d) The Russians continued to tighten their grip on eastern Europe
● By the end of 1947 every state in that area except for Czechoslovakia had a fully communist government.
● Elections were rigged, non-communist members of coalition governments were expelled, many were arrested
and executed and eventually all other political parties were dissolved.
● In addition, Stalin treated the Russian zone of Germany as if it were Russian territory, allowing only the
Communist Party and draining it of vital resources.
● Only in Yugoslavia, the communist government had been legally elected in 1945.
● It was Stalin's methods of gaining control which upset the West, and they gave rise to the next major
developments.

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Central and Eastern Europe during the Cold War.

(e) The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

● Truman Doctrine:
⮚ Truman announced (March 1947) that the USA 'would support free peoples who are resisting
subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures'.
⮚ Greece received massive amounts of arms and other supplies, and by 1949 the communists were
defeated. Turkey, which also seemed under threat, received aid worth about $60 million.
⮚ The Truman Doctrine made it clear that the USA had no intention of returning to isolation and she was
committed to a policy of containing communism
● The Marshall Plan
⮚ Announced in June 194 7, this was an economic extension of the Truman Doctrine, which offered
economic and financial help wherever it was needed.
⮚ One of the aims of the ERP was to promote the economic recovery of Europe. A prosperous Europe
would provide lucrative markets for American exports.
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⮚ It also had a political aim: communism was less likely to gain control in a flourishing western Europe.
(f) The Cominform
● This - the Communist Information Bureau - was the Soviet response to the Marshall Plan.
● Set up by Stalin in September 1947, it was an organization to draw together the various European communist
parties.
● All the satellite states were members, and the French and Italian communist parties were represented. Stalin’s
aim was to tighten his grip on the satellites.
● Eastern Europe was to be industrialized, collectivized, and centralized; states were expected to trade primarily
with Cominform members, and all contacts with non-communist countries were discouraged.
● In 1947 the Molotov Plan was introduced, offering Russian aid to the satellites.
(h) The Berlin blockade and airlift (June 1948-May 1949)
● Early in 1948 the three western German zones were merged to form a single economic unit, whose
prosperity, thanks to Marshall Aid, was in marked contrast to the poverty of the Russian zone.
● The Russians were embarrassed by the contrast between the prosperity of West Berlin and the poverty of
the surrounding area.
● The Russian response was immediate: all road, rail and canal links between West Berlin and West Germany
were closed; their aim was to force the West to withdraw from West Berlin by reducing it to starvation point.
● The western powers, convinced that a retreat would be the prelude to a Russian attack on West Germany, were
determined to hold on. They decided to fly supplies in, rightly judging that the Russians would not risk
shooting down the transport planes.
● Over the next ten months, 2 million tons of supplies were airlifted to the blockaded city in a remarkable
operation which kept the 2.5 million West Berliners fed and warm right through the winter.
● In May 1949 the Russians admitted failure by lifting the blockade.
● The affair had important results:
⮚ The outcome gave a great psychological boost to the western powers.
⮚ It caused the western powers to co-ordinate their defenses by the formation of NATO.
(i) The formation of NATO
● The formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) took place in April 1949.
● The countries that were part of NATO agreed to regard an attack on any one of them as an attack on them
all, and placing their defense forces under a joint NATO command organization
● The Americans had abandoned their traditional policy of 'no entangling alliances.’ Stalin took it as a challenge,
and tensions remained high.
(j) More nuclear weapons
● An arms race began to develop after the dropping of atomic bomb by USA on Japan.
● Truman gave go-ahead for the USA to produce a hydrogen bomb many times more powerful than the atomic
bomb.
● It was in this atmosphere of constant threat that more and more nations tried to develop their own nuclear
weapons.
● USSR developed its first atomic bomb in 1949.

THAW AFTER 1953

East-West relations did begin to improve during 1953.
(a) Reasons for the thaw
● The death of Stalin
⮚ It brought to the forefront new Russian leaders - Malenkov, Bulganin, and Khrushchev - who wanted
to improve relations with the USA.
⮚ Nikita Khrushchev explained that 'peaceful coexistence' with the West was not only possible but
essential
● McCarthy discredited

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⮚ Anti-communist feelings in the USA, which had been stirred up by Senator Joseph McCarthy, began to
moderate when McCarthy was discredited in 1954.
⮚ It had gradually become clear that McCarthy himself was something of a fanatic.
⮚ Soon afterwards Eisenhower announced that the American people wanted to be friendly with the Soviet
people.
(b) How did the thaw show itself?
● The signing of the peace agreement at Panmunjom ended the Korean War in July 1953
● The following year the war in Indo-China ended
● The Russians made important concessions in 1955
⮚ They agreed to give up their military bases in Finland.
⮚ They lifted their veto on the admission of 16 new member states to the UN.
⮚ The Cominform was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for the satellite states.
● The signing of the Austrian State Treaty (May 1955)
⮚ This was the most important development in the thaw.
⮚ Unlike Germany, Austria was allowed her own government. The Austrian government had only limited
powers.
⮚ The Russians insisted on squeezing reparations, mainly in the form of food supplies, from the western
zones in Austria.
⮚ However, early in 1955 the Russians were persuaded, mainly by the Austrian government, to be
more co-operative.
⮚ As a result of the agreement, all occupying troops were withdrawn and Austria became independent,
with her 1937 frontiers.
⮚ She was to remain neutral in any dispute between East and West. This meant that she could not join
NATO.
(c) The thaw was only partial
● Khrushchev's policy was a curious mixture, which western leaders often found difficult to understand.
● While he made conciliatory moves, he had no intention of relaxing Russia's grip on the satellite states.
● The Warsaw Pact (1955) was signed between Russia and her satellite states shortly after West Germany was
admitted to NATO. The Pact was a mutual defense agreement, which the West took as a gesture against West
Germany's membership of NATO.
● The western powers were still refusing to give official recognition to East Germany.
● In 1958, Khrushchev announced that the USSR no longer recognized the rights of the western powers in West
Berlin.
● In 1961 Khrushchev again suggested that the West should withdraw from Berlin.
● The communists were embarrassed at the large numbers of refugees escaping from East Germany into West
Berlin.
● The USSR then erected the Berlin Wall (August 1961), a 28-mile-long monstrosity across the entire city,
effectively blocking the escape route.

THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE AND THE CUBAN MISSILES CRISIS {1962}
(a) The arms race begins to accelerate
● The arms race between East and West began towards the end of 1949 after the Russians had produced their own
atomic bomb.
● When the Americans made the much more powerful hydrogen bomb towards the end of 1952, the Russians did
the same the following year.
● Russians who took the lead in August 1957 when they produced a new type of weapon - the intercontinental
ballistic missile (ICBM). It could reach the USA even when fired from inside the USSR.
● The Americans soon produced their version of an ICBM and before long they had many more than Russia.
(b) The Cuban missiles crisis, 1962
● Cuba became involved in the Cold War in 1959 when she nationalized American-owned estates and
factories. As Cuba's relations with the USA worsened, those with the USSR improved
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● Later the same year, Cuba announced itself as a socialist country.
● The USA continued its campaign to weaken Cuba, in various ways: Cuban merchant ships were sunk,
installations on the island were sabotaged and American troops carried out invasion exercises.
● Cuba appealed to the USSR for military help. Khrushchev decided to set up nuclear missile launchers in
Cuba aimed at the USA.
● The situation was tense and the world seemed to be on the verge of nuclear war.
● The Secretary-General of the UN, U Thant, appealed to both sides for restraint. Khrushchev made the first
move: he ordered the Russian ships to turn back, and eventually a compromise solution was reached.
● Khrushchev promised to remove the missiles and dismantle the sites; in return Kennedy promised that the USA
would not invade Cuba.
(c) Protests against nuclear weapons
● People in many countries were worried at the way the major powers continued to pile up nuclear weapons and
failed to make any progress towards controlling them. Movements were set up to try to persuade governments
to abolish nuclear weapons.
● In Britain, the Campaign/for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), which was started in 1958, put pressure on the
government to take the lead.
● They hoped that the USA and the USSR would follow Britain's lead and scrap their nuclear weapons too.
● No British government dared take the risk, however. They believed that unilateral disarmament would leave
Britain vulnerable to a nuclear attack from the USSR.
● During the 1980s there were protest demonstrations in many European countries, including West Germany and
Holland, and in the USA.
● In the long run, the protest movements did play a part in bringing both sides to the negotiating table
THE PHASE OF DÉTENTE
Détente is a French word which means releasing stress/tension. It is used to denote a thaw in tensions between hostile
nations.
Reasons for detente

• As the nuclear arsenals built up, both sides became increasingly fearful of a catastrophic nuclear war.
• Both sides were sickened by the horrors of Vietnam.
• The USSR was finding the expense of keeping up with the Americans crippling. They were facing domestic
and economic crises so it was essential to reduce defense spending.
• At the same time the Russians were on bad terms with China, and did not want to be left out when relations
between China and the USA began to improve in 1971.
• The Americans were beginning to realize that there must be a better way of coping with communism after
gaining little success in Vietnam.
• The nations of western Europe were worried because they would be in the front line if nuclear war broke out.
However, detente did not proceed without some setbacks.

• In 1979, NATO became nervous at the deployment of 150 new Russian SS-20 missiles. NATO decided to
deploy over 500 Cruise missiles in Europe as a deterrent to a possible Russian attack on western Europe.
• The Russians invaded Afghanistan to defend the communist regime in Kabul. This was viewed by the USA
as a direct challenge to its power in Asia and all the old western suspicions of Russian motives were revived.
With this détente was officially buried and sense of hostility and mistrust between the two sides increased.
END OF COLD WAR
Mikhail Gorbachev set about reforming Soviet Union. He had to reduce defense expenditure without compromising
on USSR’s superpower status. Gorbachev now understood that he required some cooperation with the West. Thus,
Gorbachev started:
(a) Perestroika (restructuring of economy)
➢ He took measures such as more autonomy to factories, private ownership of business etc. But it was
difficult to introduce radical reforms in a society too set in its ways.

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➢ These reforms did more damage which led to increased corruption and inefficiency.
(b) Glasnost (openness) – Gorbachev allowed freedom of press which opened floodgates for an outpouring of
frustrations that people were not able to express from Stalin’s times.
(c) Sinatra doctrine- The doctrine called for maintaining strong control of East European states. Gorbachev
realized that it was not possible to finance the dictators in these countries and so he relaxed control on them. As
soon as he did, communism collapsed like a house of card, starting with Poland.
(d) Fall of Berlin wall- The Berlin wall which was the most important symbol of the East-West divide came
crashing down as thousands of people poured across.
By the end of December 1991, the USSR itself had split up into separate republics and Gorbachev had resigned.
Communist rule in Russia was over after 74 years. This brought an end to the Cold War establishing USA as the single
super power and forging a unipolar world order till about beginning of the 21st century.

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Mains Master Notes

SUBJECT: GS 1 (POST INDEPENDENT INDIA)

TOPIC: PUNJAB CRISIS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3

ROLE OF AKALI DAL IN GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM IN PUNJAB: ..................................................................................... 3

NEHRU’S SECULAR RESPONSE TO PUNJAB PROBLEM: .......................................................................................................... 3

ROOTS OF POST-1947 COMMUNALISM: ..................................................................................................................................... 3

WHY MILITANCY AFTER CREATION OF PUNJABI SUBA: ....................................................................................................... 4

RISE OF TERRORISM IN PUNJAB: ................................................................................................................................................ 5

FAILURE OF INDIRA GANDHI LEADERSHIP IN TACKLING GROWING MENACE OF TERRORISM: ................................... 5

ROLE OF EXTERNAL FORCES IN GROWTH OF TERRORISM IN PUNJAB: .............................................................................. 5

OPERATION BLUE STAR: .............................................................................................................................................................. 6

POSITIVE ASPECTS OF OPERATION BLUE STAR: ..................................................................................................................... 6

NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF OPERATION BLUE STAR: ................................................................................................................... 6

OPERATION BLUE STAR AND ITS AFTERMATHS: .................................................................................................................... 6

PUNJAB ACCORD: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 6

AN ASSESSMENT OF PUNJAB PROBLEM: .................................................................................................................................. 6

CONCLUSION: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 7

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THE PUNJAB CRISIS

Introduction:
• The genesis of the problem lay in the growth of communalism in Punjab in the course of the twentieth
century.
• Before 1947, communalism in Punjab was a triad with Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communalisms.
• After August 1947, Muslim communalism having disappeared from the Punjab, Hindu and Sikh
communalisms were pitted against each other.

Role of Akali Dal in growth of Communalism in Punjab:

1. Politics of Communalism:
• Akalis asserted that religion and politics could not be separated as the two were essentially combined
in Sikhism.
• They also claimed that the Akali Dal was the sole representative of the Sikh Panth which was defined
as a combination of the Sikh religion and the political and other secular interests of all Sikhs.

2. Discrimination faced by Sikhs:

Akalis contended that Sikhs were being continuously subjected to discrimination, oppression,
persecution, humiliation and victimization.

3. Identity Crisis:
Hindus were accused of designs to dominate Sikhs, of imposing Brahminical ty ranny over them, and of
threatening their ‘Sikh identity ’.

4. Moderate group supporting extremist:

• While the relatively extreme Akali leaders were more virulent, even the more moderate leaders were
not far behind in articulating these communal complaints.
• Extremists politics does not find any disapproval from moderate faction.

Nehru’s Secular Response to Punjab Problem:

1. Accommodative Strategy of Nehru:
• Nehru was sensitive to the feelings of the minorities, tried to conciliate the Akalis by accommodating,
as far as possible, their secular demands.
• This approach led him to sign pacts with the Akali Dal twice in 1948 and 1956 when it agreed to shed
its communal character.

2. Support to Pratap Singh Kairon:

Nehru gave full support to Pratap Singh Kairon, Punjab’s chief minister, as he was dealing firmly with
both Hindu and Sikh communalisms.

3. No negotiations or political transactions with the leaders of a movement or acceptance of their

demands if they had secessionist tendencies, if they took recourse to violence, or based their movement
or demands on religion or communalism.

Roots of Post-1947 Communalism:

Two major issues, which were in themselves secular but were communalized by Sikh and Hindu communalists,
dominated Punjab politics till 1966.

1. Issue of state language:

• To decide what was to be the language of administration and schooling in bilingual Punjab.

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• Hindu communalists wanted this status for Hindi and the Sikh communalists for Punjabi in the
Gurmukhi script.
• Government tried to resolve the problem by dividing Punjab into two— Punjabi and Hindi—linguistic
zones.
• Akalis demanded that Gurmukhi alone should be used as the script for Punjabi whereas Hindu group
advocated for incorporation of Devanagari along with Gurmukhi.

2. Issue of Punjabi Suba:

• The SRC (State Reorganization Commission) rejected the demand of Punjabi Suba that there was not
much difference between Hindi and Punjabi and that the minimum measure of agreement necessary
for making a change did not exist among the people of Punjab.
• An agreement was arrived at in 1956 between the Akali Dal and the Government of India leading to
the merger of Punjab and Patiala and East Punjab States Union.
• Nehru refused to concede the demand for a Punjabi Suba mainly because of its communal
underpinnings.
• Later, Indira Gandhi, the prime minister, announced that Punjab would be split into two states: Punjabi-
speaking Punjab and Hindi-speaking Haryana, with Kangra being merged with Himachal Pradesh.

3. Issue of Chandigarh:
• Indira Gandhi appointed the Punjab Boundary Commission to address issue of Chandigarh.
• The Commission by a majority of two to one awarded Chandigarh along with the surrounding areas to
Haryana.
• Dissatisfied with the award, the Akali Dal launched a vigorous agitation for the inclusion of Chandigarh
in Punjab.
• Indira Gandhi yielded to Akali pressure and, in 1970, awarded Chandigarh to Punjab with two Punjab
tehsils (subdivisions), Fazilka and Abohar, having Hindu majority, being transferred to Haryana.
• This decision, too, was not implemented because of the Akali Dal’s refusal to agree to the transfer of
the two tehsils.

Why Militancy after creation of Punjabi Suba:

1. Existential Crisis of Akali Dal after creation of Punjabi Suba:
▪ With the creation of the Punjabi Suba, all the concrete major demands of Akali Dal had been accepted
and implemented.
▪ The option of giving up communal politics and becoming either a purely religious and social
organization or a secular party appealing to all Punjabis was seen by the Akali leaders as committing
political blunder.
▪ Thus, Akali communalism moved towards separatism as was the case with the Muslim League after
1937.

2. Acquiring power through democratic means:

• Akali Dal failed to secure a majority in the 1967 and later elections.
• Sikhs did not vote exclusively along communal lines.
• Most often, a good majority of Sikhs voted for the Congress and the Communists.
• Thus, separatism became tool to get political share in state politics.

3. Communalism as tool to widen voter base:

• Having lost the elections in 1980 and in order to widen their support base among Sikhs, the Akalis
began to intensify the communal content of their politics.
• They continuously escalated their demands.
• The so-called moderate leaders keeping in step with the extremists.

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Their basic approach was that Punjab, because of being a ‘Sikh’ state, and the Akali Dal, being a ‘Sikh’
party, were above the political norms and structure of the country.

Rise of Terrorism in Punjab:

Terrorism made its appearance in Punjab in 1981 as a result of multiple factors:

1. Culmination of communal politics:

• Communal politics in Punjab became breeding ground for terrorism in the state.

2. Appeasement politics of Congress:

• The initiator of terrorism in Punjab was Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale.
• In this campaign he received the tacit support of the Punjab Congress led by Giani Zail Singh, who
hoped to use him to undercut the Akalis.

3. Terrorist campaign by Bhindranwale:

• The terrorist campaign by Bhindranwale and the All India Sikh Students Federation led to
assassination of the head of the Nirankari sect.
• This was followed by the killing of many Nirankaris, dissident Akalis and Congress workers.
• In April 1983, A.S. Atwal, a Sikh deputy inspector-general of police, was killed just as he was coming
out of the Golden Temple after offering his pray ers
• From now on there was a marked and continuous increase in terrorist operations as also communal
passions among Sikhs and Hindus.

4. Misuse gurudwaras:
• Bhindranwale moved into the safe haven of the Akal Takht within the Golden Temple and made it his
headquarters and armoury.
• He smuggled on a large scale light machine-guns and other sophisticated arms into the temple.
• A large number of other gurudwaras were also used as sanctuaries and bases for terrorist activities.

Extremists hoped to gradually transform terrorism into a general insurgency and an armed uprising.They were
fighting for political and ideological hegemony over the people of Punjab.

Failure of Indira Gandhi leadership in tackling growing menace of Terrorism:

• She refused to take strong action against terrorist killings for three long years, from 1981 to 1984 and to
counter communal propaganda effectively.
• She also did not realize that there was a basic difference between pay ing heed to minority feelings and
appeasing minority communalism.
• She failed to evolve what the situation demanded, namely, a strategy of combating communalism,
secessionism and terrorism.
• The result of the weak-kneed policy followed by Indira Gandhi was to send wrong signals to secessionists
and the terrorists as well as to the people of Punjab.
• Important in this respect was the failure of the government to act at the time of A.S. Atwal’s murder in
April 1983 within the precincts of the Golden Temple itself and which left the people of Punjab outraged.

Role of External forces in growth of terrorism in Punjab:

1. As a part of its strategy of waging low-intensity warfare against India, Pakistan had started:
➢ Providing training
➢ Weapons
➢ Ideological indoctrination
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➢ Safe areas for hiding

➢ Military guidance to terrorist organizations.
2. Certain extremist Sikh groups abroad were also giving increasing encouragement to the secessionists
and helping them with money and weapons.

Operation Blue star:

➢ On 3 June 1984 the army surrounded the Golden Temple.
➢ There it found that the terrorists were far greater in number and also far better armed than the government
sources had assumed.
➢ The military operation turned into a full-scale battle, with the army having to deploy tanks in the end.
➢ The buildings in the temple complex were severely damaged, with the Akal Takht being virtually razed to
the ground.

Positive aspects of Operation blue star:

• It established that the Indian state was strong enough to deal with secession and terrorism.
• It put an end to the charismatic Bhindranwale and his gang.
• It created that minimum of law and order which enabled secular parties such as the Congress, CPI and
CPM to move among the angry people and counter communal politics by explaining to them that the real
responsibility for the Punjab situation lay with Bhindranwale, the terrorists, and the Akali communalists.

Negative aspects of Operation blue star:

• Operation Blue Star produced a deep sense of anger and outrage among Sikhs all over the country.
• It was seen by most of them as a sacrilege and an affront to the community.

Operation blue star and its aftermaths:

• On the morning of 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two Sikh members of her security
guard.
• This anger took an ugly and communal form in Delhi and some other parts of North India, where anti-
Sikh riots broke out as soon as the news of the assassination was announced.
• Rajiv Gandhi succeeded Indira Gandhi as prime minister and initiated negotiations with the Akali leaders
in the belief that a settlement with them would provide a lasting solution to the Punjab problem.
• Finally, in August 1985, Rajiv Gandhi and Longowal signed the Punjab Accord.

Punjab Accord:
• Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab.
• A commission would determine which Hindi-speaking territories would be transferred from Punjab to
Haryana.
• The river water dispute would be adjudicated by an independent tribunal.
Rajiv Gandhi regarded the Punjab Accord as the solution to the terrorist problem rather than as the opening
gambit in, or the gaining of an opportunity for implementing, a long-term strategy of which a political-ideological
struggle against communalism would form a basic part.

An Assessment of Punjab Problem:

1. Despite some degree of a psychological divide between Hindus and Sikhs, there was not even one major
communal riot in Punjab throughout the years of the terrorist sway.
2. The refusal of the people of Punjab to imbibe the values and ideology of the terrorists was mainly because
the secular tradition attributed to:
• Ghadr Party and the Ghadri Babas
• Bhagat Singh and his comrades
• Kirti Kisan groups, the Communists and the Socialists.

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3. The mass of Sikhs refused to accept that the separatists and the terrorists were fighting in defence of
Sikh religion and Sikh interests.

4. The Punjab experience is quite relevant to the country as a whole as it could face similar problems in the
future in other parts of it. There are important lessons to be learnt:
• Communalism has to be confronted both politically and ideologically.
• Separation of religion from politics has necessarily to be enforced
• Communal violence in all its forms, including as terrorism, has to be handled firmly and decisively

Conclusion:
• The policy of ‘solving’ the Punjab problem through negotiations with and appeasement of the terrorists
and extreme communalists was followed even more vigorously by the governments of V.P. Singh and
Chandra Shekhar during 1990 and 1991.
• In the meantime, the number of the victims of terrorism went on increasing.
• The state did finally take strong action.
• A preview of such action was Operation Black Thunder undertaken by the Punjab police and paramilitary
forces in May 1988, which succeeded in flushing out the terrorists from the Golden Temple.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: GS 1 (POST INDEPENDENT INDIA)

TOPIC: GREEN REVOLUTION

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
GREEN REVOLUTION .................................................................................................................................................................... 3

COMPONENTS OF GREEN REVOLUTION: .................................................................................................................................. 3

SCHEMES UNDER GREEN REVOLUTION.................................................................................................................................... 4

IMPACT OF GREEN REVOLUTION: .............................................................................................................................................. 5

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF GREEN REVOLUTION ........................................................................................................................... 6

EVERGREEN REVOLUTION: ......................................................................................................................................................... 7

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GREEN REVOLUTION
Green Revolution owes its origin in the finding of new dwarf variety of wheat seed by Dr. Norman Earnest
Borlaug. In India, the seeds of Green Revolution were first field tested in the drought year of 1964-65.

Norman Borlaug is considered as the father of Green Revolution in World while M.S. Swaminathan is
considered as the father of Green Revolution in India.

Green Revolution refers to spectacular rise in production of food-grains in 1960s. This refers the
period when agriculture was converted into an industrial system due to the adoption of modern methods and
technology, such as the use of high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and
fertilizers.

Green Revolution within India commenced in 1966, leading to an increase in food grain production, especially
in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. Major milestones in this undertaking were the development of high-
yielding varieties of wheat, and rust resistant strains of wheat.

Components of Green Revolution:

1. High Yielding Varieties of Seed
2. Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides
3. Mechanization of Agriculture
4. Irrigation
5. Supply of Agriculture Credit
6. Agricultural Universities

1. High Yielding Varieties of Seed:

• The new seed varieties, popularly called ‘miracle’ seeds, were developed in Mexico (wheat) and the
Philippines (rice), but it was the new dwarf varieties of wheat which provided the bigger growth in
yields per hectare.
• The high yielding variety seeds are major input of agricultural production under the Green Revolution
technology.
• Their main characteristic is increased responsiveness to chemical fertilizers, their period of maturing
is short, it helps double cropping, their short stems can easily carry fertilizer load, resist wind
damage, and their large leaf surface helps the process of photosynthesis.

2. Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides:

• Use of HYV seeds need high doses of fertilizers and pesticides.
• The natural fertility of the soil decreases over the period of time and HYV seeds are also known as
hungry varieties, which require a high dose of fertilizers to give high yields.
• Nitrogenous fertilizers: Nitrogen containing fertilizers e.g. ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate
and urea.
• Phosphate fertilizers: Phosphate containing fertilizers e.g. ammonium phosphate, calcium
dihydrogen phosphate (superphosphate).
• Potassium fertilizers: Potassium containing fertilizers e.g. potassium sulphate and potassium nitrate.

3. Mechanization of Agriculture:

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• Mechanization is another aspect with a significant impact on agricultural productivity. The use of
agricultural machinery in agriculture enables agricultural labour to be used in other activities.
• It makes activities such as tilling, spreading of seeds and fertilizers and harvesting more efficient, so that
the cost of inputs is offset. It can also make the use of labour in agriculture more cost-effective.
• The status of mechanisation in agriculture varies for different activities, although the overall level of
mechanisation is still less than 50%, as compared to 90% in developed countries.
• Some challenges faced by farm mechanisation include different soil and climatic zones which require
customised farm machinery, and small land holdings with lack of access to resources.
• Mechanisation should aim to increase agricultural efficiency by reducing the time and labour requirement,
minimizing wastage and reducing costs of labour

4. Irrigation:
• Green Revolution in India came to be rooted in expansion of irrigation networks based on surface water
as well as groundwater.
• For optimum productivity, the HYVs are dependent upon not only chemical fertilizers and agro-chemicals
(herbicides and pesticides) but also reliable irrigation water.
• water is the most inalienable component of Green Revolution because not only is regular water supply a
basic requirement for crop growth, but application of water in the right quantity and at the right time is
essential for assuring yield stability.

5. Supply of Agriculture Credit:

• Agriculturalists get non-institutional credit from agribusiness agencies, who give loans to farmers as well
as from new money lenders and creditors, which includes relatives and friends working in the urban
sectors.
• The Green Revolution necessitating adequate availability of credit that could enable the purchase of
inputs such as fertilizer, high yielding varieties of seeds, pump sets for irrigation, and the like.
• The concept of priority sector was introduced in 1969 to underscore the imperative of financing certain
neglected sectors like agriculture.
• Decentralised credit planning through the Lead Bank Scheme was also introduced, under which, each
district was placed with one of the commercial banks (called the district Lead Bank) to spearhead the
credit allocation for, inter alia, agricultural lending.

6. Agricultural Universities:
• For improving the standard and quality of agricultural education, research and field extension, agricultural
universities were started in each state.
• Responsible for conducting training programmes and field trials on the farmers fields to test the research
findings and their applicability at field level.
• Acts as a primary source of agricultural information and also undertakes training of extension
functionaries of the development departments and education training institutions.

Schemes under Green Revolution

• "Green Revolution – Krishonnati Yojana" is an Umbrella Scheme in agriculture sector that has been
implemented since 2016-17 by clubbing several schemes / missions under one umbrella scheme.
• The Umbrella scheme comprises of 11 Schemes/Missions. These schemes look to develop the
agriculture and allied sector in a holistic and scientific manner to increase the income of farmers by
enhancing production, productivity and better returns on produce

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Impact of Green Revolution:

1. Food Security:
• Spectacular rise in production of wheat and rice led to enough production of food grains to
meet the need of growing population.
• Wheat has remained the mainstay of the Green Revolution over the year.
• The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self-sufficiency of India. Along with
high-yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilized the idea of
agricultural revolution.

2. Industrial Growth:
• Mechanisation which was brought by Green Revolution raised the demands of various key machines
like tractors, harvesters, combines.
• Further, it also raised the demand of fertilizers, insecticide, pesticide etc ultimately leading to higher
industrial activity.
3. Farmer Prosperity:
• With the increase in farm production the earnings of the farmers also increased and they became
prosperous.
• This has, especially, been the case with big farmers having more than 10 hectares of land
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4. Import Reduction:
• Green revolution was highly successful as agricultural production of most of countries increased.
• India which was once dependent on import of food grains for satisfying need of its population
gradually become exporter of food grains.

5. Capitalist Farming:
• Big farmers having opportunities more than 10 hectares of land have tended to get the maximum
benefit from Green Revolution technology by investing large amount of money in various inputs like
HYV seeds, fertilizers, machines, etc. This has encouraged capitalistic farming.
• Farmers of Panjab and Haryana have effectively tapped the opportunities provided by packaged
programme in the Green Revolution

6. Rural Employment:
• Biological innovations are based on labor-saving technology, while technological innovations are
capital-augmenting or labour- saving in nature.
• A harvest combine would displace labour on a large scale while its land-augmenting effect would be
negligible.
• Overall Green Revolution created job opportunities in relatively prosperous areas and huge influx of
migrants to rural areas of Panjab and Haryana is attributed to this factor.
7. Dispersal of Rice and Wheat cultivation to non-traditional areas:
• Since the success of the Green Revolution depends on the basic inputs like better seeds, fertilizers
and irrigation, it has led to diffusion of crops, particularly two major food-crops viz. rice and wheat, to
the areas hitherto unknown for their cultivation.
• For instance, West Bengal and Bihar had been traditional producers of riee and had the distinction
of being called as "rice heartland'. But the virtues of the Green Revolution have helped in spreading
rice cultivation to semi-arid areas of Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar Pradesh, thereby
changing the cropping pattern of these areas.
8. Miscellaneous:
• It has helped to create numerous strains of plants that are resistant to disease and pests. It makes
farmers more secured financially.
• Issues with moisture, nutrients, or temperature can be managed on-site, reducing the impact a poor
growing season has on the crop.
Negative Impact of Green Revolution:

1. Impact of Green Revolution on Environment:

• Excessive and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides polluted waterways and killed beneficial
insects and wildlife.
• It has caused over-use of soil and rapidly depleted its nutrients.
• The rampant irrigation practices led to eventual soil degradation. Groundwater practices have fallen
dramatically.
2. Loss of Genetic Diversity:
• In Green Revolution fewer crops of higher yield are preferred.
• Large scale monoculture farming is the growing of one single crop type over a wide area.
Monoculture can lead to wide spread of diseases and affects the soil fertility since the continuous
depletion one a particular nutrients from the soil without change.
• Traditional crops have the highest gene diversity and as they dwindle, those genes vanish.

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• These genetic diversity losses can be seen all over the world in locations that implemented Green
Revolution farming methods.
3. Loss of Biodiversity:
• The spread of Green Revolution agriculture affected both agricultural biodiversity and wild
biodiversity.
• Biodiversity was sacrificed because traditional systems of agriculture that were displaced sometimes
incorporated practices to preserve wild biodiversity, and because the Green Revolution expanded
agricultural development into new areas where it was once unprofitable or too arid.
4. Increased regional disparities:
• The green revolution spread only in irrigated and high-potential rained areas.
• The villages or regions without the access of sufficient water were left out that widened the
regional disparities between adopters and non-adopters.
• Since, the HYV seeds technically can be applied only in a land with assured water supply and
availability of other inputs like chemicals, fertilizers etc.
5. Increased vulnerability to pests:
• The resistance to one species of pest due to genetic modification might invite other species of
pests to attack the crop as in the case of bollworm being replaced by other pest species in the
case of Bt cotton.
6. Land Degradation:
• Land degradation is also one of the major negative impacts of green revolution.
• Degradation associated with irrigation accounts for 23% of the total degraded area and for 25%
of the moderately or severely degraded area

Evergreen Revolution:
The concept of evergreen revolution is, indeed, a sequel to the green revolution of the 1960s which made
the country self-sufficient in food grains and ended its precarious dependence on food aid and grain imports.

Evergreen revolution refers to productivity improvement in perpetuity without ecological and social
harm. The evergreen revolution involves the integration of ecological principles in technology
development and dissemination.

The prime objective of transforming the Green Revolution into an evergreen revolution is to expand it to all crops
and all regions with minimal unhealthy consequences.

In one of the documents, the NITI Aayog has shortlisted five broad aspects of agriculture that need immediate
attention to lift the economic status of millions of farm families. These are also the basic issues which need to
be addressed to prepare the ground for an evergreen revolution.

• Development of new cost effective technology and transferring it to the poor farmers, besides
empowering them financially to put this into practice.
• Ensuring remunerative prices for the crops due to the limited reach of the minimum support prices (MSPs)
mechanism across the farm community in different parts of the country.
• Amendment of land leasing laws to legalise land leasing without the fear of losing its ownership may,
therefore, help in consolidation of land holdings at operational level and to attract fresh investment in
farming.
• The present measures for relief and loss reimbursement to the farmers at the time of natural disasters
are inadequate and suffer from procedural inefficiencies and delays.
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• Creation of supportive infrastructure of rural connectivity, transportation, storage and marketing to bring
green revolution in Eastern part of country.
Conclusion:
• The success of the efforts to transform the green revolution into an evergreen would depend largely on
how well the mooted programmes and schemes are implemented.
• There are already indications that the focus of agriculture development is gradually shifting from
production to income which will essentially need pointed attention to all the links in the agriculture
development chain from farm to fork.
• Technology-driven efficiency and precision would, therefore, have to be the byword for every farm
operation to transform green revolution into an evergreen revolution.

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Mains Master Notes

SUBJECT: GS 1 (POST INDEPENDENT INDIA)

TOPIC: THE JP MOVEMENT AND THE EMERGENCY

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3
THE PRE-EMERGENCY CRISES: ................................................................................................................................................... 3
FAILURE OF GOVERNMENT SYSTEM TO STOP PRE-EMERGENCY CRISES: ......................................................................... 3
GUJRAT UNREST:........................................................................................................................................................................... 3
BIHAR MOVEMENT: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
THE JP MOVEMENT: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
INDIRA GANDHI JUSTIFICATION FOR EMERGENCY: .............................................................................................................. 4
CRITIQUE OF JP MOVEMENT: ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
THE EMERGENCY: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
IMPACT OF EMERGENCY: ........................................................................................................................................................ 4
PUBLIC RESPONSE TO THE EMERGENCY:............................................................................................................................. 5
TOWARDS ENDING THE EMERGENCY:.................................................................................................................................. 5
ELECTIONS 1977:........................................................................................................................................................................ 6
WHY DID MRS. GANDHI ANNOUNCE AND THEN HOLD OPEN AND FREE ELECTIONS: ................................................. 6
CONCLUSION: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6

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THE JP MOVEMENT AND THE EMERGENCY

INTRODUCTION:
By the beginning of 1973 Indira Gandhi’s popularity began to decline. People’s expectations were unfulfilled.
Little dent was being made in rural or urban poverty or economic inequality, nor was there any lessening of caste and class
oppression in the country side.

THE PRE-EMERGENCY CRISES:

1. Worsening economic situation:
The immediate provocation for the rising discontent was the marked deterioration in the economic situation.
2. Failure of Monsoon leading to Agrarian distress:
Monsoon rains failed for two y ears in succession during 1972 and 1973.
3. Rising Oil prices:
The year 1973 also witnessed the notorious oil shock when world prices of crude oil increased four-fold.
4. Food Insecurity:
There were food riots in several parts of the country.
5. Industrial distress:
Economic recession, unemployment, price rise and scarcity of goods led to large-scale industrial unrest and a wave of
strikes in different parts of the country.
6. Poor Law and Order:
Law and order deteriorated, particularly during 1974–75. Strikes, student protests and popular demonstrations often
turned violent.
7. Bangladesh war:
• Burden of Bangladesh war had impact on the budgetary deficit.
• The burden of feeding and sheltering nearly 10 million refugees from Bangladesh during 1971 had depleted the
grain reserves and, combined with the cost of the Bangladesh war, had led to a large budgetary deficit.

FAILURE OF GOVERNMENT SYSTEM TO STOP PRE-EMERGENCY CRISES:

1. Organizational decline of Congress:
Congress had been declining as an organization and proved incapable of dealing with the political crisis at the state and
grassroots levels.
2. Growing Corruption in Government system:
Growing corruption in most areas of life and the widespread belief that the higher levels of the ruling party and
administration were involved in it.
3. Lack of Leadership of higher order:
Absence of leadership to tackle the deteriorating economic, political and law and order.
4. Role of Opposition:
The political situation was worsened by the play of factors like negative politics of opposition leaders.
5. Erosion of Public support:
The middle classes, because of price rise and the stink of corruption, the rich peasantry, because of the threat of land
reform, and the capitalists, because of the talk of socialism, nationalization of banks and coal mining started acting
against the government.

GUJRAT UNREST:
1. Popular anger over the rise in the prices of food grains, cooking oil and other essential commodities exploded in the
cities and towns of the state in the form of a student movement.
2. The state faced virtual anarchy with strikes, looting, rioting and arson, and efforts to force MLAs to resign.
3. The central government was forced to ask the state government to resign, suspend the assembly and impose President’s
Rule in the state.
4. Later, Indira Gandhi dissolved the assembly and announced fresh elections.

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BIHAR MOVEMENT:
• Jayaprakash Narayan, popularly known as JP gave a call for ‘Total Revolution’ or ‘a struggle against the very system.
• Firm refusal of Indira Gandhi to concede the demand for the dissolution of the assembly.
• The JP Movement attracted wide support especially from students, middle classes, traders and a section of the
intelligentsia.
• The movement had failed to attract the rural and urban poor even in Gujarat and Bihar.
• A sudden twist to Indian politics was given by a judgement on 12 June 1975 by Justice Sinha of the Allahabad High
Court, on an election petition by Raj Narain, convicting Mrs. Gandhi for having indulged in corrupt campaign practices
and declaring her election invalid.
• The Allahabad judgement and the Gujarat assembly results revived the Opposition movement
• JP and the coalition of Opposition parties asked the people to make it impossible for the government to function.
• Appeal was made to the armed forces, the police and the bureaucracy to refuse to obey any orders they regarded as
‘illegal’ and ‘unconstitutional
• This ultimately led to declaration of state of Internal Emergency

THE JP MOVEMENT:
1. It arose to end corruption in Indian life and politics, whose fountainhead was ostensibly Mrs. Gandhi, and to defend
democracy which was threatened by her authoritarian personality and style of politics and administration.

INDIRA GANDHI JUSTIFICATION FOR EMERGENCY:

• India’s stability, security, integrity and democracy were in danger from the disruptive character of the JP Movement.
• there was the need to implement a programme of rapid economic development in the interests of the poor and the
underprivileged
• She warned against intervention and subversion from abroad with the aim of weakening and destabilizing India.

CRITIQUE OF JP MOVEMENT:
a) Ideological Failure:
JP popularize the concept of ‘party less democracy and advocated for ‘Total Revolution’ (Sampooran Kranti). Both
concepts were unclear and without any clarity for the political system.
b) Inclusion of Communal Elements in the movement:
The JP Movement came to include the communal Jan Sangh and Jamaat-i-Islami, the neofascist RSS, the conservative
which weakened the unity and ethos of the movement.
c) Extraconstitutional methods of protest:
• The agitational methods adopted and propagated by the JP Movement were also extraconstitutional and
undemocratic.
• Tactic was to force the government to resign and the legislatures to be dissolved by gheraoing government offices.
d) Lack of Organizational support:
• The tactics it evolved over time amounted to a revolution.
• But this was to be a revolution without a revolutionary party, organization, ideology or programme to give it
direction and leadership.

THE EMERGENCY:
The political tragedy was that both the JP Movement and Indira Gandhi shunned the option of elections, which are
in a democracy the vehicles for the legitimation of a political regime and for expression of popular will.
Mrs. Gandhi proclaimed a state of Internal Emergency under Article 352 of the Constitution, suspending the normal
political processes, but promising to return to normalcy as soon as conditions warranted it.

IMPACT OF EMERGENCY:

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1. On federal provisions:
The proclamation suspended the federal provisions of the constitution and Fundamental Rights and civil liberties.
2. Censorship on the Press:
The government imposed strict censorship on the Press and stifled all protest and opposition to the government.
3. Parliament was made utterly ineffective.
4. Constitutional Amendments:
• A series of decrees, laws and constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the judiciary to check the functioning
of the executive.
• The Defence of India Act and MISA were amended in July 1975 to the detriment of the citizens’ liberties.
5. On Fundamental Rights:
Fundamental Rights were indirectly emasculated by being made subordinate to an expanded version of the Directive
Principles of State Policy embodied in the constitution.
Thus, the Emergency concentrated unlimited state and party power in the hands of the prime minister to be exercised through
a small coterie of politicians and bureaucrats around her.

PUBLIC RESPONSE TO THE EMERGENCY:

1. While a section of the intelligentsia reacted to the Emergency with marked hostility, the large majority of the people
initially responded to it with passivity, acquiescence, acceptance or even, support.
2. With the restoration of public order and discipline, many felt relieved that the country had been saved from disorder
and chaos.
3. There was also an immediate and general improvement in administration, with government servants coming to office
on time and being more considerate to the public.
4. There was a major, dramatic improvement in the economy, though only some of it was really due to steps taken under
the Emergency.
5. Twenty -Point Programme promised:

▪ To liquidate the existing debt of landless labourers, small farmers and rural artisans and extend alternative credit to
them
▪ Abolish bonded labour, implement the existing agricultural land ceiling laws and distribute surplus land to the
landless
▪ Provide house sites to landless labourers and weaker sections, revise upwards minimum wages of agricultural labour
▪ Provide special help to the handloom industry , bring down prices, prevent tax evasion and smuggling
▪ Increase production, streamline distribution of essential commodities, increase the limit of income tax exemption
to Rs 8,000, and liberalize investment procedures.
6. A major factor in the people’s acceptance of the Emergency was its constitutional, legal and temporary character. It
was proclaimed under Article 352 of the constitution. It was approved by parliament and legitimized by the courts.

Throughout the Emergency, Mrs. Gandhi asserted that she was fully committed to multi-party democracy and a free press,
that the Emergency was an abnormal remedy for an abnormal situation, and that democratic conditions would be restored
and elections held as soon as the situation returned to normal.
The Indian people tended to take Mrs. Gandhi at her word.

TOWARDS ENDING THE EMERGENCY:

Within a few months, however, the people started getting disillusioned with the Emergency. Popular discontent from
mid1976 reached its zenith six months later. The reasons for this are varied:
1. Short term economic policies:
• Economic growth of the first year of the Emergency was not sustained.
• Agricultural output declined; prices rose by 10 per cent by the end of 1976.
• The poor were disenchanted with the slow progress in their welfare and workers were unhappy because of limits on
wages
• Government servants and teachers became discontented because they were being disciplined in their workplaces.
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2. Implementation of Government programmes:

• Reliance for the implementation of the Twenty -Point Programme and other developmental programmes was placed
exclusively on the same old corrupt and inefficient bureaucracy and manipulative and discredited politicians.
• So, its benefit would not reached to intended beneficiaries.
3. Unrestricted Power of Bureaucracy:
• The bureaucracy and the police now got increased power that ‘was unchecked by criticism and exposure from the
Press, courts, MLAs and MPs, political parties and popular movements
• The drastic press censorship and the silencing of protest led to the government being kept in complete ignorance of
what was happening in the country.
4. Extra-constitutional centre of power:
• A major reason for the growing unpopularity of the Emergency regime was, however, the development of an extra-
constitutional centre of power.
• This was associated with the rise to political power of Mrs. Gandhi’s younger son, Sanjay Gandhi
• In July 1976, Sanjay put forward his four points which gradually became more important than the official twenty
points:
a) Don’t take dowry at the time of marriage;
b) Practice family planning and limit families to only two children
c) Plant trees
d) Promote literacy
Thus, the already existing climate of fear and repression, corruption and abuse of authority was further worsened
by the excesses committed under Sanjay Gandhi’s direction.

ELECTIONS 1977:
The elections were held on 16 March in a free and fair atmosphere, and when the results came in it was clear that
Congress had been thoroughly defeated.

WHY DID MRS. GANDHI ANNOUNCE AND THEN HOLD OPEN AND FREE ELECTIONS:
• The decision was an expression of Mrs. Gandhi’s underlying commitment to liberal democracy and democratic
values.
• Mrs Gandhi completely misread the popular temper and misinformed by sycophants and intelligence agencies, was
convinced that she would win
• She realized that the policies of the Emergency had to be legitimized further through elections.

There were, of course, many in India and abroad who were convinced that the Emergency was a temporary departure
from the basic commitment of the people of India and its political leadership to democracy and that democracy would be
sooner or later restored in the country.

CONCLUSION:
• The democratic system in India not only survived the JP Movement and the Emergency but emerged stronger.
• The lifting of the Emergency and the free elections that followed were a defining moment in India’s post-
independence history.
• Whatever the character of the JP Movement or of the Emergency regime, there is no doubt that the decision of Mrs
Gandhi to hold genuinely free elections, and her defeat and the Opposition’s victory that followed were a remarkable
achievement of Indian democracy.
• The years 1975–77 have been described as the years of the ‘test of democracy’; there is no doubt that the Indian
people passed the test with distinction if not full marks.

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Mains Master Notes

SUBJECT: GS 1 (POST INDEPENDENT HISTORY)

TOPIC: ISSUE OF OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION:................................................................................................................................................. 3
THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE ............................................................................................................................... 3
DEBATE OVER INDIA’S OFFICIAL AND LINK LANGUAGE: ......................................................................... 3
DEBATE OVER TIME FRAME OF OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: ............................................................................. 4
ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST ADOPTION OF HINDI AS OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: ............................... 4
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION: ....................................................................................................................... 4
IMPLEMENTATION OF CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AND CONTROVERSY: ...................................... 4
WHY OPPOSITION TO HINDI AS NATIONAL LANGUAGE: ........................................................................... 4
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE COMMISSION: ............................................................................................................. 5
ANTI- HINDI MOVEMENT: ................................................................................................................................ 5
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE ACT 1963: ..................................................................................................................... 5
CONCLUSION: ..................................................................................................................................................... 6

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ISSUE OF OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

INTRODUCTION:
• The language problem was the most divisive issue in the first twenty years of independent
India, and it created the apprehension among many that the political and cultural unity of
the country was in danger.
• Linguistic diversity would inevitably give birth to strong political currents around issues
linked to language, such as educational and economic development, job and other
economic opportunities and access to political power.
• The Indian constitution recognizes twenty -two major languages, including English and
Sanskrit. The problem posed to national consolidation by linguistic diversity has taken two
major forms.
• These are divided in two separate sections: (i) the dispute over official language of the
union and (ii) the linguistic reorganization of the states.

THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

• The controversy on the language issue became most virulent when it took the form of
opposition to Hindi and tended to create conflict between Hindi-speaking and non-Hindi-
speaking regions of the country.
• India was a multilingual country and it had to remain so. The Indian national movement
had carried on its ideological and political work through the different Indian regional
languages.
• Its demand then was for the replacement of English by the mother tongue as the medium
for higher education, administration and courts in each linguistic area.
• The issue of a national language was resolved when the constitution-makers virtually
accepted all the major languages as ‘languages of India’ or India’s national languages.
• There had to be one common language in which the central government would carry on its
work and maintain contact with the state governments.
DEBATE OVER INDIA’S OFFICIAL AND LINK LANGUAGE:
• Choice had already been made in the pre-independence period by the leadership of the
national movement, which was convinced that English would not continue to be the all-
India medium of communication in free India.
• Gandhi argued English occupied in India ‘an unnatural place due to our unequal relations
with Englishmen.
• Hindi or Hindustani, the other candidate for the status of the official or link language, had
already played this role during the nationalist struggle, especially during the phase of mass
mobilization.
• Hindi had been accepted by leaders from non-Hindi-speaking regions because it was
considered to be the most widely spoken and understood language in the country.
• Gandhiji and Nehru both supported Hindustani, written in the Devanagari or Urdu script.
• After partition votaries of Hindi now branded Urdu ‘as a symbol of secession’. They
demanded that Hindi in the Devanagari script be made the national language
• Later, it accepted that Hindi would be the official and not the national language.

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DEBATE OVER TIME FRAME OF OFFICIAL LANGUAGE:

• The spokespersons of Hindi areas were for the immediate switchover to Hindi, while those
from non-Hindi areas advocated retention of English for a long if not indefinite period.
• Nehru was for making Hindi the official language, but he was also in favour of English
continuing as an additional official language.
• So, making the transition to Hindi gradual, and actively encouraging the knowledge of
English because of its usefulness in the contemporary world.

ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST ADOPTION OF HINDI AS OFFICIAL LANGUAGE:

• It was the language of the largest number, though not of the majority.
• It was also understood at least in the urban areas of most of northern India from Bengal to
Punjab and in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• The critics of Hindi talked about it being less developed than other languages as a literary
language and as a language of science and politics
• Such opponents tended to argue that imposition of Hindi on non-Hindi areas would lead to
their economic, political, social and cultural domination by Hindi areas.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION:
1. The constitution provided that Hindi in Devanagari script with international numerals
would be India’s official language.
2. English was to continue for use in all official purposes till 1965, when it would be replaced
by Hindi. Hindi was to be introduced in a phased manner.
3. The constitution laid upon the government the duty to promote the spread and development
of Hindi.
4. The state legislatures were to decide the matter of official language at the state level, though
the official language of the Union would serve as the language of communication between
the states and the Centre and between one state and another.

IMPLEMENTATION OF CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AND CONTROVERSY:

• Implementation of the language provisions of the constitution proved to be a formidable
task.
• The constitution-makers had hoped that by 1965 the Hindi protagonists would overcome
the weaknesses of Hindi and win the confidence of non-Hindi areas.
• With the rapid growth of education Hindi too would spread and resistance to Hindi would
gradually weaken.
• The chances of Hindi’s success as an official language were spoilt by the proponents of
Hindi themselves.
• Their zeal and enthusiasm tended to provoke a counter-movement.

WHY OPPOSITION TO HINDI AS NATIONAL LANGUAGE:

1. Hindi protagonists tried to Sanskritize the language, replacing commonly understood
words with newly manufactured, unwieldy and little understood ones in the name of the
‘purity ’of language, free of alien influences.
2. All India Radio took to Sanskritizing its Hindi news bulletins that many listeners would
switch off their radios when the Hindi news was broadcast.

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3. Hindi suffered from the lack of social science and scientific writing
4. Instead of developing Hindi as a means of communication in higher education, journalism,
and so on, the Hindi leaders were more interested in making it the sole official language.

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE COMMISSION:

Sharp differences on the official language issue surfaced during 1956–60, once again revealing the
presence of disruptive tendencies.
In 1956, the Report of the Official Language Commission, set up in 1955 highlighted following:
1. State governments are ‘better placed’ than the central government to promote the spread
of the Hindi language.
2. For switchover to Hindi, it is necessary to prepare and standardise the appropriate
terminologies for administration; official publications containing rules, regulations,
manuals and other procedural literature must be translated into Hindi.
3. Hindi was proposed as India’s official language
4. Commission recommended that the government’s plan for the progressive use of Hindi for
official purposes “should be kept in abeyance for the time being.”
ANTI- HINDI MOVEMENT:
As 26 January 1965 approached, a fear psychosis gripped the non-Hindi areas, especially Tamil
Nadu, creating a strong anti-Hindi movement.

• Students, concerned for their careers and apprehensive that they would be outstripped by
Hindi speakers in the all-India services, were the most active in organizing a widespread
agitation and mobilizing public opinion.
• So strong was the anti-Hindi feeling that several Tamil youth, including four students,
burned themselves to death in protest against the official language policy.
• At the height of the agitation Indira Gandhi flew to Madras, ‘rushed to the storm-centre of
trouble’, showed some sympathy for the agitators.
• The agitation forced both the Madras and the Union governments and the Congress party
to revise their stand.
• With the death of Lal Bahadur Shastri in January 1966, Indira Gandhi became the prime
minister.
• Despite facing economic problems and the weakening of the Congress’s position in
parliament in the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi moved the bill to amend the 1963 Official
Language Act on 27 November
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE ACT 1963:
1. It provided that the use of English as an associate language in addition to Hindi for the
official work.
2. For communication between the Centre and non-Hindi states English would continue as
long as the non-Hindi states wanted it.
3. A virtually indefinite policy of bilingualism was adopted.
4. The states were to adopt a three-language formula according to which in the non-Hindi
areas, the mother tongue, Hindi and English or some other national language was to be
taught in schools

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5. While in the Hindi areas a non-Hindi language, preferably a southern language, was to be
taught as a compulsory subject.
Later, on the basis of the report of the Education Commission in 1966 it declared that Indian
languages would ultimately become the medium of education in all subjects at the university level,
though the time-frame for the changeover would be decided by each university to suit its
convenience.

CONCLUSION:
• Since 1967, this problem has gradually disappeared from the political scene.
• An issue which emotionally divided the people and which could have jeopardized the unity of
the country, a widely acceptable solution was found through negotiations and compromise.
• It is significant that Hindi has been making rapid progress in non-Hindi areas through
education, trade, tourism, films, radio and television.
• Both English and Hindi are likely to grow as link languages just as regional languages are
more and more occupying the official, educational and media space.
• In fact, English is not only likely to survive in India for all times to come, but it remains and
is likely to grow as a language of communication between the intelligentsia all over the
country, as a library language, and as the second language of the universities.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: GS 1 (POST INDEPENDENT INDIA)

TOPIC: POPULAR MOVEMENTS OF POST INDEPENDENT INDIA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

WHAT IS SOCIAL MOVEMENT? ................................................................................................................................................... 3

COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT: ................................................................................................................................ 3

CHIPKO MOVEMENT ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3

NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN.................................................................................................................................................. 4

SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENT ...................................................................................................................................................... 6

THE DALIT MOVEMENT ............................................................................................................................................................... 7

OBC MOVEMENTS: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8

AGRARIAN STRUGGLE: ................................................................................................................................................................ 9

WOMEN MOVEMENT .................................................................................................................................................................. 11

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POPULAR MOVEMENTS OF POST INDEPENDENT INDIA

WHAT IS SOCIAL MOVEMENT?

Paul Wilkinson defines social movement as “a deliberate collective endeavour to promote change in
any direction and by any means, not excluding violence, illegality, revolution or withdrawal into ‘utopian’
community. Social movements are thus clearly different from historical movements, tendencies or trends. It is
important to note, however, that such tendencies and trends, and the influence of the unconscious or irrational
factors in human behaviour, may be of crucial importance in illuminating the problems of interpreting and
explaining social movement”.
According to Herbert Blumer, “Social movements can be viewed as collective enterprises to establish a new
order of life. They have their inception in the condition of unrest, and derive their motive power on one hand from
dissatisfaction with the current form of life, and on the other hand, from wishes and hopes for a new scheme or
system of living.”
For Doug McAdam, social movements are “those organized efforts, on the part of excluded groups, to promote
or resist changes in the structure of society that involve recourse to non-institutional forms of political
participation.”
Social movements are, according to Sidney Tarrow, “collective challenges, based on common purposes and
social solidarities in sustained interaction with elites, opponents and authorities”.
Thus, social movements have common elements of: 1) collective action; (2) social change and (3)
common purpose.

Components of social movement:

• Objective: Immediate as well as long-term objective
• Programme: Collective action strategies and
Agitation or protests are not social
Mobilisation of people who in course of the process
identify with the objective of the movement movements. Because, they more often
• Ideology: Not well knit, yet driven by the Social than not, do not aim at bringing social
change change. They do not conceive that. They
• Organisation: May be loose or well-formed with are reaction to a particular situation.
centralised or decentralised decision-making system
Social movement develops in course of
around some common purpose
time, and it begins with protest or agitation
which may not have conceived the notion
Leadership: Strategic decision-makers who inspire and of political change
organize others to become involved as well as fluidity in
leadership with role for

CHIPKO MOVEMENT
Introduction:
• The Chipko movement can essentially be called a women's movement.
• Women, being solely in charge of cultivation, livestock and children, lost all they had because of floods
and landslides, caused due to rise in deforestation in the face of urbanization.
About the Movement:
• The Chipko movement was a non-violent agitation in 1973 that was aimed at protection and conservation
of trees.
• It is best remembered for the collective mobilisation of women for the cause of preserving forests.
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• The uprising against the felling of trees and maintaining the ecological balance originated in Uttar
Pradesh’s Chamoli district (now Uttarakhand) in 1973.
• The name of the movement ‘Chipko’ comes from the word ’embrace’, as the villagers hugged the trees
and encircled them to prevent being hacked.

Chipko Movement and Bishnoi Community:

• Chipko andolan dates back to the 18th century and was started by Rajasthan’s Bishnoi community.
• The incident has been etched in the annals of history for the sacrifice of a group of villagers, who led by
a lady named Amrita Devi, laid down their lives while protecting trees from being felled on the orders of
then King of Jodhpur.
• After this incident, the king, in a royal decree, banned cutting of trees in all Bishnoi villages.

Factors Responsible for the Movement:

1. Growth and Development in Hilly region:
• The trigger for the modern Chipko movement was the growth in development that Uttar Pradesh
witnessed following the 1963 China border conflict.
• The need for infrastructural development attracted many foreign logging companies, who were eyeing
the state’s vast forest resources.
• However, the forests were the lifeblood of the villagers and they relied on it for both food and fuel.
2. Widespread flooding linked to deforestation:
In 1970, widespread floods inundated the area and was attributed to the mismanagement due to
commercial logging.
3. Government’s biased policy:

• Policy did not allow local agriculturists and herders to cut the trees for fuel wood or for fodder and for
certain other purposes.
• However, a sports manufacturing company was given the permission to fell trees and use them to make
equipment.

Course of the Movement:

• Environmentalist and Gandhian social activist Chandi Prasad Bhatt, founder of the cooperative
organisation Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh, led the first Chipko movement near the village of Mandal in
1973.
• When their appeals were denied, Bhatt led a group of villagers into the forest and embraced the trees to
prevent logging.
• After many days of agitation, the government canceled the company’s logging permit.
• The message of the Chipko workers made a direct appeal to them. They were able to perceive the link
between their victimization and the denuding of mountain slopes by commercial interests.
• Thus, sheer survival made women support the movement.
The Chipko Movement gained traction under Sunderlal Bahuguna, an eco-activist, who spent his life persuading
and educating the villagers to protest against the destruction of the forests and Himalayan Mountains.
It was his endeavor that saw then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi banning the cutting of tress. Bahuguna is best
remembered for the slogan “ecology is the permanent economy”.

NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN

Introduction:
• Social movement spearheaded by native tribals (adivasis), farmers, environmentalists and human rights
activists against a number of large dam projects across the Narmada River.
• Narmada River flows through states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

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• Narmada is the fifth largest river in India. It originates from the Maikala range at Amar Kantak in Madhya
Pradesh and flows westwards over a length of about 1312 km before draining into the Gulf of Cambay,
50 km west of Bharauch city.
• The catchment area of Narmada River is 98800 km2.
• The utilizable water availability is estimated at 28 Million-Acre Feet (MAF), at 75 per cent dependability
in terms of Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (NWDT) Award.
• Andolan was against Narmada Dam Project, whose main aim is to provide irrigation and electricity to
people of the above states.

RATIONALE OF THE PROJECT :( SARDAR SAROVAR DAM)

1. Irrigation:
• The Sardar Sarovar Project will provide irrigation facilities to 18.45 lac ha. of land, covering 3112
villages of 73 talukas in 15 districts of Gujarat.
• About 75% of the command area in Gujarat is drought prone while entire command in Rajasthan is
drought prone. Assured water supply will soon make this area drought proof.

2. Drinking Water Supply:

• All the villages and urban centres of arid region of Saurashtra and Kachchh and all "no source" villages
and the villages affected by salinity and fluoride in North Gujarat will be benefited.
• Water supply requirement of several industries will also be met from the project giving a boost to all-
round production

3. Power:
• A series of hydel power stations are planned on the branch canals where convenient falls are available.

4. Flood Protection:
• It will also provide flood protection to riverine reaches.

5. WILD LIFE:
• Wild Ass Sanctuary in little Rann of Kachchh, Black Buck National Park at Velavadar, Great Indian
Bustard Sanctuary in Kachchh, Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary and Alia Bet at the mouth of River will be
benefited.

Narmada Bachao Aandolan and its aftermath:

• Medha Patkar has been at the forefront of the movement. She has organised several fasts and
satyagrahas, and been to jail several times for the cause.
• Another popular figure was Baba Amte, known for his work against leprosy.
• The project required relocation of about 2.5 lakh people and 245 villages were expected to get
submerged.
• NBA demanded a proper cost benefit analysis of the major developmental projects completed in the
country so far.
• Activists allege that the people displaced as result of the dam construction have not been fully
compensated or rehabilitated.
• It also demanded that social cost should be calculated too with respect to such projects.
• Social cost meant forced settlement of project affected people, serious loss of means of livelihood and
culture, depletion of ecological resources.
• Medha Patkar continues to fight for proper rehabilitation of the displaced people in Madhya Pradesh
as well as the reception of the promised compensation by the Narmada Tribunal.

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• This movement has brought forth the different notions of development. The Indian government has often
argued that the cost of displacements is outweighed by the benefit derived from the Narmada Project.
Government sources claim that irrigation from the project is expected to benefit about 10 lakh farmers and
drinking water to be supplied to various villages and towns, is likely to benefit up to four crore people.
So, need of the hour is to effectively address issues associated with rehabilitation and resettlement to
materialize the immense potential created by the project.

SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENT

Introduction:
• Its almost undisturbed forests are home to many endemic and endangered species, but it’s the lion-
tailed macaque that has come to symbolise the Silent Valley in Kerala’s Palakkad district.
• Two decades ago, the endangered macaque became the Silent Valley’s rallying cry that brought together
environmentalists, students, teachers and writers to stop the Kerala government from building a dam that
would have submerged its forests and fragmented the primate’s habitat.

About the Project:

• The Kerala State Electricity Board had proposed a dam over the Kunthipuzha River as early as in 1958
and work on the project began in 1973, after it got the Planning Commission’s nod.
• In the following years, the opposition to the 240-MW hydroelectric project that would have submerged
seven-sq-km along the Western Ghats’s grew stronger.

Benefits of the project:

1. Electricity generation:
• It will generate electricity for the state of Kerala with the installation of four units of 60 MW each. (The
KSEB avers that the state’s electricity requirements will not be met without this additional power).
2. Irrigation:
• Irrigate an additional 100 sq km in the Mallapuram and Palghat districts.
3. Employment opportunities:
• Provide employment to several thousand people during the construction phase and boost the economy
of the state.

Arguments against the Project:

• The entire lower valley will be submerged by the dam, destroying its biodiversity.
• The 10 percent loss projected by the government will actually be far worse.
• The workforce brought in for the construction of the project will reside in the area for several
years and the destruction they cause – illegal wood felling, cattle grazing, poaching, encroaching –
will destroy the Valley.

Protest against the project and its aftermath:

• Then prime minister Indira Gandhi had developed a keen interest in environmental matters after attending
the UN Conference on environment in Stockholm in 1972.
• She later formed the National Committee for Environmental Planning and Co-ordination, which was
asked to scout for places in the Western Ghats which were suitable for conservation and could be
converted into national parks.
• Save Silent Valley clubs came up in many cities across India and support also came in from the
Botanical Survey of India, the Zoological Survey of India, the International Union for Conservation of
Nature and the WWF.
• The movement heralded the beginning of public awareness on environment and even triggered an
intellectual debate in Kerala.

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• In fact, the movement was responsible for the passing of the Forest Conservation Act in 1980 that
restricted the use of forest land for any non-forest use.
• Silent Valley in Kerala was declared a national park and later buffer zone of 148 sq km along the
core area was announced.

THE DALIT MOVEMENT

Introduction:
• The caste system in India originated about 2,500 hundred years ago.
• The most obnoxious part of the caste system was that it designated certain groups as untouchables and
outcastes.
• In the villages, the untouchable castes performed all the menial jobs such as those of scavengers, water-
carriers, skinners of hides of dead animals, leather-workers, as well as, of course, agricultural labour.
• Economic changes, especially the commercialization of agricultural production and agrarian relations,
emergence of contractual relations, new employment opportunities outside the village in factories,
mandis, government service, the army (aided by education), all contributed to a shift in the position of the
untouchables.

Initiatives in the area of removing caste injustice and inequality:

1. Constitutional provisions:
• The constitution extended political rights to all citizens irrespective of religion, caste, sex, language,
race and this included the SCs.
• Article 17 declared that: “untouchability” is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden.
• The constitution also made provisions for reservation of seats in legislatures and educational
institutions and of government jobs for SCs.

2. Legal provisions:
• In 1955, parliament passed the Untouchability (Offences) Act which further specified that any offences
were punishable with a fine, and/or cancellation of licences and public grants.
• In 1976, the Protection of Civil Rights (Amendment) Act was passed which provided for enhanced and
stringent punishment, appointment of officers and special courts to deal with offenders, legal aid for
victims, etc.

Dalit Panthers:
• In the early 1970s, a new trend identified as the Dalit Panthers (Dalit, meaning downtrodden, being the
name by which the SCs now prefer to call themselves in various parts), emerged in Maharashtra as part
of the country wide wave of radical politics
• Established as a political organization in 1972, the Dalit Panthers leaned ideologically on Ambedkar’s
thought.
• They had their base mainly among youth and students in urban centres.
• They talked about revolution, but there is little evidence of any concrete strategy being evolved. The
agitation for renaming Marathwada University as Ambedkar University resulted in the anti-Dalit riots in
1978 in the rural areas of Maharashtra in which the main aggressors were the middle-caste Maratha
Kunbi non-Brahmin peasants.
• By the 1980s, the Dalit Panthers had developed serious differences over issues such as whether or not
to include non-Dalit poor and non-Buddhist Dalits, primacy of cultural versus economic struggle, as well
as over personalities
• Splits began to occur and most factions, as in the case of the Republican Party twenty years earlier,
joined or allied with Congress over time.
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The Bhopal Declaration (2002) adopted unanimously a new 21-point Action Agenda for Dalits for the
21st century. Some of them are:
• Implement compulsory, free and high-quality education for all Dalits immediately
• Make the reservation quota applicable in all the public and private educational institutions from primary
to technical and professional levels.
• Recognize SC and ST women as a distinct category among women
• Eliminate the humiliating practice of manual scavenging on an urgent footing
• Make reservation mandatory in the private and corporate sector
• Implement policy of reservation to SCs and STs at all levels of judiciary and defence forces
In the contemporary period the Dalit movement has unquestionably acquired a place in the public sphere
that cannot be ignored.
This has been accompanied by a growing body of Dalit literature.
While some emphasize the cultural struggle for dignity and identity, others also bring in the structural
features of society including the economic dimensions.
Emphasis on anti-poverty strategies such as rapid economic development and employment, and income
expansion via employment guarantee schemes and other similar measures needs to continue.
Education has been found to be a major vehicle for social mobility and therefore emphasis on providing
universal primary and even secondary education is an imperative.
This must include a special emphasis on female education, given the direct impact observed on fertility rates.
This also shows the need for greater emphasis on equal opportunities for quality education from the primary
level itself as education has been found to be a critical vehicle for social mobility

OBC MOVEMENTS:
Introduction:
• The term ‘Backward Classes’ has been in use in different parts of the country since the late 19th Century.
• It began to be used more widely in Madras presidency since 1872, in the princely state of Mysore since
1918, and in Bombay presidency since 1925.
• From the 1920s, a number of organisations united around the issue of caste sprang up in different parts
of the country.
• These included the United Provinces Hindu Backward Classes League, All-India Backward Classes
Federation, All India Backward Classes League.

Changing Caste Dynamics:

• The so-called Backward Castes are really the intermediate castes whose position in the ritual
hierarchy was below that of the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas and above that of the untouchables.
• They did suffer from certain ritual disabilities as compared to the upper castes, but they were in no
way comparable to the SCs.
• Nor did they suffer from untouchability.
• Backward Castes such as the Ahirs, Yadavas, Kurmis, Vokkaligas, Lingay ats and Lodhas have gained
considerable economic advantage via post-independence land reform which gave land rights to ex-
tenants of zamindars.
• This new found strength increased their political clout and representation and they are now seeking to
use this clout to secure greater advantages for themselves in jobs, education etc.
• In rural areas, they are the biggest exploiters of the SCs who are agricultural labourers and there is little
in common between them.

Mandal Report and Caste politics:

• Mandal Commission was set up in 1978 by Govt. of India to investigate the extent of educational &
social backwardness among various sections of Indian Society & recommend ways of identifying these
backward classes.

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• Mandal Commission found that backward caste had a very low presence in both educational institutions
& in employment in public services.
• Hence it recommended reservations of seats in educations institutions and government job for
these groups.
• Mandal Commission also made many other recommendations like land reforms, to improve the
conditions of the OBCs.
• After a decade, in 1990, National Front Government decided to implement one of the recommendations
of Commission pertaining to reservations for OBCs in jobs at central government & its undertakings.
• This decision sparked agitations and violent protests in many cities of North India.
• Supreme Court in 1992 gave a ruling upholding the decision of the government reiterating that reservation
percentage cannot exceed 50% and “Creamy Layer” to be excluded from Reservation benefits.

The Mandal judgments have also been subjected to severe criticism by sociologists who have argued that caste
has undergone such drastic changes since independence but the judiciary is still working on the basis of outdated
and ill-informed Western notions of caste.
In fact, the politics of reservations for Backward Castes has more to do with sharing the loaves and fishes of
office and power than with a struggle for social justice.

AGRARIAN STRUGGLE:
Introduction:
• The years since independence have seen agrarian struggles of enormous variety, ranging from the
legendary Telangana peasant movement and the PEPSU tenants’ movement which continued from the
pre-independence years to the Naxalite or Maoist movement in the late 1960s and the ‘new’ farmers’
movements of the 1980s.
• Interspersed in between are many lesser-known struggles, such as the Kharwar tribals’ movement in
Madhya Pradesh and Bihar in 1957–58, the Bhils’ movement in Dhulia in Maharashtra from 1967–75, or
the Warlis’ struggle led by the Kashtakari Sanghatna headed by the Marxist Jesuit Pradeep Prabhu since
1978.
• The trajectory of these movements in many ways maps the process of agrarian and social change since
independence.
• A shift is discerned from immediate post-independence concerns bequeathed by colonialism and
feudalism to issues arising out of the Green Revolution and other processes of agrarian change including
the aspirations aroused by the struggles for and policy of land reform.

1. Telangana Peasant Struggle:

• This movement was launched in the state of Andhra Pradesh against the former Nizam of Hyderabad.
• The agrarian social structure in the Nizam’s Hyderabad was of a feudal order. It had two kinds of land
tenure systems, namely, raiyatwari and jagirdari.
• Under the raiyatwari system, the peasants owned patta and were proprietors of the land; they were
registered occupants.

Main causes of movement:

1. Exploitation by Big farmers:
• The families of big peasants and their heads were called Durra or Dora.
• Dora exploited the small peasants and agricultural labourers. It was considered to be the privilege
of the Dora to exploit the masses of peasants.

2. System of slavery:
• This system was known as Bhagela.

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• According to Bhagela system, the tenant who had taken loan from the landlord was obliged to serve him
till the debt is repaid. In most of the cases, the Bhagela was required to serve the landlord for generations.

3. Dominance of Reddis and Kammars:

• The Reddis and Kammars were notable castes who traditionally worked as traders and moneylenders.
• They wanted to pull down the dominance of Brahmins as agriculturists in the state.

4. Lack of Development measures for Agriculture:

• Though, the lack of irrigation was realised by Nizam and he provided irrigation facilities to the peasants
both in khalsa and jagir villages.
• These facilities were largely cornered by the big farmers.
The movement had broken the back of landlordism in Telangana, but this had already been done as part of the
anti-Nizam, pro-integration liberation struggle, when their position as leaders of the popular upsurge provided
Communists the opportunity to articulate radical peasant demands as well.

2. Patiala Muzara Movement:

• The Muzara movement had its origin in the late 19th century, when the princely state of Patiala suffered
oppression by the Maharaja of Patiala.
• With the formation of the Congress ministry in 1951, there was a fresh wave of political resurgence.
• The Agrarian Reforms Enquiry Committee was set up to recommend measures to tackle the issue.
• The PEPSU Tenancy (Temporary Provision) Act was formulated in 1952 which sought to protect tenants
against eviction.
• The Act enabled the peasants to become owners provided they paid compensation twelve times the land
revenue.

3. ‘New’ Farmers’ Movements:

• The farmers’ movements burst onto the national political stage in 1980 with the road and rail roko
agitation in Nasik in Maharashtra led by the Shetkari Sangathana of Sharad Joshi.
• The basic understanding on which the movements rested is that the government maintains
agricultural prices at an artificially low level in order to provide cheap food and raw materials to
urban areas.
• The consequent disparity in prices results in farmers paying high prices for industrial goods needed
as inputs into agriculture and receiving low returns for their produce.
• As a result, farmers are exploited by urban interests, and are victims of internal colonialism.
• These ‘new’ farmers’ movements that have attracted much media and political attention.

Movement focused mainly on:

▪ Demanding remunerative prices for agricultural produce
▪ Lowering or elimination of government dues such as canal water charges
▪ Electricity charges, interest rates and principal of loans, etc.
These movements are often referred to as ‘new’, the suggestion being that they are part of the worldwide
trend of ‘new’ non-class or supra-class social movements.
The other ground on which ‘newness’ is asserted is that these movements are not linked to political parties.
Conclusion:
The movement no doubt touched a vital chord among peasants by drawing attention to the neglect and
backwardness of rural areas.
Its problem remained that instead of focusing on redressal, it began to pit peasants and villagers against
town dwellers in a fratricidal war.

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WOMEN MOVEMENT
The women’s question arose in modern India as part of the nineteenth century middle class social reform
movements. The nature of these movements varied from region to region. They are often termed as middle-
class reform movements because many of these reformers were from the newly emerging western educated
Indian middle class. They were often at once inspired by the democratic ideals of the modern west and by a
deep pride in their own democratic traditions of the past.
Apart from the early feminist visions there were a large number of women’s organizations that arose both at
the all-India and local levels in the early twentieth century. And then began the participation of women in the
national movement itself. As a result, women’s rights were part and parcel of the nationalist vision. In 1931, the
Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress issued a declaration on the Fundamental Rights of Citizenship
in India whereby it committed itself to women’s equality.
Two decades after Independence, women’s issues re-emerged in the 1970s (the gap of 20-years is
explained mainly due to legitimacy enjoyed by leadership for their role in freedom movement). In the nineteenth
century reform movements, the emphasis had been on the backward aspects of tradition like sati, child marriage,
or the ill treatment of widows.
In the 1970s, the emphasis was on ‘modern’ issues – the rape of women in police custody, dowry murders, the
representation of women in popular media, and the gendered consequences of unequal development.
The law was a major site for reform in the 1980s and after, especially when it was discovered that many laws
of concern to women had not been changed since the 19th century. As we enter the twenty-first century, new
sites of gender injustice are emerging. Declining sex ratio, sexual harassment at work place, equal
representation in legislatures and other bodies etc are new issues in this century.

WOMEN IN POST INDEPENDENCE ERA

In post-independent India, the women’s movement was divided, as the common enemy, foreign rule,
was no longer there. Many of the Muslim members went over to Pakistan. Some of the women leaders now
formally joined the Indian National Congress and other political parties and held positions of power as
ministers, governors and ambassadors. After their participation in the nation's independence struggle, women
again withdrew from public life and the debate on women’s issues also faded out from the public arena.
Further, in the post-Independence period constitutional provisions and social legislations for women, planned
economic development and social change affected women’s movement significantly.
In a democratic setup, women’s movements became more organized and even acquired a political shape.
With rising participation of women in economic and social spheres, they came to terms with the social reality of
discrimination.
Women dissatisfied with the status quo joined struggles for the rural poor and industrial working class such
as the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Telangana movement in Andhra Pradesh or the Naxalite movement.
Turbulent 1970s saw the real beginning of these movements as they raised issues that were specifically
concerned with women alone and not just social issues. United Nations declared 1975-85 as the International
Decade of the Woman and in India too, a ‘National Committee on the Status of Women’ was set up in
1970s and it came up with a report popularly known as ‘Towards Equality Report, 1974’ which became a major
landmark for the women’s movement. The real beginnings of the women’s movement in India, has often been
traced back to this report.

Constitutional Provisions for Equality of women

● The constitution of India does not discriminate between men and women.

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● All men and women of India are equally entitled to individual freedom, fundamental rights including the
right to participate in social, cultural, religious, educational, economic and political activities.
● The Constitution provides for the equality of sex and offers protection to women against exploitation.
● It has given the voting rights to women and in no way treats women as second grade citizens.

SOCIAL LEGISLATION SAFEGUARDING WOMEN'S INTERESTS

● In the early 1950s, Nehru initiated the process of the enactment of the Hindu Code Bill, a measure
demanded by women since the 1930s.
● Sections of the Bill were passed as 4 acts. Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Minority
and Guardianship Act, and the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act.
● The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 which prohibits polygamy, polyandry and child marriage and concedes
equal rights to women to divorce and remarry.
● The Special Marriage Act, 1954 which provides rights to women on par with men for inter-caste
marriage, love marriage and registered marriage. The Act has also fixed the minimum age of marriage
at 21 for males and 18 for females.
● The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 which provides for women the right to parental property.
● The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956 which gives a childless woman the right to adopt a
child and to claim maintenance from the husband if she is divorced by him.
● The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 which declares the taking of dowry an unlawful activity and thereby
prevents the exploitation of women.
● The suppression of Immoral Traffic of women and Girls Act, 1956 which gives protection to women
from being kidnapped and from being compelled to become prostitutes.
● The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 which legalizes abortion conceding the right of a
woman to go for abortion on the ground of physical and mental health.
● The Indecent Representation of women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 which prohibits the vulgar
representation of women in the media such as newspaper, cinema, TV etc.
● The 73rd and the 74th Constitution Amendment acts, 1993 which empower women and seek to secure
greater participation of women at all the levels of the Panchayat system.
● Parliament has passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Bill, 2019, thereby
criminalizing the practice of instant Triple Talaq.

It may be said that women’s participation in movements has been in four major forms:
(i) For social, economic and political rights of specific categories of people like tribals, peasants and industrial
workers,
(ii) For improvement in conditions of work and autonomy to women,
(iii) For equal remuneration for work,
(iv) In general social movements on issues affecting women and children like abortions, adoption of children,
sexual ex-ploitation, etc.

Major movements during this period are –

Political Movements: All India Democratic Women Association (AIDWA) affiliated with Communist
Party (CPI), and AIWC associated with Congress were formed in the 1970s. Many left affiliated organizations
and movements came up during the 1970s like the Shahada movement, in Dhule district of Maharashtra was

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one such movement. In wake of worsening socio-economic conditions during the Bangladesh war also many
movements were launched.
In Bombay, for example, Socialist Mrinal Gore and Communist Ahilya Rangnekar led the movement. It was
also during this time that Dalit movement and the feminism got linked. A ‘Mahila Samata Sainik Dal’ too was
formed by some Dalit groups in Maharastra.
The Maoist groups and the dalit organisations gradually provided a new edge to the argument that religion and
caste system provide additional legitimacy to the oppression of women Many disparate events like Shah Bano
Case also became political rallying point among other communities as well, on the other hand it also exposed
the weaknesses of organizing Muslim women in India.

Non-Governmental Movements – In the late 1970s several women’s organizations also emerged which were
not affiliated to political parties or to trade unions. They were called ‘autonomous women’s organizations.
They rejected the ‘welfarist’ approach adopted by the previous women’s organizations, many of which were
set up during the pre-Independence period, and adopted ‘protest policies’ for mobilizing women on specific
issues.

The Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) movement in Ahmedabad led by Ela Bhatt, which was a
sort of pioneering women’s trade union movement that began in 1972, was such a landmark in the history of the
contemporary women’s movement.
Similarly, the Progressive Organization of Women (POW), developed in Hyderabad in the year 1974, worked
towards organizing women against gender oppressive structures in society, namely, the sexual division of labor
and the culture that rationalized this discrimination.
Apart from these, there were many issue based movements like – anti dowry movement, anti-sati movement
(after sati of Roop Kanwar in 1980s), anti-rape movement etc. Other issues which saw national-level
collaborations were the Muslim Women’s Bill in 1986, alcoholism, wife-beating, sexual harassment at work place
in famous Visakha Case, etc. Women’s organizations also got involved in environment crises such as the Bhopal
Gas Tragedy of 1985 and Narmada Bachao led by Medha Patkar, Chipko movement in Uttarakhand etc.
Anti-liquor movement in Andhra Pradesh-In the early 1990s, women in rural Andhra Pradesh took it upon
themselves to fight against liquor dependency among their men and the subsequent verbal, physical and
emotional abuse that followed. They had just one simple demand: “no drinking or selling liquor”. Led by a woman
called Sandhya, the movement began as a dharna at the collectorate followed by the demand to stop sale of
liquor in the village.

Gulabi Gang- Calling themselves the Gulabi Gang (pink gang), the group did not just limit their activities to a
fight against gendered social evils, but rather battled against several other wrongdoings such as hoarding,
bribery, caste discrimination and several others. Wearing pink sarees and carrying bamboo sticks, they
frequently resorted to violence in order to make their voices heard.

The Chipko movement- Concerned with the preservation of ecological balance, the Chipko movement in the
state of Uttarakhand (then Uttar Pradesh) started in the early 1970s. The protests were against the government’s
policy of handing out contracts to industrial giants to utilise forest produce for making profits.

NavNirman Movement-It was a socio-political movement in 1974 in Gujarat by students and middle-class
people against economic crisis and corruption in public life. The movement exhibited the people’s power to
change the government of Gujarat by forcing it to resign by protesting.
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Anti-Dowry Campaign & Anti-Sati Campaign-Mainly Socialist women formed the Mahila Dakshata samiti and
played a major role in initiating the campaign against dowry in which the Delhi based Stri Sangharsh was also
very active. The All India Democratic women’s Association set up in 1981,conducted door to door campaign on
the issue. A bill to amend the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961) was sent to a joint select committee of Parliament
and throughout the years women’s Organizations and other activists presented evidence before the committee.
Resultantly the amendments strengthening the law against perpetrators of dowry related crimes were passed
in 1984.

SUPREME COURT CASES:

Shah bano Case-Shah Bano, a 62-year-old Muslim mother of five from Indore, MP was divorced by her husband
in 1978. She filed a criminal suit in Supreme Court of India, in which she won the right to alimony from her
husband under section 125 of the Criminal Procedure code (with the upper limit of Rs 500).

Vishaka Vs State of Rajasthan- Vishaka, a Group for Women’s Education and Research, took up the cause of
Bhanwari Devi. It joined forces with four other women’s organisations, and filed a petition before the Supreme
Court of India on the issue of sexual harassment at the workplace.

The Supreme Court verdict on Hindu women’s inheritance rights-Supreme Court has expanded on a Hindu
woman’s right to be a joint legal heir and inherit ancestral property on terms equal to male heirs.

Shayara Bano case (2017)-The Supreme Court in Shayara Bano case (2017) had declared the practise of
Triple Talaq (talaq-e-biddat) as unconstitutional.

ACHIEVEMENTS of WOMEN’s MOVEMENT

The result of such movements was that a separate ministry was established and provision for reservation in
Panchayati Raj institution was made. Debate regarding reservation of women in Legislative bodies also
started.
Several legislative steps were taken to strengthen their position – Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act, 2005, Prohibition of Indecent Representation of Women Act, National Commission for Women
Act, Prevention of Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace 2013 etc.
Their efforts have also led to large scale participation in the private sector, Equal Remuneration Act, Maternity
Benefits Act etc along with several schemes by the government.
Government has also introduced ‘gender budgeting’ to provide financial support to activities related to women in
all ministries. Various schemes have also been launched like – Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana, SABLA,
Gender Budgeting etc.

CRITIQUE of WOMEN’s MOVEMENT in INDIA

I. Upper class movement – They have especially been criticized for focusing too much on women already
privileged, and neglecting the needs and representation of poorer or lower caste women.
II. Social problems still persist – many issues like female feticide, patriarchy etc still persist many in the name
of tradition.
III. Low political participation – The limited success that these movements attained was in the field of social
reforms. Political reforms are still unrealized

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The status of women in post-independence India has been undergoing changes. The population of women is
regarded as almost half of the total population in India. A country or the community cannot be considered
civilized, where a woman is not respected and treated with courtesy.
In India, there have been formulation of laws and measures that have promoted empowerment opportunities
among women. The main areas, which are considered vital and which have enhanced the status of women are,
usage of technology, educational opportunities, employment opportunities and prevention of criminal and violent
acts. We need to engage all stakeholders to move towards empowerment of women in every aspect of life.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

GS 1 – SOCIETY
TOPIC: SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 3

WHAT IS A SOCIAL MOVEMENT? .................................................................................................................................... 3

KEY FACTORS OF A SOCIAL MOVEMENT: ..................................................................................................................... 3

CAUSES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: .................................................................................................................................. 3

VARIOUS THEORIES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: ............................................................................................................ 4

STAGES IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: ................................................................................................................................... 4

TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: ..................................................................................................................................... 5

COLLECTIVE ACTION: ....................................................................................................................................................... 7

NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS (NSM) THEORY:.................................................................................................................. 7

HOW NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ARE DIFFERENT FROM OLD MOVEMENTS: ........................................................ 8

FEATURES OF NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:.................................................................................................................... 8

NEW FARMERS’ MOVEMENT: .......................................................................................................................................... 8

WHY IS IT CALLED “NEW” FARMERS MOVEMENT? ..................................................................................................... 9

SHORTCOMINGS OF THE MOVEMENT: ........................................................................................................................... 9

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SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

WHAT IS A SOCIAL MOVEMENT?

“A social movement is a mass movement and a collective attempt of people to bring about a
change, or to resist any change”.
• The concept central to any social movement is that people intervene in the process of social change,
rather than remaining mere spectators or passive participants in the ebb and flow of life.
• Social movements possess a considerable measure of internal order and purposeful
orientation. It is, in fact, this organization that strengthens the movement to challenge the established
institutions.
• The movement must have a leader to guide and execute the plan of action and possess the
power to sustain the movement.
• Social movements, however, are different from pressure groups or institutional movements.
Institutional movements are highly organized, permanent, and primarily occupation-based. Social
movements are spontaneous and need not be issue-specific.
• It is a collective enterprise acting with some continuity to promote or resist a change in society. It
is made up of a group with indefinite and shifting membership. In general, the leadership of such
movements is determined by informal response of the members rather than by formal procedures that
legitimize the authority.

KEY FACTORS OF A SOCIAL MOVEMENT:

1. Any social movement involves a group or collectivity, comprising different units, segmented on the
basis of personal, structural, or ideological ties.
2. The group includes individuals committed to the cause, who use their pre-existing, significant social
relationships to convince others to join the movement.
3. For any movement to become successful there should be commitment to the movement. It also
involves a separation, in a significant way, from the established order. The efforts of others, or one’s
own experience bring forth a new set of values and induce changed patterns of behaviour in
individuals.
4. The result is the emergence of an ideology, which codifies values and goals, and provides a
conceptual framework by which goals maybe interpreted. The ideology also motivates change,
defines opposition, and provides a basis for the unification of a segmented network of groups.
5. Real or perceived opposition from a society at large or from that segment of the established order,
within which the movement has arisen, is also an important aspect of any social movement.
A social movement arises when there emerges an issue or a set of issues that affect a significant
proportion of people in some way or the other. Gradually, these issues start gaining importance and result
in mass participation of people and in collective action.
CAUSES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:
Social movements do not just happen. It is social unrest which gives rise to a social movement. The social
unrest may be caused by the following factors:

CULTURAL DRIFTS:
• The society undergoes constant changes. The values and behaviour are changing all the time in
civilized societies. In the course of cultural drift, most people develop new ideas. To get these ideas
operative in the society they organize a movement.
• The development of a democratic society, the emancipation of women, the spread of mass
education, the removal of untouchability, the equality of opportunity for both the sexes, and the growth
of secularism are some examples of cultural drift.

SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION:
• A changing society is, to some extent, disorganized because changes in different parts of the
society do not take place simultaneously. One-part changes more rapidly than the other, thereby
producing numerous lags. Industrialization has brought about urbanization which in turn has
caused numerous social problems.

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• Social disorganization brings confusion and uncertainty, because the old traditions no longer form
a dependable guide to behaviour, and individuals become rootless. They feel isolated from society.
A feeling develops that the community leaders are indifferent to their needs. Individuals feel insecure,
confused, and frustrated. Confusion and frustration lead to social movements.

SOCIAL INJUSTICE:
• When a group of people feel that injustice was done to them, they become frustrated and alienated.
Such feeling of injustice provides fertile soil for social movements. The feeling of social injustice is
not limited to the miserable poor. Any group, at any status level, may come to feel itself the victim of
social injustice.
• The wealthy class may feel a sense of injustice when faced with urban property ceiling law—or high
taxes—intended to benefit the poor.
• Social injustice is a subjective value judgment. A social system is unjust when it is so perceived by its
members.
• Thus, social movements occur when-ever such kind of social situation arises. In a stable and well-
integrated society, the chances for social movements are very rare.
• It is understood that people living in such a society are contented and satisfied. In a disorganized and
continuously changing society, social movements occur more frequently, as most people are
dissatisfied with the existing conditions. Lack of social justice also makes people dissatisfied and
paves the way for social movements. Modern society is more afflicted with social movements than
the earlier societies.
VARIOUS THEORIES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:
DEPRIVATION THEORY:
• According to this theory, people deprived of things deemed valuable in the society—whether money,
justice, status, or privileges— join social movements with the hope of redressing their grievances.
• It is a perceived disadvantage arising from some specific comparison. In such situations, people
believe that they must join movements based on their evaluation of what they think they should have
in comparison to what others have.
• However, this theory, which gives an insight into the origin and development of revolutions, also holds
a surprise. Improving conditions result in a desire for even better con-ditions.
• This craving for more and more can also spark off revolutions.

RESOURCE MOBILIZATION THEORY:

• The proponents of this theory claim that it is always necessary to know the forces that energize and
activate a social movement.
• They emphasize the factors such as the availability of resources for pursuing particular goals and the
system of interpersonal relationships. It is considered important to have substantial resources for the
success of any movement.
• These resources include human labour, money, infrastructure and communication facilities, access
to mass media, and a positive public image.
• People are seen to participate in social movements not as the result of deprivation, but as a
response to a rational decision-making process, whereby they weigh the costs and benefits of
participation.
• In many cases, resources and organizations outside the protest group are crucial in determining the
scope and outcome of collective action.
• External support is essential for the movement of the poor. Most of the time, the success or
failure of the social movements is determined by the political factors in which they get entangled.

STAGES IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:

Though one social movement differs from another, almost all social movements go through similar stages.
They are as follows

STAGE 1: EMERGENCE:

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• The perception that all is not well triggers off social movements. Widespread dissatisfaction
becomes the basis of other movements. Sometimes, a small vanguard (forerunner) group increases
public awareness on some issues and makes it a prominent public issue.

STAGE 2: COALESCENCE (BLENDING, UNION):

• Once a social issue has emerged as a move-ment, it must define itself and develop a strategy for
“going public”. The leaders must determine policies and tactics, and there should be a drive to
recruit new members.
• At this stage, collective actions such as demonstrations or rallies must be organized to attract public
and media attention. Alliances with other organizations should be formed in order to gain necessary
resources.

STAGE 3: BUREAUCRATIZATION:
• A social movement must take on bureaucratic traits in order to become a political force. As it
becomes established, the movement starts depending on the talents and charisma of its leaders and
relies more on a capable staff.
• If movements do not become established in this manner, they may face the risk of dissolution.
Sometimes, bureaucratization can also hinder a social movement, as leaders may become too
involved in building up the organization and not concentrate on encouraging the members towards
change.
STAGE 4: DECLINE:
• Over a period of time, social movements lose their importance and influence. Sometimes, if the
goals of the movement are fulfilled, decline simply indicates success.
• Organizational factors such as poor leadership, loss of interest among members, or repressive
authority may also lead to the demise of a movement.
• Sometimes, a social movement declines because the established power structure diverts leaders
from their goals through different means such as offers of money, prestige, and other rewards.
• “selling out” is common, and organizational leaders use their position to enrich them-selves. Another
cause for the decline of a social movement is repression.
• Participants may be threatened by officials, who discourage new recruits, and even by imprisoned
leaders in order to crush a social movement.
• Sometimes, a social movement can collapse because it may opt for “going mainstream”. Such
movements may become an accepted part of system, and no longer challenge the authorities or the
status quo.

TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:

The classification of social movements is not easy as a movement may have a mixed nature or may change
completely at different stages during its career.
However, the social movements are classified into millenarian, migratory, Utopian, expressive, reformist,
rebellion, revolutionary, and resistance.

MILLENARIAN MOVEMENT:
• Millenarian movements are based on a belief of a religious, social, or political group that a major
transformation of society will occur after which all the elements or components of the society will be
changed in a positive or sometimes negative direction.
• Millenarian groups typically claim that the current society and its rulers are corrupt, unjust, or
otherwise wrong.
• They, therefore, believe that they will be destroyed soon by a powerful force. The harmful nature of
the status quo is always considered intractable without the anticipated dramatic change. For instance,
in medieval millenarianism the world was seen as controlled by demons, and this idea prevailed even
up to the nineteenth century.

MIGRATORY MOVEMENT:
• These movements take place when a large number of people leave one country and settle in
some other place or country.
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• The major reasons for mass migration may be discontent or dissatisfaction with the existing situations
or circum-stances or looking for new opportunities for a bright future.
• Mere migration of people from one place to another cannot be called migratory movement.
• The Zionist Movement (the back-to-Israel movement is known as Zionism) and the movement of
people from East Germany to West Germany are some examples of migratory social movements.

UTOPIAN MOVEMENT:
• A Utopian Movement is a movement which is expected to create an ideal social system, which can
only be imagined but cannot exist in reality.
• Utopian movements conceive man as good, co-operative, and altruistic. The most successful Utopian
Movement in the recent history is the Israeli kibbutz.
• Sarvodaya Movement is another example of a Utopian Movement.

EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENT:
• Expressive movements arise when people are discontented and cannot easily change the
unpleasant situations (i.e., they feel powerless and cannot flee from the social system) with the
result that the individual comes to terms with that unpleasant reality and changes his own reactions
in order to make his life bearable.
• One of the best examples of expressive movement is Hippie Movement.

REFORMIST MOVEMENT:
• A reform movement can be described as a mass movement that seeks to change only one specific
aspect of a society. The reform movement is an attempt to modify some parts of the society without
completely changing the whole social system.
• Most of the reform movements are possible in democratic countries as people have an opportunity to
express their opinions and criticize the existing social institutions and can bring about some changes
in them.
• The movement to abolish untouchability and dowry system, and the movement to preserve wildlife
are all examples of the reform movements.

REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT:
• The Revolutionary Movement aims at overthrowing the existing social system and replacing it
with a new one.
• Revolutionary movements are quite opposite to the reform movements. Revolutionists generally
believe that reform is not possible under the existing social system.
• Usually, revolutionary movements arise when people have no other alternative to reform the social
system other than changing it as a whole.
• Revolution serves as an alternative to the individuals to come out of their existing misery.
• The communist revolution in Russia and China are the examples of revolutionary movements.

RESISTANCE MOVEMENT:
• A resistance movement can be described as a movement that arises not only for the purpose of
instituting change, but also to block change or to eliminate a previously instituted change.
• Revolutionary movements arise as people are dissatisfied and feel that the pace of social change is
very slow, whereas resistance movements occur when people consider that the change is rapid.
• The movement against Hindi of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam is a typical example of resistance
movement.

REVIVALIST MOVEMENT:
• A revivalist movement seeks to take the system back to its original pristine purity. Most of the
movements try to involve people in the political process and bring about political awareness among
the people.
• Some movements aim at bringing about a change in the lives of certain sections of society, such as
the downtrodden as well as women.

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COLLECTIVE ACTION:
• There are significant differences between collective action and movements. Forms of collective
action such as riots, revolts, and revolution involve violent group outbursts. Some collective actions
(crowds and riots) are generally unstructured and short-lived, whereas rebellion, revolution, and
movements are more structured.
• A riot is defined as an outbreak of temporary but violent mass disorder, which breaks out
suddenly, carries fire and fury against a target or group, and dies in a short period, leaving
behind death and destruction.
• Riots are an index of general unrest within the society. Revolt refers to a mass insurrection, or an
uprising by some sections of society against the authority. It is an organized act of rising against, or
breaking away from the established system of authority.
• Rebellion refers to an opposition by the masses against the authority, not against persons or groups.
Rebellion is confined to the efforts on the part of a portion of the state to overthrow the authority.
• Revolutions are highly organized political move-ments with a widespread public participation and
designed to overthrow the regime or dissolve the state. Revolutions are generally accompanied by
extensive violence. Revolution signifies the revolt of all sections of the society and their participation
in the total dismantling of the state.

ALL SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ARE COLLECTIVE ACTIONS, BUT ALL COLLECTIVE ACTIONS NEED NOT
NECESSARILY BE SOCIAL MOVEMENTS.
• A social movement may lead to, or transform itself into a revolution. A social movement may or may
not be a mobilization of people against the state or system of governance, and may or may not involve
violence.
• Social movements generally mobilize members or participants to seek redressal of a grievance,
or to struggle for specific goals and objectives. They often involve only a particular section of a
population and manifest themselves only in a part of society.
• Social movements refer to a sustained and continuous collective action over a long period of time.
Social movements generally aim at and result in change.

NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS (NSM) THEORY:

• The term new social movements (NSMs) is a theory of social movements that attempts to explain the
plethora of new movements that have come up in various western societies roughly since the
mid-1960s (i.e. in a post-industrial economy) which are claimed to depart significantly from the
conventional social movement paradigm.

There are two central claims of the NSM theory:

• First, that the rise of the post-industrial economy is responsible for a new wave of social movement
• Second, that those movements are significantly different from previous social movements of the
industrial economy.
• The primary difference is in their goals, as the new movements focus not on issues of materialistic
qualities such as economic wellbeing, but on issues related to human rights (such as gay rights or
pacifism)
• Since the middle of the last century ‘social movements have moved from non institutionalized
margins of society to its very core’.
• The manifestation of new forms of organized collective actions since 1950s has added several
new dimensions to the issues of social movement.
• Today’s movements are international in nature and focus on global issues such as environment,
global ecology, the conse-quences of war and terrorism, and so on.
• These movements focus on cultural and social change, not merely on economic change. These
movements have the support of the middle class unlike the earlier movements, which had the strong
support of the working class
• New Social movements may be classified on the basis of purpose and interest, such as linguistic,
religious, sectarian, caste, peasant, workers, tribal, ethnic, women’s, environmental, civil rights, and
human rights movements.

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HOW NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ARE DIFFERENT FROM OLD MOVEMENTS:

FEATURES OF NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:

• There is no clear structural role of the participants of the new social movement as, very often than
not, they have diffuse social status as youth, student, women, minority, professional groups etc.
• Ideologically these movements posited in sharp contrast to the Marxian concept of ideology of
the working class movement. It is difficult to characterize new social movements as conservative or
liberal, right or left, capitalist or socialist. These movements exhibit plural ideas and values.
• Mobilizations are linked to issues of symbolic and cultural identities than to economic issues.
• Action within these movements is a complex mix of the collective and individual confirmation of
identity. Indeed the relation between the individual and the collective is blurred in these movements.
• These movements involve personal and intimate aspects of human life, e.g. eating, dressing
enjoying, loving etc habits and patterns.
• Non-violence and civil disobedience etc. are the dominant patterns of collective mobilisation to
challenge the dominant-norms of conduct.
• The proliferation of these movements are caused by the credibility crisis of the conventional
channels for political participation.
• The new social movements are segmented, diffused and decentralized.
‘The focus on symbols and identities is viewed as the source of new social movement’s significance’.
The new social movements bring about changes by challenging values and identities of the social actors
rather than by more conventional and direct political actions.

NEW FARMERS’ MOVEMENT:

India has a long history of peasant or farmers’ movement, dating back to the colonial period when
farmers in different parts of India revolted against Zamindars, landlords, British colonial masters or powers
including feudal lords.
The beginning of the New Farmers’ Movement in general is seen from the decade of 1980s. However, its
genesis requires to be stretched back to the earlier decade of 1970s. This was the decade when farmers of
green revolution area began to rally around political parties and leaders.

REASONS:
The major reasons were,
• Terms of trade going against the agriculture,
• Declining purchasing power,
• Un-remunerative prices,
• Agriculture becoming losing proposition,
• Increase in input prices, declining per capita income from agriculture etc.

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Start of the movement:

• It all began in Maharashtra when Shetkari Sanghathana under Sharad Joshi, a former employee of
UN turned farmer, began agitating in village called Chakan in Pune for remunerative prices for
agricultural commodities, particularly for onion.
• This one-point agenda of remunerative prices began to be enacted by farmers in other states of India.

WIDENING SCOPE:
• Except for the Maharashtra movement, in other movements, more than remunerative prices the other
issues received focus.
• The list of demands would cover each and every issue of farmers. Many a time the demands of the
farmers’ movement would include such issues as remunerative prices, writing off loans, anti-
government policy of procurement, levy policy, liberalisation etc.

SOCIAL ISSUES:
• Other than the economic issues, the farmers’ movement also focused on social issues. In this
respect the experiment done by the Karnataka Farmers’ Movement under Raitha Sangha and
Maharashtra movement under Shetkari Sanghathana are noteworthy.
• Both tried to address the issues of gender or women by organising massive rallies.
• The Maharashtra movement attempted to give women the property rights under the programme called
“Lakshmi Mukhti”.
• The Karnataka movement, on the contrary, organised a massive rally in Haliyal in 1983 for the
purpose of shifting property relations at the rural side.
• Further, the Karnataka movement organised thousands of simple, inter-caste marriages etc.
• In-fact women’s issues were interwoven in its various struggles too. For example, in its anti-social
forestry, prohibition struggle, women’s issues were prominent.

LOCAL TO GLOBAL:
• One of the unique features of farmers’ movements is that they moved from local to global.
• When globalisation was making serious inroads, some of the organisations went to support or oppose
globalisation for various reasons.
• Those who opposed globalisation, particularly Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha, Bharatiya Kisan
Union of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab, argued that globalisation would destroy the identities of
peasantry, introduce western hegemony, destroy cultural life style, take away the right to produce,
distribute and exchange agricultural commodities etc.
• On the contrary those who supported globalisation saw in globalisation an answer to rural
backwardness, agricultural prosperity, and capitalist development.

WHY IS IT CALLED “NEW” FARMERS MOVEMENT?

• The movement is economistic;
• The movement believes in secularism;
• It believes as well as resorts to constitutional means such as agitations and dharna.
Infact the Maharashtra movement added new dimension to agitational politics. It introduced new strategies
such as Gav Bhandi.
• It refused to glorify neither the pastoral agrarian pattern nor “has any nostalgic attachment to an
idealized romantic view of the village life before the advent of industrialisation” (Sharad Joshi, 1986,
p.312).
The farmers’ movement believed in having a distinct worldview. This is called “positive liberalism”.

SHORTCOMINGS OF THE MOVEMENT:

• They have not been effective in bringing radical transformation in the country side. This is because
of the fact that the movements, from the very beginning, were unable to overcome the internal conflicts
as well as contradictions.

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• Secondly, they did not carry any radical agenda from within- for example they never bothered to
demand radical land reforms, nor were they concerned about the atrocities perpetrated on marginal
classes including the Dalits in the country side.
• Since the movements, from the very beginning, were identified with rich or market-oriented
farmers, the other categories received scant focus in their politics.This is the reason why they have
been losing their social bases.
• Further, their operational areas are confined to those localities wherein the classes of rich or
market-oriented farmers have come to stay. This has further reduced their areas of operation.
• Despite a few differences the new farmers’ movement did bring about a paradigm shift in the
discourse, analysis and perception about farmers in India. It made the policy makers to address
the deep-rooted crisis of agriculture as well as agrarian classes in India. It has also helped the farmers
to be a part of international movement against such issues as globalisation, imperialism and
capitalism.

Note:
“PLEASE REFER TO THE MAINS MASTER NOTES ON POPULAR MOVEMENTS OF POST
INDEPENDENT INDIA (GS 1 (POST INDEPENDENT INDIA) WHERE REST OF THE NEW SOCIAL
MOVEMENTS ARE COVERED IN DETAIL”.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES 2023

GS1 SOCIETY
TOPIC: MIGRATION

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
MIGRATION...................................................................................................................................................................................... 3

DEFINITION: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3

DIFFERENT FORMS OF MIGRATION ...................................................................................................................................... 3

MIGRATION AND CENSUS DATA ........................................................................................................................................... 6

PATTERNS OF MIGRATION ...................................................................................................................................................... 6

CHARACTERISTICS OF MIGRANTS IN INDIA....................................................................................................................... 7

REASONS FOR MIGRATION ..................................................................................................................................................... 8

IMPACTS OF MIGRATION: ........................................................................................................................................................ 9

THE CONCEPT OF REVERSE MIGRATION ........................................................................................................................... 12

IMPACTS OF REVERSE MIGRATION .................................................................................................................................... 12

CONCEPT OF CIRCULATION OF LABOUR .......................................................................................................................... 12

MIGRATION AND GENDER .................................................................................................................................................... 12

CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH MIGRATION ............................................................................................................... 12

WAY FORWARD........................................................................................................................................................................ 13

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MIGRATION
Definition:
Migration involves the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently
or temporarily, at a new location (geographic region). The movement often occurs over long distances and from one
country to another, but internal migration (within a single country) is also possible.
Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access
to migration networks. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large group.
Migration is a component of population change. Migration is influenced by social, cultural and economic factors.
Different Forms of Migration

Migration

Internal External

OUT
IN Migration Immigration Emigration
Migration

Internal migration refers to migration from one place to another within a country, it can further divided into,
1. In Migration and Outmigration: ‘In migration’ refers to migration into a particular area while ‘out
migration’ refers to movements out of a particular area. Thus, migrants who come from Bihar or Uttar Pradesh
to Punjab are considered to be immigrants for Punjab and out migrants for Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

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Internal migration in India
The Economic Survey of India 2017 estimates that the magnitude of inter-state migration in India
was close to 9 million annually between 2011 and 2016.

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While external migration or international migration refers to migration from one country to another,
2. Immigration and Emigration: ‘Immigration’ refers to migration into a country from another country and
‘emigration’ refers to migration out of the country. These terms are used only in connection with international
migration. For example migrants leaving India to settle down in the United States or Canada are immigrants to
the United States or Canada and emigrants from India.

The Global Migration Report 2020

The Global Migration Report 2020 was recently released by the UN-affiliated International Organization for
Migration (IOM).

Key findings of the report:

➢ Of the 272Mn international migrants worldwide (3.5% of the global population), India accounts for the
highest share with 17.5 million Indians living outside the country. India is followed by Mexico (11.8 million)
and China (10.7 million).
➢ Roughly two-thirds of international migrants are labour migrants.
➢ India is the leading recipient of remittances. International remittances in 2018 (2020 report) reached $689
billion, out of which India received $78.6 million from the 17.5 million living abroad. India is currently
followed by China ($67.4 billion) and Mexico ($35.7 billion).
➢ The top destinations for international migrants is the USA followed by Germany, Saudi Arabia, Russian
Federation and the UK.
➢ The top migration corridors for Indians are the United Arab Emirates, the US and Saudi Arabia.
➢ The highest number of migrants entering India come from Bangladesh.
➢ Oceania is the region with the highest proportion of international migrants and the UAE is the country with the
highest proportion of international migrants. More than half of all international migrants (141 million) live in
Europe and North America.

Migration

Based on Based on
Time Migrants will

Long range Short range Voluntary Forced

migration migration migration migration

Voluntary migration
Voluntary migration is based on the initiative and the free will of the person. And is influenced by a
combination of factors: economic, political and social, either in the migrants country of origin (determinant factors or
"push factors") or in the country of destination (attraction factors or "pull factors").
Forced migration

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Forced migration refers to the movements of refugees and internally displaced people (displaced by conflict)
as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development
projects.
These different causes of migration leave people with one choice, to move to a new environment. Immigrants leave their
beloved homes to seek a life in camps, spontaneous settlement, and countries of asylum.
Migration and Census data
Census contains information about migration in the country. Actually, migration was recorded beginning from
the first Census of India conducted in 1881. In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases:
➢ Migration by birthplace
➢ Migration by place of last residence

By the end of 2018, there were an estimated 67.2 million forced migrants globally—25.9 million refugees displaced
from their countries, and 41.3 million internally displaced persons that had been displaced within their countries for
different reasons.

Patterns of Migration

As per 2011 census:

➢ As per the Census, India had 45.6 crore migrants in 2011 (38% of the population) compared to 31.5 crore
migrants in 2001 (31% of the population).
➢ Between 2001 and 2011, while population grew by 18%, the number of migrants increased by 45%. In 2011,
99% of total migration was internal and immigrants (international migrants) comprised 1%.

➢ Researchers have, from time to time, suggested various types of migration while taking into account space, time,
volume and direction. On the basis of space, there are four important streams of internal migration.
➢ These are:
o Rural to rural
o Rural to urban
o Urban to urban
o Urban to rural
➢ Indian census gives this fourfold typology. However, in some developed and highly urbanised countries there have
also been migrations from cities to the suburbs. The relative size and importance of these migration streams may
vary from country to country. In some countries, rural to rural migration is the dominant type of migration, while in
others it is rural to urban and yet in many others the highest proportion of migrants are found in urban to urban
migration.
➢ In India, as stated earlier, rural to rural migration formed the dominant migration stream in the 1961, 1971, 1991
and 2001Census. However, there have been substantial increases in the proportion of rural to urban and urban
to urban migration with the passage of time, the increase being much more during the decades of 1970s, 1980s and
1990s than of the 1960s. However, the dominant form of internal migration in the country is rural to rural.
➢ In all other streams (rural to urban, urban to urban and urban to rural) there is dominance of rural to urban migration
among the males could be due to better developed agriculture in certain states and districts, which may attract
migrants from other parts of the country. Development of industries in certain states or cities may be another
important factor in rural to urban migration.
➢ Rural to rural migration is mostly dominated by the females. The female migration is largely sequential to
marriage, because it is a Hindu custom to take brides from another village (village exogamy). According to the
National Sample Survey, more than 46 per cent migration to urban areas is also caused by marriage. The custom of
women returning to urban areas is also caused by marriage. The custom of women returning to her parents to
deliver her first child also accounts for significant internal migration

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➢ As per the 2011 census, there were 21 crore rural-rural migrants which formed 54% of classifiable internal migration
(the Census did not classify 5.3 crore people as originating from either rural or urban areas).
➢ Rural-urban and urban-urban movement accounted for around 8 crore migrants each. There were around 3 crore
urban-rural migrants (7% of classifiable internal migration).
Another way to classify migration is:
(i) intra-state, and
(ii) inter-state

➢ In 2011, intra-state movement accounted for almost 88% of all internal migration (39.6 crore persons).
➢ There is variation across states in terms of inter-state migration flows. According to the 2011 Census, there were
5.4 crore inter-state migrants. As of 2011, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were the largest source of inter-state migrants
while Maharashtra and Delhi were the largest receiver states.
➢ Around 83 lakh residents of Uttar Pradesh and 63 lakh residents of Bihar had moved either temporarily or
permanently to other states.
➢ Around 60 lakh people from across India had migrated to Maharashtra by 2011.
Characteristics of Migrants in India
There are some important characteristics of the migrants and migration. An important characteristic is the age
selectivity of the migrants. Generally, young people are more mobile. Most migration studies, especially in developing
countries, have found that rural-urban migrants are predominantly young adults. It is obvious that migration for
employment takes place mostly at the young adult ages. Also a major part of the female migration consequential
to marriage occurs at the young adult ages.
Another important characteristic is that the migrants have a tendency to move to those places where they have
contacts and where the previous migrants serve as links for the new migrants, and this chain is thus formed in the

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process, and is usually called chain migration. They usually have kinship chains and networks of relatives and
friends who help them in different ways.

REASONS FOR MIGRATION

It is important to know why some migrate while others do not. The important factors, therefore, which cause
migration or which motivate people to move may broadly be classified into four categories: economic factors,
demographic factors, socio-cultural factors, and political factors.

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"Push-pull factors" are the reasons that push or attract people to a particular place. "Push" factors are the negative
aspects of the country of origin, often decisive in people`s choice to emigrate and the "pull" factors are the positive
aspects of a different country that encourages people to emigrate in search of a better life. Although the push-pull factors
are apparently diametrically opposed, both are sides of the same coin, being equally important.
Factors Push Factor Pull factor Push Back factor Pull Back factor
a) Income in a) opportunities for a) urban unemployment a) Better
agriculture is better employment rates are high employment
generally lower than b) availability of b) High cost of living in opportunities-
the other sectors of regular work urban cities MGNREGA
the economy. c) higher wages c) Urban poverty, and Schemes
b) Rapid increase in d) better working famine, drought like Pradhan
Economic population, the per conditions and Mantri Gram
Factors & capita availability of better amenities of Sadak Yojana
Demograp cultivable land has life b) agricultural
hic Factors declined e) high rate of revolutions
c) No of unemployed movement of leading to
and underemployed people from India to individuals
in the rural areas the USA, Canada pulling back
have significantly and now to the to their native
increased Middle-East is due places
d) Non-availability of to this reason.
alternative sources
of income in the
rural area is also
another factor for
migration.
a) Breakdown of joint a) Urban-oriented a) Growth of Urban a) Family
family and family education, slums reunification,
Socio- conflicts improved b) Poor chances of festivals
Cultural b) Caste discrimination healthcare system. marrying due decline b) Cultural
Factors in rural areas b) Improved in social network nativism
c) Lack of educational, communication c) Replication of
health opportunity facilities – cultural inequalities
for rural people. transportation, Tv, in destinatiom areas
d) Slavery or forced Radio vis-via- caste,
Labour c) Merit based ethnicity. Eg: hated
employment Community,
opportunity Ghettoisation
d) Values of
Westernization
Political a) Violence a) Feeling of having a) ‘Sons of the soil a) Change in
Factors b) Failure of more political policy’ by the State Political
government to freedom governments Leadership
implement schemes, b) Values of b) Vote bank Politics
corruption. Secularism c) Regionalism
c) Better safety and
security net

IMPACTS OF MIGRATION:
Migration is becoming a very important subject for the life of cities. Many opportunities and attraction of big
cities pull large numbers of people to big cities. Migration can have positive as well as negative effects on the life of the
migrants.
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Consequences Impact on Migrants Impact on Source region Impact on destination region
a) Unemployment is a) Unemployment can reduce a) Leads to a greater economic growth
reduced and people as there is less competition of the region (Migration from rural
get better job for jobs areas of Eastern UP, Bihar, MP and
opportunities. b) Remittance act as lifeblood Orissa to the rural areas of Punjab,
b) improving the of source region (Kerala, Haryana, and Western UP accounted
quality of life of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil for success of their green revolution
people Nadu and Punjab are the strategy for agricultural
major states which receive development.)
international remittance.
For thousands of the poor
villages of Bihar, UP,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh
Positives

internal remittance works

as life blood for their
economy)
a) Illiterate and a) Brain drains - loss of a a) Unregulated migration to the
uneducated person from rural areas, metropolitan cities of India has
migrants are not impact on the level of caused overcrowding, pressure on
only unfit for most output and development of existing resources.
jobs, but also lack rural areas
basic knowledge
and life skills.
b) Poverty makes
them unable to live
a normal and
healthy life
c) Children growing
up in poverty have
Economic

Negatives

no access to proper
nutrition,
education or health
a) Reduced disguised a) Redistribution of the a) contributing to the population growth
Positives

unemployment in population of cities

family.

a) Increase child a) effect on the rural a) Skewed sex ratio in urban areas.
labour in case male demographic structure -
member not get absence of many young
required job men from the villages
increases the proportion of
Demographic

other groups, such as,

Negatives

women, children and old

people
b) Increase dependent
population in rural areas

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a) Social Mobility a) New ideas related to new a) leads to intermixing of people from
b) Development of technologies, family diverse cultures
Social capital planning, girl’s education, b) evolution of composite culture and
c) Opportunity for etc. get diffused from breaking through the narrow
social innovation urban to rural areas considerations and widens up the
d) helps them to through them mental horizon of the people at large
develop more b) A number of ex-
modern servicemen, on retirement
orientation, go back to their native
Positives

including even the areas and promote such

consumerist practices in the villages
culture
a) Anonymity- social a) Absence of the adult a) Development of ethno-centrism
vacuum and sense males for long periods which is breeding ground for social
of dejection among of time may cause unrest in destination area.
individuals, dislocation of the
leading to fall in family
the trap of anti- b) The gulf boom has also
Social and Psychological

social activities taken a toll of mental

like crime and drug health of the families.
abuse. Neurosis, hysteria and
b) Relative depression are said to
deprivation be on the increase
c) Cultural exclusion among the emigrant
Negatives

reduced to workers’ wives in

Marginal Man in Kerala
foreign land.
a) Rural tourism – a) Reduced stress on a) Educated youths awareness about
Positives

provides agricultural lands in rural environment has increased.

employment areas.
opportunity
a) Unplanned growth a) Due to migration of a) Overcrowding has put pressure on
Environmental

of urban settlement educated youths the existing social and physical

and formation of sustainable agricultural infrastructure in the urban areas
Negatives

slums and shanty practices are not promoted. b) Cities are facing the acute problem of
colonies – affect depletion of ground water, disposal
standard of living of sewage and management of solid
of migrants wastes
a) Migrants in liberal a) Indian diaspora in US, UK a) People to people connect between
country able to has potential to positively countries improve the bilateral ties
Positives

enjoy freedom and affect foreign policy of the between the countries.
choices and their respective countries
citizenship.
a) Political exclusion a) Migration led to loss of a) Promote vote bank politics on
– not able to vote capable entrepreneurs, migrant.
during elections politicians and social b) Deep-seated attitudes of prejudice
Migrants who are activist in the source and xenophobia against migrants
forced to migrate due to region
civil war or State
Negatives

politics which
Political

discriminate against
particular categories of
its citizens

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THE CONCEPT OF REVERSE MIGRATION
Reverse Migration refers to the situation when labourers, workers and people start migrating back to their native
place in the backdrop of non-availability of livelihood and job opportunities. The recent pandemic-induced exodus of
large number of migrants (in some parts of the country) to reach their hometowns has highlighted this concept.
IMPACTS OF REVERSE MIGRATION
➢ Migrant workers are typically hand-to-mouth consumers, earning subsistence living and spending a large part of
their income in the local economy. This contributes to another layer of demand, which will now cease to exist.
➢ Increasing unemployment: According to ILO, about 400 million people working in the informal economy in India
are at risk of falling deeper into poverty. Loss of jobs will result in loss of livelihoods of these migrants.
➢ In their capacity as consumers, they are a part of an informal economy which generates and sustains volumes for
the FMCG industries, which will take a blow due to reverse migration.
➢ The lack of demand from the migrant workers and the mini economies they help sustain implies that forward and
backward linkages to the formal sector will be weakened.
➢ The reverse migration will put stress on the native states as it quashes the remuneration flow from other states at the
same time there will be a question of employability of returned migrants.
➢ They are stigmatised as the ‘carriers’ of the disease.
➢ Reverse migration could destroy India’s tribal communities largely concentrated in ten states and in the North-
Eastern region.
➢ Stuck in the cycle of poverty: Most migrants are generationally stuck in a vicious cycle of poverty
➢ Education of Migrant children is affected
➢ Women job in rural area is taken up by male migrant returning back
CONCEPT OF CIRCULATION OF LABOUR
Commercialization and the seasonal demand for the workers or labourers increased now a day in all industries.
Migrants usually come from less productive regions.
➢ Commercialisation of agriculture has been responsible for the growth of migrant agricultural labour. Seasonal
demand for these labourers increased in Green Revolution regions like: PUNJAB.
➢ Labourers migrate also due to the increasing inequalities in rural areas. Men migrate out periodically in search of
work and better wages, while women and children are often left behind in their villages.
➢ Migrant workers come mainly from drought-prone and less productive regions, and they go to work for part of the
year on farms in the Punjab and Haryana, or on brick kilns in U.P., or construction sites in cities such as New Delhi
or Bangalore.
➢ These migrant workers have been termed ‘footloose labour’. However, these landless workers do not have many
rights and are also denied minimum wages.
➢ The large-scale circulation of labour has had several significant effects on rural society, in both the receiving and
the supplying regions.
➢ Women are also emerging as the main source of agricultural labour, leading to the ‘feminisation of agricultural
labour force’. The insecurity of women is greater because they earn lower wages than men for similar work.
MIGRATION AND GENDER
➢ Female Migration: Out of the total internal migrants, 70.7 percent are women (Census of India 2001) and
marriage is one of the major reasons for female migration in both the rural and urban areas.
➢ Although marriage-induced migration or associated migration continues to be the predominant reason for
the overwhelming presence of women among migrants, its importance has declined post liberalization as export-
oriented economic development has created demand for women labour.
➢ An analysis of Census shows that women migrating for work grew by 101 per cent — more than double
the growth rate for men (48.7 per cent) — while those who cited business as a reason for migration increased
by 153 per cent during 2001-11, more than four times the rate for men (35 per cent).
➢ Women migrants, in particular, suffer the consequences of being a woman and a migrant, remain mostly
discriminated in the workforce and invariably suffer economic exclusion.
➢ Denied maternity benefits or special care and more vulnerable to sexual harassment, these women migrants are
more likely to be paid less than male migrants and non-migrant women.
CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH MIGRATION
➢ In India problems related to massive poverty- induced migration from rural to the major metros are due to
lopsided, unplanned and over-congested urbanisation which has caused overall deterio-ration of urban
environment in India.
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➢ Most of the metropolitan cities are growing at an alarmingly fast rate and, according to UN estimates, most of
them will double their population in the next 12 to 15 years.
➢ Increasing low-quality migration of the poor to urban areas has already led to urban involution, decay, poverty,
exploitation, insecurity and inequality among the migrant population.
➢ As most of the migrants are poor, landless, illiterate and lack basic skills, they fail to get jobs in the capital-
intensive production system of urban India. These unskilled migrants are absorbed by the unorganised sectors
which are characterised by low productivity, tremendous competition, poor pay and insecurity.
➢ Even if such migrations help the rural poor to avoid starvation death, it causes a huge loss in terms of human
resource and national potential. As a consequence, major urban centres of India have become much involuted,
not evoluted, i.e., they have grown merely in population, not in prosperity. Mega-cities look like over-blown
villages without urban culture and urban functional characteristics.
➢ During the last few decades, acute problems have arisen—extreme housing scarcities, and frequent
breakdown of essential municipal services such as water supply, electricity, sewerage, transport—due to
the massive pressure of population on the basic urban facilities.
WAY FORWARD
➢ The ILO Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration (2006) states: “promoting the recognition and
accreditation of migrant workers’ skills and qualifications and, where that is not possible, providing a means to
have their skills and qualifications recognized’’.
➢ There is a need to formulate migration centric policies, strategies, and institutional mechanisms in order to ensure
inclusive growth & development. This reduces distress induced migration, thereby increasing India’s prospects for
poverty reduction and achieving Sustainable Development Goals.
➢ The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) scheme can act as a cushion
for the state government to tackle the huge flow of migrant labourers in rural areas. The government should increase
the scope of work done under the MGNREGA scheme.
➢ Designing and implementing sound labour market information systems, including accurate labour market needs
assessment and skills anticipation, and putting in place processes for skills recognition are important to prevent
brain waste and deskilling, poor labour market integration and deterioration of working conditions for all workers.
➢ Access to skills recognition processes, especially for low- and medium-skilled migrant workers, is often
limited, while migrants frequently encounter difficulties in articulating their experiences from the destination
countries into better human resources development opportunities on their return.
➢ The problems caused by migration can be checked by curbing population growth and promoting a balanced
economic development in the country.
The Constitution of India (Article 19) gives the right to all citizens “to move freely throughout the territory of
India and to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India”. Hence It is imperative that the Government,
NGOs, scholars, planners, policy-makers and administrators cooperate and formulate well- thought action plans for
remedying the situation.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

GS1 SOCIETY
TOPIC: URBANIZATION

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
URBANIZATION ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 3

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3

DEFINITION ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 3

PROCESS OF URBANIZATION ......................................................................................................................................................... 3

EVOLUTION OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA ................................................................................................................................. 4

STATUS OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA ......................................................................................................................................... 5

URBANIZATION AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENON ................................................................................................................. 6

MAJOR CAUSES OF URBANIZATION ............................................................................................................................................ 8

SOCIAL IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION ......................................................................................................................................... 9

PROBLEMS OF URBAN AREAS ..................................................................................................................................................... 11

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES .............................................................................................................................................................. 14

1. URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT .......................................................................................................................... 14

2. URBANIZATION AND POVERTY ..................................................................................................................................... 14

3. URBANIZATION AND PANDEMIC .................................................................................................................................. 15

WAY FORWARD............................................................................................................................................................................... 15

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URBANIZATION
INTRODUCTION
Human populations have tended to increase over time. As more people were born, small groups of individuals found
reasons to come together to form groups and, with the advent of agriculture, small sedentary communities.
A small number of these settlements grew into what we now call cities. This kind of growth often corresponds with a shift
from one way of organizing labor to another.
DEFINITION
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the decrease in the proportion of people living
in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and
cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas.
The world population has grown significantly, and our economies have become more industrialized over the
past few hundred years, and as a result many more people have moved into cities. This process is known as urbanization.
Although the two concepts are sometimes used interchangeably, urbanization should be distinguished from urban growth.
Whereas urbanization refers to the proportion of the total national population living in areas classified as urban, urban
growth strictly refers to the absolute number of people living in those areas. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the
developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized.
Even after cities emerged, however, a large majority of people lived and worked in rural areas. It was not until large-
scale industrialization began in the eighteenth century that cities really began to boom.
Nearly half of all people now live-in urban areas. They are attracted by jobs in manufacturing and the professions, as well
as by increased opportunities for education and entertainment. Urbanization is often discussed in reference to countries that
are currently in the process of industrializing and urbanizing, but all industrialized nations have experienced urbanization
at some point in their history. Moreover, urbanization is on the rise all over the globe.
One effect of this huge increase in people living in urban areas is the rise of the megacity, which is a city that has more than
10 million inhabitants. There are now cities with even more than that. Tokyo, Japan, for example, has nearly 40 million
residents.
PROCESS OF URBANIZATION
➢ Urbanization as a structural process of change is generally related to industrialization, but it is not always the
result of industrialization.
➢ Urbanization results due to the concentration of large-scale and small scale industrial and commercial, financial,
and administrative set up in the cities; technological development in transport and communication, cultural and
recreational activities.
➢ Urbanization is an integral part of economic development, As the economy develops, there is an increase in the
per capita income and also the demand for non-farm goods in the economy.
In the context of India, the process of urbanization is seen as a socio-cultural process, an economic process, and a
geographical process.

• It is a “melting pot” of people with diverse ethnic,

Socio-cultural phenomenon
linguistic, and religious backgrounds. E.g. kolkata

• The city is a focal point of productive activities. It

Economic process exists and grows on the strength of the economic
activities existing within itself. E.g. Mumbai

• It deals with migration or change of location of

Geographical process residence of people and involves the movement of
people from one place to another

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The process of urbanization has thus been associated with important economic and social transformations, which have
brought greater geographic mobility, lower fertility, longer life expectancy and population ageing.

EVOLUTION OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA

Urbanization in India can be traced back to the ancient Indian period.Harappan

urbanism in Indus valley civilization is considered to be the first phase of
urbanization in India. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are the two important cities in
Indus valley civilization.

The onset of the British East India Company changed the nature of the urbanization
process extraordinarily.In 1687- 88, the first municipal corporation in India was set
up at Madras.

In 1726, Municipal Corporation was set up in Bombay and Calcutta.

In 1882, a resolution was passed and according to which, a panchayat was to be formed
at the village level, district boards, taluqa boards, and municipalities also came into
existence.For this, Lord Ripon is known as the father of local self-government in India.

The formation of three metropolitan port cities of Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata

(Calcutta), and Chennai (Madras). Creation of a chain of hill stations such as
Darjeeling, Shimla, Mussoorie, Lansdowne etc. in the Himalayan region and In
South India.

After independence urbanization began to accelerate due to the country’s adoption of

a mixed economy, which gave rise to the development of the private sector.

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STATUS OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA
The population residing in urban areas in India, according to the 1901 census, was 11.4%, increasing to 31.16% by
the 2011 census, and is now currently 34% in 2017 according to The World Bank. According to a survey by UN, in 2030
40.76% of country's population is expected to reside in urban areas.
Population and economic growth has fostered urbanization in the country and the number of urban towns and cities have
drastically increased. This growth is expected to continue in the years to come and India has to step up its game in order to
catch up with this kind of change. Investments have to be made in order to better serve the country.
There are several factors at play that have led to the urbanization in India – population growth and migration as one of
the 2 major factors. Recently, a third factor has been seen as a huge contributor to the urbanization growth, the expansion
of towns and cities. This factor is due to the high economic growth that the city has witnessed over the years.

Data
● Urban Population: In India, the urban population amounts to 461 million people.
● Population Growth Rate: This number is growing by 2.3 per cent each year.
● National Income: 75 % of national income is estimated to come from cities by 2030
● Share in GDP: Cities contribute to 63 % of Indian GDP. The increasing population has caused extreme stress on urban amenities.
● Investment Gap: Estimated investment gap amounts to $827 billion.
● Most Urbanized States: Tamil Nadu 43.9%; Maharashtra 42.4%; Gujarat 37.4%
● 3 out of the world's 21 megacities: Mumbai (19 mill); Delhi (15 mill); Kolkata (14 mill)

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URBANIZATION AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENON

The criteria for classifying an area as urban may be based on one or a combination of features, such as:
Towns:
For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows;
➢ All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified
town area committee, etc.
Statutory towns ➢ These towns are notified under law by the concerned State/UT
Government and have local bodies like municipal corporations,
municipalities, municipal committees, etc., irrespective of their
demographic characteristics as reckoned on 31st December 2009.
Examples: Vadodara (Municipal Corp.), Shimla (Municipal Corp.) etc.
All other places which satisfied the following criteria:
1. A minimum population of 5,000;
Census town 2. At least 75 percent of the male main working population engaged in
non-agricultural pursuits; and
3. A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

Urban Agglomeration (UA):

• It is a continuous urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining outgrowths (OGs), or two or more
physically contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths of such towns.
• An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town and its total population (i.e. all the constituents
put together) should not be less than 20,000 as per the 2001 Census. At the Census 2011, there were 475 such
UAs/Towns.
Out Growths (OG):
• It is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet or an enumeration block made up of such a village or hamlet
and clearly identifiable in terms of its boundaries and location.
• Some of the examples are railway colonies, university campuses, port areas, military camps, etc., which have
come up near a statutory town outside its statutory limits but within the revenue limits of a village or villages
contiguous to the town. At the Census 2011, there were 981 Out Growths.
Over-Urbanization:
• It refers to the increased exemplifications of the characters of urbanization in a city or its surrounding rural area.
• It results from excessive development of urban traits. Due to the expansion of the range of urban activities and
occupations, greater influx of secondary functions like industry, the increased sophistication and mechanization of
life and the influx of urban characters into the surrounding rural area, over urbanization gradually replaces the rural
and traditionalistic traits of a community.

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Suburbanization:
• Suburbanization is closely related to over-urbanization of a city. When cities get over-crowded by population, it
may result in sub-urbanization. Delhi is a typical example.
• Sub-urbanization means urbanization of rural areas around the cities characterized by the following
features:
o A sharp increase in the ‘urban (non-agricultural) uses’ of land,
o Inclusion of surrounding areas of towns within its municipal limits, and
o Intensive communication of all types between town and its surrounding areas.
Counter urbanization or de-urbanization:
• It is a demographic and social process whereby people move from urban areas to rural areas. It is, like
suburbanization, inversely related to urbanization. It first occurred as a reaction to inner – city deprivation.
• Counter urbanization is the process by which people migrate from urban to rural communities (the opposite of
urbanization) for various reasons, including job opportunities and simpler lifestyles.
Satellite towns:
• A satellite town or satellite city is a concept in urban planning that refers essentially to smaller metropolitan
areas which are located somewhat near to, but are mostly independent of larger metropolitan areas. Satellite
cities could be self-sufficient communities outside of their larger metropolitan areas.
MAJOR CAUSES OF URBANIZATION
Various reasons have led to the growth of cities. They are as follows:

Employment
Modernization
opportunities

Rural urban
Industrialization
transformation

Causes of Spread of
Social factors
urbanization education

Industrialization:
• Industrialization is a major cause of urbanization. It has expanded the employment opportunities. Rural people have
migrated to cities on account of better employment opportunities.
Social factors:
• Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard of living, better educational facilities, need for status
also induce people to migrate to cities.
Employment opportunities:
• In rural sector people have to depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihood. But Indian agriculture is depending
on monsoon. In drought situations or natural calamities, rural people have to migrate to cities.

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Modernization:
• Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated technology better infrastructure, communication, medical facilities,
etc. People feel that they can lead a comfortable life in cities and migrate to cities.
Rural urban transformation:
• It is an interesting aspect that not only cities are growing in number but rural community is adopting urban culture,
no longer rural communities are retaining their unique rural culture. Rural people are following the material culture
of urban people. Urban rural transformation can be observed in the following areas.
Spread of education:
• The literacy rate has increased among the rural people. They have become more modernised. Change in Dress
habits, Adoption of modern Technology, Enlightenment of women, Modern transport and communication. E.g.:
Cell phones have become common even among rural people, Active involvement in politics, Growth of
infrastructure like Banks, Post office.
Thus it can be noticed that there are significant changes in the life style of village people. Indian villages have adopted urban
culture and urban style of living. However, all villages in India are not transformed. Only certain villages situated close to
the cities have been transformed.

SOCIAL IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION

1. Impact on Individuals

Creates
opportunity
for Social
Mobility

Urban areas Helps in

are Cradles building
for Social
Innovations Positive tolerance
Impact on
Individual
s

Helps Provides
building opportunity
Social for Self-
Capital fulfillment

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Decline in social
relationship due
to superficial,
impersonal
relationship

Strenghten
Negative Primodial
Erosion of
identity due
Personal Impact on limited job
identity Individuals opportunity in
urban areas

Problems like
self-alienation
reducing
individual to
Marginal Man

2. Impact on Family and kinship

Urbanization affects not only the family structure but also intra and inter-family relations, as well as the functions the
family performs.
i. Changes in Structure of Family
➢ Dis-integration of Joint Family
➢ Emergence of new families like Single parent household, live-in family, transgender family, same sex
family, dual career family
ii. Changes in Functions of Family
➢ Role of education is taken over specialized institution like schools
➢ Family is not source of economic cooperation
➢ Recreation function is done by social media
➢ Role of spouse selection is taken by modern technology
iii. Changes in Inter-personal relationship
➢ Family has become more democratic rather than authoritative
➢ Children wishes influence the decision making among parents
➢ Role and power of women within the family has increased
➢ Fictive relationship (relation with friends) plays an important role in the family
Despite these changes Family as social institution still holds its significance in present times by adapting to the social
changes.
3. Impact on Caste
Caste identity tends to diminish with urbanization:
➢ Education and development change orientation towards individual achievement and modern status symbols. It
has been pointed out that among the westernized elite, class ties are much more important than caste ties.
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➢ Urban-dwellers do not strictly conform to caste norms. There is a change in commensal relations, marital
relations, social relations, as well as in occupational relations.
➢ Caste solidarity is not as strong in urban areas as in rural areas.
➢ Caste panchayats were very weak in cities.
It is generally held that caste is a rural phenomenon whereas class is urban and that with urbanization, caste transforms itself
into class.
➢ However, caste system continues to persist and exert its influence in some sectors of urban social life while it
has changed its form in some other sectors. Caste solidarity is not as strong as in urban areas as in the rural
areas
There exists a dichotomy between workplace and domestic situation and both caste and class situations co-exist.
4. Impact on Status of Women
Status of women in urban areas is higher than that of women in rural areas.
➢ Urban women are comparatively more educated and liberal.
➢ They are not only aware of their economic, social and political rights but they also use these rights to
save themselves from being humiliated and exploited.
➢ The average age of girls at marriage in cities is also higher than the corresponding age in villages.
➢ Politically, urban women are more active today. The number of women contesting elections has increased
at every level. They hold important political positions and also possess independent political ideologies
➢ However, in the labour market, women are still in a disadvantaged situation.
o Existence of Wage gap: The labour market discriminates against women and is opposed to equality
of opportunity.
o Women encounters Sexual harassment at workplace
o Women faces problem of Dual burden – perform both social and professional role.
➢ Divorce and remarriage are new phenomena that we find among urban women. Today, women take
more initiative to break their marriages legally if they find adjustment after marriage impossible.
It may, thus, be concluded that while rural women continue to be dependent on men both economically and
socially, urban women are comparatively independent and enjoy greater freedom.
PROBLEMS OF URBAN AREAS
1. Inadequate Housing
➢ The rapid growth of population in cities has given rise to numerous social problems among which the problem of
housing is the most distressing. In fact, a vast majority of urban population live under conditions of poor shelter
and in highly congested spaces.
➢ It is estimated that nearly 70 per cent of population in big cities live in sub-standard houses, which they call their
homes. Special mention may be made here of the old houses, which are deteriorating in the sense that they are
unserved, overcrowded and dilapidated.
➢ Usually, such decaying houses are found in the middle of most of the cities. Similarly, there are hundreds of such
people who are living in cities as pavement-dwellers, without any kind of shelter at all.
➢ The available statistics show that in India more than half of the urban households occupy a single room, with an
average occupancy per room of 4.4 persons. In Greater Bombay, as many as 77 per cent of the households with an
average of 5.3 persons live in one room, and many others are forced to sleep on the pavements at night.
➢ The conditions of other big cities and others are forced to sleep on the pavements at night. The conditions of other
big cities and industrially growing towns are believed to be equally disturbing. It is estimated that more than 3 lakh
persons in Delhi are without a shelter of their own.
2. Unsafe and Insufficient Water Supply
➢ Availability of water for domestic use constitutes one of the basic civic amenities. Unfortunately, in the cities of the
third world countries including India there are only a few urban dwellers, who enjoy this amenity on a regular and
satisfactory basis.
➢ Nearly 30 per cent of the urban population in India is deprived of safe drinking water facility. Largely, the municipal
pipes and handpumps are the major sources of procuring water in towns and cities.
➢ According to a forecast by the Asian Development Bank, India will have a water deficit of 50% by 2030.

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➢ But in most of the cities, specially the rapidly growing ones, the slum-dwellers have to suffer acute problems in
procuring water for domestic use.
➢ Several systematic studies have brought out the plight of the slum-dwellers in this regard. In some cases, it was
found that more than a hundred families depended exclusively on one water tap. The problem of regular water
supply in smaller cities and towns too is assuming an acute form with rapid and unmanageable stream of
urbanization.
3. Inefficient and Inadequate Transport
➢ The lack of efficient transport facility is yet another major problem which has become, almost in all big cities, a
headache for the local authorities.
➢ The narrow roads and streets, their poor conditions, on the one hand, and, on the other, numerous vehicles, public-
buses, rickshaws, two-wheelers, cars, trucks and bicycles, all plying together create a unique scene of traffic
congestion and traffic jams practically in every part of the city, more so in the central business area and other
important zones of the city.
➢ The problem of transport in the wake of rapid urbanization has become so serious that any effort to check it hardly
yields a permanent solution. In the old and pre-industrial areas of the city, narrow roads and still narrower residential
streets hardly offer any scope for efficient transport facilities.
➢ Moreover, whatever little transport network is seen in the cities, that too has become a major source of
environmental pollution due to traffic jams and poor conditions of vehicles.
4. Pollution
The problem of pollution is becoming increasingly acute with the rise of urbanization on account of the following
reasons:
o Indiscriminate growth of industrial and chemical plants in spite of the efforts through legal measures to check such
growth.
o Pre-industrial structure of cities with narrow streets and roads, which have become defective and inefficient in
regulating traffic.
o High-rise buildings, representing vertical growth of cities, ultimately causing high density of population, congestion
on roads and pollution.
o Lack of effective and systematic use pattern on account of scarce land and its commercial speculation.
5. Slum Population
➢ According to the statistics provided by the Seventh Plan document, nearly 10 per cent (or 3 crore of the total 16
crore) of the urban population in India live in slums. Task Force on Housing and Urban Development, appointed
by the Planning Commission of India, estimated nearly 23 per cent or over 3 crore 60 lakh persons as the urban
slum- dwellers in India.
➢ The proportion of the slum-dwellers increase with the size of the urban population. Cities with less than one lakh
population have 17.5 per cent; cities with the population between one lakh and ten lakhs have 21.5 per cent, and
cities having more than ten lakhs of population have 35.5 per cent slum-dwellers in the total population.
➢ In the case of Calcutta and Bombay, it is estimated that 43.86 lakhs and 41.26 lakhs, respectively lived in slums, in
the year 1990. The four metropolitan Centres, Calcutta, Bombay Delhi and Madras, have around 50 per cent of the
total population living in slums by now.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUMS
The physical aspects and general conditions of the slums are by and large the same everywhere. The foremost
characteristics of slums can be briefly enumerated in the following manner:
i. Dilapidated and poor houses in slums are made of poor design and scrap materials. These are often raised on
unauthorized land.
ii. High density of population and housing leads to over-crowding and congestion; one room is often used for all
practical purposes of domesticating living. In Bombay and in many other big cities, it can be seen that in the
slum areas one room tenement with 100 sq.f. to 150 sq.f. of space is occupied by more than 10 persons.
iii. Lack of public utilities and facilities, such as, drainage, sanitation, water taps, electric light, health centres,
common latrines and public parks, etc., are widely observable characteristics of slums.
iv. The slum-dwellers are functionally integrated with the mainstream of the city life, yet the high incidence of
deviant behaviour such as crime, juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drug use, beggary, illegitimacy, illicit
distilling of liquor, gambling and other social evils are associated with slum areas. It does not mean that all
those residing in slums are necessarily associated with such deviant behaviour. The slum areas, socially and
physically provide greater opportunity for such kinds of deviant behaviour.
v. Slums have a culture of their own, which Marshall Clinard has termed as ‘a way of life’. It is said to be largely
a synthesis of the culture of the lower class and of that which Lewis has referred to as the ‘culture of poverty’.
vi. Though the slum-dwellers are functionally integrated to the city life, apathy and social isolation characterise a
slum. It means that largely slums are subject to neglect and apathy of the larger community. These areas are
looked down upon and considered inferior. Such a reaction from the larger community renders slums into social
isolation, detached from the city as a whole. Under these circumstances, the slum-dwellers find it almost
impossible to improve these conditions through their own efforts.

6. Crime
➢ The metropolises and the big cities provide greater environmental opportunities for committing crimes and acts of
juvenile delinquency. The rate of crime is very high in cities compared to the rural and tribal areas.
➢ With the rise of urbanization, the rate of crime gets further accentuated as the opportunities of success through
socially legitimate means remain scarce as against the number of aspirants.
➢ Moreover, urban anonymity in a way encourages resorting to unlawful activities, as the traditional agencies of social
control and law and order become noticeably weak. Under these conditions of urban living, crimes such as theft,
burglary, kidnapping and abduction, murder, rape, cheating, criminal breach of trust, gambling, prostitution,
alcoholism and counterfeiting, etc., have become almost routine affairs in most cities, especially the “million” cities.
➢ Further, in all big cities the criminal gangs indulging in organised crimes have become a grave social problem.
These criminal gangs have their network stretching beyond a given city, spread over more than one city. At times,
these gangs are so resourceful that, even when caught by the police, they easily succeed in escaping punishment.
7. Social isolation
➢ With the rise of urbanization, a city-dweller, while living amidst a sea of fellow city-dwellers, is detached from
them socially. In other words, a city-dweller is physically in proximity with others in different walks of life, but
socially he is under conditions of relative isolation, if not absolute isolation.
➢ Socially, isolated persons are rarely found in village communities. In the city, people are usually unable to make
intimate and emotionally strong relationships. This tendency goes on increasing as the city grows in the face of
rapid population growth.
➢ The heterogeneity of population, especially in matters of social status, caste, class, religion, income, occupation,
etc., creates partial isolation.
➢ Integrity of particular groups is reinforced by maintaining social distance (avoidance) toward other groups.
Residential segregation is one of the manifestations of partial isolation in cities.
8. Maladjustment
➢ As the process of urbanization accelerates, the city life tends to be rapidly characterized by cultural diversities,
socioeconomic inequalities, competition, conflict and several other manifestations of complexities of social reality.

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➢ The fact of social mobility also affects the life of the city-dwellers. In a way, all these social forces impose a
functional adjustment on the part of the city-dwellers to lead a peaceful and fuller life.
➢ However, all the city-dwellers are not fortunate enough to satisfactorily adjust to the diverse challenges of a growing
city. For example, in the field of economic activities, even in a rapidly growing city, the number of opportunities
for successful adjustment are smaller than the number of competitors.
➢ In such a situation, several among those, who are the losers, fail to suitably adjust to the reality, and become victims
of frustration, inferiority complex and loss of a meaningful integration with the totality of city-life.
➢ All such failures give rise to the problem of maladjustment. Similarly, even among the successful ones, many fail
to conform to the new situations, and become maladjusted.

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

1. URBANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT

Urbanization boosts temperatures, and this in turn brings on two major types of effect:
➢ The urban heat island effect and thermal stress, whose consequences include proliferation of waterborne pathogens
and carrying vectors;
➢ Extreme rainfall and widespread floods, which impacts insect breeding sites, drives rodents out of burrows and
contaminate clean water systems.
Both phenomena may provoke outbreaks of infectious diseases, and increase human morbidity (especially epidemics, which
alter physical and mental health) and mortality. The fallout from urbanization on health is not only linked to climate change
and increased pollution. Urbanization also modifies daily behaviours, which alter the ageing process and affect wellness
among old adults.
Estimates suggest that by 2050, urban population exposed to cyclones will increase from 310 million to 680 million while exposure
to major earthquake will increase from 370 million to 870 million (World Bank, 2013b). Urban development investment is also set to
increase from US$7.2 trillion in 2011 to US$12 trillion by 2020. (UNISDR, 2013).

2. URBANIZATION AND POVERTY

➢ Urbanization directly affects rural poverty, as it generates new opportunities for rural workers, who shift out of
agriculture and into more remunerative, non-farm activities in the city. This causes an influx of money into the
rural areas, mainly in the shape of remittances.
➢ Furthermore, the migration of agriculture workers into the city reduces the rural labor supply, thereby increasing
rural wages.
➢ But urbanization also entails indirect positive effects in rural communities. The rapid growth of cities also means
an increase in the demand of agricultural goods and other products from rural areas, which fosters economic
growth and alleviates poverty.
The effects of urbanization on poverty at the urban level are drastically different.
➢ As cities develop, dramatic increases in property prices are commonplace, which often displaces poorer city-
dwellers who cannot afford to live in the area anymore. This process called gentrification.
➢ Urban poverty in India is unique and it is effective according to a particular pattern. Although the proportion of
urban poor has declined over the last decades, there is a steady increase in the number which has a direct impact on
the slum areas of the metros.

CAUSES OF URBAN POVERTY

i. Increasing migration - Large-scale migration occurs in India due to the decrease in the availability of
opportunities in the rural sector and the continuously decreasing benefits of agriculture.
ii. Loss of income - Due to lack of basic requirements of skills, education, health in rural areas of India, a person
migrating from a rural area does not get a proper salary in cities. Due to which they are forced to work in the
unorganized economy and are exploited by the capitalists. This does not increase their income and increases
the number of urban poor.

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iii. Over-crowding - Congestion is another major factor in slum areas. Each slum normally has just one bathroom
for 50 to 100 people, and lack of awareness of personal hygiene practices makes families vulnerable to illnesses
and infections. Due to which a significant part of their income is spent on health-related things.
iv. Affordable Housing Shortage - The congestion in slum areas increases continuously due to a reduction in
affordable housing. This further leads to a lack of facilities like light, water, and sanitation.
v. COVID-19 and Urban Poor- The Indian city was affected the most due to epidemic-induced disruptions
during COVID-19. The impact of Corona resulted in a lockdown, social discrimination, closure of markets,
factories, and allied activities, reducing the work opportunities for these sections of the urban population,
bringing a livelihood crisis to the urban poor. This year the trend of urban unemployment, which was already
under stress, has increased due to increasing apprehension of the epidemic.

3. URBANIZATION AND PANDEMIC

WHO has identified urbanization as one of the key challenges for public health in the 21st century. In recent
decades, many emerging infectious diseases have been occurring at an increasing scale and frequency. With an ever-larger
shift of populations to urban areas in conjunction with a shift of a very large percentage of national economies to large
urban centres, the concentration of a succession of epidemics and pandemics in cities has become stronger. The cities
comprised of Mumbai, Delhi, Ahmedabad, Indore, Pune, Jaipur, Hyderabad, Chennai, Surat and Agra accounts major share
Coronavirus infection.
Reasons for growing urbanization Challenges associated
of Pandemics
High population density and high A larger population to be managed; ease of disease spread between humans in
volume of public transportation congested areas; difficulties in contact tracing, especially causal contact in public
areas; inequalities resulting in poor housing environments that might hinder
outbreak prevention and control efforts; closer encounters with wildlife via food
markets or because of expansion into previously untouched ecosystems
Interface between animals and Areas of poor sanitation with rodents and other animal vectors; live domestic and
humans wild animal markets; animals raised in backyard farms or industrial agricultural
facilities in close proximity to humans
Governance by local authorities Competing interests within a finite local budget; insufficient authority to institute
response measures promptly; insufficient epidemic preparedness capabilities or
capacities at a subnational and local level; difficulties in accessing national
capacities
Heterogeneous subpopulations A wide range of cultural factors, including modes of social interactions and
acceptable control measures; some subpopulations might be difficult to reach
High connectivity to other urban High likelihood of multiple importation events; risk of rapid export of disease to
centres (domestic and international) other parts of the country or to other countries; fear might lead to restrictions on
travel and trade
Centres of commerce Greater disruption to economic activity, stability, and growth
Unconventional communications Multiple information sources leading to misinformation; false information might
and interactions spread quickly

WAY FORWARD
National Commission on Urbanization (NCU) (1988)
➢ The evolution of a proper spatial pattern of economic development and suitable hierarchies of human settlements
➢ Optimum distribution of population between rural and urban settlements, and among towns and cities of various
sizes.
➢ Distribution of economic activities in small and medium-sized growth Centres
➢ Dispersal of economic activities through the establishment of counter magnets in the region.
NITI Aayog’s Recommendations
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➢ Incentivise vehicle phase-out: Incentives may be created to encourage vehicle-sharing systems such as Ola and
Uber. This will reduce the number of vehicles on the road reducing both congestion and pollution.
➢ Waste to Energy: the creation of an authority at the Centre to spread the use of Waste to Energy plants. Such
authority may be called Waste to Energy Corporation of India (WECI) and placed under the Ministry of Urban
Development.
➢ Fiscal powers: Well-run ULBs should have the power to raise financial resources including through municipal
bonds.
2nd ARC Recommendations
➢ Strengthening ULB: Urban local bodies should be given responsibility for water supply and distribution in their
territorial jurisdiction whether based on their own source or collaborative arrangements with other service providers.
➢ Sanitation: Must be given priority and emphasis in all urban areas. In all towns, advance action for laying down
adequate infrastructure should be taken to avoid insufficiency
➢ Community participation: It should be encouraged by municipal bodies. This should be supplemented by
awareness generation campaigns.
➢ Private sector involvement: In all towns and cities with a population above one lakh, the possibility of taking up
PPP projects for the collection and disposal of garbage may be explored.
➢ Urban Transport Authorities: Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities in the Metropolitan Corporations,
should be set up in cities with populations of over one million for coordinated planning and implementation of
urban transport solutions with an overriding priority to public transport.

As we move forward in the 21st century, the global population is likely to continue growing. Urban areas will continue
to grow with the population. This continual growth presents complex challenges as we prepare for the cities of the future.
How we choose to manage urbanization will have consequences for our world for many years to come.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: GS1 SOCIETY

TOPIC: ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN ORGANIZATIONS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
DIMENSIONS OF GENDER .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
ROLE OF WOMEN IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
SOCIO CULTURAL INDICATORS OF WOMEN IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4
WOMEN AND HEALTH .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
WOMEN AND EDUCATION ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
GENDER PAY GAP ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
WORSENING SEX RATIO ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
WOMEN AND EMPLOYMENT .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
ROLE OF WOMEN IN DECISION MAKING ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
WOMEN – MARRIAGE AND CULTURE ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
CASE STUDY ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
WOMEN AND CLOTHING .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
CASE STUDY ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
LAND AND PROPERTY RIGHTS .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
PATRIARCHAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
CRIMES AGAINST WOMEN ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
SEXUAL ASSAULT ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
HONOR KILLING.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
DOWRY-RELATED ABUSE AND DEATHS ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
RAPE IN INDIA ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
FEMALE FOETICIDE IN INDIA ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
DIMENSIONS OF POVERTY IN WOMEN ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
TIME POVERTY .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10
GLASS CEILING EFFECT ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
WOMEN AND UNPAID WORK: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
FEMONOMICS............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
GLOBALIZATION AND WOMEN ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
WOMEN AND CLIMATE CHANGE .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES FOR WOMEN IN INDIA: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 12
E-GOVERNANCE AND ITS IMPACTS ON WOMEN ................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
WOMEN ON DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
ADDRESSING ISSUES RELATED TO WOMEN ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
GENDER BUDGETING .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
WOMEN’S MOVEMENT IN INDIA ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
FIRST PHASE: 1850–1915 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
SECOND PHASE: 1915–1947 .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
POST-1947 .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
CASE STUDY 1............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
CASE STUDY 2............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
NEW WOMEN’S GROUPS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
PROLIFERATION OF THE AUTONOMOUS WOMEN’S GROUPS ................................................................................................................................................... 21
ISSUES TAKEN UP BY THE NEW WOMEN’S GROUPS .................................................................................................................................................................... 21
WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS AND THE DEVELOPMENT AGENDA ................................................................................................................................................... 23
WAVES OF FEMINIST MOVEMENTS: A GLANCE ............................................................................................................................................................................ 24
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR WOMEN IN INDIA .................................................................................................................................................................... 25
PREAMBLE OF THE CONSTITUTION ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
DPSP .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
HUMANE CONDITIONS AT WORK ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
FUNDAMENTAL DUTY ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
RESERVATION OF SEATS FOR WOMEN IN PANCHAYATS AND MUNICIPALITIES .............................................................................................................. 25
VOTING RIGHTS/ELECTORAL LAW .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
VALUE ADDITION........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
DATA/FACTS............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
QUOTES ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 26
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

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ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONs

INTRODUCTION
• Women generally participate in various economic and social activities and also play an important role in decision
making process, but their contribution has been accepted as a normal routine work of women.
• Since ages, Women have been playing a pivotal role in all spheres of activities but their contribution in farm
sector has been largely ignored and inadequately accounted for.
• Until very recently, no economic or social value has been accorded for their work.
• However, some efforts have recently been made to quantify their role in home activities, dairying, agriculture, we
propose to discuss women education and its significance in health care, population control, and environmental
sanitation, social status of women and their contribution in agriculture.
• More specifically, more attention to the women education and its role in health care, family welfare and
consequently its impact on size of Family i.e. impact of women's education on population - growth, women's
status/social status of women, contribution of women in agriculture, impact of modernization in Farming on
women's labour use, effectiveness of Legislative Measures -gender inequity and women wages. Finally,
participation of women in decision making should also be given importance.
DIMENSIONS OF GENDER
• Sex is biological concept whereas Gender is Sociological construct. Gender refers to the characteristics of women,
men, girls and boys that are socially constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with
being a woman, man, girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other.
• Gender can have a major impact on development, being conducive to it in some cases while seriously retarding it
in others.
• Over the past few years it has become increasingly clear that at their core the MDGs are about improving the
condition of women throughout the developing world.
• In fact, not only are women heavily involved in food production all over the world and especially in rural areas, but
they are also the primary care providers for children in virtually all cultures and societies.
• This makes them central to the achievement to the reduction of child mortality by two thirds relative to 1990.
• At the same time, women remain most disadvantaged when it comes to access to education, work opportunities and
health care, while scientific research shows that diseases such as HIV/ AIDS and malaria have a higher incident
amongst women.
• Gender Inequity and Payment of Wages Gender inequity indicators were highlighted in a meeting of women's non-
governmental organization held at Manila.
• Over 600 women, mostly from 33 countries of Asia and the Pacific attended the meeting which was held as part of
preparations for the UN Fourth World Conference on Women to take place in Beijing 1995.
• The meeting was in the view that "worldwide a woman is 20 per cent more likely to be poor than a man. She is
10 per cent less able to get education, finds it 32 per cent more difficult to get a job, and works two hours
longer every day but earns 40 per cent less".
• These are only signs that half of the world's population is not enjoying the same rights, benefits and opportunities
as the other half.
• The participants observed that although life may have visibly improved for many women, this has resulted more
from the overall benefit of economic growth than to any real change in women's status.
• However, a UN report circulated at the Manila meeting shows "Even the material benefits brought by economic
growth were largely onset by the high population growth which resulted in a dramatic turn for the worse"
in poverty among women.
• The high population growth is due partly to women's poor access to education. According to date from the UN
Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), women represent two thirds of the world's
illiterates.
• By 2020 more than 30 million women are likely to be infected with the virus and about 4 million of them die. Time
has been inadequate understanding and evaluation of Women's economic contribution in the farm sector, as also of
the problems/issues arising from changes in work participation of women associated with modernization of
agriculture.

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN INDIA
• The worth of a civilization can be judged by the place given to women in the society. One of several factors
that justify the greatness of India's ancient culture is the honorable place granted to women.
• The foreign influence on India caused considerable deterioration in the status of women. They were deprived of
their rights of equality with men.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy started a movement against this inequality and subjugation. The contact of Indian culture
with that of the British also brought improvement in the status of women. The third factor in the revival of women's
position was the influence of Mahatma Gandhi who induced women to participate in the Freedom Movement.
• As a result of this retrieval of freedom, women in Indian have distinguished themselves as teachers, nurses, air-
hostesses, booking clerks, receptionists, and doctors.
• They are also participating in politics and administration.
• But in spite of this amelioration in the status of women, the evils of illiteracy, dowry, ignorance, and economic
slavery would have to be fully removed in order to give them their rightful place in Indian society.
SOCIO CULTURAL INDICATORS OF WOMEN IN INDIA
WOMEN AND HEALTH
• Being a man or a woman has a significant impact on health, as a result of both biological and gender-related
differences.
• The Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) in India has declined to 113 in 2016-18 from 122 in 2015-17 and 130 in
2014-2016, according to the special bulletin on Maternal Mortality in India 2016-18, released by the Office of the
Registrar General's Sample Registration System (SRS)
• The health of women and girls is of particular concern because, in many societies, they are disadvantaged by
discrimination rooted in socio cultural factors. For example, women and girls face increased vulnerability to
HIV/AIDS.
• Some of the sociocultural factors that prevent women and girls to benefit from quality health services and attaining
the best possible level of health include:
o Unequal power relationships between men and women;
o Social norms that decrease education and paid employment opportunities;
o An exclusive focus on women’s reproductive roles; and
o Potential or actual experience of physical, sexual and emotional violence.
o While poverty is an important barrier to positive health outcomes for both men and women, poverty tends
to yield a higher burden on women and girls’ health due to, for example, feeding practices (malnutrition)
and use of unsafe cooking fuels (COPD).
WOMEN AND EDUCATION
• Female literacy rate in India is less than the male literacy rate.
• Far fewer girls than boys are enrolled in school, and many girls drop out.
• In urban India, girls are nearly on a par with boys in terms of education. However, in rural India, girls continue to
be less educated than boys.
• Under the Non-Formal Education programme (NFE), about 40% of the NFE centres in states and 10% of the
centres in UTs are exclusively reserved for women. As of 2000, about 300,000 NFE centres were catering to
about 7.42 million children. About 120,000 NFE centres were exclusively for girls.
• According to a 1998 report by the U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barriers to female education in India
are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in the
curriculum (female characters being depicted as weak and helpless).
• The literacy rate is lower for women compared to men: the literacy rate is 60.6% for women, while for men it is
81.3%. The 2011 census, however, indicated a 2001–2011 decadal literacy growth of 9.2%, which is slower than
the growth seen during the previous decade. There is a wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India.

According to the National Sample Survey Data of 2013, only the states of Kerala and Mizoram have approached
universal female literacy. According to scholars, the major factor behind improvements in the social and economic
status of women in Kerala is literacy.

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WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE
• India has a national tradition bound to agriculture fertility.
• In the North, the Indus valley and Brahmaputra region are critical agricultural areas graced by the Ganges and
monsoon season.
• Based on 2011 World Bank data, only 17.5% of India's gross domestic product (GDP) is accounted for by
agricultural production. Yet for a majority of the country, an estimated 72% of the 1.1 billion people who live
in rural India, it is a way of life.
• Agriculture in India defines familial tradition, social relations and gender roles.
• Female in the agricultural sector, whether through traditional means or industrial, for subsistence or as an
agricultural laborer, represents a momentous demographic group.
• Agriculture is directly tied to gender based issues such as economic independence, decision-making
abilities, agency and access to education and health services and this manner has created externalities such
as poverty and marginalization, and compounded issues of gender inequality.
WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION
• Contrary to common perception, a large percentage of women in India are actively engaged in traditional
and non-traditional work.
• National data collection agencies accept that statistics seriously understate women's contribution as workers.
• However, there are far fewer women than men in the paid workforce. In urban India, women participate in
the workforce in impressive numbers. For example, in the software industry 30% of the workforce is female.
• In rural India in the agriculture and allied industrial sectors, women account for as much as 89.5% of the
labour force.
• In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at 55% to 66% of the total labour.
• According to a 1991 World Bank report, women accounted for 94% of total employment in dairy production
in India.
• Women constitute 51% of the total employed in forest-based small-scale enterprises.
GENDER PAY GAP
• In 2017, a study by Monster Salary Index (MSI) showed the overall gender pay gap in India was 20 percent. It
found that the gap was narrower in the early years of experience.
• While men with 0–2 years of experience earned 7.8 percent higher median wages than women, in the experience
group of 6–10 years of experience, the pay gap was 15.3 percent.
• The pay gap becomes wider at senior level positions as the men with 11 and more years of tenure earned 25 percent
higher median wages than women.
• Based on the educational background, men with a bachelor's degree earned on average 16 percent higher
median wages than women in years 2015, 2016 and 2017, while master's degree holders experience even higher
pay gap.
• Men with a four- or five-year degree or the equivalent of a master's degree have on average earned 33.7 percent
higher median wages than women.
• While India passed the Equal Remuneration Act way back in 1976, which prohibits discrimination in
remuneration on grounds of sex. But in practice, the pay disparity still exists.

WORSENING SEX RATIO

• The phrase “missing women” was coined by Amartya Sen when he showed that in parts of the developing world,
the ratio of women to men in the population is suspiciously low.
• The worsening sex ratio (number of females per 1,000 males) in India reflected the gross neglect of women.
• He estimated that more than 100 million women were missing due to gender discrimination. It was commonly
believed that “boy preference” at birth and the mistreatment of young girls were the main reasons.
• Some careful and subsequent data work by Anderson and Ray showed that excess female mortality is a more
universal phenomenon which holds for all age groups in these countries.

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• They provided detailed decomposition of the missing women by age and cause of death and a particularly sinister
observation was that the number of excess female deaths from “intentional injuries” or reported violence was
disturbingly high in India.

Do You Know!!
India’s ‘unwanted’ girls: Economic Survey highlights how preference for sons is hurting daughters!!

The Economic Survey has mentioned that the desire for a male child has created 21 million “unwanted” girls in India
between 0 and 25 years.

The Survey has taken note of the behavioural pattern of Indian parents who prefer to have children “until the desired
number of sons are born.” Calling this the “son meta-preference”, the Survey has found that while an average Indian
family prefers to have two children, there are instances where families have more than five children if the last child is
not a male.

WOMEN AND EMPLOYMENT

• Sociological Aspects and Social Status of Women All social forces and factors of social changes have affected the
values in the society and so is the case with the status.
• The social change affected the women and also the traditional values. Her status in the family as well as in the
society has been affected due to social changes.
• The social change is an outcome of social economic advancement which could be brought about with broad-based
education system. It is believed that from post-vedic period, women of lower strata of society sought out-side
home work.
• Seeking of employment by women in plantation, factories and mines had a beginning from the early years of
the present century.
• Economic pressure seemed to have caused this situation. In urban areas also, women of lower strata were compelled
to seek employment in factories as a result of industrialization which ruined home industries.
• A significant change took place after India became Independent in 1947. The Constitution of India states that
there should be no discrimination against the employment of women. This created further opportunity for
employment of women and an increase in their employment trend was seen more particularly among educated
women.
ROLE OF WOMEN IN DECISION MAKING
• Measures are required to be adopted to promote the conditions under which women's participation in such
organizations can be improved.
• Yet another fundamental issue that needs to be examined is whether the women workers have an option to choose
any of the following three alternatives, namely,
o To work on family farm,
o To accept wage employment outside the family farm, and
o To remain occupied only in household work of home.
• It has often been argued that in the caste and custom ridden Indian society, women in rural areas do not come
out of the house for work in the field, or do not opt for wage work outside the family farm.
• As against this, it has also been agreed that, customs not with standing, women offer themselves or wage work on
public and private account, if assured wage employment on fairly continuous basis is available within reasonable
reach.
• Empirical examination of this would be relevant for policy makers. All statistical data from the census and national
sample survey have conclusively shown that Indian women are joining different professions in ever-increasing
numbers.
WOMEN – MARRIAGE AND CULTURE
• Most of the average Indian woman's life is spent in marriage; many women are still married before the legal age of
18, and the incidence of non-marriage is low in India.
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• Childbearing and raising children are the priorities of early adulthood for Indian women. Thus, if they enter the
workforce at all, it is far later than Indian men.
• Urban Indian men reach the peak of their labour force participation between the ages of 25 and 29, while urban
Indian women do so between the ages of 40 and 44.
• Because of this, women have less time for the acquisition of skills and fewer opportunities for job
improvements.
• There is a poor representation of women in the Indian workforce. Females have a ten percent higher drop-out
rate than males from middle and primary schools, as well as lower levels of literacy than men.
• Since unemployment is also high in India, it is easy for employers to manipulate the law, especially when it comes
to women, because it is part of Indian culture for women not to argue with men. Additionally, labour unions are
insensitive to women's needs. Women also have to settle for jobs that comply with their obligations as wives,
mothers, and homemakers.
CASE STUDY
•The Gulabi Gang in India wear pink saris and carry lathis (bamboo staves) for protection against physical attack,
and punish abusive husbands, publicly shaming and sometimes beating them. They also watch out for and expose
dowry beatings, dowry death, rape, child marriages, desertion, depriving girls of education, child
molestation, and sexual harassment. They have invaded police stations to demand that police investigate these
matters, and other things that affect the community such as corruption.
• In 2018 the Supreme Court of India struck down a law making it a crime for a man to have sex with a married
woman without the permission of her husband.
WOMEN AND CLOTHING
• Another issue that concerns women is the dress code expected of them. Islam requires both men and women to
dress modestly. This concept is known as hijab and covers a wide interpretation of behavior and garments. There
is mixed opinion among feminists over extremes of externally imposed control. Women from other religions are
also expected to follow dress codes.
CASE STUDY
• In 2014, an Indian family court in Mumbai ruled that a husband objecting to his wife wearing a kurta and jeans
and forcing her to wear a sari amounts to cruelty inflicted by the husband and can be a ground to seek divorce.
• The wife was granted a divorce on the ground of cruelty as defined under section 27(1)(d) of Special Marriage
Act, 1954.
LAND AND PROPERTY RIGHTS
• In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a share of parental
property.
• Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting them, women continue to have little access to land and property.
• In India, women's property rights vary depending on religion, and tribe, and are subject to a complex mix of law
and custom, but in principle the move has been towards granting women equal legal rights, especially since the
passing of The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005.
• The Hindu personal laws of 1956 (applying to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains) gave women rights to
inheritances.
• However, sons had an independent share in the ancestral property, while the daughters' shares were based on the
share received by their father. Hence, a father could effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of
the ancestral property, but a son would continue to have a share in his own right. Additionally, married daughters,
even those facing domestic abuse and harassment, had no residential rights in the ancestral home.
• In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Shah Bano, an elderly divorced Muslim woman, was eligible
for alimony. However, the decision was opposed by fundamentalist Muslim leaders, who alleged that the court was
interfering in their personal law. The Union Government subsequently passed the Muslim Women's (Protection of
Rights Upon Divorce) Act.
• Similarly, Christian women have struggled over the years for equal rights in divorce and succession. In 1994, all
churches, jointly with women's organizations, drew up a draft law called the Christian Marriage and Matrimonial

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Causes Bill. However, the government has still not amended the relevant laws. In 2014, the Law Commission of
India has asked the government to modify the law to give Christian women equal property rights.
PATRIARCHAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE
• There are three main aspects of the patriarchal household structure in India that affect women's agency.
o Marriage,
o Active discrimination by means of abuse (marital or extramarital), and
o Diminished women's agency through limited economic opportunity through stifled opportunity for
independence.
• In all these dimensions, there is a clear relationship between strong patriarchal familial structures and limited
capabilities and agency for women, which are strongly correlated with causal factors for domestic violence such
as gender disparities in nutritional deprivation and a lack of women's role in reproductive decisions.
CRIMES AGAINST WOMEN
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
• Domestic violence in India includes any form of violence suffered by a person from a biological relative, but
typically is the violence suffered by a woman by male members of her family or relatives.
• According to a National Family and Health Survey in 2015, total lifetime prevalence of domestic violence was
33.5% and 8.5% for sexual violence among women aged 15–49.
• A 2014 study in The Lancet reports that although the reported sexual violence rate in India is among the lowest
in the world, the large population of India means that the violence affects 27.5 million women over their lifetimes.
• However, a survey carried out by the Thomson Reuters Foundation ranked India as the most dangerous country
in the world for women.
• The 2017 National Crime Records Bureau report of India states a reported crime rate of 46 per 100,000, rape
rate of 2 per 100,000, dowry homicide rate of 0.7 per 100,000 and the rate of domestic cruelty by husband or his
relatives as 5.9 per 100,000.
• These reported rates are significantly smaller than the reported intimate partner domestic violence rates in many
countries, such as the United States (590 per 100,000) and reported homicide (6.2 per 100,000 globally), crime and
rape incidence rates per 100,000 women for most nations tracked by the United Nations.
There are several domestic violence laws in India
• The earliest law was the Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 which made the act of giving and receiving dowry a crime.
• In an effort to bolster the 1961 law, two new sections, Section 498A and Section 304B were introduced into the
Indian Penal Code in 1983 and 1986.
• The most recent legislation is the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA) 2005.
• The PWDVA, a civil law, includes physical, emotional, sexual, verbal, and economic abuse as domestic violence.

SEXUAL ASSAULT
• Domestic sexual assault is a form of domestic violence involving sexual/reproductive coercion and marital
rape. Under Indian law, marital rape is not a crime, except during the period of marital separation of the partners.
• The Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) considers the forced sex in marriages as a crime only when the
wife is below 15.
• Thus, marital rape is not a criminal offense under IPC. The marital rape victims have to take recourse to
the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 (PWDVA).[
• The PWDVA, which came into force in 2006, outlaws marital rape. However, it offers only a civil remedy for the
offence.[
HONOR KILLING
• An honour killing is the practice wherein an individual is killed by one or more family member(s), because he or
she is believed to have brought shame on the family.
• The shame may range from refusing to enter an arranged marriage, having sex outside marriage, being in a
relationship that is disapproved by the family, starting a divorce proceeding, or engaging in homosexual
relations.

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• In 2017, the Supreme Court of India issued notice seeking data and explanation for rise in honor killings to the
states of Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
DOWRY-RELATED ABUSE AND DEATHS
• In almost all the Hindu families the Ritual of taking dowry has caused a serious problem in the society.
• Some newly married brides suffer domestic violence in the form of harassment, physical abuse or death when she
is thought to have not brought enough dowry with marriage. Some cases end up in suicides by hanging, self-
poisoning or by fire. In dowry deaths, the groom's family is the perpetrator of murder or suicide.
• Dowry deaths in India is not limited to any specific religion, and it is found among Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and
others.
• Some 80% of the total Dowry related crime found in the Hindu community followed by other Indian Religions as
giving Dowry is considered as an important ritual in the Traditional Hindu Marriage.
• Furthermore, in many parts of India the Ritual of Tilak (Engagement) done mostly in Hindu families is used by
Groom's Family to Demand a huge sum of money.
• The Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, prohibits the request, payment or acceptance of a dowry, "as consideration for
the marriage", where "dowry" is defined as a gift demanded or given as a precondition for a marriage.
• Gifts given without a precondition are not considered dowry, and are legal. Asking or giving of dowry can be
punished by an imprisonment of up to six months, or a fine.
• It replaced several pieces of anti-dowry legislation that had been enacted by various Indian states.
• Murder and suicide under compulsion are addressed by India's criminal penal code. The law was made more
stringent with Section 498a of Indian Penal Code (enacted in 1983). Under the Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act 2005 (PWDVA), a woman can seek help against dowry harassment by approaching a domestic
violence protection officer.
RAPE IN INDIA
“Rape is the fourth most common crime against women in India”.
• Of these, 30,165 rapes were committed by perpetrators known to the victim (94.2 % of cases), a high number similar
to 2018.
• According to the 2019 annual report of the National Crime Records Bureau(NCRB), 32033 rape cases were
registered across the country, or an average of 88 cases daily,]slightly lower than 2018 when 91 cases were
registered daily.
• The share of victims who were minors or below 18 - the legal age of consent - stood at 15.4%, down from 27.8%
in 2018.
• On the other hand, rapes by juveniles remained high in India with 3 minors being arrested for rape, assault and
attempted violence on women and girls each day in 2019.
• India has been characterised as one of the "countries with the lowest per capita rates of rape".
• The government also classifies consensual sex committed on the false promise of marriage as rape.
• The willingness to report rapes have increased in recent years, after several incidents received widespread media
attention and triggered local and nationwide public protests. This led the government to reform its penal code for
crimes of rape and sexual assault.
• According to NCRB 2019 statistics, Rajasthan reported the highest number of rapes among Indian states.
• Other states in the Hindi heartland region, across North India, such as Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana and Chhattisgarh, also have the highest incidence of sexual violence against women.
•
Among metropolitan cities, the national capital of Delhi continued to have the highest incidence of rape at 1253
cases in 2019, while Jaipur had the highest rape rate (per 100,000 population).
FEMALE FOETICIDE IN INDIA
• It is the abortion of a female foetus outside of legal methods. The natural sex ratio is assumed to be between 103
and 107, and any number above it is considered as suggestive of female foeticide.

According to the decennial Indian census, the sex ratio in 0 to 6 age group in India has risen from 102.4 males per
100 females in 1961, to 104.2 in 1980, to 107.5 in 2001, to 108.9 in 2011.

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• The child sex ratio is within the normal natural range in all eastern and southern states of India, but significantly
higher in certain western and particularly northwestern states such as Maharashtra, Haryana, Jammu &
Kashmir (118, 120 and 116, as of 2011, respectively).
• The western states of Maharashtra and Rajasthan 2011 census found a child sex ratio of 113, Gujarat at 112 and
Uttar Pradesh at 111.
• The Indian census data indicates that the sex ratio is poor when women have one or two children, but gets better
as they have more children, which is result of sex-selective "stopping practices" (stopping having children based
on sex of those born).
• The Indian census data also suggests there is a positive correlation between abnormal sex ratio and better socio-
economic status and literacy. This may be connected to the dowry system in India where dowry deaths occur
when a girl is seen as a financial burden.
• Urban India has higher child sex ratio than rural India according to 1991, 2001 and 2011 Census data,
implying higher prevalence of female foeticide in urban India.
• Similarly, child sex ratio greater than 115 boys per 100 girls is found in regions where the predominant majority is
Hindu, Muslim, Sikh or Christian; furthermore "normal" child sex ratio of 104 to 106 boys per 100 girls are also
found in regions where the predominant majority is Hindu, Muslim, Sikh or Christian.
• These data contradict any hypotheses that may suggest that sex selection is an archaic practice which takes place
among uneducated, poor sections or particular religion of the Indian society.
• There is an ongoing debate as to whether these high sex ratios are only caused by female foeticide or some of the
higher ratio is explained by natural causes.
• The Indian government has passed Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act (PCPNDT) in
1994 to ban and punish prenatal sex screening and female foeticide. It is currently illegal in India to determine
or disclose sex of the foetus to anyone.
• However, there are concerns that PCPNDT Act has been poorly enforced by authorities.
DIMENSIONS OF POVERTY IN WOMEN
TIME POVERTY
• Time is a component that is included in poverty because it is an essential resource that is oftentimes distributed
inequitably across individuals, especially in the context of the inadequacy of other resources.
• It is extremely relevant to gender, with a marked difference in gender roles and responsibilities observed
across the world
• . Women are certainly more time-poor than men across the income distribution.
• Women concentrate on reproductive or unremunerated activities, while men concentrate in productive or
compensated activities.
• Women generally face more limited access to leisure and work more hours in the sum of productive and
reproductive work than do men.
•
Time poverty can be interpreted in regards to the lack of sufficient time to rest and sleep. The greater the time
devoted to paid or unremunerated work, the less time there is available for other activities such as relaxation and
pleasure.
•
The allocation of time between women and men in the household and in the economy, is a major gender issue in
the evolving discourse on time poverty.
• According to the capabilities approach, any inquiry into people's well-being must involve asking not only how much
people make but also how they manage their time in order to obtain the goods and services to meet their livelihoods.
• Time poverty is a serious constraint on individual well-being as it prevents having sufficient rest and sleep,
enjoying leisure, and taking part in community or social life.
FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY
• It refers to a trend of increasing inequality in living standards between men and women widening gap
in poverty between women and men as noticed towards the end of the twentieth century.
• This phenomenon is not only a consequence of lack of income, but is also the result of the deprivation of
capabilities and gender biases present in both societies and governments.
• It covers the poverty of choices and opportunities such as the ability to lead a long, healthy, and creative life, and
enjoying basic rights like freedom, respect, and dignity.
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• The term "feminization of poverty" has been defined in many different ways focusing on income, assets, time,
health deprivations, and social and cultural exclusions.
GLASS CEILING EFFECT
• The term “Glass Ceiling” refers to invisible barriers that keep some people from advancing in the workplace.
The Glass Ceiling keeps people from getting certain jobs, despite being well qualified and deserving. It's a
phenomenon that affects career trajectory, status, and lifetime earning potential.
• The glass ceiling is most often associated with women at work – research suggests that women are 18 percent
less likely to be promoted than their male co-workers. The term is applied to minority groups, too, but it goes
beyond issues of gender and ethnicity.
WOMEN AND UNPAID WORK:

•It is important to note that the existence of such unpaid work does more than add to the time poverty of those
who must perform it. It also plays several important macroeconomic roles.
• State provisioning of goods and (especially) services, which are supposed to meet the social and economic rights
of every citizen but end up getting delivered through such unpaid activities because of inadequate public delivery.
• The implications of time poverty for women, in particular, are immense, because they are associated with the
(‘double burden’ of paid and unpaid work and extend into changing the nature of poverty and its implications.
• Thus, the unemployment–poverty link which has been noted for men in developing countries is not so direct and
evident for women.
• Many women are fully employed and still remain poor in absolute terms, and adding to their workload will not
necessarily improve their material conditions.
• Many women in comparatively better-off households may well be time-poor because of the multiple demands
imposed on them to meet the requirements of unpaid domestic activities.
FEMONOMICS
• In addition to earning less, women may encounter "Femonomics", or gender of money, to reflect many of the
inequities women face that increase their likelihood of suffering from financial difficulties.
• The image of a "traditional" woman and a traditional role still influences many cultures in today's world and is still
not in full realisation that women are essential part of the economy.
• Women have unique healthcare problems/access problems related to reproduction increasing both their healthcare
costs and risks.
• Research also shows that females tend to live five years longer on average than men.
• The death of a spouse is an important determinant of female old-age poverty, as it leaves women in charge of the
finances.
• However, women are more likely to be financially illiterate and thus have a harder time knowing how to manage
their money.

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GLOBALIZATION AND WOMEN
• Feminists are also concerned about the impact of globalization on women in India. Some feminists argue that
Globalization has led to economic changes that have raised more Social and Economic challenges for women,
particularly for working-class and lower-caste women.
• Multinational companies in India have been seen to exploit the labour of young, underpaid and disadvantaged
women in free trade zones and sweat shops, and use "Young lower middle class, educated women," in call centres.
These women have few effective labour rights, or rights to collective action.
• In addition to this, multinational corporations are seen to advertise a homogenous image of ideal women across the
country is argued to cause an increase in the commodification of women's bodies.
• This is also manifested in the form of nationalist pride exhibited through Indian women winning international beauty
pageants. According to some feminists, such developments have offered women greater sexual autonomy and
more control over their bodies.
• However, many other feminists feel that such commodification of female bodies has only served the purpose of
feeding to male fantasies.
WOMEN AND CLIMATE CHANGE
• Across societies the impacts of climate change affect women and men differently. Women are often responsible
for gathering and producing food, collecting water and sourcing fuel for heating and cooking.
• With climate change, these tasks are becoming more difficult. Extreme weather events such as droughts and floods
have a greater impact on the poor and most vulnerable – 70% of the world’s poor are women.
• Despite women being disproportionately affected by climate change, they play a crucial role in climate change
adaptation and mitigation.
• Women have the knowledge and understanding of what is needed to adapt to changing environmental conditions
and to come up with practical solutions. But they are still a largely untapped resource.
• Restricted land rights, lack of access to financial resources, training and technology, and limited access to
political decision-making spheres often prevent them from playing a full role in tackling climate change and other
environmental challenges.

MGNREGA provides a legal guarantee for one hundred days of employment in every financial year to adult members
of any rural household willing to do public work related unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum
wage.

• It gave a large number of women their first opportunity to earn income in cash, reduced reliance on moneylenders (33%
of workers should be women).

It led to a substantial increase in women’s control over resources, including cash in hand and the likelihood of having a
bank account, and improvement in women’s ability to make independent decisions about their health.

• Unleashing the knowledge and capability of women represents an important opportunity to craft effective climate
change solutions for the benefit of all.
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES FOR WOMEN IN INDIA:
• The major impediments to development and empowerment in India are three major issues namely,
✓ The attitude towards Girl child,
✓ Gender violence and
✓ Globalization
which have to be dealt with as a priority in bringing out the development and empowerment of women in the present
era.
• If we look back into the history about the discussions and debates related to the issue of development and
empowerment, we can see some broad trends.
• The whole debate on development states that there were number of women who organized and mobilizing around
the globe for their rights.

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• The development planners and policy makers did not have any interaction with these groups and they
considered feminism as irrelevant to development and it was viewed as a luxury for the better of women in the
industrialized countries.
• Hence, the first stage, main stream development models gave rise to jargons like, “basic human needs”, “meeting
the needs of the poorest of poor”, “growth with equity”.
• This phase viewed development as an administrative problem whose solution lay in transferring vast amounts of
resources and technological innovations from rich to poor countries.
• As compensation to this followed, integrating women into the development process.
• Education and employment as a means of income generation became indicators of women’s involvement in
the development process, but again under this phase a large chunk of rural women were left behind.
• Today women have addressed the question of development from a feminist perspective. They have raised important
questions on issues of child care, reproductive rights, violence against women, family planning, transfer of
technology and rural development and given the concept of development a new meaning.
• If development leads only to an increase in production, then it tends to reinforce and exaggerate the imbalances and
inequalities within and in between societies.
• Development has to be an integral process with economic, social and cultural aspects leading to the control of
one’s life situation.
E-GOVERNANCE AND ITS IMPACTS ON WOMEN
• E-government development in India is currently poised at a critical milestone. This section attempts to bring
together the key analytical threads from the previous sections to take stock of where the agenda of gender equality
and women’s empowerment stands in relation to e-government development.
No strategic vision on gender equality and women’s empowerment in e-government
• India does not have a cohesive policy document on e-government at this juncture except the programmatic
document of ‘Digital India’ (2014), encompassing:
• On-demand provisioning of governance services through digital platforms
• Universalizing access to digital infrastructure
• Digital empowerment of citizens
• While Digital India marks a clear departure from previous piecemeal approaches to using ICTs in re-engineering
governance and administrative systems, it overlooks completely the significance of e-government for gender
equality.
• It does not spell out a strategic vision for furthering gender equality and women’s empowerment in, and through,
e-government.

Ad-hoc approach to addressing the question of gender inclusive service delivery

• E-government for women’s empowerment is not an idea that has been institutionalized; it is an experimental
trend that women’s rights champions in public administration have set. There are islands of innovation in e-service
delivery such as the Mission Convergence initiative of the government of Delhi and the Sree Sakthi portal of the
government of Kerala and the Ministry of Women and Child Development’s Mission Mode Project for digitalizing
its services.
• However, these initiatives do not add up to a clear direction on gender mainstreaming in e-service delivery. Such
an ad-hoc approach cannot hence bring about sustained, large-scale gains for the gender equality agenda.
• Absence of effective PPP frameworks in e-government can compromise last-mile service delivery and citizen
interests in governance:
• Currently, the Indian state has opted for PPP arrangements for last mile service delivery through the Common
Service Centre scheme.
• Village level entrepreneurs and corporate franchisees running last mile service delivery centres have to balance
commercial considerations with service delivery.
• The absence of a citizen entitlements perspective and of gender and social inclusion mandates are a significant
reason why the scheme has failed to reach public information and services to women and other socially marginalised
groups.

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• Concerns about PPP frameworks with respect to public interest, transparency and accountability have also come
up, as in instances of data management and control, and conflict of interest in policy development and service
quality monitoring.
Connectively is largely seen as a technical issue
• State policy on connectivity infrastructure and broadband continues to cast connectivity as a technical issue,
divorced from the question of creating empowering cultures of use at the last mile.
• The Sanchar Shakti pilot project that has used the Gender Budget of the Universal Service Obligation Fund,
to bring meaningful connectivity to rural women (through mobile-based informational services) is an exception,
and has not been scaled up.
• Online citizen engagement is not tied to concrete processes of policy consultations, and the feedback loop is not
effectively closed.
• Online citizen engagement is a relatively nascent area for e-government programming in India, with the citizen
portal mygov. in being launched only in 2014.
• However, there is no clear process for encouraging women’s participation or for closing the feedback loop with
citizens, on the policy issues debated or discussed on the portal.
• Digital literacy programmes recognize the need for specifically targeting women, but are narrow in their scope:
o In 2014, the Indian state launched the Digital Saksharata Abhiyan (DISHA) that aims at equipping 5
million people across the country, in digital skills.
o A sub-component of this programme specifically targets women community workers. The active
participation of girls and women as equal digital citizens depends on wider policy coherence on capacity
development, education, employment, political participation and the role of e-government.
o While Digital India does speak of creating a ‘IT-ready workforce from India’s small towns and villages
in 5 years’, the thinking on these lines is not gendered nor geared to take on the aspirations of young women
and men.
The absence of data privacy legislation puts marginalized women at greater risk of social discrimination
• Currently, the Indian state is building a national citizen identity card scheme, with a unique identification number,
to create a deduplication mechanism for direct benefit transfers.
• However, in the absence of data privacy legislation, the risk of tracking, profiling and surveillance of citizens
at the margins, increases.

Open data policy frameworks exist, but implementation lags behind

• India has made some initial strides in the area of evolving Open data policies through the launch of the Open
Government Data portal (OGD) and the adoption of the National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP).
•
However, progress in implementing these policies has been very slow, and partly this is because NDSAP stops
short of laying down concrete guidelines for developing a full-fledged programme for Open Government Data.
• Without such a push, there is no progress on overcoming the shortcomings of legacy data systems such as
o lack of interconnections between data sets of different departments,
o interoperability issues and
o department-centric rather than citizen-centric focus in presentation.

New Indian Women

New Indian Woman, defined as an urban, educated, middle classed Indian woman, whose development has
paralleled the equally rapid growth of the middle-classes in India. It explores the double-edged positionality of
women negotiating their societal roles and places, within and without the family and home.

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WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT
• Women in development is an approach of development projects that emerged in the 1960s, calling for treatment
of women's issues in development projects.
• It is the integration of women into the global economies by improving their status and assisting in total
development.
• Later, the Gender and development (GAD) approach proposed more emphasis on gender relations rather than seeing
women's issues in isolation.
• Women play a key role in food production and form a large proportion of the agricultural work force globally.
• Given equal resources, women could contribute much more. FAO estimates that if women farmers (43 per cent
of the agricultural labour force in developing countries) had the same access as men, agricultural output in
34 developing countries would rise by an estimated average of up to 4 per cent.
• This could reduce the number of undernourished people in those countries by as much as 17 per cent, translating
to up to 150 million fewer hungry people.
• According to new estimates, about 870 million people, or one in eight worldwide, did not consume enough food
on a regular basis to cover their minimum dietary energy requirements over the period 2010 to 2012. The vast
majority live in developing countries.
• Many of the world’s most poor are women. Poverty eradication is a key challenge for rural women. New
poverty estimates from the World Bank show that the proportion of people living on less than USD 1.25 a day fell
from 47 per cent in 1990 to 22 per cent in 2010, across every developing region. Yet, 1.2 billion people are still
living in extreme poverty.
• Rural women are key agents for development. They play a catalytic role towards achievement of
transformational economic, environmental and social changes required for sustainable development.
• But limited access to credit, health care and education are among the many challenges they face. These are
further aggravated by the global food and economic crises and climate change.
• Empowering them is essential, not only for the well-being of individuals, families and rural communities, but also
for overall economic productivity, given women’s large presence in the agricultural workforce worldwide.
WOMEN ON DEVELOPMENT
• Empowerment of women is a necessity for the very development of a society, since it enhances both the quality
and the quantity of human resources available for development.
• Women's empowerment and achieving gender equality is essential for our society to ensure the
sustainable development of the country.
ADDRESSING ISSUES RELATED TO WOMEN
• With initiatives like #metoo and #time'sup, violence and discrimination against women gained attention and
helped raise the voice of vulnerable and silent victims around the world.
• The Indian government has also recognized women issues and their contribution to the country's economy. Here
are some of the women empowerment initiatives available to women in India:
Mahila E-haat
• It is a direct online marketing platform launched by the Ministry of Women and Child Development to support
women entrepreneurs, Self Helf Groups (SHGs) and Non- Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to showcase
products made and services rendered by them. This is a part of the 'Digital India' initiative.
Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao
• This is a social campaign aimed at eradication of female foeticide and raising awareness on welfare services
intended for young Indian girls.
• The "Save the Girl Child" movement was launched on 22 January 2015, it is a joint initiative run by the Ministry
of Women and Child Development, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and the Ministry of Human Resource
Development.
• Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao - The scheme was launched with an initial funding of Rs 100 crores.
• Sex - selective abortion or female foeticide in India has led to the sharp decline in the ratio of girls born in
contrast to the boys in some states in the country.

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• The wide gap in child gender ratio was first noted in 1991 when the national census data was released and it
turned out to be a worsening problem after the release of 2001 national census data. To bridge the growing gap
between the birth of girl and boy infants, the government of India has taken up an initiative to promote Beti Bachao
Beti Padhao and many programmes has been organized to promote ‘Save Girl Child' and to ‘Educate Girl Child',
since January 2015. The campaign has also received support from the Indian Medical Association.

One Stop Centre Scheme

• Popularly known as 'Sakhi,' it was implemented on 1st April 2015 with the 'Nirbhaya' fund. The One Stop
Centres are established at various locations in India for providing shelter, police desk, legal, medical and
counselling services to victims of violence under one roof integrated with a 24-hour Helpline.
• These centres can be contacted for:
o Emergency Response and Rescue Services
o Medical assistance in lodging FIR /NCR/DIR
o Psycho - social support/ counselling
o Legal aid and counselling
o Shelter Video Conferencing Facility to record statement for police/ courts

Working Women Hostels

• The objective of the scheme is to promote the availability of safe and conveniently located accommodation for
working women, with daycare facility for their children, wherever possible, in urban, semi-urban, or even rural
areas where employment opportunity for women exist.
Swadhar Greh
• The Swadhar scheme was launched by the Union Ministry of Women and Child Development in 2002 for
rehabilitation of women in difficult circumstances.
• The scheme provides shelter, food, clothing and care to the marginalized women/girls who are in need.
• The beneficiaries include widows deserted by their families and relatives, women prisoners released from jail
and without family support, women survivors of natural disasters, women victims of terrorist/extremist violence
etc. The implementing agencies are mainly NGOs.

STEP
• The Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP) Scheme aims to provide skills that give
employability to women and to provide competencies and skill that enable women to become self-employed/
entrepreneurs.
• A particular project will be for a duration of up to 5 years depending upon the nature, kind of activities and the
number of beneficiaries to be undertaken.
• Sectors include Agriculture, Horticulture, Food Processing, Handlooms, Tailoring, Stitching, Embroidery, Zari etc,
Handicrafts, Computer & IT enable services along with soft skills and skills for the workplace such as spoken
English, Gems & Jewellery, Travel & Tourism, Hospitality, etc.
Nari Shakti Puruskars
• The Nari Shakti Puruskars are national level awards recognizing the efforts made by women and institutions in
rendering distinguished services for the cause of women, especially vulnerable and marginalized women.
• The awards are presented by the President of India every year on 8 March, International Women's Day at
Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Delhi.
Gender Budgeting
• Gender budgeting means preparing budgets or analyzing them from a gender perspective.
• It aims at dealing with budgetary gender inequality issues, including gender hierarchies and the discrepancies
between women's and men's salaries.
NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN
• The National Commission for Women (NCW) is the statutory body of the Government of India, generally
concerned with advising the government on all policy matters affecting women. It was established in 31 January
1992 under the provisions of the Indian Constitution, as defined in the 1990 National Commission for Women Act.

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WOMEN’S MOVEMENT IN INDIA
• The history of women movement in India can be divided into three phases:
✓ The first phase, beginning in the mid-19th century, initiated when reformists began to speak in favor of
women rights by making reforms in education, customs involving women;
✓ The second phase, from 1915 to Indian independence, when Gandhi incorporated women's movements
into the Quit India movement and independent women's organisations began to emerge;
✓ And finally, the third phase, post-independence, which has focused on fair treatment of women at home
after marriage, in the work force, and right to political parity.
• Despite the progress made by Indian feminist movements, women living in modern India still face many issues
of discrimination. India's patriarchal culture has made the process of gaining land-ownership rights and access
to education challenging.
• In the past two decades, there has also emerged a trend of sex-selective abortion.To Indian feminists, these are
seen as injustices worth struggling against.
• Unlike the Western feminist movement, India's movement was initiated by men, and later joined by women.
• But feminism as an initiative by women started independently a little later in Maharashtra by pioneering
advocates of women's rights and education.
o Savitribai Phule, who started the first school for girls in India (1848);
o Tarabai Shinde, who wrote India's first feminist text Stri Purush Tulana (A Comparison Between
Women and Men) in 1882;
o Pandita Ramabai, who criticized patriarchy and caste-system in Hinduism, married outside her caste
and converted to Christianity (1880s).
• The efforts of Bengali reformers included abolishing sati, which was a widow's death by burning on her
husband's funeral pyre, abolishing the custom of child marriage, abolishing the disfiguring of widows,
introducing the marriage of upper caste Hindu widows, promoting women's education, obtaining legal rights for
women to own property, and requiring the law to acknowledge women's status by granting them basic rights in
matters such as adoption.
• The 19th century was the period that saw a majority of women's issues which came under the spotlight and
reforms began to be made. Much of the early reforms for Indian women were conducted by men.
• However, by the late 19th century they were joined in their efforts by their wives, sisters, daughters, protégées and
other individuals directly affected by campaigns such as those carried out for women's education.
• By the late 20th century, women gained greater autonomy through the formation of independent women's
own organisations.
• By the late thirties and forties a new narrative began to be constructed regarding "Women's activism".
• This was newly researched and expanded with the vision to create 'logical' and organic links between feminism
and Marxism, as well as with anti-communalism and anti-casteism, etc.
• The Constitution of India did guarantee 'equality between the sexes,' which created a relative lull in women's
movements until the 1970s.
• During the formative years of women's rights movements, the difference between the sexes was more or less
taken for granted in that their roles, functions, aims and desires were different.
• As a result, they were not only to be reared differently but treated differently also. Over the course of time, this
difference itself became a major reason for initiating women's movements.
• Early 19th century reformers argued that the difference between men and women was no reason for the subjection
of women in society.
• However, later reformers were of the opinion that indeed it was this particular difference that subjugated women
to their roles in society, for example, as mothers.
• Therefore, there was a need for the proper care of women's rights. With the formation of women's organisations
and their own participation in campaigns, their roles as mothers was again stressed but in a different light.
• This time the argument was for women's rights to speech, education and emancipation. However, the image of
women with the mother as a symbol underwent changes over time – from an emphasis on family to the creation of
an archetypal mother figure, evoking deep, often atavistic images.
FIRST PHASE: 1850–1915

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• The colonial venture into modernity brought concepts of democracy, equality and individual rights. The rise of
the concept of nationalism and introspection of discriminatory practices brought about social reform
movements related to caste and gender relations.
• This first phase of feminism in India was initiated by men to uproot the social evils of sati (widow immolation), to
allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marriage, and to reduce illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent
and to ensure property rights through legal intervention.
•
In addition to this, some upper caste Hindu women rejected constraints they faced under Brahminical
traditions.
• However, efforts for improving the status of women in Indian society were somewhat thwarted by the late nineteenth
century, as nationalist movements emerged in India.
• These movements resisted 'colonial interventions in gender relations' particularly in the areas of family
relations. In the mid to late nineteenth century, there was a national form of resistance to any colonial efforts made
to 'modernize' the Hindu family. This included the Age of Consent controversy that erupted after the government
tried to raise the age of marriage for women.
• Several Indian states were ruled by women during British colonial advance including Jhansi (Rani
Laxmibai), Kittur (Rani Chennama), Bhopal (Quidisa Begum) and Punjab (Jind Kaur).
SECOND PHASE: 1915–1947
• During this period the struggle against colonial rule intensified. Nationalism became the pre-eminent cause.
• Claiming Indian superiority became the tool of cultural revivalism resulting in an essential model of Indian
womanhood similar to that of Victorian womanhood, special yet separated from public space.
• Gandhi legitimized and expanded Indian women's public activities by initiating them into the non-violent civil
disobedience movement against the British Raj.
• He exalted their feminine roles of caring, self-abnegation, sacrifice and tolerance; and carved a niche for those
in the public arena.
• Peasant women played an important role in the rural satyagrahas of Borsad and Bardoli.
• Women-only organisations like All India Women's Conference (AIWC) and the National Federation of Indian
Women (NFIW) emerged. Women were grappling with issues relating to the scope of women's political
participation, women's franchise, communal awards, and leadership roles in political parties.
• The 1920s was a new era for Indian women and is defined as 'feminism' that was responsible for the creation of
localized women's associations.
• These associations emphasized women's education issues, developed livelihood strategies for working-class
women, and also organised national level women's associations such as the All India Women's Conference.
• AIWC was closely affiliated with the Indian National Congress. Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, it
worked within the nationalist and anti-colonialist freedom movements.
• This made the mass mobilisation of women an integral part of Indian nationalism. Women therefore were a very
important part of various nationalist and anti-colonial efforts, including the civil disobedience movements in the
1930s.
• After independence, the All India Women's Conference continued to operate and in 1954 the Indian Communist
Party formed its own women's wing known as the National Federation of Indian Women.
• However, feminist agendas and movements became less active right after India's 1947 independence, as the
nationalist agendas on nation building took precedence over feminist issues.
• Women's participation in the struggle for freedom developed their critical consciousness about their role and
rights in independent India. This resulted in the introduction of the franchise and civic rights of women in the
Indian constitution.
• There was provision for women's upliftment through affirmative action, maternal health and child care provision
(crèches), equal pay for equal work etc.
• The state adopted a patronizing role towards women. For example, India's constitution states that women are a
"weaker section" of the population, and therefore need assistance to function as equals.
• Thus women in India did not have to struggle for basic rights as did women in the West. The utopia ended soon
when the social and cultural ideologies and structures failed to honour the newly acquired concepts of fundamental
rights and democracy.

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POST-1947
• Post-independence feminists began to redefine the extent to which women were allowed to engage in the
workforce.
• Prior to independence, most feminists accepted the sexual divide within the labour force. However, feminists in
the 1970s challenged the inequalities that had been established and fought to reverse them.
• These inequalities included unequal wages for women, relegation of women to 'unskilled' spheres of work, and
restricting women as a reserve army for labour.
•
In other words, the feminists aim was to abolish the free service of women who were essentially being used as
cheap capital.
• Feminist class-consciousness also came into focus in the 1970s, with feminists recognizing the inequalities not
just between men and women but also within power structures such as caste, tribe, language, religion, region,
class etc.
• This also posed as a challenge for feminists while shaping their overreaching campaigns as there had to be a focus
within efforts to ensure that fulfilling the demands of one group would not create further inequalities for
another.
• Now, in the early twenty-first century, the focus of the Indian feminist movement has gone beyond treating women
as useful members of society and a right to parity, but also having the power to decide the course of their
personal lives and the right of self-determination.
• In 1966 Indira Gandhi became the first female Prime Minister of India. She served as prime minister of India for
three consecutive terms (1966–77) and a fourth term from 1980 until she was assassinated in 1984.
• Section 53A of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Indian law, 1973 lays down certain provisions for medical
examination of the accused. Section 164A of the Code of Criminal Procedure deals with the medical examination
of the victim.
CASE STUDY 1
• Mary Roy won a lawsuit in 1986, against the inheritance legislation of her Keralite Syrian Christian community in
the Supreme Court. The judgement ensured equal rights for Syrian Christian women with their male siblings
in regard to their ancestral property.
• Until then, her Syrian Christian community followed the provisions of the Travancore Succession Act of 1916 and
the Cochin Succession Act, 1921, while elsewhere in India the same community followed the Indian Succession
Act of 1925.
• In 1991, the Kerala High Court restricted entry of women above the age of 10 and below the age of 50
from Sabarimala Shrine as they were of the menstruating age.
• However, on 28 September 2018, the Supreme Court of India lifted the ban on the entry of women. It said that
discrimination against women on any grounds, even religious, is unconstitutional.
• The state of Kerala is often viewed as the ideal progressive leader in the women's rights movement in India among
states.
• Kerala maintains very high relative levels of female literacy and women's health, as well as greater female
inheritance and property rights.
CASE STUDY 2
•
A 1998 study conducted by Bina Agarwal found that while only 13% of all women in India with landowning
fathers inherited that land as daughters, 24% of such women were able to do so in the state of Kerala.
• This is important because it has been shown that measures to improve such access to property and economic
independence through channels such as education not only directly improve women's wellbeing and capabilities,
but also reduce their risk of exposure to marital or any sort of domestic violence.
NEW WOMEN’S GROUPS
• Most of the women who took initiative in formation of the new women’s groups were extremely averse to
authoritarian structures within the family, educational and religious institutions and society at large as all of them
did not allow women critical thinking and a space to grow as independent, cerebral and politically conscious
human beings.

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• Hence they were very clear in their approach that they would encourage each and every member of the group to
articulate her thoughts and establish intimate working relationship based on the collective decision-making
processes.
• Initially this method proved very effective in creating new cadre of women who were intellectually enlightened,
politically articulate, well informed and supportive to each other within their small groups as there were no
male political bosses to curb their initiative and make them rot only in routine activities of fund-raising,
translating, typing, posting, cleaning and cooking for the members of their political groups.
• Such groups in Madras, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Bombay, Pune and Delhi brought out documents, position papers,
manifestoes, pamphlets and reproduced whole lot of documents of the women’s liberation movements in the other
countries containing debates which had direct bearing on our situation.
• They had tremendous urge to reach out to more and more like-minded women. Their meetings were throbbing
with new ideas, powerful polemics on epistemological issues, at the same time they reflected deep concern for
immediate problems of women.
• As they believed that women’s issues needed to be taken up on a day-to-day basis and patriarchal power
needed to be challenged in both ’personal’ and ’political’ spheres of life.
• They simultaneously started support work to individual women, solidarity work for the mass movements and united
front work on an issue to issue basis.
• But, at the same time, maintaining their own political autonomy and organisational identity. These groups kept
in touch with each other by circulating their leaflets in English and regional languages, mimeographed documents
and letters.
• They functioned purely on an informal basis and organised meetings in the homes of one of the members or
sympathizers. Between 1977 and 1980, only in Maharashtra, a new culture of exclusively women’s workshops,
women’s conferences and women’s gatherings, in which women of politically diverse views were invited, was
found.
• As these gatherings were multi-class and multi-caste (within the matrix of Brahminical Hinduism), women
pursuing different occupations – right from agricultural labourers, beedi workers, industrial working class women,
students, teachers, journalists, writers, researchers, white collar employees – shared their experiences and put
forward their demands.

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PROLIFERATION OF THE AUTONOMOUS WOMEN’S GROUPS
• Nationwide anti-rape campaign in 1980 resulted into emergence and proliferation of the autonomous women’s
organisations in several cities and towns of India.
• These groups such as Forum Against Oppression of Women (Mumbai), Saheli (Delhi), Stree Shakti Sangathana
(Hyderabad), Vimochana (Banglore) managed to get tremendous publicity in the print as well as the audio-visual
media because at that time ’violence against women’ was the most sensational and the newest issue.
• Family members, especially fathers and brothers of the women victims of violence flooded the women’s groups.
Later on, the women victims started approaching these groups on their own.
• While doing agitational and propaganda work against series of rape cases in custodial situation, domestic
violence and dowry harassment, these groups realised that to work on a sustained basis and to take care of there
habilitative aspects of violence against women, it was important to evolve institutional structures for support to the
women victims of violence based on feminist principles of solidarity (mutual counseling) and sisterhood.
• Criminal legal system in India made it inevitable for these groups to establish rapport with the police for an
immediate redressal to the women victims of violence. Condition of women in the remand homes and the Nari
Niketans were so repugnant and barbaric that they could not be trusted for women’s rehabilitation.
• In fact, many women who suffered at their hands approached the new women’s groups. The women activists had
to deal with the attitude of victim-baiting and double standards of sexual morality, sexist remarks, sick
humour from the staff of the police, the legal apparatus and the public hospitals.
• At each and every step, they encountered class, caste and communal biases. These resulted into confrontation
between the women’s groups and the established institutions.
• But in course of time, they realised that it was necessary to suggest concrete alternatives in terms of legal
reforms, method of interventions and the staff-training for attitudinal changes.
• For public education, literature written in convincing style was a must. Audio-visual material for reaching out
to more and more people was necessary. Professional bodies and educational institutions were approaching these
groups for understanding the women’s question.
• In these context Special Interest Groups focusing on agit-prop, media-monitoring, resource material for
consciousness raising, creation of cultural alternatives, publications, research and documentation, bookstalls, legal
aid work came into existence during the eighties and got consolidated in the 1990s.
• These groups played complementary roles in each other’s development, though the process was not so smooth.

ISSUES TAKEN UP BY THE NEW WOMEN’S GROUPS

• Campaign against Violence against Women
o From these experiences of direct action the activists of the women’s groups got to know the power relations
operating within modern families (working class, middle class and upper class), different religious
communities and various caste organisations.
• Fight against Unjust Family Laws
o While providing support to women facing problems concerning marriage, divorce, maintenance, alimony,
property rights, custody of child/children and guardianship rights, the activists realised that the existing
personal laws and most of the customary laws were discriminating against women.
• Hindu daughters were deprived of coparcenary rights in parental property as per the codes of Mitakshara
o Christian women could not get divorce on the ground of husband’s adultery; it had to be coupled with
cruelty, bestiality and sodomy.
o While Christian husbands could just declare their wives as adulteresses and divorce them. These antiquated
laws were enacted in the colonial period to serve the interests of the British bureaucrats who had their
legally wedded wives in England and were cohabiting with the Indian (in their language ’native’) women.
o Parsi daughters who married non-Parsi men lost their property rights and non-Parsi wives of Parsi
husbands got only half the shares in husband’s property as per the Parsee Personal Law.
o Shariat Law subjugated Muslim women by imposing purdah, allowing polygamy and unilateral divorce
by men to his wife/wives and by depriving divorced Muslim women of maintenance rights.
• Underlying philosophy of all these personal laws was that: Women are not equal to Men.

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o They are governed by the patriarchal ideology. Irrespective of their religious backgrounds, these
personal laws perpetuate patrilineage, patrilocality, double standard of sexual morality for men
and women and perceive women as dependent on men.
o Individual women from different communities have challenged the constitutional validity of
discriminatory aspects of the personal laws in the Supreme Court of India. Increasing number of
educated working women and housewives from all religious backgrounds have been approaching
secular women’s organisations.
o Main problems faced by them from their natal families have been forcible marriage, murderous
attacks in cases of inter-caste, inter-class and inter-religious marriages, property disputes, incest
and from their husbands and in-laws have been adultery, bigamy, polygamy, divorce, custody of
child/children, property, incest etc.
o As the issue of personal laws is intertwined with the religious identities, the secular women’s
movement had to face tremendous hostility from the elities of the different communities, mass
organisations, patriarchal secular lobby and the parliamentary parties cashing on block-votes.
o Individual women (divorced, deserted, single and married under duress) are questioning
discrimination in the customary laws. Tribal women in Maharashtra and Bihar have filed petitions
demanding land rights in the Supreme Court of India.
o Several women’s groups (Saheli, Delhi, Vimochana, Banglore and Forum against Oppression of
Women, Mumbai) and human rights lawyers’ team (The Lawyers Collective, Mumbai and Indian
Social Institute, Delhi) have prepared drafts containing technical detail of gender just and secular family
laws.
• Legislative Reforms: Laws Concerning Violence against Women:
o India was the 1st to enact the Family Courts Act (1984). Women’s movement has pushed for
legislation to provide protection for abused women.
o There is a need for broadening the definition of domestic violence to include violence against women
senior citizens (abuse of “mentally unfit” certificate), incest & rape by family members and relatives
forcing women & girls into prostitution.
o From the very beginning of the women’s movement legal reforms has been the top most priority.
Women’s organizations campaigned for reforms in the rape law (1980) and dowry prohibition Act.
o For thirty years, campaign demanding Protection of Women from Domestic Violence resulted in an
Act in 2005.
o Similarly struggle against pre-birth elimination of girls resulted (Patel1988) in inactions of the Pre
Conception and Pre Natal Diagnostic Technique Act (2002), Public Interest Litigations to deal with
sexual harassment at work place filed by the NGOs resulted into Supreme Court Directive for
Prevention of Sexual Harassment At workplace, 1997.
o We need common legislation for the region to deal with cross-country trafficking of women and girls
for sex-trade and organ transplant. Many cases of VAW also get resolved in the neighbourhood
committee, community organisations and lok adalats (People’s Court).
o Women’s movement has emphasized that violence against women is a manifestation of unequal
power-relation between men and women. If women are empowered by the community and official
support, we can tilt the balance infavour gender justice.
• Reproductive Rights of Women
o When it comes to reproductive rights of women, most of the efforts of the women’s groups in India
have been directed against excesses committed in the name of family planning programmes.
o Now, Indian Council of Medical Research, All India Institute of Medical Sciences and Institute of
Research in Reproduction (IRR) has shown readiness to discuss scientific, medicolegal and operational
dimensions of bio-medical researches conducted on human subjects. UNFPA (1998) and WHO have
drawn guidelines about population policies that its focus shifts from targeting women for population
control to women’s reproductive rights.
o Ethical guidelines for bio-medical research are drawn. Still in the interior parts of India, poor women
have been the main targets of the abusive sterilization operations and unsafe injectable and oral
contraceptives.

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o Recent researches on adolescent girls and abortion have highlighted the problem of teenage
pregnancies, trafficking of young girls for sex trades and complicity of the criminal justice system.
o Campaign against sex determination resulted into central legislation banning amniocentesis,
chrion-villai-biopsy and sex pre-selection techniques for femicide. But, much is needed to be done
to make the legislation effective in the real life.
o CEHAT and the Lawyers Collective have jointly supported a petition (Public interest Litigation in the
Supreme Court of India) filed by Dr. Sabu George for effective implementation of the Act
• Anti-Arrack/alcohol Movement
o Since mid-seventies, tribal women in different parts of country – Andra Pradesh, Manipur, Maharashtra
have been fighting against alcohol/lucre sale inducing alcoholism among men resulting into
devastation of families and domestic violence against women and children.
o In Andhra Pradesh, the anti-arrack movement was strong in 1992 to 93 and it spread into other states
at different levels. More than 40,000 women uniting and blocking the arrack auction in Andhra was
a historic chapter in the Indian women’s movement.
o In Maharashtra, the elected women representatives in local self-government institutions,
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) have forced the state government to declare their
block/village/taluk ‘alcohol free zone’ if 50% of women in the area give their vote against sale and
distribution of alcohol.
• Women’s Movement and Peace Initiatives
o The most important contribution of the women’s movement has been its commitment for peace-
initiatives in the disturbed areas torn by communal conflicts, ethnic tensions and mob violence.
Media publicity on this issue is extremely important so that such work can be replicated in the places
where such groups don’t exist.
o During communal riots in 1992 and 2002 in Gujarat, women’s movement played pivotal role in
proving support to the victims of violence and also took up campaign against xenophobia and
jingoism.
WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS AND THE DEVELOPMENT AGENDA
• During 1970s and 1980s, the women’s movement highlighted marginalisation of women from the economy. The
efforts of women activists were directed in agitation and propaganda for women’s rights, street-fighting against
escalating violence against assertive women and team-building to counter sexual harassment at work-place.
• In the 1990, the women’s movement is demanding its legitimate place within the mainstream with its own
agenda of empowerment of women with partnership with men. It has been able to identify its allies in all sections
of society.
• Its horizontal and vertical networking has created congenial atmosphere to execute development agenda with the
help of effective use of information technology, communication channels, modern managerial practices, efficient
law and order machinery.
• The most difficult areas have been providing educational opportunities for the poverty groups, dalit and
tribal women, low-cost housing, environmental and occupational safety and human rights concerns.
• The state, political parties and beneficiaries of women’s groups too have duty to ensure democratic and multicultural
atmosphere within which the women activists can take judicious and gender-just decisions about allocation of
developmental resources and development funding for construction of schools, community centres, sports-clubs,
libraries and reading rooms, low-cost hospitals and low cost housing for the poverty groups.
• Gender Budgeting as a tool is used by elected women representatives to promote gender equality.
• Despite "on-paper" advancements, many problems still remain which inhibit women from fully taking advantage
of new rights and opportunities in India.
• There are many traditions and customs that have been an important part of Indian culture for hundreds of years.
• Religious laws and expectations, or "personal laws" enumerated by each specific religion, often conflict with the
Indian Constitution, eliminating rights and powers women should legally have.
• Despite these crossovers in legality, the Indian government does not interfere with religion and the personal laws
they hold. Indian society is largely composed of hierarchical systems within families and communities.
• These hierarchies can be broken down into age, sex, ordinal position, kinship relationships (within families), and
caste, lineage, wealth, occupations, and relationship to ruling power (within the community).

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• When hierarchies emerge within the family based on social convention and economic need, girls in poorer families
suffer twice the impact of vulnerability and stability.
• From birth, girls are automatically entitled to less; from playtime, to food, to education, girls can expect to always
be entitled to less than their brothers. Girls also have less access to their family's income and assets, which is
exacerbated among poor, rural Indian families. From the start, it is understood that females will be burdened with
strenuous work and exhausting responsibilities for the rest of their lives, always with little to no compensation or
recognition.
• India is also a patriarchal society, which, by definition, describes cultures in which males as fathers or husbands are
assumed to be in charge and the official heads of households.
• A patrilineal system governs the society, where descent and inheritance are traced through the male line and
men are generally in control of the distribution of family resources.
• These traditions and ways of Indian life have been in effect for so long that this type of lifestyle is what women
have become accustomed to and expect.
• Indian women often do not take full advantage of their constitutional rights because they are not properly
aware or informed of them. Women also tend to have poor utilization of voting rights because they possess low
levels of political awareness and sense of political efficacy.
• Women are not often encouraged to become informed about issues. Due to this, political parties do not invest much
time in female candidates because there is a perception that they are a "wasted investment.”
• The female-to-male ratio in India is 933 to 1000, showing that there are numerically fewer women in the country
than men. This is due to several factors, including infanticides, most commonly among female infants, and the poor
care of female infants and childbearing women.
•
Although outlawed, infanticides are still very common in rural India, and are continuing to become even more
prominent. This is due to the fact, most especially in rural areas, that families cannot afford female children
because of the dowry they must pay when their daughter gets married. Like infanticide, the payment of dowry is
also illegal, but is still a frequent and prevalent occurrence in rural India.
• Women are considered to be "worthless" by their husbands if they are not "able" to produce a male child, and can
often face much abuse if this is the case.

WAVES OF FEMINIST MOVEMENTS: A GLANCE

Impact of Feminist Movements in India

• Feminism did not gain meaning or become an operational principle in Indian life until the country gained
independence in 1947 and adopted a democratic government.

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• The Indian Constitution then granted equality, freedom from discrimination based on gender or religion,
and guaranteed religious freedoms.
• Also, seven five-year plans were developed to provide health, education, employment, and welfare to women. The
sixth five-year plan even declared women "partners in development."
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR WOMEN IN INDIA

• The main privileges granted to women by Constitution of India are as follows:

PREAMBLE OF THE CONSTITUTION
• Under the Constitutional law, Women have equal rights as Men so as to enable them to take part effectively in
the administrative of the country.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
• Equality before law:
o Article 14 embodies the general principles of equality before law and equal protection of laws.
Prohibition from discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
o Article 15(1) and (2) prohibits the state from discriminating against any citizen only on the basis of
any one or more of the aspects such as religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.
o Article 15(3) makes it possible for the state to create special provisions for protecting the interests of
women and children.
o Article 15(4) capacitates the State to create special arrangements for promoting interests and welfare of
socially and educationally backward classes of society.
• Equality of Opportunity:
o Article 16 provides for equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or
appointment to any office under the State.
DPSP
• Article 39 requires the State to direct its policy towards securing for men and women equally the right to an
adequate means of livelihood [Article 39(a)], and equal pay for equal work for both men and women [Article
39(d)].
• Article 39A directs the State to promote justice, on the basis of equal opportunity and to promote free legal aid
by suitable legislation or scheme or in any other way to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied
to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities.
HUMANE CONDITIONS AT WORK

• Article 42 directs the State to make provision for securing justice and humane conditions of work and for maternity
relief.
FUNDAMENTAL DUTY

• Article 51A (e) enjoins upon every citizen to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
RESERVATION OF SEATS FOR WOMEN IN PANCHAYATS AND MUNICIPALITIES

• Article 243 D (3) and Article 243 T(3) provide for reservation of not less than one third of total number of
seats in Panchayats and Municipalities for women to be allotted by rotation to different Constituencies.
• Article 243 D(4) T(4) provides that not less than one third of the total number of officers of chairperson in the
Panchayat and Municipalities at each level to be reserved for women.
VOTING RIGHTS/ELECTORAL LAW

• Not less than one-third seats shall be reserved for women. Such seats may be allotted by rotation to different
constituencies in a Panchayat.
• The office of the chairperson in the Panchayat at the village or any other level shall be reserved for SCs, STs and
women in such manner as the legislature of state may, by law provide.
• Reservation of seats for women in Municipalities is provided
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• The promise for monitoring gender outcomes of policy and program implementation cannot be realized without
empowerment of women and addressing the associated issues on gender inequality.
• In conclusion, women can be powerful actors for peace, security, and prosperity. When they participate in peace
processes and other formal decision-making processes, they can play an important role in initiating and inspiring
progress on human rights, justice, national reconciliation and economic revitalization.

VALUE ADDITION
DATA/FACTS
• According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index, 2021, India has slipped 28 places and
has been ranked 140th among 156 nations participating in the rankings.
• More than half of the children and women are anaemic in 13 of the 22 States/UTs – NFHS-5
• Crime against women showed an increase of 7.3% in 2019 from 2018 (Crime in India, 2019 NCRB report)
• The latest NCRB report further reveals how a woman is raped every 16 minutes in India, while a dowry death
occurs every hour. The data further shows that a woman is subjected to cruelty at the hands of her in-laws or
husband every four minutes.
• As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey, 2018-19, the female labour force participation rates (LFPR) among
women aged above 15 years are as low as 26.4% in rural areas and 20.4% in urban areas in India.
• McKinsey study: Indian women contributed just 17% of national GDP, which is less than half the global average
of 37%.
• IMF’s study has shown that raising women's participation in the workforce to the level of men can boost the
Indian economy by 27%.
• Gender wage gap highest in India, women are paid 34% less than men. Women are paid the most unequally in
India, compared to men, when it comes to hourly wages for labor. (ILO report )
• As per the 10th Agriculture Census (2015-16), the percentage of female operational holdings in the country
has increased from about 13% percent during 2010-11 to around 14% during 2015-16.
• Agriculture sector employs 80% of all economically active women; they comprise 33% of the agricultural labour
force and 48% of self-employed farmers.
• According to NSSO Reports, about 18% of the farm families in India are headed by women.
• According to the Economic Survey 2017-18, a rise in migration of men from rural to urban areas has resulted in
feminization of agriculture.
• The NFHS-4 suggests that 30% women in India in the age group of 15-49 have experienced physical violence.
• According to the ILO, women perform 76.2 percent of total hours of unpaid care work. This is three times more
than similar work performed by men.
• McKinsey estimates that women do 75% of the world’s total unpaid care work.
• As per the Election Commission of India, 49% of the Indian electorate consists of women. Yet, only 14% of the
17th Lok Sabha members are women MPs, the highest since Independence.
• Indicating a continuing preference for boys in society, the child sex ratio in India has dropped to 914 females
against 1,000 males - the lowest since Independence - in the provisional 9
• According to Economic Survey 2017-18, the number of unwanted girls (for the age group of 0-25 years) at 21
million.
• According to a survey by British medical journal, Lancet, nearly 10 million female abortions have taken place
in India in the last 20 years, which is rampant amongst the educated Indian middle class as well.
• The current infant mortality rate for India in 2020 is 29.848 deaths per 1000 live births, a 3.48% decline from
2019. The infant mortality rate for India in 2019 was 30.924 deaths per 1000 live births, a 3.36% decline from 2018.
• The gender budget of the government as a share of the Budget has seen a decline of 0.01% this fiscal - dropping
from 4.72% last year to 4.71% - in financial year 2020-2021.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that women now constitute 40% of the adults infected by the
human immune deficiency virus (HIV) which leads to AIDS.
QUOTES
• Educate one man, you educate one person, but educate a woman and you educate a whole civilisation. – Mahatma
Gandhi

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• Women alone can emancipate themselves, not men. – Mahatma Gandhi
• To call woman the weaker sex is a libel; it is man’s injustice to woman. If by strength is meant brute strength, then,
indeed, is woman less brute than man. If by strength is meant moral power, then woman is immeasurably man’s
superior. – Gandhi
• I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved- B. R. Ambedkar
• I believe that the rights of women and girls is the unfinished business of the 21st century. – Hillary Clinton
• Gender equality is more than a goal in itself. It is a precondition for meeting the challenge of reducing poverty,
promoting sustainable development and building good governance. – Kofi Annan
• It is impossible to think about the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is impossible
for a bird to fly on only one wing.— Swami Vivekananda.

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

• “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss
• What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space?
• ‘Women’s movement in India has not addressed the issues of women of lower social strata. Substantiate your view.
• How do you explain the statistics that show that the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more favourable to women than
the sex ratio among Scheduled Castes?
• How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle-class working woman in India?
• Discuss the various economic and socio-cultural forces that are driving increasing feminization of agriculture in
India.
• Why do some of the most prosperous regions of India have an adverse sex ratio for women? Give your arguments
• Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women’s organization free from gender bias. Comment

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: HISTORY
TOPIC: ART AND CULTURE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREHISTORY ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION......................................................................................................................................... 4

CHALCOLITHIC AND MEGALITHIC CULTURES............................................................................................................. 9

VEDIC PERIOD................................................................................................................................................................... 10

BUDDHA AND MAHAVIRA ERA ..................................................................................................................................... 13

MAURYAN PERIOD........................................................................................................................................................... 18

POST MAURYAN PERIOD ................................................................................................................................................ 23

SANGAM LITERATURE .................................................................................................................................................... 28

GUPTA PERIOD ................................................................................................................................................................. 29

POST GUPTA PERIOD ....................................................................................................................................................... 44

DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA........................................................................................................................................... 46

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE ................................................................................................................................................ 46

DELHI SULTANATE PERIOD ........................................................................................................................................... 55

BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT ..................................................................................................................................... 62

MUGHAL PERIOD ............................................................................................................................................................. 65

MURALS AND PAINTINGS ............................................................................................................................................... 77

VIJAYANAGARA AND BAHMANI PERIOD IN THE DECCAN ...................................................................................... 77

MISCELLANEOUS ............................................................................................................................................................. 79

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PREHISTORY

1. Examine the significance of prehistoric paintings found in India. Also, trace the changes that occurred in
the painting styles during this period.

Answer:
Prehistoric period can be defined as events that occurred before the existence of written records in a given culture or
society. Painting on wall canvas was a way to express human feelings, artistic creation in such times.

Significance of Prehistoric Paintings

• Paintings were an early human visual record of their day-to-day life, as subjects of their drawings were human
figures, human activities, geometric designs and animal symbols.
• This helped us to understand early human beings, their lifestyle, their food habits, their daily activities and, above
all, the way they thought.
• Prehistoric period remains are a great witness to the evolution of human civilization, through the numerous rock
weapons, tools, ceramics and bones.
• Thus, such creations help trace our present cultural practices by studying how they evolved overtime.
Changes in Painting Styles
On the basis of style, technique, themes and superimposition, paintings can be classified as below:

Upper Palaeolithic Period

• Linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge animal figures, such as bison, elephants, tigers, rhinos and
boars besides stick-like human figures.
• A few are wash paintings but mostly they are filled with geometric patterns.
• The green paintings are of dancers and the red ones of hunters.

Mesolithic Period:
• Themes are multiple but the paintings are smaller in size.
• Hunting scenes predominate.
• Animals were painted in a naturalistic style; humans were depicted only in a stylistic manner.
• Simple rendering of scenes of the environment in which the artists lived.
• Community activities like dancing, children playing provide a common theme.
• Various colours including various shades of white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green and black.
• Some caves were exclusively dedicated for paintings, perhaps such places had some religious importance.
Such mastery in techniques of paintings thus, continued to influence and evolve during Chalcolithic Age art forms
expanding into statues, figures etc. evident in Indus Valley Art.

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1. "Reconstruction of Early Indian history is hardly possible without the help of inscriptions and coins."
Discuss.

Coins and Inscriptions are both important archeological sources of history. They provide valuable historical evidence
of the existence and activities of early people, kings and empires.
Inscriptions are usually the writings on hardstone or metals and its study is called epigraphy. They may be either
official or private records for various purposes. They were usually engraved on pillars, rocks, walls of caves, copper
plates and stones.
Coins are as important as the inscriptions in history. They confirm the information derived from literature. Coins have
provided the information about the commercial contacts, economic, legislative, metrological and artistic details.

Significance of Inscriptions
• Indicative of the area of control under the king - They provide the information about the administrative set up
of the king. E.g. Allahabad inscriptions provide the exact extent of Samudragupta’s reign as well as his political
setup. It also sheds light on the nature of the relationship between king and his samantas. A unique inscription of
Parantaka I from Uttaramerur contains a detailed account of the rules and regulations for the election of village
assemblies.
• Glimpses of the Social life – they shed light on the caste and class structures apart from social customs of the
period. E.g. Brahmadesham inscription refers to the Sati committed by a Queen of Rajendra Chola I. The
Ashokan inscription also point towards existence of slavery and various conflicts that existed during his reign
due to which he had to appoint Dhamma Mahamattas.
• Insights about economic life – Certain inscriptions provided details of the economic system which prevailed
during that time. E.g. Junagadh inscription Rudraman states that Sudarshan lake was constructed by
Chandragupta Maurya but was repaired by Rudraman and subsequently by Chandragupta II. This suggests
that kings took different measures for the development of agriculture. Also post Mauryan inscriptions show that
the guilds played an important role in economic activities and artisans and merchants belonging to different
occupations had different guilds.
• History of religious practices – They also provide the history of various religious places and religious sects. E.g.
- The copper plate inscription of Skandagupta dated 464-465 B. C. refers to Sun worship. Also the inscription
of Ashoka explains his dhamma and various other details of Buddhism.
• Dance, Music and Other Arts – The inscriptions also point towards various forms of art being practised during
earlier times. The earliest reference to a Dancer is found from Jogimara cave belonging to 3rd century B. C. And
the Kudumiyanmalai inscription of Tamil Nadu is one of the earliest inscriptions on music.
• Literary Value - As early as the 1st century A.D. elements of Sanskrit poetry start appearing in the North
Indian inscriptions. Thus we come across some ornate metres in the Mola well inscription and later Junagadh
inscription. The Prayag Prashasti of Samudragupta is also written in Sanskrit Kavya Style.
• Development of Indian scripts and Languages – Early inscriptions in Dravidian languages such as Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada etc. could be traced back to centuries and they provide a systemic account.

Significance of Coins
• Political – Along with Inscriptions, coins help to establish the area of control of a King and his empire as the
discovery of the same kind of coins at different places helps in fixing the coverage of various kingdoms in ancient
India. They also tell us about the forgotten dynasties. The gold coins were issued during the time of the Kushans.
The widespread use of coins also points towards the flourishing political influence.
• Economic – Ancient coins conjure up the entire silk route which connected East with West. This depicts India’s
presence in the world market during that time. Also it establishes that trade was not confined within the
geographical boundaries but it was spread to far out places.
• Artistic – The symbols and pictures used on the coins also show the interests of kings during that time. E.g. The
coin of Samudragupta shows him playing Veena.
Coins and inscriptions together helped the historians to not only understand the history but also present it in the most
authentic form.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

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2. The artists of Indus valley Civilisation surely had fine artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination.
Substantiate the statement with examples.

Hint:
The arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE. The
forms of art found from various sites of the civilisation include sculptures, seals, pottery, jewellery, terracotta figures,
etc.
Their delineation of human and animal figures was highly realistic in nature, since the anatomical details included in
them were unique, and, in the case of terracotta art, the modelling of animal figures was done in an extremely careful
manner.
The artists of IVC surely had fine artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination. This can be
seen in the following examples from the Indus valley civilization:

• Stone Statues:
o Excellent examples of handling 3D volumes, for example male torso figure in red sandstone and the bust
of a bearded man in soapstone.

• Bronze Casting:
o Bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique.
o Human as well as animal figures were common examples: Dancing Girl Statue, buffalo with its uplifted
head, back and sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit.

• Terracotta:
o Compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human form are crude in the
Indus Valley.
o They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan.
o Deities like bearded man, mother goddess and toy carts, animals were common.

• Seales and tablets:

o Made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of
animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo.
o Rendering of animals in various moods is remarkable, for example Pashupati Seal.

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o Commonly used for commercial purposes but usage for amulets for identity cards.
o The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, made from steatite. Every seal is
engraved in a pictographic script.
o Square or rectangular copper tablets, with an animal or a human figure on one side and an inscription on
the other, or an inscription on both sides have also been found.

• Pottery:
o It consists chiefly of very fine wheel-made wares, very few being hand-made. Plain pottery is more common
than painted ware.
o Plain pottery is generally of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes knobbed ware,
ornamented with rows of knobs.
o The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and animal designs are executed
in glossy black paint.
o Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated with geometric patterns in red,
black, and green, rarely white and yellow.
o Incised ware is also rare and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of the pans, always inside and
to the dishes of offering stands.
o Perforated pottery includes a large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the wall, and was probably
used for straining beverages.

• Beads and Ornaments:

o Produced from every conceivable material ranging from precious metals and gemstones to bone and baked
clay, gold and semi-precious stones, copper bracelets and beads, gold earrings and head ornaments,
faience pendants and buttons, and beads of steatite and gemstones.
o The beads are in varying shapes—disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented.
o Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together, some of stone with gold covers.
o Some were decorated by incising or painting and some had designs etched onto them.

The sites of Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) like Harappa and Mohenjodaro showcase excellent town planning as
well, like houses, planned streets, public baths, drainage systems, storage facilities, etc.
They tell how the Indus Valley people used stone in construction. The artists and craftsmen of the Indus Valley were
extremely skilled in a variety of crafts—metal casting, stone carving, making and painting pottery and making
terracotta images using simplified motifs of animals, plants and birds.

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Their artistic versatility showed in the range of materials they used and the forms they made out of it. The patterns,
motives and designs found on the articles shows the creativity that existed and judging from the excavated evidence,
one can only conclude the people of Indus civilization were indeed true art patrons.

3. Evaluate the significance of seals and sealing in the reconstruction of socio-economic and religious life of
the Harappan people.

Hint:
Indus Valley Civilisation produced a lot of artefacts and art forms. Thousands of seals have been discovered by
archaeologists from the Harappan sites. Most of the seals were made of steatite, though seals are also made of other
materials like copper, tin. The pictographic script on these seals forms the first hint and traces of the Indus Valley
Civilization from which some idea of the language of the people can be obtained.
They are also important in understanding the socio-economic and religious life of the Harappan people. Example-
Pasupati seal, pipal tree seal, unicorn seal they show religious practices of the Harappan people.
The seals also depict other things like buffalo attacking a group of people.
There were seal amulets too and many of the seals are said to be used in trade too as they have rope markings on their
backside.

4. Did Harappan civilization have any link to other major civilizations and distant lands? What are the
findings that point towards such a possibility?

Hint:
The Indus River Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, extended from modern-day northeast
Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
Important innovations of this civilization include standardised weights and measures, urban planning, seal carving,
metallurgy etc. Along with that, evidence shows Harappans participated in a vast maritime sea trade network
extending from Central Asia to the Middle East.
These cross-civilizational links can be depicted by:
• Archaeological discoveries claim a massive, dredged canal, and what is regarded as a docking facility at the
coastal city of Lothal.
• Harappans also engaged in shell working, and shells used in their crafts have origins from as far away as the
coast of modern-day Oman.
• Trade focused on importing raw materials to be used in Harappan city workshops, including minerals from Iran
and Afghanistan, lead and copper from other parts of India, jade from China, and cedarwood floated down
rivers from the Himalayas and Kashmir.
• One of the ways historians know about the maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and
Mesopotamian civilizations is the discovery of Harappan seals and jewellery at archaeological sites in regions
of Mesopotamia, which includes most of modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, and parts of Syria.
• Between 4300 and 3200 BCE—part of the Chalcolithic period, ceramics from the Indus Valley Civilization
area show similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran.
• During the Early Harappan period—about 3200 to 2600 BCE—there are cultural similarities in pottery, seals,
figurines, and ornaments that document caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.
These findings highlight the well-built network of trade in ancient times. They not only support the existence of different
civilizations at the same point in time but also point towards the connectedness between these civilizations.

5. The town planning in Harappan Civilization shows a high level of sophistication. In this light discuss the
significant features of Harappan town planning?

Hint:
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as Harappan Civilization flourished around 2,500 BC in the western
part of South Asia. Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning.

Significant features of the Harappan town planning are as follows:

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• Division of the city into the Citadel on the west i.e. mound built on the high platform and the lower town
containing brick houses inhabited by the common people on the east side.
• The arrangement of the houses in the cities followed a grid pattern.
• Advanced drainage and sanitation systems of each house were connected with road drains that were covered
by stone slabs.
• The other significant features were well-arranged water supply system, street lightning system, designated
places to throw waste material

Apart from these features which show high level of sophistication in town planning, other details include:
• The use of burnt bricks of standard size in the Harappan cities was remarkable as buildings of Egypt mainly
used dried bricks.
• Harappans laid special emphasis on health and hygiene as seen from the bathroom in every house and well laid
drainage system.
• The town planning also kept in mind the need for storehouses for having provision during an emergency. For
Ex.- Great granaries of Harappa.

6. The decline of Harappan cities did not mean the end of the Harappan traditions. Discuss ?

Hint:
The Indus Valley Civilization was the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent—one of the world’s
three earliest civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. The nuclear dates of the civilization appear
to be about 2500–1700 BCE.
The Indus Valley Civilization interestingly declined around 1800 BCE without leaving any clear reasons for its demise,
leaving scholars debating about the causes that resulted in the civilization’s decline.
Many such theories include Aryan invasion, climate change, drying of the Saraswati River, while others conclude
that a great flood struck the area.
The end of the cities however did not mean the end of the Harappan tradition.
The Harappan communities which continued after the urban phase retained their older traditions which is evident
through various examples such as:
• The priests of the Harappan urban centres who were part of a highly organised literate tradition merged into
the ruling groups of the Aryans.
• The cults of Pashupati (Siva) and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come down to us
from the Harappan tradition.
• Similarly, the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees and sacred animals show a distinct continuity in the subsequent
historic civilization of India.
• The evidence of fire worship and sacrifice in Kalibangan and Lothal is significant. These were the most
significant elements of the Vedic religion.
• Many aspects of domestic life like the house plans, disposition of water supply and attention to bathing survived
in the settlements of the subsequent periods.
• The traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit, was already present
in the Harappan civilization. It might well have been derived from them.
• The folk communities also retained the traditions of craftsmanship as is evident from the pottery and tool making
traditions.
• The technique of making a potter's wheel in modern India is similar to those used by the Harappans.
• Bullock carts and boats used in modern India were already present in the Harappan cities.
As such we can say that many elements of the Harappan civilization survived in the subsequent historical tradition.

7. The decline of Harappa civilization was caused by ecological degradation rather than external invasion.
Discuss?

Hint:
The theory that the Harappa civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders was put forward by Ramprasad
Chandra in 1926. It was later elaborated by Mortimer Wheeler in 1947.
The idea was supported by the references in the Rig Veda to destruction of forts, attack on walled cities, and the epithet
Purandhara given to Indra. A place called Hariyupiya in the Rig Veda is identified with Harappa, where Aryans are
supposed to have defeated them.

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Also, the evidence of massacre in the late phases of occupation of Mohenjodaro, such as human skeletons lying on the
streets, support this hypothesis.
But there are certain problems with the Aryan Invasion theory. The evidence from the Rig Veda is far from conclusive,
as there are no archaeological records to support it. There is in fact no evidence of any kind of military assault or conflict
at any Harappa site. Bodies lying in the streets could have been caused by raids of bandits from surrounding hilly tracts.
The provisional date for the decline of the Harappa civilization is believed to be 1800 BC. The Aryans on the other
hand are believed to have arrived here not earlier than a period around 1500 BC. So, the Harappans and the Aryans
are unlikely to have met each other.
The latest research shows that the dates as well as the pace of the decline varied from site to site. The decline in
Mohenjodaro had set by 2200 BC but the civilization continued at many places. Mohenjodaro and Dholavira declined
gradually while Kalibangan and Banawali ended all of a sudden.
Some scholars tried to explain the decline in terms of the problem of ecology. As, the delicate ecological balance of the
semi-arid areas was distubed due to overexploitation of the natural resources like plants and animals. This resulted in
decline in the subsistence base causing strain on the economy of the civilization. Thus, there seems to have been a
gradual shift movement to areas which offered better subsistence possibilities i.e. towards Gujarat and Maharashtra
in South and Indo-Gangetic plains in the east.
The latest research supports climate change as the reason for the decline of the Harappa civilization. According to this
theory, around 4000 BC there existed extreme monsoon climate which was not favourable for the rise of the civilization
but with the weakening of the monsoon, the climate became favourable for the rise of the mighty Harappa civilization
but with further weakening of the monsoon, the climate again became unfavourable which led to its decline. Example-
decline of Saraswati river which was rainfed not glacier fed.
This theory is based on the latest archaeological evidence and research and best explains the decline of the Harappa
civilization on the basis of ecological degradation not Aryan invaders.

8. There are no literary sources for the Harappan culture and non archaeological evidence for the vedic
period. Explain the phenomenon?

Hint:
Sources play an important role in reconstruction and understanding a historical period.
For harappa culture, although we have a Harappa script, it remains un-deciphered, which reduces its usability as a
source material. Thus, there is an increased dependence on archaeological evidence for this period.
While for Vedic period, there is a lot of literary evidence like the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and
Aranyakas. Thus we see an overreliance on these sources for the Vedic period. Although archaeological evidence like
the PGW(Painted Grey Ware) pottery are found, there is essentially a lack of reliance on such evidence.
Thus, over-reliance on certain types of source material for the both periods should not happen. Both the archaeological
and literary evidence should be used as complementary to each other to derive the full picture of the period concerned.

CHALCOLITHIC AND MEGALITHIC CULTURES

9. In what ways can the Megalithic culture be considered a foundational phase of the history of peninsular
India?

Hint:
After the prehistoric period, several elements mark the beginning of the historical period. These are- large rural
settlements, agriculture with the aid of iron ploughshare, state system, writing, coinage and written literature. All these
phenomena were limited to north India upto 2nd Century BC.
Upto 2nd century BC, the upland portions of the peninsula were inhabited by people who were identified not by their
actual settlements but from their funerary structures. The graves are called megaliths because they were made of large
pieces of stone.
Though they are found in North India too but are lesser in number as compared to south India, where they are
widespread and large in numbers.
The beginning of the megalithic phase can be traced to 1000 BC and in some places this phase persisted even as late
as the early centuries of the Christrian era. The Cholas, Pandyas and Keralaputras mentioned in Asokan inscriptions
were probably in the Megalithic phase of material culture.
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The earliest megalithic people seem to be primary pastoralists , hunters, fishermen, though they produced rice. Hoe
and sickles and other iron objects occur in many places except the iron ploughshare. The tools were meant primarily
for war and hunting.
From the 2nd century onwards there was a flow of ideas and material from north to south India by traders, conquerors
and religious elements. Thus, people started practising wet paddy cultivation, villages and towns were established and
social classes developed.
Even Sangam texts speak of perpetual wars and cattle raids. It suggests that war booty was an important source of
livelihood. There were mentions of hero stones just like the ones raised over the graves of the megalithic people. It is
likely that the earliest phase of social evolution reflected in the Sangam works relates to the early megalithic stage.

VEDIC PERIOD

10. Evaluate the conceptual basis of the Vedic deities.?

Hint
The Rig Vedic Gods were predominantly male as was natural in a patriarchal society. Since, the chief objective of the
worship was material gains and favour of the gods could be won through worship and sacrifice. Vedic people
practised polytheism and many gods are mentioned in the Vedas such as Varun, Indra, Yama, Agni, Soma etc. There
are mentions of female deities as well such Usha, Aditi, Ratri, Aranyini, Savitri etc. who were worshipped for their
benevolent aspects.
These gods were a personified form of the phenomenon of nature which the Vedic people conceived as alive and usually
represented in anthropomorphic form.
Fire was regarded as pious as sacrifices like food, drik etc. were offered into it and it is thought to be the medium
connecting the Gods to the people.
However, later abstract deities like Dhatri(establisher), Vidhatri(ordainer), Sraddha(Faith) and manyu(wrath)
made their appearance.

11. “The Upanishadic principles embody the epitome of the Vedic thought.” Discuss?

Hint:
Vedas means “knowledge” in Sanskrit and are a body of knowledge-literature written in Vedic Sanskrit. They are
regarded as the earliest sacred text of ancient Indian culture. They deal with the ritualistic aspects of life such as the
conduct of rituals and sacrifice, and strictness of personal conduct.
Upanishads are a subcategory of the Vedas, written probably between 800 to 500 B.C.E. These texts were written
during a time when the priestly class was questioned, along with the rituals, sacrifices, and ceremonies and gradually
rejected. Some of those who were against the traditional Vedic order separated themselves by pursuing spiritual
progress, rejecting materialistic concerns, following an ascetic hermit lifestyle, and giving up family life. This group’s
philosophy and speculations were combined into the texts known as the Upanishads.
Upanishads make up the end part of a given Veda, and therefore are sometimes called the Vedanta, meaning “The
end portion of Veda”.
They take inspiration and authority from the Veda texts. Upanishads expound the philosophy of the Vedas in a more
direct and understandable language while keeping a certain poetic tone. Within the Upanishads, there is an attempt to
move from external spiritual aspects like rites, sacrifices, and ceremonies to an internal spiritual enlightenment. Probably
the most widely known of all the Vedas, Upanishads are considered at the spiritual core of Hinduism.
They delve into the problems of the origin, the nature and the destiny of man and of the universe. They try to understand
the relation of the individual to the Supreme soul. They also talk about transmigration, Atman, Samsara, Moksha,
Brahman or the self, Supreme Soul.
It can also be said that the Vedas are a poetic and symbolic expression of Hindu spiritual truths, while Upanishads are
the expression of the philosophical truths of the Vedas.

12. “Archaeology knows of no Aryans,only literature knows of Aryans”. Examine critically?

Hint:
The composers of the Rig Veda described themselves as Aryans. The Vedic literature talks about the social, economic,
political and religious life of these people.
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Example - Name of Gods and Goddess, assemblies like Sabha and Samiti, mentions cattle rearing, agriculture,
crafts like cart making, carpentry, metal working etc as main occupations.
There are also references to attacks on forts(Purandara), on walled cities but the archaeological evidence does not
point to any such wars and destruction.
The Rig Veda samhita also mentions the land of Sapta sindhu (Seven rivers) which are Indus and its 5 tributaries
and Saraswati (it disappeared).
The archaeological evidence found is the Pottery i.e. the Painted Grey Ware.
Important sites are Alamgirpur, Ahichchtra, Mathura, Kampilya etc.
The structural remains at these sites consist of wattle and daub houses, baked and unbaked bricks and artefacts of
bone, stone and terracotta. A fire altar has also been found at Jakhera.
Moreover, the iron objects have also been found and evidence of cultivation of rice wheat and barley is also available.
Bones of cattle, pigs and sheep have been discovered. At Hastinapur, horse bones are found.
Thus it is incorrect to say that “Archaeology knows of no Aryans”.

13. Describe the social life of the later Vedic people. How was it different from the Rig Vedic life?

Hint:
The period that followed the Rig Vedic Age is known as the Later Vedic Age. This age witnessed the composition of
three later Veda Samhitas namely, the Sama Veda Samhita, the Yajurveda Samhita, the Atharva Veda Samhita as
well as Brahmanas and the Upanishads of all the four Vedas and later on the two great epics—the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata. This period saw significant changes in social life as compared to the Rig Vedic period.
Social life of later Vedic people:
Caste Society:
• Most important change was the evolution of the caste system.
• Various sub castes evolved in addition to the traditional four-castes.
• The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas emerged as the two leading castes out of the general mass of population.
• The vaishyas were superior to the shudras.

Education:
• A vast mass of Vedic literature as well as a highly developed intellectual life speaks abundantly about a well
planned system of education in the later Vedic Period.
• After the Upanayana or sacred thread ceremony and initiation to studies the students were sent to the Gurukula
for their education.
• They had to live in the house of the teacher (guru) and lead a chaste life whose principal duties were study and
service to the teacher.

Position of women:
• The women lost their high position which they had in the Rig Vedic Age.
• They were deprived of their right to the Upanayana ceremony and all their sacraments, excluding marriage,
were performed without recitation of Vedic mantras.
• Polygamy prevailed in the society.
• Many of the religious ceremonies, formerly practised by the wife, were now performed by the priests.
• She was not allowed to attend the political assemblies.
• Birth of a daughter became undesirable as she was regarded as a source of misery.
• The custom of child marriage and dowry crept in.

Food and Dress:

• In the later Vedic age rice became the staple food of the people.
• Gradually the practice of eating meat declined.
• Killing of cows was looked at with disfavour.
• Wool was used in addition to cotton.

Economic Condition:
Like political and social conditions, the economic condition of the later Vedic period also underwent
significant changes. Due to the emergence of the caste system various occupations also appeared.

Agriculture:

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• The later Vedic period people lived in the villages.
• Agriculture was the principal occupation of the people.
• Improved methods of tilling the land by deep ploughing, manuring and sowing with better seeds were known
to the Aryans.
• More lands were brought under cultivation.

Trade and Commerce:

• With the growth of civilization, the volume of trade and commerce had increased by leaps and bounds.
• Both inland and overseas trades were developed.
• Inland trade was carried on with the Kiratas inhabiting the mountains. They exchanged the herbs for clothes,
mattresses and skins.
• Regular coinage was not started. The coins which were in circulation were “Nishka”, “Satamana” and
“Krishnala”. The unit value of goods was a gold bar called “nishka”.

Religious Condition:
• During the later Vedic period the religious spirit underwent a great change.
• Religion was overshadowed with rites and rituals.
• New gods and goddesses emerged during this period.
• The Rig Vedic gods, Varun, Indra, Agni, Surya, Usha etc. lost their charm. New gods like Siva, Vishnu,
Brahma etc. appeared in the religious firmament of the Later Vedic Period.

Rig Vedic life Later Vedic life

Economy was mainly pastoral and cows were the most Agriculture had primary importance in
important form of wealth. the life of the later Vedic people.

Society was tribal and basically egalitarian. Blood and Varna divided society i.e. the
kinship relations formed the basis of the society and family brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas,
(kula) was the basic social unit. vaishyas and shudras.

The tribal chief or the Rajan was the political head with the The growing cult of sacrifices
priest or the Purohita to help him. enormously added to the power of the
brahmanas.

They personified the natural forces, e.g. wind, water, rain, etc. New gods like Siva, Vishnu, Brahma
and worshipped them as god. They worshipped god not etc. appeared in the religious firmament
through any abstract philosophical concept but for material of the Later Vedic Period.
gains.

Though there was no well defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic set up, the tribal polity was not completely
egalitarian. There was a growing importance of sacrifices in the Vedic religion. What we must remember is that this
society was not static but dynamic. Between about 1500 B.C. and society was constantly evolving and newer elements
in the economic, social, political, and religious sphere were operating to transform its structure.

14. How far is it correct to say that changes in the post Vedic economy gave birth to new religious movements
in India?

Hint:
The cause of the rise of the new religious movements were a result of various factors combined together like-
• Expansion of Agriculture with the help of iron implements resulted in surplus production which raised the
status of the Gahapatis.
• Growth of towns and cities.
• Expansion of the artisan classes.
• Development of trade led to exchange of ideas and raised the status of the Vaishyas who hitherto enjoyed low
status despite their wealth.
• Expansion of the Aryans into Eastern India led to the weakening of the traditional Vedic society.
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• Social causes- Wars enhanced the powers and influence of the Kshatriyas or warrior class while the
brahmanas claimed the superior status in the society.
• Growth of the Shramanic movements which opposed Brahmanical forms of worship and sacrifice as they
had become more cumbersome and out of the reach of the common people.
• Circulation of metallic money.
In short the tribal and self-sustained economy of the Aryan villages and the tribal social structure was
crumbling under the impact of the changing economy. In such a transitional stage the varna based Vedic
religion was out of tune with the changing social and economic life of the people.

BUDDHA AND MAHAVIRA ERA

15. Buddhism and Jainism were social movements under the umbrella of religion. Comment?

Hint:
The socio-economic changes during 6th-5th century BC, compounded with the rigidity of the religious order led to the
growth of Shramanic movements. Buddha and Mahavira were 2 such prominent thinkers of that time. They came up
with new codes of conduct for society. It was only later that Buddhism and Jainism developed as a religion later on.
The social reforms given by them are as follows:
o Buddha gave primacy to deeds rather than births so as to ease caste restrictions which were difficult to follow
in an urban milieu.
o Both championed non-violence over the ritualistic animal sacrifice.
o Due to expansion of trade, Vaishyas gained wealth and they wanted a social order in which they were given
higher status. Since money lending was criticised in Brahmanic order, they were accommodated
in Buddhism and Jainism.
o Kshtriyas were given higher social status in both the traditions.
o Sanghas were open for all the sections of society even shudras and women were allowed in them.
o Jain and Buddhist principles of non-violence, truthfulness, right conduct etc are essentially moral codes to
maintain harmony in society.

16. Discuss the reasons for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India and their impact?

Answer:
Jainism and Buddhism emerged as the most potent religious reform movements during the later Vedic period. Both
Jainism and Buddhism were founded in the 6th century BC, and they sprung out of the same roots.
Reasons for rise of Jainism and Buddhism:
Social cause:
• Caste system became rigid and it created inequality in the society.
• The Kshatriyas resented the domination of the priestly class, and both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to
Kshatriya origin.
Complex and elaborate religious rituals:
• In the Later Vedic period complex rituals and ceremonies began to dominate the practice of worship which
were not acceptable to the common people.
• It became expensive and elaborate. Blind faith and superstitious beliefs confused the people.
Economic cause:
• The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas, who wanted to enhance
their social status which orthodox Varna system did not allow.
• Similarly, money-lending was imperative for traders, which was prohibited in Vedas. Thus, the merchant class
extended the chief support to these new religions.
• Moreover, the rise of agriculture raised demand for drought animals which were being sacrificed for religious
ceremonies.
• The principle of non-violence, suited settled agrarian community better which was brought by Jainism and
Buddhism.
Brahmanic supremacy:
• Priests considered themselves superior and took advantage of knowing Sanskrit, and interpreted religion
according to their convenience.
• Whereas these new religions were open for all and preached in local languages like Prakrit and Pali, which
found appeal to common masses.
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Impact on Indian society

Languages and Literature: Jaina contribution to Prakrit and Kannada literature. The language of Pali and other local
languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism.
Arts and Architecture: The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya, Jaina temples at Mount Abu in Rajasthan in the
domain of architecture are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas and viharas in
different parts of India.
Philosophy: The concept of ahimsa was a chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our nation.
Simple Religion: Its principles were very simple which can be easily followed by the people. Example - Middle Path
and Tri-ratna.
Opposition to Caste System: Due to their opposition the complexity of the caste system reduced from the society.
Jainism and Buddhism arose to suit the needs of a changing society, patronised by an emerging class and left an
indelible mark on India’s culture, architecture, philosophy and way of living.
Some tenets of these religions have been adopted by Hinduism in their long course of association and have become an
integrated part of the society.
These religions also found their influence in neighbouring countries and helped India expand its footprint in these
regions, paving way for a cultural connection to this day.

17. What are the beliefs of the Samkhya philosophy and how it was different from Nyaya philosophy?

Answer:
In Hinduism, there have always been different schools of philosophy, having their own beliefs and own methods of
salvation.
The most important were the Samkhya School and the Nyaya School of philosophy.
Samkhya School:
• It is the oldest of all the schools, founded by Kapil Muni.
• Around the 8th century BC, the early Samkhya scholars believed that the universe owes its origin to prakriti
and not to any divine agency.
• It propounded materialistic beliefs, which were scientific in nature.
• However, around the 4th century AD, later Samkhya philosophy developed which believed that the universe
owes its origin not only to prakriti but also to the purusha (divine agency).
• The recognition of purusha and prakriti is considered as real knowledge which leads to salvation.
• Real knowledge is obtained through Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference) and Shabda (Witness).
It differed from the Nyaya School as:
• Founded by Gautama, they believed that salvation can be obtained through valid knowledge which is based on
logic and reasoning.
• This can be done through Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (Comparison) and
Shabda (Witness).

18. Discuss the social & economic factors for the rise of Buddhism. How far was it influenced by Upanishadic
thought?

19. The concept of Shramanic religions, with particular reference to Buddhism, had their roots in
Upanishadic ideas. Discuss?

Hint
Shramanic religions are those which began to be established outside the Brahmanic order. These were a result of new
philosophical thought and also a reaction to established Brahmanic sacrificial religion.
These sharamanic religions were centred on-
• Rejection of Pantheism and belief in Buddha as god in entirety.
• Rejection of caste hierarchy and purity-pollution concept. Women too were given more freedom in
Buddhism than that given in Brahmanic religion.
• Rejection of rituals and sacrifices and also challenged the dominance of Brahmanas.
• Right mindfulness was one of the important criteria of the Ashtangika marg.
• Establishment of Monastic order, Sangha and a clear distinction between laypersons and monks.
These concepts have their roots in Upanishadic ideas as-

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o The concept of transmigration, karma, samsara, good and bad deeds find their roots in Upanishads.
o Asceticism finds its roots in Upanishads as it was through these ascetics that the new teachings developed and
spread. Example- Buddha, Mahavira etc.
o Upanishads claim salvation by knowledge or realisation rather than faith and sacrifices. Buddhism also
adopted this criteria from them.
o Upanishads differentiated between the ascetics and the laypersons. Monastic order of Buddhism may have
also been inspired by them.
But to opine that all shramanic ideas have Upanishadic roots would be misnomer, therefore it is more prudent to say
that, taking from Upanishadic principles, shramanic principles, added to their faiths, several innovations most notably
the insistence on non-violence, non-aversion to certain professions etc.

20. Assess the importance of Jain tenets and their relevance to humanity?

Hint:
Jainism propounded five tenets, they are:
1. Non-violence (Ahimsa)
2. Truthfulness (Satya)
3. Non-stealing (Asteya)
4. Non-possession (Aparigraha).
5. Celibacy (Brahmacharya)
They play an important role in our day to day life. All groups , individuals and nations are facing problems in one form
or the other. The world is torn by tension, strife, crime and conflicts. Even Gandhiji believed in non-violence.
The principle of non-violence is not only for persons but also for other living things. Truthfulness is to always speak
truth such that no harm is caused to others i.e. compassion.
Asteya is not to take possession that is not willingly offered i.e. no unnecessary desires.
Aparigraha means to learn the miseries of living beings i.e. abstention from greed of worldly possessions.
Brahmacharya means to exercise control over senses from indulgence i.e. to conquer passion for pleasurable desires.
All these tenets helped in solving the pressing problems of the time and made valuable contributions to the society by
promoting non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, non-possession and chastity as important traits of the entire
mankind.

21. Why did Buddhism decline from the country of its own origin after the end of Gupta Empire ?

Answer:
Buddhism expanded in the Indian subcontinent in the centuries after the death of the Buddha, particularly after
receiving the endorsement and royal support of the Maurya Empire under Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. It spread
even beyond the Indian subcontinent to Central Asia and China.
One of the major reasons for its decline was the Huna invasions under Mihirkula, who destroyed many Sanghas in the
north-western part of India. Also, there were some other economic and social causes, which are:
• Corruption in the character of the monks of the Sangha as they started living luxurious lives.
• They started using Sanskrit for their texts and literature, which was not easily understood by the people.
• Monks started to interfere in the political affairs of the kingdom which led to decline in patronage by the Indian
rulers.
• During the Gupta period, Brahmanism declined and Hinduism emerged adopting values from Buddhism
such as renouncing animal sacrifice.
• It institutionalised itself whereby various Hindu literature was written and propagated.
• Hinduism started to propagate Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu, thus assimilating Buddhism.
• Decline in the trade, followed by decline in urban cities and growing regionalisation in India.
Finally, due to Islamization of Bengal and demolitions of Nalanda, Vikramasila and Odantapuri by Muhammad
bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, a general of the Delhi Sultanate are thought to have severely weakened the practice of
Buddhism in East India where it previously received strong patronisation under Buddhist kings including the Pala
Empire.

22. Discuss the different orthodox schools of philosophy in Hinduism, especially Vaiseshika and Yoga
schools?

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Answer:
The Hindu philosophy is categorised into six Orthodox and three Heterodox philosophies. The classification is based
on the acceptance of the authority of the Vedas. The Orthodox school of philosophy also called the Aastika school
believes in the authority of Vedas, while the Heterodox school of philosophy, popularly known as Nastika school rejects
the principle of authority of Vedas.
The six orthodox schools are called as shatdarshanas and include Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Purva
Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta Philosophy). Most of these schools of thought believe in the theory of
Karma and rebirth. Moksha (salvation) is believed to be the liberation from the cycle of birth and death and is the
ultimate goal of human life.
Philosophy of the Yoga School:
• Founded by Patanjali, who also wrote Yogasutra explaining the beliefs and philosophy, around 2nd century
BC.
• It says that salvation can be achieved through deep meditation.
• Two ways are prescribed for meditation
o Asana - physical posture.
o Pranayama - Breathing exercises.
• In deeper meditation, the activation of Muladhar Chakra leads to Kundalini jagran, whereby the energy of
the body is synonymous with the energy of the Universe, which finally leads to Salvation.

Philosophy of the Vaiseshika School:

• Founded by Kanada, it started the beginning of formal physics in India.
• It says that the universe is atomic in nature.
• Atoms are the smallest, indivisible and indestructible part of the universe.
• All the things in the universe are made up of atoms of Earth, Air, Water, Fire and Ether.
• Inactive in themselves, they are put into motion by God's will.
• This atomic recognition of the universe leads to salvation.

23. Discuss the similarities and differences between the Mimansa and the Vedanta school of Hindu
philosophy?

Answer:
Mimamsa means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflects on
the meanings of the Vedas, especially the Brāḥmanas and Saṃhitas.
Also known as Purva-Mimansa because of its focus on the earlier (purva) Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and
similarly as Karma-Mimamsa due to its focus on ritual action (karma).
The Mimamsa school was foundational and influential for the Vedantic schools, which were also known as Uttara-
Mimamsa for their focus on the "later" (uttara) portions of the Vedas, the Upaniṣads.
While both "earlier" and "later" Mimamsa investigate the aim of human action, they do so with different attitudes
towards the necessity of ritual practice.
Mimamsa School:
• Founded by Jaimini who also wrote Mimansa Sutras.
• Their central concern was proof (pramana), i.e. what are the reliable means to knowledge.
• They defined five reliable means to gaining knowledge: pratyaksa or perception; anumana or inference;
upamana, by comparison and analogy; arthapatti, the use of postulation and derivation from circumstances;
and sabda, the word or testimony of past or present reliable experts. Later, a sixth one was added; anupalabdhi
meant non-perception, or proof by the absence of cognition.
• The Mimamsakas also held that Vedas are "eternal, author-less, and infallible", that Vedic vidhi, or injunctions
and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya or actions, and the rituals are of primary importance and merit.
• Emphasis of Yajnik Karmakanda.

Vedanta School:
• Vedanta, also Uttara Mimamsa, literally meaning "end of the Vedas", reflects ideas that emerged from, or
were aligned with, the speculations and philosophies contained in the Upanishads, specifically, knowledge
and liberation.
• Proponents were Adi Shankaracharya and Bhadrayana.
• Vedanta is the pursuit of knowledge into the Brahman and the Atman.

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• The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta, providing
reliable sources of knowledge (Sruti Sabda in Pramana);
• Brahman (God), exists as the unchanging material cause and instrumental cause of the world.
• The self (Atman) is the agent of its own acts (karma) and the recipient of the consequences of these actions.
• Belief in rebirth and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths, (moksa).
• Rejection of Buddhism and Jainism and conclusions of the other Vedic schools.
• Emphasis on Jnanakanda of Vedanta and Upanisads.

24. What was the significance of the stupa and how did stupa architecture develop?

Buddhism was the earliest Indian religion to require large communal spaces for worship. This led to three types of
architectural forms: the stupa, the vihara and the chaitya.
• Stupa, originally the focus of a popular cult of the dead, is a large burial mound containing a relic of the
Buddha.
• It celebrates the Buddha’s parinirvana (end of cycle of suffering), symbolises his eternal body, and is an
object of worship. Not many stupas have survived from these early times but the Great Stupa at Sanchi in
Madhya Pradesh with its majestic four gateways has survived intact.
• There is evidence of community patronage of landowners, merchants, officials,monks, nuns and artisans
associated with these Buddhist projects.
• Initially stupas were Buddha's relic places. Then it got extended to his followers as well and gradually stupa
itself became an object of worship.
• According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka built 84000 stupas. Some stupas have been found in Sanchi,
Sarnath, Deur Kothar, Lumbini. Huen Tsang mentions seeing stupas at Tamralipti, Karnasubarna,
Samtata.
• With the emergence of the Mahayana sect it was not necessary that all the Stupas contained relics. It was taken
over by the image worship.

Development of Stupa architecture

• Early Buddhist stupa had a circular mound with a circumambulatory passage. Example- Stupa at Sanchi built
by Asoka with bricks which in later times was covered with stone and other new additions.
• In earlier times Buddha images were absent.
• After the 2nd century BC, Gateways were added and have 2 circumambulatory paths. 4 toranas depicting life
of Buddha and Jatakas. Example- Bharhut Stupa and Sanchi Stupa.
• Finally with the development of Vajrayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas images were further added. Example-
Amaravati Stupa.

25. Which were the four events in the life of the Buddha which have been depicted in different forms of Buddhist
art? What did these events symbolise?

26. Explain as to how the early Buddhist Stupa art, while using folk motifs and narratives and common
cultural symbols, succeeded in transforming these themes for expounding the Buddhist ideals.

Hint:

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The stupa is an important form of Buddhist architecture, though it predates Buddhism. It is generally considered to be
a sepulchral monument—a place of burial or a receptacle for religious objects. At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial
mound faced with stone.
In Buddhism, the earliest stupas contained portions of the Buddha’s ashes, and as a result, the stupa began to be
associated with the body of the Buddha.
The dome shape of the stupa came to represent a person seated in meditation much as the Buddha was when he
achieved Enlightenment and knowledge of the Four Noble Truths.

The base of the stupa represents his crossed legs as he sat in a meditative pose (called padmasana or the lotus
position).
The middle portion is the Buddha’s body and the top of the mound, where a pole rises from the apex surrounded by
a small fence, represents his head.
Before images of the human Buddha were created, reliefs often depicted practitioners demonstrating devotion to a
stupa.
The ashes of the Buddha were buried in stupas built at locations associated with important events in the Buddha’s life
including Lumbini (where he was born), Bodh Gaya (where he achieved Enlightenment), Deer Park at Sarnath
(where he preached his first sermon sharing the Four Noble Truths (also called the dharma or the law), and
Kushinagara (where he died).
For Buddhists, building stupas also has karmic benefits. Karma, a key component in both Hinduism and Buddhism,
is the energy generated by a person’s actions and the ethical consequences of those actions. Karma affects a person’s
next existence or re-birth.
If one thinks of the stupa as a circle or wheel, the unmoving centre symbolises Enlightenment. Likewise, the
practitioner achieves stillness and peace when the Buddhist dharma is fully understood.
At the top of the stupa is a yasti, or spire, which symbolises the axis mundi.
This central axis, the axis mundi, is echoed in the same axis that bisects the human body. In this manner, the human
body also functions as a microcosm of the universe. The spinal column is the axis that bisects Mt. Meru (the sacred
mountain at the centre of the Buddhist world) and around which the world pivots. The aim of the practitioner is to climb
the mountain of one’s own mind, ascending stage by stage through the planes of increasing levels of Enlightenment.

MAURYAN PERIOD

27. Comment on the legacies of Chandragupta Maurya and Alexander?

Hint
Alexander was born in 356 BC at Pella in ancient Greece, and succeeded his father, king Phillip II, to the throne at
the age of 20. He came to be called ‘great’ because of his stupendous military conquests.
He had established, before he turned 30 years of age, the largest empire the world had seen until then, which stretched
across modern western and central Asia all the way from Greece to India’s northwestern frontier.
His quest for India:
• In 327 BC, Alexander crossed the Indus, the farthest frontier of the old Persian empire, and began his Indian
campaign that lasted about two years.
• The king of Taxila surrendered to Alexander.
• In the battle of Hydaspes that followed, Alexander won against King Porus.

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• After the defeat of Porus, Alexander wished to march on into the heartland of the Gangetic basin — but upon
reaching the river Beas, his generals refused to go further.
• Alexander was forced to turn back, and he followed the Indus southward to its delta, where he sent part of his
army to Mesopotamia by sea, while leading the other part overland along the Makran coast.
Legacy:
• His aborted Indian campaign notwithstanding, Alexander is believed to have died undefeated in any battle —
seemingly fulfilling the prophecies of the oracles that he would conquer the entire world.
• Alexander had travelled some 1,000 miles from Macedonia, conquering seven nations and, it is said, more
than 2,000 cities.
• He hoped to solve the “problem of the ocean” that Greek philosophers had grappled with, reaching the sea,
and then sailing to subjugate more new lands.
Chandragupta:
• He was the architect of an empire that controlled the plains of both the Indus and the Ganga, and which
stretched until the eastern and western oceans.
• With Pataliputra at its imperial centre, the Mauryan Empire for the first time unified most of South Asia.
• Chandragupta laid the foundations of an extensive and efficient system of centralised administration and tax-
collection that formed the bases of his empire.
• Trade and agriculture were reformed and regulated with the building of infrastructure and standardisation of
weights and measures, and provisions were made for a large standing army.
• Some Greek sources suggest that Chandragupta may have been in communication with Alexander during the
latter’s Indian campaign.
Legacy:
• Chandragupta overthrew the unpopular last king of the Nandas, Dhana Nanda, and occupied his capital,
Pataliputra.
• Guided by the guile and strategy of Kautilya and by his own great military prowess, Chandragupta went about
fulfilling his imperial ambitions.
• Once he had established his mastery over the plains of the Ganga, he moved north-west to occupy the power
vacuum left by the retreat of Alexander’s army.
• The territorial foundation of the Mauryan Empire had been laid, with Chandragupta controlling the Indus
and Ganges Plains and the borderlands — a formidable empire by any standards.

28. Examine the significance of pillars in Mauryan architecture?

Hint
Though the tradition of constructing pillars is very old and it may be observed that erection of pillars was prevalent in
the Achaemenid empire as well. But the Mauryan pillars are different from the Achaemenid pillars:

• The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars thus displaying the carver’s skills, whereas the Achaemenid pillars
are constructed in pieces by a mason.
• The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion, elephant, etc. All the capital
figures are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses are decorated with stylised
lotuses.
• Example - the Lion Capital of Sarnath which is also our national emblem, carved with considerable care—
voluminous roaring lion figures firmly standing on a circular abacus which is carved with the figures of a
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horse, a bull, a lion and an elephant in vigorous movement, executed with precision, showing considerable
mastery in the sculptural techniques. This pillar capital symbolising Dharmachakrapravartana (the first
sermon by the Buddha) has become a standard symbol of this great historical event in the life of the Buddha.
• Stone Pillars showcased high technical skills in polishing which are shining as Northern Black Polished Ware.
Each pillar is made of a single piece of sandstone. Presence of pillars throughout the country shows that such
artistic knowledge travelled far and wide.
• These pillars were at many places linked to Buddhist philosophy as Ashoka used them for inscription of his
message of Dhamma so that common people can know about it.
Thus, Mauryan Pillars showcased great achievements in artistic skills and creation as well as their utility in
administering the kingdom.

29. Examine the various architectural elements of the Mauryan empire and their significance?

Hint
The Mauryan empire is an important phase in Indian arts history. By the fourth century BCE the Mauryas established
their power and by the third century BCE, a large part of India was under Mauryan control.
Stone masonry is an important feature of Mauryan architecture.
Ashoka emerged as the most powerful king of the Mauryan dynasty who patronised the Buddhist shramana tradition
in the third century BCE.
Construction of stupas and viharas as part of monastic establishments became part of the Buddhist tradition. Further
stone pillars, rock-cut caves and monumental figure sculptures were carved at several places.
Ashoka Pillars
• Stone pillars can be seen all over the Mauryan Empire. The stone used in these pillars is highly polished and
well proportioned.
• The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has animal figures like bull, lion, elephant, etc.
• These capital figures are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. The abacuses are on the base which
could be a stylized inverted lotus.
• Examples of pillars with capital figures: Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira, Rampurva, Sankisa and Lauriya-
Nandangarh. The Lion Capital at Sarnath is the most famous, It is also our national emblem.
• Pillars had proclamations inscribed on them and were used to spread the message of the Dhamma by Emperor
Ashoka.

Rock-cut architecture
• Maurayans also patronised rock-cut architecture.
• The rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills is a good example of Mauryan rock cut architecture.
• The cave entrance is decorated with a semicircle chaitya arch. An elephant is carved in high relief on the
chaitya.
• The interior hall of the cave is rectangular; it also has a circular chamber at the back.
• The cave was donated by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect.
• Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli, Odisha – shows modelling in round with linear rhythm.
Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas
• Due to the popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, stupas and viharas were constructed on a large scale.
• Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagriha, Vaishali, Vethadipa and Pava in Bihar,
Kapilavastu, Allakappa and Ramagrama in Nepal, Kushinagar and Pippalvina in Uttar Pradesh.
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• The Great Stupa at Sanchi was built with bricks during the time of Ashoka and later new additions were made
with stone.
• Stupas were elaborately built with certain additions like the enclosing of the circumambulatory path with
railings and sculptural decorations.
• During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus
throne, chakra, etc. This indicates either simple worship, or paying respect, or at times depicts
historicization of life events.
• The events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and torans of
the stupas.

Statues and Sculptures

• Statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. These
monumental images are mostly in the standing position.
• One of the finest examples is a Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, which is tall and well-built.
• In stupa architecture, there was ample space for the architects and sculptors to plan elaborations and to carve
out images.

Mauryan architecture is significant for its messages of non-violence and as a means to spread the moral and spiritual
messages in the subcontinent.

30. As given in Arthashastra, discuss the important features of Mauryan Administration.

Hint
The Mauryan administration was known for their triumph of monarchy in India. Kautilya’s Arthashastra has a
detailed description of the Mauryan administration. This was considered to be the authentic source to draw an account
about the Mauryan administration. Along with Arthashastra, Megasthenes’s Indica throws light at the
administration, economy, trade, and society of the Mauryan times.
The Mauryan empire which was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, lasted till 180 BCE. The Mauryan
empire was spread throughout the Indian subcontinent except for Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
The Mauryan administration had the vast bureaucracy to maintain all spheres of life.
Mauryan Administration — State Control
• It was a highly centralised administration.
• Though it was a monarchy form of government which Kautilya insisted on, he stood against royal
absolutism. He advocated on idea that; king should run the administration with assistance from the council
of ministers.
• A council of ministers called Mantriparishad were thus appointed to assist the king. The council consisted of
Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja.
• The important functionaries were known as the Tirthas.
• Amatyas were the civil servants who were appointed to maintain day-to-day administration.

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• Rajukas were a class of officers appointed by Ashoka, who were responsible for rewarding and punishing the
people.
• In order to supervise the spread of dhamma, Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed.
• The Capital city of the Mauryan empire, Pataliputra was administered by six committees each consisting of
five members.
• Two dozen departments of the state were maintained to control the social and economic activities near the
capital city.
• In the Mauryan administration, spies were maintained to track the foreign enemies and officers.

Provincial and Local Administration of The Mauryas

• The empire was mainly divided into 4 provinces and their capitals were Ujjain, Taxila, Kalinga and
Suvarnagiri.
• Each of these provinces were kept under the prince who was scion of the Mauryan dynasty.
• These provinces were again divided into smaller units and administered.
• The districts were maintained by Rajukas who were assisted by Yuktas.
• Gramini was responsible for village administration and Gopa had control over ten to fifteen villages.
• Nagarika was the city superintendent. He maintained law and order.

Army of Mauryan Administration

• The Mauryan administration was known for the maintenance of a huge army.
• It is mentioned by Pliny in his account that Chandragupta Maurya maintained about 9000 elephants, 30000
cavalry and 600000 foot soldiers.
• It is even mentioned that there were about 800 chariots during the Mauryan administration.
• The Mauryan military was three times the strength of the Nandas.
• According to Megasthenes, a board consisting of 30 officers who were divided into 6 committees were
responsible for the administration of the armed forces.
• The six wings of the armed forces are: Army, Navy, chariots, cavalry, elephants and transport.
Economic Regulations of Mauryan Administration
• Adhyakshas (superintendents) were appointed to regulate the economic activities of the state.
• Agriculture, trade, commerce, crafts, weights, measures etc., were under the supervision of Adhyakshas.
• Slaves were employed in the agricultural activities. It is said that nearly 1,50,000 war captives were brought
from Kalinga and were engaged in agriculture.
• Shudras served as slaves for all the three higher varnas.
• New lands were brought under cultivation. Shudras and cultivators were involved in it.
• Irrigation and regulated water supply facilities were provided by the state.
• Under the Mauryan Administration, taxes were collected from the farmers at the rate of one sixth of the
production.
• The monopoly in arms manufacturing, mining was enjoyed by the state.
• The officer in charge of assessment was Samaharta.
• The chief custodian of the state’s treasury was Sannidhata.
Judiciary of Mauryan Administration
• Dharmathikarin was the chief justice at the capital Pataliputra. Amatyas were responsible for delivering
punishment to the people.
• Ashoka’s inscription mentions the remission of sentences.
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra as well as Ashokan edicts mention the prison.
The Mauryan administration excelled in all the fields during the initial period of reign. No other empire of ancient
India was known for maintaining such a vast bureaucracy. It was under the reign of Ashoka, people like Brahmanas
turned against some policies and gradually the Mauryan administration was brought to an end.

31. Do you think that the economic factors were alone responsible for the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire?

Hint
The Mauryan empire, which had been reared by successive wars culminating in the conquest of Kalinga, began to
disintegrate after the exit of Ashoka in 232 BC. Several causes seem to have brought about the decline and fall of the
Maurya empire.
Brahmanical Reaction
• The brahmanical reaction began as a result of Ashoka’s policy.

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• He issued his edicts in Prakrit and not in Sanskrit.
• The anti-sacrifice attitude of Buddhism adopted by Ashoka adversely affected the incomes of brahmanas.
• Further, Ashoka appointed rajukas to govern the countryside and introduce vyavahara samata and danda
samata. This meant the same civil and criminal law for all varnas.
• But the Dharmashastra compiled by the brahmanas prescribed varna discrimination. Naturally this policy
infuriated the brahmanas.
Financial Crisis
• The enormous expenditure on the army and payment to the bureaucracy created a financial crisis for the Maurya
empire.
• It seems that Ashoka made large donations to the Buddhist monks which left the royal treasury empty.
• Towards the end, in order to meet expenses, they were obliged to melt gold images.
Oppressive Rule
• Oppressive rule in the provinces was an important cause of the break-up of the empire.
• In the reign of Bindusara, the citizens of Taxila bitterly complained against the misrule of wicked bureaucrats
(dushta matyas).
Neglect of North-Western Frontier and the Great Wall of China
• Ashoka was unable to pay attention to safeguard the passes through the north western frontier.
• The Scythians were in a state of constant flux. Due to the use of the horse, they posed a serious danger to the
settled empires in China and India.
• The Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti (247–10 BC) constructed the Great Wall of China in about 220 BC to
shield his empire against the attacks of the Scythians, but Ashoka took no such measures.
• Naturally, when the Scythians made a push towards India, they forced the Parthians, the Shakas, and the
Greeks to move towards the Indian subcontinent.

32. "The concept of Ashoka's Dhamma as found through his inscriptions had its roots in Vedic-Upanishadic
literature." Discuss?

Hint
It is widely known that Asoka was a follower of Buddhism and Asokan Dhamma, as gleaned from his inscriptions ,
has many Buddhist connotations. But its roots lies in the Vedic-Upanishadic tradition, whose message upto the times
of Asoka had shifted from grandiose rituals to living pious and simple life.
In his inscriptions the message of Ahimsa(non-violence) features repeatedly.
Rock edict 1, announces ban on animal sacrifice.
However, it was not an overtly Buddhist doctrine, in fact key elements in Buddhism like eightfold path, nirvana,
enlightenment etc. are totally missing from the inscriptions.
In fact the core of Asokan message had deeper roots i.e. in Vedic-Upanishadic traditions, especially its emphasis on
tolerance.
Rock edict 12, Asoka directs people to respect both Brahmans and Shramanas. Similarly Upanishads increasingly
emphasise the true meaning of spirituality.
They talk about good deeds and humility e.g. the story of Nachiket from Katha upanishad.
Asoka’s inscriptions also focus on moral life.
Hence, we can say that Asoka Dhamma was rooted in the Vedic-Upanishadic tradition because it reflects a similar
message without referring to specific doctrines.

POST MAURYAN PERIOD

33. The flourishing international trade during the Kushana period gave tremendous impetus to the development
of art. Discuss.

Hint
The development of art and architecture is possible due to the patronage by royal palace or other affluent classes.
During the Kushan period different schools of art came up like Mathura and Gandhara. Since, they also controlled
the Silk Route connecting Asia to Europe which explains their prosperity.

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Thus, Kushans kings give patronage to diverse art forms. These trade links influenced cultural assimilation as well.
Located in the northwest part of the Indian subcontinent, the region produced a mixed culture patronised by the Shakas
and the Kushanas.
Kushana art was mainly Buddhist but profoundly influenced by Hellenistic art due to interaction with the Greek,
Roman and Indian elements.
Similarly, the Mathura art, the construction of Stupas and viharas got huge impetus due to patronage provided by the
royals, traders and merchants.
Additionally, the Kushan empire of Kanishka became the carrier of Indian thought into Central Asia. From 78 CE,
there was a continuous and uninterrupted flow of scholars, monks, and missionaries to China of whom the most famous
was Kumarajiva. The whole of Central Asia was a meeting place of different cultures since it contained the famous
Silk route connecting China and India with Rome.

34. Review critically the evolution of different schools of art in the Indian subcontinent between the second
century BCE and the third century CE, and evaluate the socio-religious factors responsible for it.

Hint
Several schools of art flourished in the Indian subcontinent between the 2nd century BC to 3rd century CE. These
include Gandhara School, Mathura School and Amaravati school. This period saw marked differences in the
development and evolution of Buddhist art as compared to Bharhut and Sanchi art.
The Buddhist art evolved due to the contact with other cultures as it spread through Central Asia and the world.

During the 2nd to 1st century BC, sculptors became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha’s life and
teachings. These took the form of votive tablets and friezes, usually in relation to the decoration of stupas. However,
during this period, Buddha was never represented in human form, but only through symbolism.
Artists were reluctant to depict the Buddha anthropomorphically, and developed sophisticated aniconic symbols. This
tendency remained as late as 2nd century CE in the art of Amaravati school.
Anthropomorphic representations of Buddha started to emerge from the 1st century BC in North-west India and north
India i.e. in Gandhara and Mathura.
Gandhara art was influenced by Greek Culture leading to the development of Greco-Buddhist art.

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It has been suggested that the concept of “Man-god” was essentially inspired by Greek mythological culture.
Artistically, it contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, leaf decorations, nirvana
symbols etc.

The Mathura art had strong Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha. It
contributed clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat etc.
They also influenced each other, as during the Kushanas both the regions were united politically. This iconic art was
characterised from the start by a realistic idealism, combining realistic human features, proportions, and attributes,
together with the sense of perfection and serenity reaching the divine. This representation of Buddha as both man and
a God became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art.

35. "The changes in the field of art from the Kushana period to the early medieval period are mere reflection of
changing outlook." Comment.

Hint:
Right from Kushan age upto the Gupta period different art forms evolved which reflects the social milieu of that time
and socio-political outlook of the rulers of different kingdoms.
Two artistic centres developed during the Kushan period i.e. Mathura and Gandhara art.
Gandhara art shows the strong impact of Greek and Roman sculptors. Sculpture is usually from dark grey phyllite,
schist, stucco and terracotta. While Mathura art developed from indigenous Indian traditions, emphasising rounded
bodily forms, voluptuous sculptural images, minimal garments and carved from red sandstone.
During the same time, corporeal representations of Siva, Vishnu or Skanda-Kartikeya were also developed. Majority
of the art produced during this period was Buddhist.
After the Kushans, the Gupta period may be described as classic in the sense of the degree of perfection it achieved.
The Guptas were Brahmanical in religion with special devotion to Vishnu but they showed exemplary tolerance to
Buddhism and Jainism.
While there were some striking cave architectural pieces (e.g. Udayagiri), the Gupta period is specially marked for
the development of new temple styles.
It was during this period that buildings with lasting materials began such as dressed stone and brick. Out of the initial
experimentation the two major styles developed i.e. Nagara and Dravida styles.

36. The development of art and architecture during the Sunga period belies the belief that they were anti-
Buddhist. Discuss.

Hint
The Buddhist literary texts display Sungas as anti-Buddhist, who overthrew the Mauryas and destroyed the Asokan
architecture, such as Buddhist stupas and viharas. However, the archaeological remains show a contradictory picture
of the times.
The development of art and architecture patronised by the Sunga rulers in fact show the rulers’ support and patronage
to Buddhism. Some accounts portray Pushyamitra Sunga as a persecutor of Buddhists and a destroyer of stupas but
there has been no authoritative evidence to support this claim, though he was a staunch supporter of orthodox
Brahmanism. However, the Great Stupa at Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh was built during the reign of the Sungas.
Although the Sunga rule represented a revival of brahmanical influence, the period also saw patronage to some of the
significant Buddhist architecture. During their reign, the stupa at Sanchi was renovated. The fine gateways which

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surround the Sanchi stupa were also added during this period. Other examples of art during the Sunga period were-
viharas, chaityas and stupa of Bhaja, Amaravati stupa, Nasik chaitya etc.
Hence, we can conclude that even if we witness a revival of orthodox Brahmanism during the time of Pushyamitra
Sunga, the period’s architecture continued to be dominated by the Buddhist influence.

37. Examine the significance of the deities depicted on the coins of the Kushanas.

Hint
The depiction of deities on Kushana coins are significant in understanding society and religion during that period.
Kushana coinage is famous for their varied and vast devices, especially on the reverse side. The reverse of the Kushana
coins depicted a multitude of deities, borrowed from different religions.

It is possible that these divinities reflect the religious beliefs of the Kushana rulers as well as those of the people whom
they subdued. Kuzul Kadphises coins bear Greek gods like Hercules and Zeus. From the time of Vima Kadphises
the different forms of Shiva become prominent and he is depicted on the coins of all Imperial Kushan rulers. Gods
and goddesses of Iranian pantheon dominate the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka. Addition of more Indian deities
are also noticeable, like Buddha, Shakyamuni Buddha, Maitreya and Amitabha on the coin of Kanishka I, and the
presentation of Skanda-Kumara, Mahasena, Vishakha, besides Uma and probably Ganesha on coins is credited to
Huvishka. An interesting coin of Vasudeva I shows a four-armed figure of lord Vasudeva.
The images of Shiva, nandi, and other Hindu deities indicate the predominance of Brahmanism during this period.
Their depiction indicates the efforts of Kushanas who were basically Central Asian to adopt Brahmanism and gain
legitimacy.
It also shows that in Brahmanical religion, the older gods like Indra, Rudra etc. had lost their significance and
Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu gained importance.
The depiction of Buddha indicates the prevalence of non-brahmanical religions during this period. It also indicates
the patronage given to Buddhism by foreign rulers. It also shows that Buddha had by this time attained God-hood and
worship of Buddha images started. Since, Buddhism didn’t consider varna hierarchy thus it provided easy access to
society to the foreign ruling groups.

Another influence from the depiction of deities was the influence of religion in art and technology. Various deities like
Shiva, Vishnu, Buddha and their avatars like linga, trident, Vasudeva etc were depicted on the coinage.
It also indicated the religious affiliations of a ruler and their religious policy.

38. What was the impact of trans-regional and trans-continental trade in the post Mauryan period on social and
cultural life of India?

Hint
Impact of trade on social and cultural life in the post Mauryan period:

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o Impact of Trans-regional trade- this trade expanded rapidly during this period as Uttarapatha and
Dakshinapatha routes expanded deeper into the subcontinent. This was compounded by increased patronage
by kings, traders, merchants and religious institutions. Its impact on social and cultural life:
i.Development of caste hierarchies.
ii.Establishment of new pilgrimage and religious centres.
iii.Exchange of ideas and values. Ramayana and Mahabharata were transported to the east and south
India, same as the caste system, which transformed the relatively more egalitarian societies in these
regions.
o Impact of Trans-Continental trade: this trade also expanded during this period as a remarkable number of
ports traded with a number of partners across the world. Its impact were:
Intermixing of population: Presence of Yavanas port towns and they are also mentioned in Manusmriti and Sangam
literature.
Evolution of religious ideologies and art and architecture: Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati school of
architecture. Also, Buddhism spread to central and South-east Asia during this time.
Development of science and technology: Metal casting and pottery were shared as a result of Indo-Roman trade.

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SANGAM LITERATURE

39. Highlight the socio-political conditions of the Sangam period with special mention of three literary assemblies.

Hint
The period roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India (the area lying to the south of
river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam Period. It has been named after the Sangam assemblies held
during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South
India popularly called Muchchangam.
• The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work
of this Sangam is available.
• The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
• The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are
useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.
These academies led to the compilation of Sangam literature including Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu,
Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named – Silappathikaram and Manimegalai. These literary sources highlight the
socio-political conditions of that period.

Sangam Polity and Administration

• During the Sangam period hereditary monarchy was the form of government.
• Each of the dynasties of Sangam age had a royal emblem – tiger for the Cholas, carp/Fish for the Pandyas,
and bow for the Cheras.
• The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorised into five councils. They were ministers
(amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).
• The military administration was efficiently organised and a regular army was associated with each ruler.
• The chief source of state’s income was land revenue while a custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade.
• Major source of fulfilling the royal treasury was the booty captured in wars.
• The roads and highways were maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.

Sangam Society
• Tolkappiyam refers to the Five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).
• Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar (Ruling Class), anthanar, vanigar (carried on trade
and commerce) and vellalar (Agriculturists).
• Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.

Position of Women during Sangam Age

• Women had respect and were allowed intellectual pursuits. There were women poets like Avvaiyar,
Nachchellaiyar and Kakkai Padiniyar who flourished and contributed to Tamil literature.
• Women were allowed to choose their life partners. But the life of widows was miserable.
• The practice of Sati was prevalent in the higher strata of society.
The Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline towards the end of the 3rd century A.D. The Kalabhras occupied the
Tamil country post-sangam period between 300 AD to 600 AD, whose period was called an interregnum or 'dark
age' by earlier historians.

40. The accurate picture of the complex socio-cultural milieu of Peninsular India is presented in the early Sangam
literature. Delineate.

Hint
The Tamil heroic poems are called the Sangam literature since they were collected and classified by the Sangam
which was an academy of scholars. Ettuthogai or the eight collections of poems and Pattupattu or the ten idylls are the
two categories of anthologies that comprise the heroic poems.
The anthologies are divided into Akam, dealing with themes of subjective experience like love or affection, and Puram,
dealing with themes of objectification like raid or plunder.
Apart from the heroic anthologies, the classified corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, a treatise on
Tamil grammar. They signify the tradition of bards who roamed about singing the praise of their patron chiefs.
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It is thus not the literature of any particular social group but part of a common way of life. These poets came from a
variety of socio-economic backgrounds. They practised a wide range of occupations and expressed their aspirations and
emotions through their poetry.
These poems mention the trade and commerce with Yavanas, specialised crafts, markets and countryside. Towns like
Madurai, Uraiyur and Puhar etc are also mentioned. The ecological differences of the different regions (Tinais) in
Tamilham are reflected in ancient Tamil poetry.
The poems also show that a change was gradually happening in the predominantly agricultural region. In this region
social organisation was becoming complex. This was characterised by the gradual breaking up of old kinship ties and
the introduction of the Brahmanical varna concept.
Social stratification or inequality between different social groups appeared and there was a broad distinction between
'high' and 'low'.
The landed vellalar and the Velala peasants constituted the basic producing groups in the agrarian settlements.
Tolkappiyam, portrays the Tamil Society as consisting of our varna divisions. According to this text the traders
belonged to the vaisya group.
In the Sangam poems war and the warlike qualities of the warrior heroes were glorified. The function of the poets was
to glorify the heroes and their heroism. Thus we find that the society in the agrarian Marutham region of ancient
Tamilaham was an amalgamation of old tribal practices and of Brahmanical ideals and ideology.
We can create a broad picture of life in the Tamil country using these poems. But sometimes the descriptions don't
match the archaeological finds. Thus, Sangam literature can be used as a source to create a broad picture of life and
living of the people in Tamil country.

41. “Not only does ancient Tamil literature furnish an accurate picture of widely disparate classes, it also
describes the social condition of Tamil country as it was”. Discuss.

Hint
The Tamil literature refers to the ancient Tamil whose lands were divided into 5 eco-zones (Tinais) namely- Kurinji,
Mullai, Marutam, Neital and Palai. The people were also divided into 5 different clans (kudes) based on their
profession.
They were Mallars (farmers), Malavars (pastorals), Nagars (border guards), Kadambars (forest people) and
Thirayars (seafarers).
Craft specialisation was only rudimentary and subsidiary to agricultural production. We hear of blacksmiths (Kollan)
and carpenters (Techan).
The extended family was their unit of production. Weaving was another profession.
Even the chief deity of each tinai was different.
The hero stone was erected in the memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle. The Hero stone worship was
prevalent.
Women poets contributed to Tamil literature. Courage of women is appreciated in many poems.
Some of the contents of Tamil literature are corroborated by the writings of some Greek and Roman classical writers
of the 1st and 2nd century AD leading us to believe the above mentioned description.

GUPTA PERIOD

42. What light do early inscriptions and literature throw on the status of women in politico-socio-economic
spheres?

Hint
Literary sources and inscriptions bring out the status of women in early India. These literary sources include religious
texts, smritis, secular literature, biographies etc. The account from inscriptions, though limited in context, is mostly in
the form of prashastis.
Literary sources include the four Vedas for the Vedic period i.e. Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
The post Vedic period is enlightened by different Smritis and Buddhist texts including Tripitaka, Mahavamsa etc.
Arthasastra throws light on the status of women in Mauryan Period supplanted by Asokan inscriptions.
During Gupta period the literary sources include Kalidasa’s Meghdutam, Abhijnanasakuntalam etc.
The Rig Vedic society was largely egalitarian and the status of women was respectable and considerable freedom was
allotted to them. However, patriarchy was there, thus there role in political sphere was limited i.e. Samitis.
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The women had the right to education and there are references of women seers of vedic hymns e.g. Visvavara, Apala,
Gosha.
However, a son was desired in the society, this indicating a stratified society based on gender.
However, evil practices like child marriage, polygamy, polyandry, sati, purdah were absent.
During the later vedic period, there was a decline in the status of women.
They lost the right to Upaniyama. Atharvaveda refers to polyandry and inter-marriage.
Wife dignity was lowered, many of the religious ceremonies earlier performed by wives were now done by priests.
Women were not allowed to attend political assemblies.
But some women were learned and in spite of gradual deterioration in their position e.g. Gargi, Maitreyi, Vachaknavi
etc.
In the post Vedic period, the status declined further. The Hindu law books assessed a woman as equal to Shudra
whatever her class.
The Buddhist chronicles which give an account of Buddhism never mention a woman even superior to the novice
brethren.
Most schools of law allowed a woman some personal property (stridhana) in the form of jewellery and clothing.
In the Manusmriti texts of the first Christen era, the status declined further, as education was denied to them.
The concept of Gotra gained prominence during this period.
Marriage before puberty was allowed.The practice of widow remarriage was abandoned.
The inferior status continued further during the Gupta period. The practice of Sati started, though purdah was not there,
but separation between men and women was practised.
The profession of prostitute started to appear in the towns and cities. The system of devdasi was also practised.
Wife status declined further, she was made a property of men and her duty was to be loyal to her husband.

43. Discuss the evolution of temple architecture in North India during the Gupta period.

Answer:
The practice of temple construction in India is quite old, e.g. remains of Zoraostrian temple at Jandial, near Taxila, but
the surviving temples go only as far as 300-600 CE in north India. They are mostly found in hilly areas of Madhya
Pradesh and they belong to the Gupta period.
Evolution of temple architecture in North India:
Stage 1: Flat roof, square temple on low platform were created with shallow pillared approach.
E.g. Temple no. 17 at Sanchi.

Stage 2: Earlier features continued with the addition of a second storey.

Now, the temple was created on an upraised platform and pillars were constructed to support the structure.
A circum-ambulatory passageway was included or added around the sanctum (covered Prakrimapatha).
E.g. Parvati temple at Nachana Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh.

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Stage 3: Most features of the second stage continued with an addition of a curvilinear tower, Shikhara.
Pachayatan style, one main shrine with four subsidiary shrines began to be followed.
E.g. Dashavatar temple, Deogarh, Jhansi.

Bhitargaon Temple, Kanpur.

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The third stage of temple architecture led to the development of Nagara style of temple architecture in North India. Later
on some deviations can be seen where some temples have circular bases, many other deviations in Shikhara or some
can be seen with rectangular projections.

44. Discuss the features of Nagara style of temple architecture giving suitable examples.

Answer:
The temple style developed in North India is called Nagara style. They began during the Gupta period, and then during
the early medieval period regional styles developed like Khajuraho style under the Chandela dynasty, Odisha style under
the Ganga kings, Solanki style in Gujarat.

Features of Nagara style of temple architecture:

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1) They are created on an upraised platform called Jagati.
2) Temple structure is created on Pratisthan.
3) Nagara style tower is a curvilinear tower known as Shikhara.
4) The main room inside the temple is known as Garbhagriha, where an image of the deity is placed.
5) Mandapa is a prayer hall supported by pillars.
6) On the top of Shikhara, a horizontal disk, Amalaka is placed on which the finial (Kalasa) is created.
7) Generally, a water tank is absent in Nagra style of architecture.
8) In many of the Nagara temples, images of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna are placed on the entrance to the
Garbhagriha.
9) Panchayatan style, one main shrine with four subsidiary shrines, is followed.
10) They follow a crucified ground plan.
E.g. Kailashnath temple in Varanasi,
Badrinath temple, Uttrakhand,
Dashavatar temple, Deogarh etc.

45. Discuss the different sub-styles of the Nagara style of temple architecture and differentiate between them.

Answer:
The temple style developed in North India is called Nagara style. They began during the Gupta period, and then during
the early medieval period regional styles developed. These are as follows:

1) Odisha style:

a) Exterior walls are lavishly decorated with intricate carvings and interior walls are kept plain.
b) Boundary walls in the premise.
c) No use of pillars in the temple making.
d) The Shikhara in Odisha style is known as Deul, which is almost vertical for majority of the height and suddenly
carves at the top.
e) Majority of the Odisha temples were constructed during the reign of the Ganga kings.
E.g. Jagannath temple, Puri.
Lingaraj temple, Raj Rani temple and Mukteshwar temple in Bhubaneswar.
Sun Temple, Konark.

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2) Chandela style:

a) Developed by Chandela rulers of Bundelkhand (particularly in Khajuraho).

b) Both exterior and interior walls are lavishly decorated with intricate carvings.
c) Multiple Shikharas are present in this style which gives an impression of mountain range.
d) It is made on a relatively high platform.
e) The themes of sculptures on temple walls are erotic in nature, inspired from Kamasutra.
Not only Hindu but Jain temples are also created in this style.
E.g. Kandariya Mahadev Temple and Lakshman Temple are Hindu temples.
Chausanth Yogini temple, a tantric Jain temple.

3) Solanki style:

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a) Developed by Solanki rulers of Gujarat who were a clan of the Chalukyas.
b) One can see minimal decoration on the walls of the temple.
c) Presence of a water tank in the temple premise is a necessary feature called as Suryakunda.
d) Water tank is a stepped tank and on every step small temples are created.
e) Majority of the temples in this style used to face east.
f) Jain temples are also created in this style e.g. Dilwara Jain temples, Mt. Abu.
g) Other examples - Modhera Sun temple, Gujarat and temples at Dwarka and Somnath (No water tank rather
surrounded by sea).

46. Assess Ellora as a unique art centre of the different culture streams.

Hint
Ellora is a world heritage site situated at a distance of 30 km from Aurangabad. It represents the epitome of Indian
rock architecture. The caves are excavated out of the vertical face of the Charanandiri hills.
There are 12 Buddhist caves, 17 Hindu caves and 5 Jaina caves. They represent the religious harmony prevalent
during this period of Indian history.

Buddhist caves

• Constructed between 630-700 AD.

• Most famous of the Buddhist caves is cave no. 10, a chaitya hall or Vishvakarma cave (The Carpenter’s
cave).
• Beyond its multi-storey entry is a Cathedral-like stupa hall also known as chaitya, whose ceiling has been
carved to give the impression of wooden beams.
• At the heart of this cave is a 15 foot statue of Buddha in a preaching pose. Amongst other Buddhist caves, nine
are monasteries.
• The last 2 caves Do Tal and Tin Tal have three storeys.

Hindu caves

• Constructed between the middle of the 6th to the end of the 8th century.

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• Important are the cave number 16 which is also known as Kailasa temple is the unrivalled centrepiece
of Ellora.
• Other caves are Dashaavatara cave which include the depiction of the death of Hiranyakashyap,
Rameshvara cave which had the figurines of river Ganga and Yamuna and Dhumar cave which is
similar to Elephanta cave.
• Two other caves, the Ravan ki Khai and the Nilkantha also have several sculptors.
Jaina caves
• The 5 Jaina caves at Ellora belong to the 9th and the 10th centuries.
• They all belong to Digambara sect.
• They reflect a strict sense of asceticism and are not relatively large as compared to others.
• The most remarkable of the Jain shrines are the Chhota Kailash, the Indra Sabha and the Jagannath
Sabha.

47. Discuss the type of lands and the science of agriculture mentioned in the literature and epigraphs of ancient
India.

Hint
The land was divided into many types in ancient times according to contemporary epigraphs and literature. The land
was divided according to their use, utility and location. Various types of land in ancient India were-
(i) Krishta: Cultivated land (ii) Akrishta: Uncultivated land

(iii) Sthala: High and Dry ground (iv) Kedars: Fields having crops

(v) Arama: Grooves of trees (vi) Shanda: Fruit plantations

(vii) Mula-vapa: Farms with root crops (viii) Vata: Sugarcane plantations
Earlier, wooden ploughshare was used, thus limiting the production. However during 600-300 BC, contemporary
sources suggest the use of iron ploughshare.
With the help of iron ploughshare and iron axes, farmers can now dig deeper and clear the jungles with more ease.
Contemporary texts and epigraphs also corroborate the fact that wet rice paddy cultivation replaced the traditional
method of cultivation. All these factors led to increased agricultural production and finally, to the expansion of the
economic base.

48. How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is not at all noticeable in
later times?

Hint
Numismatics is the study or collection of coins and currency. It’s among the crucial tools for the archaeologists and
historians seeking information of trade, economy, religion, society and personages in a particular area.
Although archeologists have found terracotta seals in the Indus valley civilization sites, there is no consensus on
whether these seals were in fact coins. Hence, the earliest of regular dynastic coins are attributed to Indo-Greeks, the
Saka-Pallava and the Kushans. Gupta coinage (4th-6th centuries AD) followed the Kushan tradition by depicting
the king on the obverse and a deity on the reverse.

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Gupta coins
• Unlike the predecessors, the Guptas did not confine the images of emperors only in martial poses such as
Archer, Lion-slayer or Horse-rider.
• They also depicted socio-political events such as marriage of the king and queen, Ashvmedha yagya, king
playing Veena and being involved in other leisure activities.
• The reverse sides of these coins depicted a variety of Gods and Goddesses including Durga, Lakshmi, Ganga,
Garuda and Kartikeya.
• Gupta coins were usually minted in gold and silver. This further enhanced the lustre and premiumness of coins.
The coins minted after Gupta-period are usually monotonous and aesthetically less interesting. Because:
• The continuous internal feuds among medieval kings had kept their kingdoms fragmented and treasury in poor
state. Hence coins were minted in metal of inferior quality- usually nickel, copper and lead.
o Dynastic coins were minted and demonetized in haste because of frequent coups and succession.
o These factors left little time and little room for grand imaginations, vivid designs and unique motifs.
o For example: Rajput coin designs were confined to martial motifs of bull and horseman type. Some of them
had the king's name on the obverse side and a Goddess on the reverse side.
• South Indian coin designs were confined to dynastic crests– boar (Chalukya), bull (Pallava), tiger (Chola),
fish (Pandya), bow and arrow (Cheras) and lion (Hoysala). Usually, the other side of the coin had an image
of temple / Goddess or was simply left blank e.g. Western Chalukya.
• Prohibition of idolatry in Islam severely limited the scope of inscribing motifs and images in the coins of Delhi
sultanate and Mughal empire. Usually these coins bore only textual information such as the name of the king
and date of issue.
• The weakening of the Mughal empire and subsequent fall of land revenue had forced Aurangzeb to debase
his coins.
o The subsequent reduction in the content & quality of metal had further reduced the scope of border designs,
lustre and premium look- even in the coins of highest denomination.
• British-Indian coins were monotonous in design as they had textual information of coin denomination and year
on the obverse side and portrait of the king or queen on the reverse side.
• After independence, the king’s portrait was replaced by the Lion Capital of the Ashoka Pillar and other
indigenous motifs of sovereignty and freedom.
Thus, with the aforementioned observations of dynastic coins in the Northern, Southern and Western kingdoms of
Medieval India, we can conclude that the level of excellence of Gupta numismatic art is unparalleled in the history
of Indian coinage.

49. Kailasa temple built at Ellora marks the cultivation of rock-cut architecture in India. Elucidate.

Hint
Rock cut architecture covers a wide chronological range, from the earliest primitive caves of the Buddhist monks to
the crowning glory of the art namely the Kailasa temple at

Ellora.

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This is indeed unique. Instead of carving down into the face of a cliff and creating underground halls which had been
the practice, the sculptors/architects set aside all convention and created a full temple, identical in every detail to a
structural, built-up temple, that is through carving vertically down into the living rock.
The plan of Kailasa temple is fully equal in area to the Parthenon at Athens, and that it is one and a half times as high,
some ideas of the magnitude of the achievement comes through.
The scheme of the temple is basically divided into four main parts: the body of the temple, the entrance gateway, an
intermediate nandi shrine and the cloisters surrounding the courtyard.
Much of the imposing character of the main shrine is due to its substantial plinth, which on first examination seems to
be floor by itself.
Above and below this, the substructure is heavily moulded, while the central space is occupied by a frieze of elephants
and lions.
The Kailasa temple is not only the single largest work of art executed in India, but as an example of rock-cut
architecture it stands unrivalled.
One gradually becomes aware of the stupendous labour it involved and finally, the sculptors that adorn it. Standing
within its walls, one cannot help but be aware of the spiritual energy that went into its creation a jewel hewn out of the
rock itself.

50. During the age of the Guptas, literature flourished and a number of literary masterpieces were produced.
Discuss.

Hint
The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c. 320 and 550 CE. The
period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy.
Contribution of the Gupta empire towards Indian literature:
• Sanskrit once again attained the status of a lingua franca and managed to scale even greater heights than before.
• Poet and playwright Kalidasa created such epics as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram,
Raghuvansha and Kumarsambhaba.
• Harishena, a renowned poet, panegyrist and flutist, composed Allahabad Prasasti mentioning the victories of
Samudragupta over numerous Indian kings.
• Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika, Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa and Vishnu sharma penned
Panchatantra.
• Vararuchi, Baudhayana, Ishwar Krishna and Bhartrihari contributed to both Sanskrit and Prakrit
linguistics, philosophy and science.
• Varahamihira wrote Brihat Samhita and also contributed to the fields of astronomy and astrology.
• Genius mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata wrote Surya Siddhanta which covered several aspects of
geometry, trigonometry and cosmology.
• Dhanvantri’s discoveries helped the Indian medicinal system of ayurveda become more refined and efficient
etc.

51. Discuss the reasons for the decline of the Gupta empire in India.

Hint
The Gupta age in ancient India has been called the ‘Golden Age of India’ because of the many achievements in the
field of arts, science, and literature that Indians made under the Guptas. The prosperity under the Guptas initiated a
period of splendid accomplishments in arts and sciences. The Gupta Empire lasted from 320 CE to 550 CE. The reasons
for its decline are:
• The Gupta decline started during the reign of Skandagupta, the grandson of Chandragupta II. He was
successful in retaliating against the Huns and the Pushyamitras, but his empire was drained of finances and
resources because of this.
• The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550 AD.
• Internal fighting and dissensions among the royal family led to its weakening.
• During the reign of a Gupta king, Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler Narendra Sena of western Deccan attacked
Malwa, Mekala and Kosala. Later on, another Vakataka king Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat
from the Guptas.
• During Skandagupta’s reign, the Huns invaded northwest India but were restricted. But in the sixth century,
they occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab and Gandhara. The Hun invasion weakened the Gupta hold in the
country.

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• Independent rulers emerged all over the north like Yasodharman of Malwa, the Maukharis of U.P., the
Maitrakas in Saurashtra, and others in Bengal.
• The Gupta Empire was restricted to Magadha only. (Yasodharman had joined forces with Narasimha Gupta
to successfully retaliate against the Hun chief Mihirakula).
• The later Guptas’ following of Buddhism rather than Hinduism, unlike their predecessors, also weakened the
empire. They did not focus on empire-building and military conquests.
• So weak rulers along with incessant invasions from foreign as well as native rulers caused the decline of the
Gupta Empire.
• By the beginning of the sixth century, the empire had disintegrated and was ruled by many regional chieftains.

52. Discuss the experimentations with art and architecture during the Gupta-Vakataka period.

Hint
The Gupta-Vakataka period is classified as the golden period of Indian art and architecture. This is due to various
experimentations, innovations and achievements of this period’s craftsmen and their patrons. Some of these
experimentations are:
o Numismatics- The Gupta kings minted several Gold and alloy coins. On these coins were various deities,
kings and their representations inscripted.
o Art and Sculpture- Mural art was the dominant art form of the time and this was practised a lot by the Guptas
e.g. Murals at Udayagiri caves near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
o Sculptor reached its zenith with the development of Sarnath school of art which produced Hindu, Buddhist
and Jaina images. E.g. Sultanganj Buddha and the Varaha sculptor in Vidisha.
o Mural art of Vakatakas peaked in the caves of Ajanta and Ellora where murals were drawn in fresco secco
technique. Sculptural ornamentation of these caves too stand a testament to artistic achievement of this time.
o Architecture- Gupta empire saw the start of construction of brick temples like in Deogarh. This was the
beginning of what would later be known as Panchayatana style of temple construction.
o Vakatakas too were exponents of architecture and under Harisena, they built and excavated many of the rock
chaityas and viharas of the Ajanta and Ellora caves.

53. Discuss the historical significance of Allahabad Pillar inscription?

Hint

The Allahabad pillar is a Stambha, containing one of the Pillar edicts of Ashoka, possibly erected by Ashoka,
Emperor of the Maurya dynasty, who reigned in the 3rd century BCE. While it is one of the few extant pillars that
carry Ashokan edicts, it is particularly notable for containing later inscriptions attributed to the Gupta emperor
Samudragupta (4th century CE). Also engraved on the stone are inscriptions by the Mughal emperor Jahangir, from
the 17th century.
It is in excellent Sanskrit, written in the more refined Gupta script (a later version of Brahmi) by the poet and minister,
Harishena.
As the name suggests it is a Prashasti, written in praise of the ruler Samudragupta, and lists the political and military
achievements of his reign including his expeditions to the south. It is not just the victories that are mentioned here but
names of the places that were conquered by him and who paid tribute to him.

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• There are thirty-three lines in total.
• Line 22 of the inscription especially describes the conquests of Samudragupta over the frontier states.
• Lines 13-15 of the inscription refer to the conquests of Samudragupta in his first Aryavarta war in which he
defeated three important rulers namely, Achyuta, Nagasena, and Ganapati Naga of the Naga Dynasty.
• Lines 19-20 described his South India Campaign.
• Line 23 refers to Samudragupta violently exterminating a number of kings of Aryavarta.
Like any other Prashasti it's significance is debatable.
For example some historians try to find factual data from it but we need to keep in mind that those who composed and
read them often treasured them as works of poetry rather than as accounts that were literally true. Although there can be
some truth in it, caution is needed when handling such texts.
Through the use of the inscription historians are able to reconstruct the ruler named Samudragupta.

54. Analyse the characteristic features of the Gupta Art and compare it with the Mauryan Art?

Hint
Mauryan and Gupta Art:
The Mauryan architecture was mostly composed of wooden materials and they had perished. The pillars and stupas
are some of the existing specimens of the Mauryan era. Unlike the Mauryan, the Gupta era has a number of features
in existence due to the usage of stone structures.
Features of Mauryan Arts:
• The architecture was mostly made up of wood.
• Pillars erected by Ashoka with inscriptions on them.
• Motifs like Elephant, Bull, Horse and Lion are made to crown the pillars.
• Stupas were built to protect the relics of the Buddha at a number of places.
• Well polished caves are made for the religious monks.
Examples of Mauryan Arts:
• Pillars: Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindei, Saranath and Sanchi.
• Stupa: Sanchi and Bairat.
• Caves: Barabar hills, Pitalkhora and Kondane caves.
Features of Gupta Arts:
• Usage of stone architecture was well established.
• The Dravida and Nagara style of architecture developed during this period.
• Structure temples like the temple at Deogarh dedicated to Hindu gods.
• Lifesize metal artefacts are produced.
• Erection of pillars made up of metals.
• Depiction of life of Buddha through painting.
• Issue of a number of coins including gold coins.
Examples of Gupta Arts
• Temples: Deogarh and Bhitargaon.
• Metal Artefacts: Copper statue of Buddha found at Sultanganj.
• Pillars: Bhitari and Delhi Iron Pillar.
• Paintings: Bagh caves and Ajantha caves paintings.
• Coins: Gold coins of Samudragupta.
Comparison:
The Mauryan period mostly consisted of Buddhism and Jainism related architecture. The Gupta period consists of
both Buddhist and the Hindu architecture. The Mauryan arts have perished as they are made of wood. Most of the
Gupta architecture perished due to the invasion of Huns.
Both the period of the Mauryas and Gupta had seen tremendous development in the field of arts and culture. The
Gupta period is popularly known as the Golden age, as it has seen huge developments in science, literature, and arts
in India.

55. Assess the status of education during the Gupta period.

Hint

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Education played an important role in the Gupta period. Primary education could be procured by the people. Formal
and higher education was procured by staying in agraharas or monasteries.
Women could obtain education, unlike in other parts of the world.
There were many educational institutions and universities set up in major cities.
Nalanda University was established by Kumaragupta I in the 5th century. The university was an important learning
centre and was one of the first universities which provided hostels for the students.
The Takshila University was one of the first centres in the world which offered higher education. The university was
established before the Gupta Empire came into existence, somewhere around 700 BCE.
The standard of education of both the universities was so high that it attracted students from as far as China and Persia.

56. What according to Fa-hien was the condition of people during the Gupta period.

Hint
Fa-hien, a Chinese pilgrim, visited India during the reign of Chandra Gupta II. His primary aim was to visit the
Buddhist religious places and to take with him the copies of the Buddhist religious texts. He, therefore, travelled
through the Gupta empire and also wrote down his impressions about India. As his main interest was religion, we
know nothing about the political condition of India from his account. He recorded his observations in a travelogue titled
Fo-Kwo-Ki. However, his account helps us to know something about the social and religious condition of that period.
Political and Administration conditions
• Fa-Hien did not record anything specifically about the political condition of India. He did not even mention
the name of Chandragupta II during whose reign he visited the country.
• He simply inferred that the administration of the Guptas was liberal, the people enjoyed economic prosperity
and the burden of taxes on them was not heavy.
• Mostly, fines were exacted from the offenders and corporal punishment was avoided and, probably, the death
penalty was absent.
• The primary source of income of the state during that time was land revenue and people could move freely from
one land to another.
• Monasteries, Sanghas, temples and their property and other religious endowments were free from government
taxes.
• The kings and the rich people had built rest-houses where every convenience was provided to the travellers.
Also, hospitals were built to provide free medicines to the poor.
• The Fa-Hien account suggests that the administration of the Guptas was benevolent and successful; there was
peace and security within the empire.

The Religious Condition

• Based on Fa-Hien’s recordings, people observed tolerance in religious matters because Buddhism and
Hinduism both flourished side by side during that time.
• Buddhism was more popular in Punjab, Bengal and the region around Mathura.
• The Hindu religion was more popular in the ‘middle kingdom’ (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and a part of Bengal)
which formed the heart of Chandra Gupta II’s dominions.

The Social Condition

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• People during the 5th century i.e. during Fa-hien's visit to India were prosperous, happy, liberal and simple in
morals.
• Mostly, they were vegetarians and avoided meat and onions and they avoided alcohol and other intoxicants.
• There were houses built for dispensing charity and medicine and gave large donations to temples, monasteries,
Sanghas etc.
• The rich people vied with each other in practice of benevolence and righteousness.
• Public morality was high and people were content with their lives.

Other Prominent Records by Faxian in Relation to India

• In the context of his visit to Patliputra, Fa-Hien inferred that there were separate Sanghas both of the
Hinayana and Mahayana sects, which provided education to students gathered from all parts of India.
• He was very impressed by chariot-processing that was arranged by people on the eighth day of the second month
of every year. The procession carried images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
• The Palace of Emperor Ashoka also existed at that time, about which Fa-hien remarked that “it might have
been built not by men but by gods’.
• Fa-Hien also visited Malwa and praised its climate.
• He described that both internal and external trade of India was in a progressive stage and Sea Voyages were
also carried out by Indians.
• On the western sea-coast as described by Fa-Hien, India had ports like Cambay, Sopara, and Baroach
whereas on the eastern coast Tamralipti was a famous port.

57. The Gupta period in ancient India is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion,
and philosophy. Comment.

Hint
The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between 320 and 550 CE. The period
is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy.
Governance:
• They ruled over an extensive empire with their capital at Pataliputra and maintained unity and integrity of
India.
• The Gupta age witnessed political unification of India after a long period of more than 500 years after the
decline of Mauryas.
• They had an elaborate and efficient administrative system.

Economic prosperity:
• According to Chinese traveller Fa-hien, Magadh, the power centre of the Gupta empire, was full of rich
people.
• In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins which were called ‘dinaras’ in their
inscriptions.
• Gold and silver coins were issued in great numbers which is a general indicator of the health of the economy.
• Trade and commerce flourished both within the country and outside. Silk, cotton, spices, medicine, priceless
gemstones, pearl, precious metal and steel were exported by sea.
Religion:
• They were devout Vaishnava themselves, yet that did not prevent them from being tolerant towards the
believers of Buddhism and Jainism.
Literature:
• Poet and playwright Kalidasa created such epics as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram,
Raghuvansha and Kumarsambhaba.
• Harishena composed Allahabad Prasasti, a panegyric inscription praising Samudragupta and lists the
political and military achievements of his reign including his expeditions to the south.
• Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika, Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa and Vishnu Sharma penned
Panchatantra.
Science and Technology:
• Varahamihira wrote Brihat Samhita and also contributed to the fields of astronomy and astrology.
• Genius mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata wrote Surya Siddhanta which covered several aspects of
geometry, trigonometry and cosmology.
• Shanku devoted himself to creating texts about Geography.

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Architecture:

• The Gupta age craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze. For example, iron pillar
found at Mehrauli in Delhi manufactured in the 4th century AD has not gathered any rust over the subsequent
fifteen centuries which is a great tribute to the technological skill of the craftsmen.
• The Nagara style of temple construction started.
• The finest examples of painting, sculpture and architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta, Ellora,
Sarnath, Mathura, Anuradhapura and Sigiriya.
Social degradation during the period
• However, it should be noted that the Gupta age did not witness progress in social development, for example
the number of chandalas (untouchables) increased and their condition worsened during the Gupta age.
• There was also a degradation in the status of the women. The first example of the sati occurred during the Gupta
period in 510 AD etc.
The Gupta age began a period of overall prosperity and growth that continued for the next two and half centuries which
came to be known as a Golden Age in India's history.
However, the golden character of Gupta age can be accepted only in degrees not in absolute terms.

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POST GUPTA PERIOD

58. Critically examine the sources of information for the study of Harshavardhan and discuss his religious policy.

Hint
There are mainly three important sources to understand the history of Harshavardhana and other rulers of the dynasty:
(i) literary sources, (ii) foreigners’ accounts, and (iii) archaeological findings.
Literary sources
• Written in Sanskrit by Banabhatta, Harshacharita is an important book to understand Harsha’s rule. This
book has eight sections. While the first three sections cover the autobiography of Banabhatta, the remaining
five describe the life history of Harshavardhana.
• Kadambari, written by Banabhatta, is considered the greatest novel of Sanskrit literature. The novel deals
with social and religious life during the times of Harsha.
Foreign Accounts
• Foreign travellers, mainly Chinese pilgrims, have left accounts of the time.
• A Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan-Tsang, spent about eight years in the dominions of Harsha and earned the king’s
friendship. Hsuan-Tsang’s book Si-Yu-Ki throws light on political and cultural life in India during Harsha’s
times.
• The biography of Hsuan-Tsang was written by his friend Wu-Li. This book also makes available important
information related to Harsha’s period.
• I-tsing was a Chinese traveller. His description of the times is very useful. His accounts were translated into
English by the Japanese Buddhist monk, Takkusu, under the title A Record of the Buddhist Religion.
Archaeological Sources
• Inscriptions and seals of Harsha’s period are important archaeological sources.
• Banskhera inscription says that Harsha had granted Markatsagar village to two Brahmans, Balachandra
and Bhattaswami. This also speaks of the victory of Rajyavardhana over the Malwa king Devagupta and
the murder of Devagupta by Sasanka.
• Madhuban inscription mentions the grant of Somkunda village by Harsha.
• The Aihole inscription of the Chalukya king Pulakesin II deals with the war between Harshavardhana and
Pulakesin II.
• Two seals of Harsha have been found in Nalanda (Bihar) and Sonepat. One is of clay, while the other is of
copper. These seals contain the names of all the kings, from Rajyavardhana I to Harshavardhana.
• It is the Sonepat seal which gives Harshavardhana as the full name of Harsha.
However these accounts are thought to be biassed because the narrator Hsuan- Tsang was a recipient of
Harsha’s patronage; biassed, because the source, Harshacharita, was written by his court poet, Bana.
Harsha, in the beginning was probably a Shaivaite by faith, and tolerant towards other religions and built roads,
hospitals, religious institutions. In his works Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika. Harsha expressed an
inclination towards Brahminism and its rituals. However, probably under the influence of Buddhist monk
Diwakarmitra, he was converted to Buddhist. Later he was introduced to Mahayanism by Huan-Tsang. He organised
two religious assemblies at Kannauj and Prayag to exhibit the dominance of Mahayanism. At Kannauj, he manifested
intolerance towards non-Buddhists. At Prayag he honoured Hindu gods. He was more generous to donate anything.
Despite patronisation of Buddhism, Buddhism was at ebb. Shaivism was flourishing and Jainism was left untouched.

59. What are Indian miniatures? Discuss the evolution of miniatures in the early medieval period.

Answer:
Miniature paintings are fine-looking, handcrafted works of art. These paintings are bright and colourful, but they are
small.The Indian subcontinent has long traditions of these miniature paintings and many schools have developed that
have differences in composition and perspective.
The art of miniature painting emerged between the 8th and 12th centuries, virtually as a reaction to the massive wall
paintings.
They were frequently painted on perishable materials like paper, palm leaves, and fabric for books or albums.
This style of painting can be seen in both the eastern and western parts of the country.
There are two well-known schools - Pala School of Art and Apabhramsa School of Art.

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Pala School of Art

• During the years 750-1150 AD, under the Pala rule this school was thriving.
• These paintings were usually done on palm leaf or vellum paper and were found as part of manuscripts.
• They were largely utilised by Buddhist monks, and because their faith preaches non-violence toward all living
beings, only banana or coconut tree leaves were allowed.
• The background imagery is characterised by sinuous lines and subtle tones in these paintings.
• There are a lot of lonely single characters in the paintings, and group paintings are uncommon.
• These paintings were also used and patronised by followers of the Vajrayana school of Buddhism.
Apabhramsa School of Art
• This school can be traced back to Gujarat and the Mewar region of Rajasthan.
• During the 11th to 15th centuries, it was the most popular painting style in western India.
• The Jain religion was the most prominent motif in these paintings, and the Vaishnava School adopted it
afterward.
• They included the concept of Gita Govinda and secular love into these artworks, which had previously been
dominated by Jain imagery.
• The paintings were done on a palm leaf in the early Jain period, but on paper in the later time.
• Despite the fact that the paintings were created as book illustrations, they did not have a distinct style; rather,
they were mural paintings at a smaller scale.
• The colours employed in the paintings were mainly red, yellow, and ochre and they had symbolic value. They
employed bright and gold colours in the final stages.

60. “Tantrism, if not in practice, at least on a conceptual level challenged patriarchy;” Examine Tantrism
specially keeping in mind the above context.

Hint
Tantrism, so called after its compositions, the Tantras, was widely practised from about the eighth century when it
gradually surfaced throughout the subcontinent. It upholds a belief and practise contrary to Vedic Brahmanism.
• Tantrism is mainly associated with 5 elements- Madira(alcohol), mamsa(meat), matsya(fish),
mudra(physical practices) and maithuna(sexual intercourse).
• It challenged patriarchy in many ways and it was open to all castes and included women in the rituals, which
identified it with non-orthodox sentiment.
• Tantra considers Godhead as involving the union of a masculine and feminine aspect. Energy(shakti) is
conceived of as feminine and is central to the Tantric view of the Universe and liberation.
• Goddesses were accorded great veneration, she had an individuality of her own and was worshipped for this
rather than merely as a consort of a god.
• The symbols associated with the worship of a devi are often derived from forms of fertility worship, which is
not unexpected.
• Women were also permitted to establish their own shrines, to act as priestesses and to teach.
• Although Tantrism is often condemned for its more extreme activities, it seems to have been a vehicle for
opposition to the brahmanical order of society.
• It influenced Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. Mother goddesses of tribal people were accommodated as
Shakti in Hinduism, as Tara in Buddhism, as various forms of Yakshinis in Jainism.
Therefore, it can be concluded that at a conceptual level, but not in terms of introducing change into social codes,
tantrism challenged patriarchy.

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DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA

61. The 11th - 12th centuries C.E. saw eventful progression in the cultural history of India. Discuss.

Hint
The progression of cultural history during the 11th-12th century was surely eventful because it was during this period
when regional styles in different areas of culture fully matured and new elements were introduced.
This period witnessed the proliferation of new states.
Evolution of regional architecture, literature and cultures was part of this process. Regional temple architecture reached
its zenith e.g. Kandaria Mahadev, Brihadeswara temple etc.
Historic works like Rajatarangani, Kitab-al-Hind and scientific literature like Siddhant Siromani were composed.
Evolution of regional languages under the rule of Kakatiyas, Senas etc. took place.
Apabhramsha was prolifically used in dramas, plays, poetry. New sects like Virashaivism, Vaishnavism with Lord
Rama and Lord Krishna as the main deity emerged.
Miniature paintings in illustrated religious work were quite common.
Bhakti movement spread to North India and hagiographies of Bhakti movement saints were finally compiled during
this period.
Islamic-Sufi tradition was introduced in India as well.

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

62. How far do you agree with the view that the temples in the early medieval period were catalysts in spreading
education?

Hint
The temples of the early medieval period were fulfilling many roles. Where a matha was attached to the temple, this
complex was a counterpart to the monastery of earlier period. Where it received a grant of land or village, it too became
a landlord with powers. The temple was an institution of the Puranic sect and as such it too played a civil role as a
symbol of royal or local power depending on who was its patron, investing in commerce, education etc.
The temple as an institution not only employed a large hierarchy of priests and other administrative skills, but also
provided religious discourses and recitation of religious text. Thus, there was recitation by professional narrators, often
with commentary of Puranas, Ramanyana and Mahabharata.
Grant of land provided the foundation for nuclei of brahmanical learning. Temples received such grants and at times
offered them. The widespread distribution of these centres required texts and training that were met through an
increasing number of agraharas and mathas. This encouraged the growth of lively locations for discourse parallel to
the monastic institutions of Buddhist and Jains. The network of brahmanical learning expressed gradually established
dialogue between various schools and temples.

63. Analyse the vibrant cultural activities in peninsular India during 550-750 CE. Compare and contrast with
the situation in contemporary North India.

Hint
The Chalukyan era may be seen as the beginning in the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India especially
in the field of architecture.
They spawned the vesara style of architecture which includes the elements of the northern Nagara and southern
Dravida styles.
During this period the expanding Sanskrit culture mingled with the Dravidian vernaculars. These influences enriched
the literature in these languages.
The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit work Mitakshara by Vigneshwara in the court of western
Chalukya King Vikramaditya III.
Both Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished during the Badami Chalukya period. The Chalukya Kings were
followers of Hinduism and built temples and sculptures.
Nearly hundreds of monuments were built by them like the rock cut caves. These temples later became the main centre
of cultural activities, even beyond it to include social and political activities.
The main reason was that peninsular India’s temples had a huge fund of treasures which was accumulated from various
kinds of grants and contributions.

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The Pallavas warmly patronised the Sanskrit language. Kanchi became the seat of Sanskrit language and literature.
Tamil literature also got huge impetus during the Pallava period. Madurai became the centre of Tamil culture and
literature.
The period of 500-700 CE was the absolute face of vibrant culture in south India represented in the fusion of North
and South Indian culture and this can be traced in paintings, temples, language, literature etc.

64. Why is Mamallapuram famous?

Hint
Mamallapuran, also called Mahabalipuram, dates back to the Pallava dynasty in the 7th-9th century. It was largely
developed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I Mahamalla in the 7th century AD. It is famous due to the
following reasons.
The temples of Mahabalipuram were built largely during the reign of Narasimhavarman and his successor
Rajasimhavarman and show the movement from rock-cut architecture to structural buildings.
The monuments which are rock-cut are monolithic, and constitute the early stages of Dravidian architecture where
Buddhist elements of design are prominently visible. These constitute cave temples, monolithic Rathas, sculpted
reliefs and structural temples. Famous monuments are:
o Descent of the Ganges- a giant open air rock relief.
o Pancha Rathas- These are monolithic temples named after the 5 Pandava brothers.
o Shore Temple- Structural temple along the Bay of Bengal with the entrance from the western side away from
the sea.
Mamallapuran was also a port city of the Pallavas, They used to trade and send diplomatic missions to Sri Lanka and
Southeast Asia. An 8th century Tamil text by Thirumangai Alvar described this place as a ‘Sea Mountain’ where
the ships rode at anchor bent to the point of breaking laden as they were with wealth, big trunked elephants and gems.
Presently, Mamallapuram is a famous tourist town. The group of Monuments at Mamallapuram has been classified
as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

65. Give a brief account of the early medieval temple architecture of Kashmir.

Hint
The architecture of early medieval Kashmir can be said to begin in the 7th century AD. It almost ended with the transfer
of the kingdom from Hindu to Muslim hands in 1337 AD.
The buildings which represent the early medieval architecture can be divided into 2 types: The Buddhist architecture
and the Hindu architecture.
In terms of materials, ornamentations and technique there is practically no difference between the two, but differ widely
in plan and elevation due to the difference in religious needs. Both required a chamber for installation of the image of
the deity and an accommodation for the worshippers.

The Buddhist architecture:

a) They build stupas and sangharamas.
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b) The material used was grey limestone, which was easy to carve and presented a very smooth surface when
properly dressed.
c) The roof of the shrines was pyramidal which influenced the later Kashmiri architecture.
E.g. Buddhist chaitya at Parihaspura.

Features of the Hindu temple architecture:

a) The roof was pyramidal with two tiers and supposed to be borrowed from the Buddhist style.
b) The temples face east or west.
c) The triangular pediment enclosing trefoil niches is on all the four sides of the main shrine.
d) The cellular layout with the row of pillars is also peculiar, in some temples fluted pillars are found.
e) The double chambered gateway matches the central shrine in scale and design.
E.g. Martand Sun temple and Avantishvara temple.

66. Trace the origin and development of temple architecture in South India under the Pallavas.

Answer:
The temple architecture in South India began under the Pallava rulers in 7th century AD. Initially they created rock cut
architecture, the real temples came to picture in the following stages which are:
Stage 1: Mahendravarman stage

a) The monuments of this group are invariably pillared halls hewn out of mountain faces.
b) Rock cut caves were created and images of the God was installed inside the cave.
c) These were known as ‘Mandapa’ which follow the prototype of Jain temples of the period.
d) The best examples of Mahendra group of monuments are the cave temples at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and
Mamandur.
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Stage 2: Narsimhavraman stage

a) The mandapa of the first stage was refined and carved from outside and polished from inside.
b) During this period free-standing monolithic shrines called Rathas (chariots) were constructed alongside
pillared halls.
c) E.g. Pancha Rathas and Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram.

Stage 3: Rajsimhavarman stage

a) The real structural temples were created in this stage with stone.
b) A sliding tower was added on the top of the buildings which later came to be known as ‘Vimana’.
e.g. Shore temple in Mamallapuram.
Kailasanathar temple in Kanchipuram.

Stage 4: Nandivarman stage

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a) During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity and provided the models upon which the massive
Brihadeeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram and various other
architectural works of note were constructed.
e.g. Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.

67. Describe the features of the Dravidian style of temple architecture under the Chola rulers along with some
examples.

Answer:
The foundation of the temples in South India was provided by the Pallava rulers but the original Dravida style of temple
architecture came to light under the Chola rulers. Later under the Vijayanagar rulers and nayakas, this style of temple
architecture was further enriched.
Basic features of the Dravida Style of temple architecture are:

a) The tower in Dravida Style is known as ‘Vimana’ which is a pyramidal structure with sliding sides.
b) ‘Vimana’ is not only created on the ‘Garbhagriha’ but also on the ‘Gopurams’.
c) ‘Gopurams’ is an entrance gateway.
d) Boundary wall is a necessary feature.
e) Presence of water tank within the premise which is meant for religious ablutions.
f) They like the ‘Nagara’ style, also follow the ‘Panchayatan’ style and crucified ground plan.
g) At the entrance of ‘Garbhagriha’ images of ‘Dwarapala’ are placed to guard the temple, and in some temples
images of embracing couples (mithun) are placed.
h) The ‘Garbhagriha’ is connected through a very small passage known as ‘Antaral’ to the ‘Mandapa’.
E.g. Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur.
Ranganath Swami temple at Srirangam.
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68. Differentiate between the various sub styles of the Dravidian style of temple architecture with examples.

Answer:
There are mainly 2 types of substyles of Dravidian temple architecture, these are:
1) Vijayanagar style:

a) Developed under Vijayanagar rulers, especially under the patronage of Krishna Deva Raya.
b) They created huge ‘Gopurams’ and very high enclosure walls.
c) They introduced the concept of ‘Amma’ shrine which is dedicated to the chief wife of the main deity.
d) They also came up with the concept of ‘Kalyana Mandapa’ which was meant for marriages.
e) One of the interesting structures is a flat stone platform known as ‘dibba’, meant for the rituals and sacrifices.
E.g. Mahanavami Dibba at Hampi.
E.g. Thousand pillar temple and Vithalswami temple at Hampi.
Lepakshi temple at Lepakshi in Andhra Pradesh.

2) Nayaka style:

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a) Nayakas rose after the fall of the Vijayanagara empire and they constructed temples in and around Madurai.
b) They not only created huge ‘Gopurams’ but also increased their numbers.
c) Very prominent feature of the Nayaka style is the presence of a huge corridor called ‘Prakaram’ and used to
connect all the parts of the temple.
E.g. Meenakshi temple at Madurai.

69. Discuss the experimentation with temple architecture under the Chalukyan rulers and how this resulted in a
new style of temple architecture.

Answer:
Many different styles of temple architecture influenced by both North and South Indian temples were used in regions
like Karnataka. While some scholars consider the buildings in this region as being distinctly either nagara or dravida, a
hybridised style that seems to have become popular after the mid-seventh century, known as ‘vesara’. This style was
developed under the patronage of western Chalukya rulers, especially at Badami and Aihole.
Development:
1) Early Chalukyan activity takes the form of rock-cut caves e.g. Ravana Pahadi. One of the most important sculptures
at the site is of Nataraja, surrounded by larger -than-life-size depictions of the saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and
four to his right. The figures are characterised by graceful, slim bodies, long, oval faces topped with extremely tall
cylindrical crowns and shown to wear short dhotis marked by fine incised striations indicating pleating.

2) While later Chalukyan activity is of structural temples displaying the hybridisation and incorporation of several
styles.

a) They are known as ‘Vesara’ which is a Sanskrit word meaning ‘taking a long path’.
b) They were called so because they were created far from the habitation areas.
c) They are considered a mixture of both the Nagara and Dravida style of temple architecture.
d) The semi-circular galleries of Vesara are inspired from Buddhist chaityas.
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Unique features of the Vesara style:

a. Transformation of Dravida tower: The Chalukyan builders modified the Dravida towers by minimising the
height of each storey and arranging them in descending order of height from base to top with much ornamentation
in each storey.
b. Transformation of Nagara tower: Instead of inclined storey here modification is seen in the vertical shape
of the tower.
c. Two special features of Chalukya temples – Mantapa and Pillars:
i.Mantapa: It has two types of roof – domical ceilings (the dome-like ceilings standing on four pillars) or Square
ceilings (these are vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures).
ii.Pillars: the miniature decorative pillars of Chalukya temples stand with its own artistic value.
E.g. Durga temple, Aihole - apsidal shrine which is reminiscent of Buddhist chaitya halls, having a
Shikhara.

Ladkhan temple at Aihole - inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, except that it is
constructed out of stone.
Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal - built in imitation of Kailashnath temple is the jewel of Chalukyan
architecture.

70. The Hindu temple architecture under Hoysalas is marked by the influence of Buddhist art too. Comment.

Answer:
The Vesara style of temple architecture developed in the 7th century under the patronage of Chalukya rulers. However,
it was under Hoysala rule in the 13th century that it achieved perfection as an independent style.
Noticeable features of Hoysala temple architecture:
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a) The Hoysala temples, instead of consisting of a simple inner chamber with its pillared hall, contain multiple
shrines grouped around a central pillared hall and laid out in the shape of an intricately-designed star.
b) The plan of these temples starts looking like a star, and is thus known as a stellate-plan.
c) Since they are made out of soapstone which is a relatively soft stone, the artists were able to carve their
sculptures intricately. This can be seen particularly in the jewellery of the gods that adorn their temple walls
and pillars.
d) Most of their temples are in Bhumija style. In this style miniature shikara is carved on the outerwall of the
temple.

The jagati around the temple is the open pradakshina patha leaving a broad flat surface all around the temple.
Some of the famous temples are:
Hoysaleswara temple (Lord of the Hoysalas) at Halebid in Karnataka that was built in dark schist stone by the
Hoysala king in 1150.
Chennakeshava temple in Somnathpura, Karnataka built around AD 1268 under Narasimha III.
Kesava temple at Belur in Hassan district of Karnataka built by Vishnuvardhana.

71. Analyse the stylistic trends of the sculptures in North India during the fifth and sixth centuries.

72. What are the commonalities and differences between North Indian and South Indian temples?

73. Trace the origin and development of temple architecture in India with reference to regional styles and
variations.

Hint-
The practice of temple construction is quite old but the surviving temples go only as far as 300-600 CE. Early temples
had simpler structures. Then, during the early medieval period regional styles developed namely, Nagara, Dravida and
Vesara.
The earliest surviving temples are found in hilly areas of Madhya Pradesh e.g. Vishnu temple at Tigawa, they belong to
Gupta age. They were simple, with square sanctorum, flat roofs, plain temple walls etc. In the 5th-6th century, temples
were built on a plinth with a shikhara, mythological engraving on walls etc. e.g. Deogarh temple. Nagara style was
further developed during early medieval period, with curvilinear shikhara, Panchayatan shape, plinth, pillared portico
etc. e.g. Kandaria Mahadev temple in Khajuraho style, Sun temple at Modhera in Solanki style, the Sena-Pala style with
Bangla roof, Lingaraj temple in Orissa style.
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A gradual shift also happened in Dravida and Vesara styles starting from cave temples e.g. Mahabalipuram cave
temples, through monolith temples e.g. Ratha temples to structural temples.
During the Cholas, Dravida style fully matured with its Gopuram, Vimana, pillared mandapam, captive pond, boundary
walls etc. e.g. Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur. Later there were few more additions during the Vijayanagar and
Nayaka period.
In the region between the Vidhyas and the Krishna river, Vesara style developed, which was a mixture of both the
Nagara and Dravida styles. Rooted in the tradition of Ajanta and Ellora, it begins with the cave temples at Badami,. The
Pattadakal and Aihole temples complex takes this tradition further. Kailashnath temple at Ellora is also an example. The
Vesara style fully matured in the temples at Belur, Halebid and Somnathpura. They were known for elaborate carvings
on walls and ceilings and cruciform shaped zig-zag plinths. Later, under Vijayanagar kingdom, kalyana mandapa was
added.

DELHI SULTANATE PERIOD

74. Discuss the features of the Indo-Islamic architecture as introduced during the medieval period in India and
how it was different from the earlier period.

Answer:
Indo Islamic architecture was introduced in India during the period of Delhi Sultanate which reached its zenith under
the Mughals especially under Shah Jahan. The Delhi Sultanate brought with it new styles of architecture and art to India
which were quickly absorbed into the set up present previously.
All the architectural features before this period are clubbed under Trabeate while the new architecture is clubbed under
Arcuate.

Basis Trabeate Arcuate

Entrance and Roof Lintel Arc shaped entrance

Flat surface

Structure on top Shikhara and Vimana Dome

Minarets Absent Present

Material Stone - primary material Brick, lime and mortar.

Features of the Indo Islamic architecture

a. Arc and Dome method of construction which provided spaciousness and massiveness to their structures.
b. Use of brick, lime and mortar as primary building materials.
c. Presence of minarets.
d. They avoided human representation in their buildings.
e. For decorations, they resorted to different geometrical patterns.
f. For writing Quranic verses on buildings, calligraphy was used. E.g. to increase the beauty of the script, the

Persian script was angularised, which came to be known as ‘kufic’.

g. Another method of decoration was use of arabesque pattern, which is characterised by continuous stem and
identical , symmetrical leafy structures on both sides of the stem.
h. Use of pietra dura (Opus Sectile) for ornamentation. It is the technique of inlaying precious and semi-precious
stones, colored marbles and also gold and silver plates to increase the beauty of the wall.

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i. One of the intricate feature is the use of the jalli works in the buildings used for purdah, jharokha, maintaining
inner temperature of the room, ventilation and also highlight the importance of sunlight in Islam.
j. Presence of fountains, water pools and small drains inside the premises. This served the purpose of cooling the
outer environment and also increasing the aesthetic beauty of the buildings.

k. Presence of gardens around the buildings.

The Indo-Islamic architecture can be subdivided into Mamluk style under the Slave dynasty, Seljuk style under
the Khiljis, Tughlaq style, Persian style under the Sayyids, Lodi style and finally the Mughal style of
architecture.

75. Describe the contributions of the different dynasties of Delhi Sultanate to the architecture in India with
examples.

Answer:
By the 8th century CE, Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors.
But it was only in the early 13th century that large-scale building activity began under the Delhi Sultanate, established
after the Turkish conquest of northern India.
A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was that Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and
traditions and combined them with their own architectural practises. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many
structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations came about through constant interventions of acceptance,
rejection or modification of architectural elements. These architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles
are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally categorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the Provincial Style
(Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,
Golconda).
The contributions of the different dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate to this architecture are:

1) Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

a) The style developed by this dynasty was known as ‘Mamluk’ style.

b) They didn’t construct many structures, rather they converted many existing Hindu and Jain structures into
Islamic structures.
c) These structures were just primitive structures not the true Indo-Islamic art as we know today.
d) They build Minars in India. E.g. Qutub Minar, constructed in memory of Sufi saint Qutubuddin Bakhtyar Kaki,
by Qutubuddin Aibak, Iltutmish and Feroz Shah Tughlaq.

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e) Other structures are the buildings in Qutub Complex like Sultan Ghari and Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque..
Arhai Din ka Jhopra in Ajmer.
Lal Mahal, tomb of Balban.

2) Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

a) The style developed by them is known as ‘Seljuk’ style.

b) In this period, true arc and dome were created.
c) Red sandstone was used as one of the main materials.
E.g. Alai Darwaza in Qutub Complex, Delhi.
Tomb of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya
Siri Fort.

3) Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)

a) This period is considered as the crisis period for Indian architecture as the rulers were fearful that their buildings
were not strong and resilient enough.
b) Thus, they used greystone instead of red sandstone as it was cheaper, easily available and stronger than red
sandstone.
c) They employed battar technique of construction whereby the walls were slanted.
d) They also set up cities such as Tughalqabad, Jahanpanah, Jaunpur and Firoz Shah Kotla among others.

E.g. Tomb of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq, Feroz Shah Tomb and Tomb of Mohammad bin Tughlaq.

4) Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)

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a) They were a Persian dynasty setup by Taimur after the sack of Delhi as vassals.
b) They introduced the ‘Guldasta’ form of decoration in India - a tall decorative spire.
c) Also, introduced blue enamelled tiles.
d) Their tombs were octagonal in shape.
E.g. Mubarak Shah tomb
Muhhamad Shah tomb.

5) Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)

a) Lodi rulers didn’t create new buildings, rather they introduced new structures on the existing buildings.
b) They introduced a double dome structure which is not only beautiful but also resilient.
c) They also added verandas in their buildings.
d) Lodis were the first rulers who built gardens on the premise of their buildings.
e.g. Sikandar Lodi Tomb and Lodi Gardens.

76. Discuss the features of the provincial architecture during the times of the Delhi Sultanate in India with
suitable examples.

Answer:
Apart from the architecture built by the different dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate, there were also provinces ruled by
other rulers where unique architecture developed. This architecture is grouped under the provincial category having
some unique features. These were:

1) Bengal Art:

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a) Huge imposing buildings were created.

b) Use of brick and black marble in the buildings.
c) Use of convex Bangla roof for efficient drainage of Monsoon water.
E.g. Kadam Rasul Mosque at Gaur.
Adina Masjid at Pandua.

2) Jaunpur Art:

a) This style of architecture was developed by Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur.

b) Created huge and imposing structures.
c) Their mosques were without minarets.
d) Use of propylon gateway.
E.g. Attala Masjid.

3) Malwa Art:

a) Developed by Pathan rulers of Malwa in Mandu.

b) Battar technique can also be seen in some of the buildings.
c) Absence of minarets in the mosque.
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d) They used different colored marbles to increase the beauty of the buildings.
e) They used carpets as wall mat and curtains.
f) Created baths on the terraces of the buildings.
E.g. Ashrafi Mahal.
Jahaz Mahal.
Rani Roopmati pavilion.
Mandu Fort.

4) Bijapur Art:

a) It was developed by Bijapur rulers especially under Adil Shah of Bijapur.

b) Use of a 3-facet arc.
c) Use of cornices in the buildings.
d) Their domes were larger and bulbous in shape, almost spherical.
e.g. Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur - tomb of Adil Shah.
Mihtar Mahal.

77. What is your assessment of Ibn Battuta's Rihla as an important source of Indian history?

Hint
Ibn Battuta was one of the greatest travellers who visited India and left the useful account of the conditions prevailing
in India during the reign of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq who appointed him as the Qazi of Delhi. During this 14 year
stay, he collected a lot of information and compiled them in Kitab-ul-Rehla.
In Rehla, he gives first hand information about Geography, social conditions and day-to-day life of the people. He
especially deals with Indian trade, industry, transport, agriculture, weights and measures etc. He described the qualities
of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq, role of ulemas and courtiers, military and provincial administration. He also dealt with
the different revolts that took place during the sultan's reign and how he tackled them. But his work suffered from a
number of setbacks. These are:
o Being a foreigner he could not converse in the local language to collect first hand information.
o He didn’t bother about the chronological sequences.
o He mixes certain rumours and gossip with the facts which raised certain doubts about the credibility of his
accounts.
But despite these shortcomings Rehla is a valuable source of Tughlaq’s regime. It provided first hand
information about the conditions prevailing in 14th century India.

78. Evaluate the ‘Kitab al-Hind’ of Alberuni as a source of history of India.

Hint
Alberuni was an eminent scholar at the court of Mahmud of Ghazni. He accompanied his patron on his invasion with
a view to undertake in depth study of India. He is the first Islamic scholar to study Sanskrit and translated the
astronomical works of Brahmagupta and Varahamihira. But his magnum opus was Kitab al-Hind, which throws light
on customs, manners, religious beliefs and holy texts of the period.
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The work of Alberuni is unique in Muslim literature, as an earnest attempt to study an idolatrous world of thought,
not proceeding from the intention of attacking and referring it but uniformly showing the deceive to be just and impartial,
even when the opponents views are declared to be inadmissible.
He took a keen interest in Indian philosophy and theology. Since, the chiefs centres of Indian learning were
inaccessible to him, he studied the Indian works with the help of pundits available in northwest India or those taken
prisoners by Ghazni.As a result, he produced books which introduced his countrymen with the Indian astronomy,
religion and philosophy.
In Kitab al-Hind, he gives an account of the religious, literary and scientific traditions of India.
He tells us that the Hindus were excellent philosophers, good mathematicians and astronomers.
He informs that the Hindus had strong prejudices towards the foreigners and would not have any connection with them
due to fear of being polluted.
Their social system was based on 4 traditional castes and their intermixing was forbidden.
The old generosity and magnanimity of the caste system had disappeared.
He talks of the 4 Vedas, 18 puranas, 20 Smritis as well as Mahabharata and its 18 parvas.
Also, he compares the Hindu nations with those of Greeks and the Muslims and tries to draw an analogy between the
Hindu Vedanta Philosophers and the Sufi saints of the Muslim world.
He also tells that the Hindus believed in the doctrine of the transmigration of soul and final salvation.
He also talks about the political condition in India at that time. He says that the territory was divided into small states
which never cooperated with each other.
He also tells that the rulers of small principalities failed to unify against Ghazni.
His book consists of 80 chapters and investigates the truth about contemporary Indian life.

79. What do you understand about the term ‘Indo-Islamic’ or ‘IndoSaracenic’ architecture? How did this
architecture evolve in India?

80. Trace the technological and stylistic development in the architecture of the Sultanate period.

Hint
The Sultanate period brought with it new styles of architecture and art to India which were quickly absorbed into the
setup present previously. The new ideas and existing Indian styles had several common features, e.g. both mosque and
temples possess large open courtyards and several other temples were converted into mosques by some of the foreign
invaders, which formed a mixture of both Indian and foreign styles.
The Delhi Sultanate brought two new architectural ideas, the pointed arch and the dome. The dome forms the major
decorative component in Islamic buildings.
The true or pointed arch used was different from the one used before in the country. They brought in a true arch i.e.
the load was allocated to the two pillars by forming the middle stone as keystone.
The idea of dome was newly introduced and was slowly perfected in the dome of the famous Taj Mahal.
Use of concrete was also abundant. This helped the builders to construct larger and massive structures stretching over a
vast area.
The artists also adopted Indian features such as the lotus which was introduced in Islamic buildings.
The Slave dynasty and the Khilji dynasty formed a number of exquisite structures with delicate works of art adorning
them.
In the Tughlaq period, the temper was less decorative and more austere and simple. The Lodis and Sayyids brought
more lavish styles with the Lodis bringing the new concept of double dome.
Sayyids introduced new decorative styles, mainly borrowed from Persia, enamelled tiles, with grey sandstone.
Terracotta decorative work remained popular in this period.
This period was marked by great experimentation and a majority of the artists and engineers in India were eager to learn
from the flood of new ideas entering the country at that time. The indigeneous technique was retained by them and at
the same time they also absorbed several new thoughts coming in their way. Thus, two different ideas mixed to form a
coherent whole.

81. Comment on the veracity of Alberuni's account of Indian society.

Hint
Alberuni’s Kitab al-Hind is in many respects a valuable source to study Indian culture and history. His research
methodology is innovative and the data provided is generally accurate. Whereas the compilation date of his work is

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known to us, his field of investigation, that is to say the territory covered by his research as well as his sources, is still
subject to doubt.
• First, he rarely mentions of where his visits took place or when they did;
• The Kitab al-Hind is lacking in positive evidence,
• Sometimes, difficulty arises in distinguishing the historical events from the legendary ones.
The majority view is that his travels were confined to the boundaries of the Ghaznavid dominion and there is no
information about whether he travelled across these boundaries to collect information.
Kitab al-Hind however, shows how he obtained his information. It talks about certain mobility between people of
Kashmir Valley and other areas of India in a strictly religious sense and deals with visits to different places of
pilgrimage in Kashmir by outsiders. Also, there is evidence of a scholarly exchange of books between Alberuni and a
Kashmiri.
Also, Alberuni mentions the names of two of his sources Jivasarman and Sripala which informed him about Kashmir
and Multan respectively.
To summarise, a majority of the information found in the Kitab al-Hind seems to be based on first hand and second
hand literature, mainly from the Puranas, Gita, the Kitab Sank and the Patanjali for information related to physical
and mythological geography, religion, culture, history and philosophy and other information related to astronomy and
astrology.
Alberuni’s work is based on a vast literature in comparison to his predecessors, whose accounts were generally based
on observations and hearsay.

82. Describe the new architectural features added by successive Sultans in the construction of Tombs in India.

Hint
The construction of Tombs and Mausoleums are a highlight of the construction of the Sultans of Delhi and their
progressive reigns, showing an evolving plan of mausoleums with time.
• The earliest of the Delhi sultan was buried in Lahore and his tomb has a remarkably simple square plan with
a short structure raised overhead and no minarets.
• Iltutmish tomb’s architecture features are sparse and are a part of larger Qutub complex and are therefore
difficult to differentiate.
• Balban’s tomb in Mehrauli is an example of tomb building innovation for this is where the arch first made its
appearance in India. It also contains the first example of the true dome in India.
• Alauddin khilji’s tomb is also in Qutub complex but lacks any new architectural innovation.
• The tombs of Tughlaqs do not contain much of the Hindu influence of their predecessors and also contain
militaristic features like sloping walls, battered structures etc.
• The Lodhi kings revived the architectural tradition of tomb construction and also the influence of Hindu
designs on the tombs. The shish gumbad in the Lodhi Gardens, is an example.
• Use of multicoloured tiles, short minarets, intricate calligraphic carvings and the semblance of 2 floors
externally but being in reality made of single floor.
These features have led to building of increasingly complex tombs and mausoleums the evolution of which was
contributed to successive Delhi Sultans.

BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT

83. “Sufis and medieval mystic saints failed to modify either the religious ideas and practices or the outward
structure of Islamic/Hindu societies to any appreciable extent.

Hint
India in the medieval ages saw a silent revolution brought about by a vibrant and radical group of socio-religious
reformers and from the period of 10th century onwards, religion took a turn with a burst of spirituality via these
reformers.
These reformers had a deep devotion to God, and belonged to two very different faiths: Islam and Hinduism. Sufi
mystics were born out of Islam and the Bhakti mystics were born out of Hinduism.
Both stressed the mystical union of the individual with God. They laid great emphasis on love as the bond between God
and the individual. However, they failed to mark a significant change in the social order because:
o They propagated their ideas by singing and preaching to the local populace, thus their message didn’t have a
long lasting impact.
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o There was no institutional structure formed by these groups. Thus, the message propagated failed to mark a
long-term change.
o They failed to offer a proper alternative to the social customs that they attacked, which left the status of the
traditions unaffected.
o Most of their followers came from the lower strata of the society. It was very difficult for these sections to break
the shackles of the religious and social customs and form a new cult of their own.
o Their geographical reach was limited.
o There also existed great factionalism among the Bhakti saints and sufi order as well, due to which these groups
could not form a unified order. The ideas of these saints were often different from each other.

84. "The Advaita doctrine of Shankara cut at the very root of Bhaktivada." Do you agree?

Hint
Shankaracharya is regarded as one of India’s most eminent and brilliant philosophers of the post-Vedic age. He lived
in the 9th century AD. He was remarkable for consolidating Hindu thought contained in the Upanishads, the
Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras and Vedantic thought in his philosophy of Advait (non-dualism).
He revived and reasserted with renewed vigour the Upanishadic premise of a grand unity underlying everything i.e.
‘Thou art that’ (Tat tvam asi) became the central slogan of his Advait teachings.
The self(Atma) and the Universal Essence(Brahman) were the only reality, the rest of phenomenal existence and the
world is illusory.
The apparent reality of the ego and the cosmos was the result of ignorance.
But ‘Ignorance’ indeed was a positive force with the power(Shakti) to create a grand illusion.
To overcome ‘Ignorance’ which produces the magic of phenomenality, the weapon was self-realisation- getting to know
the Soul.
Until the arrival of Sankaracharya, Hinduism had a lot of loose connections to different faiths. What lacked was a
Spiritual guru.
On the other hand, Buddhism was growing very fast based on the concept of Sangha which means “Access to insight”.
Understanding all these he established 4 mathas on four corners of the nation. He made sure each of these mathas has
lineage.
Furthermore, he understood the core principles of Buddhism and established “The Advaita Vedanta”, a school of
Hindu philosophy which unites both Hinduism and Buddhism.
Later Bhakti movements were taken forward by various saints and poets like Ramanuja, Madhava etc.
Actually in some ways his philosophy was similar to Buddhism and that is why it is said to be the antithesis of the
bhakti movement.
But this is not true; rather he consolidated the Hindu religion and lent Bhakti new meaning and people of that time a
new way out for liberation.

85. Discuss and evaluate critically various trends in the historiography of Bhakti.

Hint
Most of the modern studies of the medieval north Indian Bhakti movement are characterised by two long-lasting and
widely held orthodoxies. One of them is the assumption that the phenomenon of medieval north Indian Bhakti was
marked by a clear divide between nirguna Bhakti(non-incarnate formless God) and saguna Bhakti(personal God with
attributes).
Nirguna proponents- Kabir, Raidas, Dhanna, Dadu, Malik Das, Paltu and others. Saguna proponents- Mirabai,
Surdas, Tulsidas and other Vaishnava saints.
The second orthodoxy which still reigns supreme in modern writings on medieval Saint movements underlines the
gradual waning of nirguna Bhakti and its absorption into the ever-assimilating ‘Hinduism’ saguna Vaishnavism.
Thus, major radical nirguni panths lost their moorings in the course of the 17th and 18th century and assumed the form
of Hindu sect.
These two historiographical trends have dominated the modern writing on medieval Saint movement. Now, there is a
need to focus on the continuing radical anti-brahmanical character of the saint movement.

86. "Bhakti and Sufi movements served the same social purpose." Discuss.

Hint
Bhakti and Sufi movements were two prominent strands of socio-religious movements going on in medieval India.

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Both were transforming how the devotee worshipped the divine. Both of them also worked to reduce the religious
tension in society, preached social equality and opposed pomp and orthodoxy.
Both these movements were operating in a caste divided, orthodox and multi-religious society. Hence, they often
prescribed the same kinds of reforms.
Both have a well developed body of literature that departed from the orthodox doctrines of Hinduism and
Islam respectively.
Both proposed love to God as the central tenet.
Sufism promoted syncretism and decried the orthodoxy of Ulemas. Bhaktism encouraged participation of lower castes
and women and was anti-Brahmin.
Bhakti saints talked about universal brotherhood and gave voice to newly emerging classes and castes.
Sufi saints consciously choose themes from Indian mythology, music and local language to promote harmony between
Islam and Hinduism.
But both these movements had numerous sub-strands; they should not be called parallel movements in respective
religions.
Thus, both of them promoted conciliation, social reforms and simplicity in society and religion.

87. Sufi and Bhakti thoughts ennobled the Indian psyche amidst the vagaries of time. Elucidate.

Hint
Sufism and Bhaktism worked as a bridge between the newly founded Islamic cultures and already existing
Brahmanical Hinduism on the subcontinent.
As the muslim invasions produced a devastating effect on India, so normally the Muslims were thought to be as
foreign.
It is here that Sufis like Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti paid significant contribution to establish a cordial relation between
Islam and Hinduism.
At the same time the Bhakti movement too saw the rise of Nirguna Bhakti developed with the amalgamation of
Nathpanthi and Bhakti.
Its believers worshipped formless God, which comes near to Islamic Monotheism. Hence, the foundation for a
composite culture was laid at a time when the subcontinent’s polity was marked by constant inflow of foreigners and
competition for existing resources and high status in society.
Both Bhakti saints like Kabir, Nanak etc. and Sufi saints like Nizamuddin Auliya, Chisti, Jaisi etc preached Hindu-
Muslim unity to the masses.
The development of Ghazal, Qawwali, and Urdu language reinforced such efforts of reconciliation between two
different markedly distinguished religions on one hand; and emerged as a symbol of composite culture on the other
hand.
Thus, the exchange of Sufi and Bhakti ideas led to the synthesis of a more tolerant and compassionate outlook in those
turbulent times and later culminated in the composite culture of Hindustan.

88. Assess the statement that 'the philosophy of Shankaracharya revolutionised religious thoughts in India’.

Hint
The great mystics and saints contributed to new metaphysical and religious ideas. Among them were Shankaracharya,
who is said to have revolutionised religious thought in India.
In the 9th century, there existed some sort of religious anarchy in India. Thus, apart from being a great organiser he did
a lot in the field of religious assimilation.
He is given the credit for the revival of Hinduism, But, in this context, he borrowed something from Buddhism.
Likewise, he made an assimilation between the perception of scholars and that of common people which revolutionised
religion and religious practices in India.
He revived the philosophy of Advaita. He composed the commentaries on Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad
Gita. He also borrowed ‘Mayavada’ (illusion) from Mahayana Buddhism.
For the common people, he devised idol worship. In order to maintain unity among Hindus, he constructed 4 important
temples in four directions of the country- Badrinath in north, Shringeri in South, Jagannath in East and Dwarka in
West.
On the model of Buddhist monasteries he even organised Hindu ascetics and encouraged them to have religious debate
with the representatives of other sects.
The imprints of his philosophy can even be underlined during the modern age as his monism got reincarnation in social
reform movements in the 19th century- witnessed in attack on social taboos and religious deformities.

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89. What was the role of Sufi Folk literature in the diffusion of Islam in India in general and in Deccan in
particular.

Hint
Sufi saints have been credited with the vernacularization of the Arabo-Persian strangehold on Islam. They did this
by encouraging vernacular literature, empowering the use of the local scripts, dialects and speaking and delivering
discourses in the local language aiding the spread of Islam.
Sufi literature can be classified into Malfuzat and Maktabat.
• Malfuzat texts are those which include hagiographic accounts of Sufi saints. Texts like Siyar-ul-arifain and
Fwaid-ul-Fuad were written about the Chisti saints and were instrumental in ensuring the spread of the Sufi
word from the Khanqahs to the common masses as many of these texts, though originally written in Persian
were later translated into local languages and spread across disciplines.
Deccan Region
• Here, Sufism came into prominence with the coming of the Chisti saints to Gulbarga. Gesu Daraz led this
exodus and with him came various scribes, disciples and followers. Many books like the Fwaid-ul-Fuwad
were composed in Deccan and Gesu Daraz during his lifetime was also an established poet in Dakhni Urdu.
• After him, the Sufi saints of Shahpur hillock also patronised folk literature which was composed in the form
of stories similar to the ran-ram-kasha genre focussing on the one-ness of god and on devotion, piety and
good behaviour.
Therefore, Sufi folk literature has played a pivotal role in ensuring that the message of Islam spread from the
upper classes of the Muslim strata to lower starta of society and the masses in general.

MUGHAL PERIOD

90. The Mughals built like Titans and embellished like jewellers. Comment.

Answer:
The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five-year reign, Babur
took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived.

His grandson Akbar built it widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments
were Agra Fort, the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri, and the Buland Darwaza.

Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.

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Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed Taj Mahal, the Jama
Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, the Wazir Khan Mosque, and who renovated the Lahore Fort.

The last of the great Mughal architects was Aurangzeb, who built the Badshahi Mosque, Bibi Ka Maqbara, Moti
Masjid etc.
Mughal Inlay art is a remarkable feature of Mughal architecture in India. Inlay art was an instrument of dynamic
expression in the great age of the Mughal Empire.

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The Monuments of Agra provide the different stages of the development of Mughal Inlay art in a progressive sequence
during the sixteenth to seventeenth century as practised under Akbar (r. 1556-1605), Jahangir (r. 1605-1627), and
Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658).
Marble inlay-‘Pachchikari’ or ‘Parchinkari’ is one of the most beautiful and popular forms of Mughal art developed
indigenously in India.
Inlay, technically known as Pietra dura, is marble inlaid with designs in precious or semi-precious stonework.

It developed rapidly during the reign of Jahangir, i.e. from Akbar's Tomb to Salim Chisti's Tomb and ultimately a
remarkable change in the Tomb of Itmad-ud daulah. Mughal Inlay art is a remarkable feature of Mughal architecture
in India which is widely appreciated all over the world.

91. Describe the architectural initiatives started by Akbar, and how they reflect his thoughts.

Answer:
Initially, Akbar led the foundations of Red Fort in Agra but he didn’t complete it and decided to create altogether a
new capital city at Fatehpur Sikri.
He constructed Fatehpur Sikri Fort, inside which many buildings were created.
a. Buland Darwaza: Tudor arc can be seen in it.
b. Salim Chisti Tomb: One of the finest examples of Jalli works.

c. Panch- Mahal:
A very good example of fusion of trabeate and arcuate, i.e. Rajput and Mughal architecture.
Hanging balconies and the top of the tower is a fusion of Dome and Shikhar.
d. Ibadat Khana: Meant for religious deliberation, and later opened for all the other religions.
e. Other buildings include Jodha Bai Palace, Jahangiri Mahal, Diwan-e-Aam and Diwan-e-Khas.
f. Akbar also provided funds to Man SIngh to create Govind Dev Temple at Mathura.

92. Discuss different types of Karkhanas in Mughal India. How was the production organized in the Karkhanas?

Hint
Karkhanas in Mughal India were a continuation of Karkhanas in Sultanat. Feroz Shah Tughaq maintained 180000
slaves who worked in royal karkhanas.
These karkhanas were part of the royal establishment and of the nobles.These produced things for the royal household
and court. Many nobles also had their own karkhanas. Generally expensive and luxury items were produced here.
Skilled artisans were employed to manufacture things needed.
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The need for such karkhanas arose because the artisans on their own were not in a position to invest huge amounts
required for royal needs. Also, due to the valuable raw material the state didn’t want to give these to artisans to work at
their own places.
Mir Saman was incharge of the department. The term Diwan-i-bayutat was used during the time of Akbar. The
department not only produced items for luxury and cherishment but also weapons of war.
Each karkhana had a darogha who had special knowledge of articles being manufactured and an accountant, a mushrif
to look after administration.

93. Mughal paintings reflect contemporary socio-political conditions. Discuss.

Hint
Mir Sayeed Ali and Abdus Samad joined Humayun in Kabul and they formed the nucleus of Mughal Painting
school. Akbar’s tolerant spirit brought Persian art in close contact with the Indian art traditions. Amir Hamza was
a famous painter during his time. Portraiture and book illustrations were the principal features of Akbar’s era. Another
feature was the use of paper, enabling the compositions to be executed in smaller forms. It was during the time of
Jahangir that the development of miniature paintings was given much impetus. His artistic outlook was wide and this
coupled with the skill of his artists led to the elimination of Persian influence and the development of a new style which
was purely Indian.
During his period, special emphasis was given on depicting natural beauty. Some contributions during his period were:
• Painting of living presents.
• Colour contrasts.
• Animation.
During Shah Jahan's reign, the paintings were marked by a high degree of ornamental work, human figures and floral
scrolls.
His era marked a sort of decentralisation of art- an outwardly original vitality, but within it , they contained the seeds
of decay. Many night scenes were also painted during his reign. A new technique consisting of fine delicate lines drawn
slightly tinted with washes of pale colours and gold-Siyahi Qalam, came into existence.
Aurangzeb regarded paintings as un-Islamic and so did nothing to encourage it. But this art, although declined, did not
altogether disappear as there were portraits of Aurangzeb and pictures of his battles and sieges.

94. Why should the sixteenth century be regarded as the period of the Indian Renaissance?

Hint
The attempt to reform prevalent socio-religious practices is quite common in all civilizations, it is a part of the reformers’
efforts to refine and refurbish the inner resources of their civilizations. It is through such a process of renewal that all
civilizations try to overcome internal stagnation and meet external challenges.
The 16th century movements in India were attempts to bring together cultural elements and intellectual resources in
order to cope with the changing social situation. The Bhakti movement was engaged in ironing out religious and caste
differences by propagating the idea of monotheism in a language and idiom accessible to the common man and
foregrounding the virtues of an egalitarian social order.
The Bhakti and Sufi movement brought the Hindus and the Muslims close to each other. The equality preached by
the leaders reduced the rigidity of the caste system and suppressed people attaining a feeling of self-respect. The hymns
and idioms composed by them in local languages helped in the growth of Indian regional languages. A new language
Urdu, a mixture of Persian and Hindi, also was born.
These movements encouraged the spirit of toleration. The gap between the Hindus and Muslims was reduced. The
movements emphasised the value of a pure life of charity and devotion. To top it all, it improved the moral fabric and
the spiritual ways of life of the medieval Indian society in as much as it exhorted the coming generations to live in
peace and harmony.
Yet, neither the Bhakti nor the Sufi movement was able to break out of the feudal ethos and serve as the ideological
harbingers of a progressive transition. Instead, in course of time, these movements tended to reinforce the social
differences they had once questioned.
However, there was no paucity of dissent or protest in pre-colonial India. Therefore to a certain extent the 16th century
may be regarded as a period of renaissance.

95. Delineate the development of the Mughal painting during the reign of Jahangir.

96. Mughal paintings reflect contemporary socio-political conditions. Discuss.

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97. "Mughal paintings reflect social harmony in contemporary society." Discuss.

Answer:
The tradition of art and painting had rich historical roots in India, however under Mughals a new style of miniature
painting developed.
Significance:
• It was a result of the amalgamation of indigenous themes and styles along with Persian and later European
themes and styles.
• The indigenous Indian style emphasised on flat perspective, strong use of lines, vivid colour palette, and bold
modelling of figures and architecture.
• The Mughal style offered subtlety and finesse, portrayed almost three-dimensional figures and created optical
reality.
• Thus, the Mughal painting ushered in a new style and sophistication to the Indian arts of that time.
The Mughal patrons contributed to the proliferation of the Mughal style of painting with their distinct artistic
preferences, choice of subjects, philosophies and aesthetic sensibilities.
Babur:
• Babur had a keen eye for portraiture as recorded in his memoirs Baburnama.
• Among the artists who find mention in Babur’s memoirs are Bihzad and Shah Muzaffar, however no work
was produced in India.

Humayun:
• He brought two famous miniature painters from Iran to India, Abd-us-Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali, who led
the foundations of Persian Safavid style of miniature.
• He founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop), which was also a part of his library.
• Depicts the ancestral members of the Mughal dynasty in open air painting with trees and blossoms, and royal
merrymaking.
• Realism was the keynote of these paintings.
• The format, theme, figures and colour palette are remarkably Persian.
• He started the project of illustration of Hamza Nama that was continued by his son and successor Akbar.
• Other paintings - Princes of the House of Timur.

Akbar:
• He employed more than a hundred artists in the royal atelier, which included the most skilled Persian and
indigenous Indian artists of that time, namely Govardhan, Miskin.

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• This integrated composition of Indo-Persian artists led to the development of a unique style in this period.
• The Mughal painting under Akbar’s patronage depicted a variety of subjects, including, detailed political
conquests, seminal court scenes, secular texts, portraits of important men along with Hindu mythologies, and
Persian and Islamic themes.
• Projects of translation and illustration of manuscripts were carried out. Akbar Nama, Baburnama, Tutinama.
• Akbar envisioned cultural integration and commissioned translation of several revered Hindu texts into
Persian.
e.g. Hindu epic Mahabharata - Razmnama by artist Daswant, Ramayana.

Jahangir:
• He had a curious taste and encouraged delicate observations and fine details.
• Under his patronage, the Mughal painting achieved naturalism and scientific accuracy of the highest degree.
• The Muraqqas individual paintings to be mounted in albums became popular under Jahangir’s patronage.
• The margins of the paintings were highly illuminated in gold and embellished with flora, fauna, and often poised
human figures.
• European art sensibilities started making their way into the prevalent Indo-Iranian style, thereby, making the
Jahangir school of art more impressive and vibrant.
• Example - Jahangir enthroned on an Hourglass by Bichitra, Jahangir’s Dream, Jahangirnama.
• Artists - Abul Hasan, Ustad Mansur and Manohar.

Shah Jahan:

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• Idealisation and great stylisation were preferred over naturalistic rendering and accurate depiction.
• The artworks produced under his supervision concentrated on subliminal qualities and exalted beautification,
which was created by the use of jewel-like colours, perfect rendering and intricate fine lines
• Imperial portraits with glorious titles were painted to present the personality of the emperor himself.
e.g. Padshahnama (The Chronicles of the King)
• The Mughal painting during this time depicted the impressive play of multiple perspectives, enchanting
palette of colours and sophisticated compositions to portray royal, historical and mystic subjects.

98. "Mughal paintings reflect social harmony in contemporary society." Discuss.

Hint
The foundation of Mughal painting was laid by Akbar. But the content of those paintings tends to reflect harmonious
societal relationships e.g. Tiger and goat sitting side by side, symbolising social harmony. However, accessing ground
realities from royal paintings is difficult.
In these paintings we can also get a peek at the prevalent social conditions e.g. Holi and Diwali celebrations in the
imperial Durbar. Women seen working side by side with men. In one painting, Jahangir is shown gifting a jewelled
turban to Khurram and composite nobility is standing next to the wall on which divine figures are watching over the
world.
In another painting, Jahangir is standing near a globe in which the same goat and tiger analogy is used to represent
social harmony i.e. is shown as slaying poverty while the chain of justice is descending from Heaven.
Depiction of extreme violence is remarkably eschewed, while royale sources talk about harmony, foreigner Bernier,
talks about extreme social inequality.
Thus, symbolism and allegories are used in the Mughal paintings which want to portray the notion of sulh-i-kul, But,
one has to have realistic expectations about the extent of such harmony.

99. Examine the status of Sanskrit in Mughal India.

Hint
The status of Sanskrit during Mughal times is a controversial issue. Hindu nationalists in India project Mughal
rulers as villains and glorify Sanskrit as the ‘basic language’ of India, even though, in ancient India, it was associated
mainly with the upper caste Hindus.
Though the common language in India contained both Persian and Sanskrit words, Persian remained the court
language of the Mughals. Only the Brahmans and Jains interacted with Mughals in Sanskrit. e.g. Mahapatra
Krishnadasa was the first Mughal sponsored Sanskrit intellectual and Padma Sundar was the first Jain to meet
Akbar and also inaugurated the composition of Sanskrit texts for Mughal consumption. By 1569, a treatise on Sanskrit
aesthetic theory titled ‘Akbarshahi Shringar Darpan’ was created under Akbar.
Mughals also incorporated Sanskrit astrology into courtly practices. Akbar instituted the profession of ‘Jyotish Raja’
i.e. royal astrologer. To encourage Sanskrit scholars, Mughal kings granted honorary Sanskrit, Persian and
vernacular appellations to both Jain and Brahmans.
Also, a lot of Sanskrit works were translated into Persian which included Mahabharata and Ramayana. Dara Shikoh
was also a trained Sanskrit scholar. He also ordered the translation of Shrimad Bhagwat Gita, Yog Vashisth,
Upanishads and Ramayana.
Important Sanskrit books written during Mughal period include-
o Akbar Kaalen Itihas by Mahesh Thakur.
o Akbarshahi Shringar Darpan by Padam Sundar.
o Bhanuchandra Charitra by Jain Acharya Siddhi Chandra Upadhyay.
Govindacharya Saraswati and Jagganath Pandit were patronised in the court of Shahjahan, Jagganath composed
Ras Gangadhar and Ganga Lehri, who was the court poet of Akbar. Tulsidas and Surdas were scholars of the
Mughal period who became immortal in Hindi literature.

100. “The art of building was carried to the highest degree of perfection under Shahjahan”. Illustrate by giving
architectural details of two of his most celebrated buildings.

Answer:
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed Taj Mahal, the Jama
Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, the Wazir Khan Mosque, and who renovated the Lahore Fort.

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It incorporated all the features of the Indo-Islamic architecture. The most famous buildings built by Shah Jahan are the
Taj Mahal and the Jama Masjid.
Architectural details of Jama Masjid:
• Built on the freestanding eye plan brought to India by the Turks.

• The architecture is proportional, consisting of fluted minarets on either side towering up to 40m.
• The dome is splendidly proportional and fluted with the help of a drum under it.
• It also includes the colonnaded arcade of arches and the seven pointed fluted arch.
• The usage of sandstone for the outer facade gives solidity to the structure and the use of marble on the inside
especially laced with Arabic calligraphy gives it elegance.
• The blend of Persian and indigenous influences can be seen in the liberal usage of chatris and balconies.
Architectural details of Taj Mahal:
• The entire structure is perfectly symmetrical with the gardens laid out in the Charbagh style with a concourse
of waterways down the middle.
• The minarets are perfectly proportional and splendidly positioned at the corner of the platform.
• And the fluted double dome and the chattris are an example of artistic syncretism of the time.
• The pietra dura overlays on the walls signal artistic opulence and the Arabic calligraphy and latticework
signal a refined and graceful structure of the entire edifice.

101. What are the differences between the Mughal style of painting and the Rajasthani style of painting?

102. In what ways do you think that the Western Indian manuscript painting tradition guided the developments
of miniature painting traditions in Rajasthan?

103. Describe different schools of Rajasthani paintings and give examples to support their characteristics.

Answer:
The term ‘Rajasthani Schools of Painting’ pertains to the schools of painting that prevailed in the princely kingdoms
of Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh, such as Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur
(Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi and others between the sixteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
Features of the Rajasthani School:
• Paintings were painted on waslis — layered, thin sheets of handmade papers.

• The outline was sketched on waslis in black or brown.

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• Colour pigments were predominantly obtained from minerals and precious metals like gold and silver that
were mixed with glue as the binding medium.
• Camel and squirrel hair were used in brushes.
• On completion, the painting was burnished with an agate to lend it a uniform sheen and an appealing
resplendence.
• The paintings depict themes from Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda, Bhanu Datta’s Rasamanjari, Keshav Das’s
Kavipriya and Rasikapriya, bardic legends and other romantic tales, such as Dhola-Maru, Sohni-
Mahiwal, Mrigavati, Chaurapanchasika and Laurchanda.
• Texts, such as the Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana, Mahabharata, Devi Mahatmya and the like were
favourites with all schools of painting.
• A large number of paintings record darbar scenes and historic moments; depict hunting expeditions, wars
and victories;dance and music performances; rituals, festivals and wedding processions; portraits of kings,
courtiers and their families; city views; birds and animals.
Rajasthani paintings are divided into various sub-genres, each of which is named for the princely state in which they
were created.
Bundi school of painting

• This style of painting is dated back to 1625 AD

• A painting showing Bhairavi Ragini, is one of the earliest examples of Bundi Ragamala.
• Themes from the life of Krishna is a major theme in this school of painting.
• The salient characteristic of this school of painting is the rich and glowing colours.
• Artists took keen interest in the depiction of lush vegetation; picturesque landscape with varied flora, wildlife
and birds; hills and thick jungles; and water bodies.
• Bundi artists had their own standards of feminine beauty — women are petite with round faces, receding
foreheads, sharp noses, full cheeks, sharply pencilled eyebrows and a ‘pinched’ waist.
• The Mughal influence is visible in the refined drawing of the faces and an element of naturalism in the
treatment of the trees.
• The text is written in black against a yellow background on the top.
• Baramasa is a popular theme of Bundi paintings.
Malwa School of painting:

• It flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE and is most representative of the Hindu Rajput courts.

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• Unlike the specificity of Rajasthani schools that emerged and flourished in precise territorial kingdoms and
courts of their respective kings, Malwa School defies a precise centre for its origin and instead suggests a
vast territory of Central India.

Salient features of this form of painting:

• Malwa paintings show a fondness for rigorously flat compositions, black and chocolate-brown
backgrounds, figures shown against a solid colour patch, and architecture painted in lively colour.
• The school’s most appealing features are a primitive charm and a simple childlike vision.
• The earliest work in this style is an illustrated version of the Rasikapriya (1634), followed by a series
illustrating a Sanskrit poem called the AmaruSataka (1652).
• There are also illustrations of the musical modes (Ragamala), the Bhagavata-Puraṇa, and other Hindu
devotional and literary works.
Mewar school of painting:

Salient features of this school of painting:

• The works of the school are characterised by simple bright colour and direct emotional appeal.
• The earliest example of Mewar painting is a series of the Ragamala painted in 1605 CE at Chawand, a
small place near Udaipur, by Misardi.
• Most of the paintings of this series are in the collection of Shri Gopi Krishna Kanoria.
• The expressive and vigorous style continued with some variations through 1680 in the region, after which
time Mughal influence became more apparent.
• An increasing number of paintings were concerned with portraiture and the life of the ruler, though religious
themes were popular.
Amer-Jaipur School:

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•Also known as the 'Dhundar' school, and its oldest evidence can be seen in Rajasthan's Bairat wall
paintings.
• The palace walls and mausoleum of Amer palace in Rajasthan also have some paintings.
• Despite the fact that some of the guys are depicted in Mughal-style attire and headdress, the paintings have
a folk-style finish.
• Jaipur preferred large size formats and produced life-size portraits.
• Suratkhana, or painting department, produced miniatures to accompany the Bhagavata Purana,
Ramayana, Ragamala, and a variety of portraits.
• In the 18th century, during the reign of Sawai Pratap Singh, the predominant Mughal influence receded
and a Jaipur style with reformulated aesthetics, which was a blend of Mughal and indigenous stylistic
features emerged.
Kishangarh School of Painting
• Kishangarh paintings are distinguished by their exquisite sophistication and distinct facial type exemplified
by arched eyebrows, lotus petal shaped eyes slightly tinged with pink, having drooping eyelids, a sharp slender
nose and thin lips.
• Making lavish use of green and penchant for depicting panoramic landscapes
• Krishna Lila themes represented a major portion of the Kishangarh art.
• The most romantic legends - Sawant Singh and his lover Bani Thani – and the merging of life and mythology,
romance and bhakti are all shown in Kishangarh's paintings.

104. Discuss the features of the provincial architecture during the Mughal Period, with focus on Sikh and Rajput
architecture.
Answer:
During the Mughal period, provinces such as in Punjab region and in Rajasthan, regional architecture developed
borrowing features from Mughal architecture.

Sikh architecture:

• Mughal influence can be seen in Sikh architecture.

• Domes of Gurudwara are an example of that, as they are fluted.
• Gold and Brass colour is painted on the dome.
• Used shallow cornices in their buildings.
• Multiplicity of chattris.
Rajput Architecture:

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• They are considered as the first marvellous fort builders of India.
• Example: Ranthambore Fort, Amer Fort, Nahargarh Fort, Gwalior Fort, Jaisalmer Fort and Jodhpur
Fort and numerous others.
• Use of lintel roof creation of hanging balconies of various shapes and sizes.
• They created carved cornices, chajja, which were beautiful and elegant.
• Mughal architecture borrowed these features from the Rajputs.
• Also constructed towers, i.e. Victory Tower, Chittorgarh.
• These structures have a large number of windows and a large number of stairs too i.e. Hawa Mahal.

105. Examine the European impact on Mughal paintings.

Hint
Under Akbar, European paintings were introduced at the court by the Portuguese priests. Due to the influence of
these paintings, the principles of fore-shortening whereby near and distant people and things could be placed in
perspective was adopted. The earlier bird’s eye -view perspective whereby action at different levels could be shown in
the same picture was replaced by circular effect.
Jahangir was deeply influenced by the European style. He was sent gifts of paintings by the English crown. He
encouraged the royal atelier to take up the single point perspective favoured by European artists, unlike the flattened
multi-layered style used in traditional miniatures.
Later on, European themes and styles were incorporated in Indian paintings e.g. fore-shortening. Other features
include-
o Attempt to make the paintings 3-D.
o Effect of light and shade mostly utilised in fight scenes.
o Depiction of motifs like ‘hals’, winged angels and roaring clouds, The use of Jesus and Mary portraiture
also became frequent.

106. The Mughals built like Titans and embellished like jewellers. Comment.

Hint
The Mughal architecture marked the culmination of Indo-Islamic architectural synthesis and is known for their
grand minutely decorated buildings. The buildings and monuments of this period reveal refinement, elegance and
strength, and intensity of aesthetic sense reflecting not only the techniques of architecture and wealth of the state but
also the ideals of individual personality who resigned.
Humayun tomb in Delhi marked the beginning of the ornate style, which culminated in the Taj Mahal.
Akbar’s most ambitious architectural project was the complex of Fatehpur Sikri. He built both religious and secular
buildings in it e.g. Jama Masjid and Buland Darwaza. This period was marked by the usage of sandstone.
Towards the end of Jahangir’s reign began the practice of pietra dura on buildings made entirely of marble i.e.
decorating walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones.
This method became more popular with Shah Jahan's Taj Mahal, which came to be regarded as the jewel of the
builder’s art.
Shah Jahan's reign is also regarded as the reign of marble. As compared to Akbar;s structures, the architecture was
inferior in grandeur and originality but superior in lavish display of rich and skillful decoration. E.g. Taj Mahal, Red
Fort, Diwan-e-Aam and Sheesh Mahal. He also built Jama Masjid in Delhi in red sandstone.

107. “Akbar wished to assert his strong belief in God, but his concept of the way god is to be worshipped was
independent of either orthodox Islam or Hinduism.” Comment.

Hint
Akbar was a spiritually inclined and aware ruler. To assert his strong belief in God, during his first part of his reign, he
didn’t interfere too much with the ulema but involving himself in spiritual pursuits of Islam and giving liberally to
charitable and religious causes.
However, dring his later parts of his reign, his need to be independent of both Islam and Hinduism led to him developing
a unique streak which deviated form the Islamic path. This he did by-
o Involving more in spiritual matters, by removing the corrupt scholars like Sheikh Gadai from the post of
Sadr-us-Sadr and Chief Qazi.
o Appointing liberal minded scholars like Sheikh Mubarak and Abul Fazl on to high posts.

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o Opening up of the Ibadat Khana to foster religious debates between different sects of Islam initially and
between Islam and other religions later on.
o Widening charitable activities to include Hindu and Jain temples.
o And finally, he appointed himself as the Mujahid with final authority to decide on religious disputes.
All of these eventually led to Akbar evolving the Sul-i-Kul or Peace for all which was essentially a set of codes of
conduct according to which its followers had to behave in order to lead an orderly and fulfilling life. This marked the
high point of the assertion of interdependence of Akbar from the established religions of the day but at the same time
an acknowledgement of the religiosity of both these faiths.

108. “The art of building was carried to the highest degree of perfection under Shahjahan”. Illustrate by giving
architectural details of two of his most celebrated buildings.

109. Why is the word ‘perfection’ associated with the Taj Mahal?

Hint
Shahjahan is known as the ‘Prince of the Builders’ and his monuments are considered the apogee of the construction
of the Mughal empire. The architectural details of the 2 famous buildings of Shah Jahan are-
The Jama Masjid
• It is built on the freestanding eye plan brought to India by the Turks.
• The architecture is proportional, consisting of fluted minarets on either side towering up to 40m.
• The dome is splendidly proportional and fluted with the help of a drum under it.
• The blend of Persian and indigenous influences are evident and is seen in the liberal usage of chatris and
balconies.
• It also includes the colonnaded arcade of arches and the seven pointed fluted arch.
• The usage of sandstone for the outer facade gives solidity to the structure and the use of marble on the inside
especially laced with Arabic calligraphy gives it elegance.
The Taj Mahal
o The entire structure is perfectly symmetrical with the gardens laid out in the Charbagh fashion with a
concourse of waterways down the middle.
o The entire structure is raided on a platform giving it a lofty aura.
o The minarets are perfectly proportional and splendidly positioned at the corner of the platform and the fluted
double dome and the now ubiquitous chattris are an example of artistic syncretism of the time.
o The pietra dura overlays on the walls signal artistic opulence and the Arabic calligraphy and latticework
signal a refined and graceful structure of the entire edifice.

MURALS AND PAINTINGS

110. Discuss the Caurapancasika and Jain styles of paintings. Can the Caurapancasika style truly be called the
precursor of pothi format?

Hint
The earliest example of miniature painting in India is found in the religious texts on Buddhism under the Palas of
the eastern India and the Jaina texts in western India in 11th and 12th century. Though Jains appear to have practised
miniature painting before the 10th century.
The distinguishing features of Jain paintings are its linear energy and taut angular outlines of the face. In earlier
paintings reflections in line and washes of colour along with the outlines suggested plasticity.
The 11th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana’s secular poem Chaurapanchasika (50 stanzas of the thief) described the
secret love of a thief and a princess. In this series, the symmetry and the rigidity of line and brilliance of colour of Jain
miniature style, made dramatic innovations. Depicted in the Marwar painting style, it is reminiscent of Jain tradition
of combining verse with painted image, through architecture like division. In such miniature painting, the theme of
the lyric pottery was depicted with strong confident lines, throbbing colours and bold patterns but controlled
workmanship.

VIJAYANAGARA AND BAHMANI PERIOD IN THE DECCAN

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111. What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you cull from the various
descriptions by the foreign travellers visiting Vijayanagara?

Hint
From Ancient to Modern Indian History, Indian subcontinent encounters by foreign travellers and some of them left
valuable accounts of their travels. These foreign accounts gave us a valuable objective document that will help us to
understand the social-political-economic condition of a particular era. Many of these visited Vijayanagara and gave
detailed descriptions of the lives of the rulers and the ordinary people. These include:
Abd-al-Razzaq Samarqandi (Abdur Razzaq)
• He was a Persian Timurid chronicler and Islamic scholar. His visit to India appears as a chapter in his
book Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain (The Rise of the Two auspicious constellations and the
Confluence of the Two Oceans).
• He describes the life and events in Hampi, describing their wealth and immense grandeur. He describes the
city teeming with temples,gardens and palaces.
• He describes the people he saw, dressed only between the knee and naval, and contrasts them with the city’s
Muslims, resplendent in clothes more to his liking and “manifesting luxury in every particular.”
• He made some passing observations as to the caste system, noting the existence of difference within it but
seeing all as practising polytheism and idolatry.
• He said that cow meat was prohibited there.
• He also wrote in his travelogues that the empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially
evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made.
• Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight.
Duarte Barbosa
• Duarte Barbosa was a Portuguese writer and Portuguese India officer between 1500 and 1516–1517.
• His account mentions the king of Narsyngua, who is probably Vira Narasimha Tuluva. His writings give a
detailed account of the layout, the inhabitants, the nature of trade conducted in Vijayanagara, the size of the
King's army at the time and more.
• He describes how men and women of Vijayanagara dress, including the perfumes they wear, jewellery, white
dhoti with silk brocade work, turban of some sorts and most interestingly cape.
• Also interesting is that men pierced their ears like the women.
• He observed women with nose piercing in addition to ears. Women wore long hair in a bun and decorated them
with scented flowers (Gajra).
Afanasy Nikitin
• He was a Russian merchant from Tver and described his trip in a narrative known as The Journey Beyond
Three Seas.
• He also wrote that the upper castes wore silk but most of the others wore little.
• He also noted that people didn’t eat beef.
• Common food included rice, khichri, vegetables, ghee and milk and wine was made from coconuts.
• He also described cow dung cakes used in fire to bake bread and its ashes applied to faces, forehead and bodies.
• He was fascinated by the devotion of the people, as he noted that there are 84 faiths in India and everyone
believes in God. People worship idols of different shapes and Elephant man (Ganesh) and Monkey-Human
(Hanuman).
• He also described the caste system by saying that people of different faiths do not drink together, nor do they
intermarry.
• He also visited the diamond mines in Raichur and Golconda, where the cut diamonds had a world market.
Nicolo di Conti
• He was a Venetian merchant who travelled in the east from 1414 until 1438. He visited the Vijayanagar
Kingdom during the time of Dev Raya II and left an account in the Travels of Nicolo Conti.
• He described Vijayanagar as “The great city of Bizenegalia is situated near very steep mountains. The
circumference of the city is sixty miles; its walls are carried up to the mountains and enclose the valleys at
their foot, so that its extent is thereby increased. In this city there are estimated to be ninety thousand men fit
to bear arms.”
• He gives details of the Mahanavami festival, noting admiringly the extravagant jewels worn by the courtly
women, as well as the thousands of women in the king’s service.

112. Discuss how the Vijayanagara empire became the cultural capital of the south?

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Hint
Vijayanagar empire has generally been seen as a Hindu empire among the Islamic kingdoms of southern India such
as Bahmani kingdom. Vijayanagar empire, although not a Hindu empire, declared its capital as a centre of Hindu
culture during Bukka-I, in order to strengthen its position against the Bahmanis and garner the support of other Hindu
empires. He also invited all the artists of India to help in building a “Hindu Capital”.
The Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style of architecture called ‘Provida Style’ by adding a large number of
prominent pillars and the Mandapa(open pavilion) with a raised platform, meant for seating deities.
Important temples such as Vithalswami and Hazara Rama Temple at Hampi; Tadipatri and Cheluvarayaswamy
temple at Chidambaram and Varadaraja and Ekambaranatha temples at Kanchipuram were built.
They started the practice of wall inscriptions imbibing the stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata e.g. Vithalswami
and Hazara Ram Temple.
Similarly Lepakshi paintings too, depicted scenes from Mahabharata and Ramayana. Vijayanagar rulers also
patronised the Telugu language. Krishna Deva Raya’s court was adorned by the Ashtadiggajas.
Thus, if the Pallavas and Cholas were the pioneers of Dravidian culture then the Vijayanagar empire took it to its
zenith and became the cultural capital of the South.

MISCELLANEOUS

113. Kakatiyas are remembered for their monumental contribution to Telugu culture as well as agriculture,
irrigation and building technology. Comment.

Hint
The decline of the Chola and the Chalukya empires gave rise to a number of smaller kingdoms and principalities in
the South. One such kingdom was of the Kakatiyas, which were the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. Kakati
Rudradeva (Prataparudra I), the founder of the Kakatiya state, succeeded in overpowering the Chalukya ruler,
Tailapa III, during the second half of the 12th century (c. 1162). Ganapati (1199-1262), Rudrambe (1262-95) and
Prataparudra II (1295- 1326) were other important rulers of the dynasty. Their rule extended over most of the Andhra
region up to Godavari, Kanchi, Kurnool and Cuddapah districts.
The 200 or so years of their rule mark the high point in the prosperity, culture and art traditions of this part of the
Deccan. Their contributions included:
Telugu Culture:
• They form the most significant element of the modern Telugu identity, and even more strongly, that of the
present day Telangana.

• It was the last empire in history that encompassed and unified almost the entire Telugu speaking regions
and conducted most of its administrative affairs in the Telugu language.
• Many authors contributed to the development of Telugu literature during their reign, these include,
Tikkanna Somayaji who wrote Nirvachan Nottarammayatn, Mantri Bhaskara who wrote Bhaskara
Ramayana, Gona Budda Reddi who wrote Ranganatha Ramayanam, Nanne Choda, the author of
Kumara Sambhavama, Baddena the author of Sumati Satakam and Palkuriki Somanadha, the author of
Basava Puranam, and Panditaradhya Charitra. Of the above Ranganadha Ramayanam, occupies a unique
place as a Dvipadakairya.

Agriculture and Irrigation:

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• Efforts were made by the state to bring more land under cultivation.
• They are recognized for their extensive irrigation works.
• It was during their period that the Telangana region particularly was extensively covered by tanks, called
samudrams in the Kakatiya kingdom. This extensive network of tanks remains to this day.
• The Royal families, Feudal families, the rich sections and the merchants participated voluntarily in providing
agricultural facilities in every village.

Temple and fort builders:

• The Kakatiyas inherited the Chalukyan architecture but the distinctive feature of their architecture is the
display of more indigenous art than that allowed by the texts.
• The architects used locally available granite and sandstone in the main structure of the Vimana and used
bricks and lime in constructing superstructure.
• They used black granite for pillars, jambs, lintels, decorative motifs and icons.

• Their temple architecture reflects great sophistication and the ‘Thousand-pillared temple’ is a landmark in
the evolution of the Kakatiyan architectural style. The great Rudresvara temple (Ramappa Temple) was
built by Recharla Rudra, the commander in chief of Ganapati Deva.
• The Gomateswara temple at Manthani, the Erakesvara and the Namesvara temples at Pillalamarri
and the temple at Nagulapadu are the masterpieces of the Kakatiyan style of architecture.

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• Nandis are a special feature of the Kakatiya sculpture. The Nandi images at Palampet, Thousand-
pillared temple, Sambhuni Gudi, Ghanpur, Kolanupalli are some of the best examples with profuse bell
ornamentation.
• The Warangal Fort was constructed in the 13th century in the reign of the Kakateya King Ganapati Deva.
The Warangal fort is most famous for its graceful and finitely carved arches and pillars. This fort has four
large stone gateways.
The Kakatiya rule in Andhra was a period of transition and ushered the beginning of an era in the 13th century. The
Kakatiyas by their support of art and their integrative polity improved agriculture, commerce and trade in the interior
and construction of temples in Telangana, Rayalaseema and coastal Andhra.

114. Why are Chola Bronze sculptures considered the most refined?
Hint
The Cholas came to power in the late 9th century, and until the late 13th century, they ruled most of south India, Sri
Lanka, the Maldive Islands, and even parts of the Indonesian island of Java from their homeland near Thanjavur
(Tanjore) on the southeastern coast. They constructed enormous stone temple complexes decorated inside and out
with painted and sculpted representations of the Hindu gods. However, some of the best-known artistic remains from
this time period are the bronzes that were commissioned for each temple.
While the stone sculptures and the inner sanctum image empowering the temple remained immovable, changing
religious concepts during the 10th century demanded that the deities take part in a variety of public roles similar to those
of a human monarch. As a result, large bronze images were created to be carried outside the temple to participate in
daily rituals, processions, and temple festivals, and came to be known as Utsav murtis or festival idols.

The round lugs and holes found on the bases of many of these sculptures are for the poles that were used to carry the
heavy images. Smaller idols are made of a solid cast while the larger ones are made in a hollow cast to keep them light.
There are two primary metals used: Bronze which is an alloy of Copper and Tin and Panchola which comes from five
metals: Copper, Tin, Gold, Silver, and Lead. Admired for the sensuous depiction of the figure and the detailed
treatment of their clothing and jewellery, Chola-period bronzes were created using the lost wax technique.
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Although bronze casting has a long history in south India, a much larger and a much greater number of bronze
sculptures were cast during the Chola period than before, further attesting to the importance of bronze sculpture
during this period.
It should be noted that when in worship, these images are covered in silk cloths, garlands, and jewels, and would not
appear as they do outside a religious context. Decorating the bronzes in this way is a tradition at least a thousand years
old as such decorations are referred to in 10th-century Chola inscriptions.

Nataraja is the most popular image in Chola Bronzes. This is the dancing Shiva, the presiding deity of the Chola
dynasty.
Others include Popular Shiva Parvati Avatars like Ardhanarishwar with half Shiva and half Shakti. Parvati is also
carved in her various avatars like Maheshwari, Durga, Kali, etc. Her most popular avatar remains Mahishasurmardini
– the one who slays the demon Mahisha. Ganesh, Murugan, and Nandi complete the Shiva family. Ganesha is
depicted with a very long upper body and short legs.

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Vishnu also had few idols.
In the general height of the women is shown substantially less than men in these bronzes and they are far more slender.
The noses are sharp and head ornamentation is elaborate.
Both sexes are depicted without an upper-body garment.
The lower garments have quite a bit of experimentation.
What stands out is the harmony and rhythm that oozes out of the proportionately carved figures that have gathered a
colour of their own over a period of time.

115. “Trade and commerce flourished under the Chola Empire". In this context explain the significance of ports.

Hint
Trade and commerce flourished under the patronage of Chola emperors. The Cholas developed links all over south
India. There are references to 72 nagarams and many trade guilds. Most important of these were manigramam,
Ayyavolu-500 (Five hundred Lords of Aihole) also called Ainnuruvar, Nanadesi, Vira Valanjiyar, Vira Balanju and
Anjuvannan.
Mahabalipuram were also known as nagarattars. Trading organisations formed fortified settlements called
Erivirpattinams on trunk roads and were protected by army cantonments called Nilaippadai.
Mostly the barter system was employed in trade and commerce where even paddy was used as a unit of exchange.
Gold coins such as pon, kasu, kalanju were also used. Silver coins were used too.
Some Chola emperors sent embassies to Indonesia, Cambodia and China. The articles brought for trade by the
Cholas included cotton cloth, glassware, camphor, brocades, rhino horns and ivory.
The temples in the Chola period, apart from religious activity, were also centres of development of arts and crafts.
Many stone cutters, weavers, potters, oil makers, bronze workers lived in temple complexes. Temples became centres
of exchange of commodities. Temples also collected taxes from craftsmen, traders and peasants. Temple received land
donations from kings and offerings from religious followers.
The Imperial Cholas tried to enhance their maritime strength by gaining control over all strategically important
coastlines and controlling international trade to and from China. They captured the Southwest Coast of India and
almost the entire Indian east coast up to the mouth of Gangas.
The Cholas also had a great navy with the help of which they also seized the Maldives, Sri Lanka, and the Andamans.
With naval forces, Rajendra I invaded Malaya Peninsula and Srivijaya Empire that extended over Sumatra, Java
and the neighbouring islands and controlled the overseas trade route to China.
There were many port towns during the Chola period. The Chola inscriptions portray the Chola ports and its
international trade activities. Kaveripattinam, a Coromandel Coast port described in classical Tamil works, was
very active in maritime trade.
From that port town the Chola merchants exported and imported the commercial goods.
The oldest and most famous port in the Chola Empire was Poompuhar. Other naval ports were located at Arikamedu,
Kancheepuram, Nagapattinam, Kulachal, Korkai, Kadalur, and Thoothukudi.
In addition to these sea ports, there were many inland ports, such as Musuri and Worayur (or Urayur) and dry docks
navigable from the sea along the Kaveri and Thamarabarani rivers which served commercial fleets and shipbuilding.
In times of war, to facilitate mass production, ships were built inland and ferried through the rivers to the Ocean.

116. Discuss the extent to which Bernier’s account enables historians to reconstruct contemporary Indian society.

Hint:
François Bernier, a Frenchman, was a doctor, political philosopher and historian. Like many others, he came to the
Mughal Empire in search of opportunities. He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668, and was closely
associated with the Mughal court, as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan,
and later as an intellectual and scientist, with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
Bernier’s Travels in the Mughal Empire is marked by detailed observations, critical insights and reflection. He
compared what he saw in India with the situation in Europe, generally emphasising the superiority of the latter.
According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private
property in land in the former. Owing to crown ownership of land, argued Bernier, landholders could not pass on
their land to their children. So, they were averse to any long-term investment in the sustenance and expansion of
production.
The absence of private property in land had, therefore, prevented the emergence of the class of “improving” landlords
(as in Western Europe) with a concern to maintain or improve the land.

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It had led to the uniform ruination of agriculture, excessive oppression of the peasantry and a continuous decline in the
living standards of all sections of society, except the ruling aristocracy.
Between the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich, there was no social group or class worth the name. Bernier
confidently asserted: “There is no middle state in India.” At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the
world’s precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver.
He also noticed the existence of a prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange.
Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns”, by which he meant towns that owed
their existence, and depended for their survival, on the imperial camp. Bernier chose the practice of sati for detailed
description. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.
Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards. The French philosopher
Montesquieu, for instance, used this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism, according to which rulers in
Asia (the Orient or the East) enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects, who were kept in conditions of subjugation
and poverty, arguing that all land belonged to the king and that private property was non-existent.
However, this picture of rural society was far from true. In fact, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, rural
society was characterised by considerable social and economic differentiation. At one end of the spectrum were the big
zamindars, who enjoyed superior rights in land and, at the other, the “untouchable” landless labourers. In between
was the big peasant, who used hired labour and engaged in commodity production, and the smaller peasant who could
barely produce for his subsistence.

117. Explain the architectural style of the Indian Parliament building. In this context, discuss the contributions
of Baker and Lutyen to Indian architecture.

Hint
The Parliament House in New Delhi is the seat of the Parliament of India. It houses the Lok Sabha and the Rajya
Sabha which represent lower and upper houses respectively in India's bicameral parliament.
The building was designed by the British architects Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker and was constructed
between 1921 and 1927. It was opened in January 1927 as the seat of the Imperial Legislative Council.
The Parliament House has a hybrid architectural style. It has Hindu, Buddhist, Saracenic Mughal and Roman
features.
It has a circular structure believed to be inspired from the circular structure of the 11th-century Chausath Yogini
Temple in Morena district of Madhya Pradesh.
The building is surrounded by beautiful gardens, fountains, sprawling lawns and watercourses and boundary walls have
blocks of sandstone carved in geometrical patterns and jallis, features borrowed from the Mughals.
The use of Indian symbols like- the Chajjas are a reminder of craftsmanship displayed in ancient monuments and
memorials.
The dome is thought to have been taken from Buddhist stupas.
It also used the advanced British structural engineering standards like steel, Iron and concrete.
Inscriptions from the Upanishads, Mahabharata, Manu Smriti and other texts are indicative of the spirit with which
parliamentarians should conduct business.
A dome over the passage to the Central Hall also has a Quranic inscription which says, “God will not change the
condition of the people unless they bring about a change themselves.”
These features demonstrate the secular nature of the Republic of which the Parliament House is the nucleus.
Apart from designing the Parliament House, they also designed other buildings, these are- Rashtrapati Bhavan,
Secretariat, North and South Block and Rajpath(Earlier known as Kingsway).
However, both differed in their views regarding the development of building on Raisina Hill. Baker’s twin secretariat
buildings combine European-style columns and Renaissance-like dome with Indian architectural elements like the
use of red sandstone, jallis (perforated screens), chajja (eaves), chhatris (canopies) carved brackets as well as
elephant-heads on pillar capitals.
While Lutyens’s Viceroy House, on the other hand, looks more classical with not so much of a conscious blending of
the West and the East. He was perhaps more keen on creating a new architectural form.
Due to the confluence of many styles and their disagreement on many designs, anonymous structures came to light.
From outside they look grand and beautiful but are compromised on convenience and utility.

118. Describing the different aspects of Carnatic Music, show how it is different from Hindustani Music.

Answer:
Hindustani and Carnatic music systems developed from a common ancestor.

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Carnatic Music originated in the Bhakti movement, while Hindustani music originated during the Vedic period.
Therefore both have a great link with religion.
Both the music developed with Sanskrit language scripts in itself and through Vedic traditions.
The main vocal forms of Hindustani music are Dhrupad, Khayal, Tarana, Thumri, Dadra, and Gazals.
The Carnatic music embraces much creativity composed by Alpana, Niraval, Kalpnaswaram and Ragam Thana
Pallavi.
Characteristics of Carnatic Music –
• The intensity of sound can be controlled in this style.
• Use of helical (Kundali) swaras is evident.
• Free and typical style of raga.
• The singer recites the ‘alap’ and ‘tanam’.
• The time durations are well-defined in Carnatic music. Madhya is twice of ‘Vilamba’ and the ‘Dhruta’ is
twice of Madhya.
It differs from the Hindustani music in the following ways:

Carnatic Hindustani

72 ragas 6 major ragas

Veena, Mridangam and Mandolin Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar and Santoor

Indigenous Afghan Persian and Arab

Only one particular prescribed style of singing Several sub-styles

Freedom to improvise Scope to do variations and improvise

Both have equal importance More importance to vocal music

119. Discuss the architectural features of the British in India, with suitable examples.

Answer:
Fort St. George in Madras and Fort St. William in Calcutta can be considered as the first modern British structures
in India. These buildings were created in Indo-Gothic style.
Features of Indo-Gothic style:

a) It is a confluence of many styles like Mughal, Buddhist, Hindu and Gothic.

b) Followed the crucified ground plan.
c) Introduction of advanced British structural engineering standards, whereby steel, Iron rod and poured
concrete were the building material.
d) Created stronger and thinner walls.
e) Presence of large windows.

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f) Pointed arches were used in the buildings.
Example - Victoria Terminus, Mumbai.
Victoria Memorial, Calcutta.
St. Paul Cathedral, Calcutta.
Gateway of India, Mumbai.
Churchgate, Mumbai.
After the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911, a new style known as Neo-Roman style was developed.
Features of Neo-Roman style:
a) Developed by two British architects - Herbert Baker and Edwin Lutyens.

b) Very large and imposing buildings were created.

c) Due to the confluence of many styles, anonymous structures came to light.
d) From outside, it looks grand and beautiful, but it is compromised on convenience and utility.
e) Buildings are unsustainable.
f) Many buildings are circular in shape.
Example - Parliament Building
Rashtrapati Bhawan.
Secretariat.
North and South Block.

120. Modern art in India can be best understood as a result of the conflict between colonialism and nationalism.
In the light of this statement discuss the inspiration of Bengal School of Art.

Hint

The establishment of the British Empire in the 18th century laid the foundation for modern India’s contact with the
West. Westernization paved the way for a radical change of artistic taste, and a style emerged that represented the
adjustment of traditional artists to new fashions and demands.
In the 18th century, the merchants of the East India Company provided a large market for native art, and a distinct
genre of watercolour painting developed known as the Company style that depicted scenes of everyday life, regalia of
princely courts, and Indian festivities and rituals.
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However, the attitude in the mid-19th century was one of general British disregard for Indian art, followed by the
establishment of British art schools in Calcutta and Madras (1854) and in Bombay (1857) and the propagation of
Western values in art education.
Raja Ravi Varma was among the first Indian painters to use Western techniques to illustrate Indian themes and
traditions. His work was considered to be among the best examples of the fusion of Indian traditions with the
techniques of European academic art, and it came to play an important role in the development of the Indian national
consciousness.

The Bengal School of Art, commonly referred to as the Bengal School, arose in the early 20th century as an avant
garde and nationalist movement reacting against the Western academic art styles previously promoted in India.
Also known as “Indian style of painting” in its early days, it was led by Abanindranath Tagore. It promoted a return
to paintings such as the Mughal miniatures and Rajasthani and Pahari styles that presented elegant scenes of
distinctly Indian traditions and daily life.
The best known painting by Tagore is Bharat Mata (“Mother India”), depicting a young woman with four arms in
the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India’s national aspirations.
By synthesising folk art, Indian painting traditions, Hindu imagery, indigenous materials and depictions of
contemporary rural life, artists of the Bengal School of Art celebrate humanism and bring a dynamic voice to Indian
identity, freedom, and liberation.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: SOCIETY (GS 1)

TOPIC: INEQUALITY IN INDIA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INEQUALITY IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................................................... 3

INTRODUCTION: ................................................................................................................................................................. 3

INEQUALITY IN INDIA: ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF INEQUALITY IN INDIA:............................................................................................................. 3

TYPES OF INEQUALITY IN INDIA:.................................................................................................................................... 3

CASTEISM: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3

UNTOUCHABILITY: ........................................................................................................................................................ 4

GENDER DISCRIMINATION:.......................................................................................................................................... 5

RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION: ..................................................................................................................................... 5

ETHNICITY: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6

RACISM: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6

CLASS INEQUALITY:...................................................................................................................................................... 6

INCOME INEQUALITY: .................................................................................................................................................. 6

CONSEQUENCES OF INEQUALITIES: ........................................................................................................................... 9

WAYS TO TACKLE INEQUALITY IN INDIA: .................................................................................................................... 9

COMPETING INTERESTS: THE CONSTITUTION, INEQUALITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE: ......................................... 10

CONSTITUTIONAL NORMS AND SOCIAL JUSTICE: INTERPRETATION TO AID SOCIAL JUSTICE AND TO

ADDRESS INEQUALITY: .................................................................................................................................................. 10

SOCIAL MOBILITY TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEM OF INEQUALITY: ......................................................................... 11

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INCREASING SOCIAL MOBILITY AND TO REDUCE INEQUALITY:............................ 11

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INEQUALITY IN INDIA
Introduction:
We live in India, the largest democracy in the world. This means that in India, there is a rule of the people, by the people
and for the people. There are many important requirements for a country to truly be democratic and the most important
is Equality for its citizens. This means that everybody is equal in the eyes of law, without any discrimination on grounds
of race, religion, gender, caste, class or birth.
Equality is so important because it preserves the “dignity” of an individual. Dignity means self-respect and the respect
an individual deserves from others for being a fellow human being. It is an essential and basic human right. However,
this ideal case doesn’t exist. Even today, many forms of inequality exist in India.
Inequality in India:
The United Nations describes inequality as “the state of not being equal, especially in status, rights and
opportunities”.
Inequality can be broadly classified in to:
Economic inequality: Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of income and opportunity between individuals
or different groups in society.
Social inequality: It occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly based on norms of a society that
creates specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories e.g. religion, kinship, prestige, race, caste, ethnicity,
gender etc. have different access to resources of power, prestige and wealth depending on the norms of a society.
Both these categories are deeply intertwined and inequality of one type affects the inequality in another e.g. Social
Inequality due to gender have large impact on income of women. In patriarchal societies large gender wage gap tends
to exist.
Characteristics of inequality in India:

➢ Local-level inequality within rural villages and urban blocks accounts for the bulk of overall inequality in India.
Understanding what occurs at the local level is thus important for understanding overall inequality. Local-level
inequality, and its direction of change varies considerably across India’s states.
➢ National averages also mask disparities across social groups. Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes have
persistently worse outcomes across health, education, and monetary indicators.
➢ Another dimension where India stands out is gender-based inequality. While gender gaps in education and
nutrition have been closing over time the disadvantaged position of women is very visible in the labour market. But
the true extent and impact of gender inequality remains difficult to establish because most economic indicators are
household-based and they therefore mask the intra-household inequality between genders.

Types of Inequality in India:

Casteism:
The caste system is an ancient, age-old belief system that plagues India till today. It is a system that has divides Hindus
into rigid, hierarchical occupational groups called “varna”. It considers some groups “pure” and some “impure”.
This Varna system includes four Varnas- Bhramin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra, in descending order of purity. Today
also, discrimination against people of various caste groups is common in rural areas, but surprisingly, even among
educated urban dwellers.
The economic census, which was conducted in 2013 and covered 58.5 million economic enterprises, provides data
on social-group wise ownership of proprietary establishments. The relative ownership figures for each social group
can be calculated by dividing these figures with the share of each social group in the workforce (as per 2011-12 NSSO
data).
A relative share of one indicates proportionate ownership while a relative share less than 1 indicates less than
proportionate ownership. The NSSO data on caste break-up is based on self-reported data but is among the most

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credible and updated data on caste-wise break-up of the population

Untouchability:
Due to the above Varna system, one of the most negative, yet unique features of India is the untouchability system. This
system wrongly looks at the people from the lower castes as “impure”.
Other people of higher castes used to refrain from touching them, thus calling them “untouchables”. When such cruel
incidents are still seen in the news, it is an embarrassment to our country and us.

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Gender Discrimination:
In India, traditionally, females and males were given rigid roles that they had to follow. For example, in villages,
women are expected to cook, clean, bear children and raise them and men are the ones who work and earn money.
The law does not allow such kind gender discrimination. Males and females are equal in the eyes of law and they must
be given equal dignity and opportunities.

Religious Discrimination:
It is sad to see that in some places, people who follow a different religion than most people often face discrimination.
They are looked down upon, often with suspicion. India is a secular country and these practices are not allowed by law.
We are all free to peacefully practise any religion we want to.

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Ethnicity:
Tribal communities in India have been identified as ethnic group on the basis of their unique culture, language, dialect,
geographical location, customs etc.
The National Family Health Survey 2015-16 (NFHS-4) showed that 45.9% of ST population were in the lowest
wealth bracket as compared to 26.6% of SC population, 18.3% of OBCs, 9.7% of other castes.
Racism:
India is a diverse country with people belonging to different places. People have different cultures, food, clothes and
also look different but it doesn’t mean they should be discriminated against.
We need to know that Equality is a basic human right and every human being on Earth deserves fair treatment and
access to opportunities.
Class Inequality:
When we look around, we can see that everyone doesn’t have equal amounts of money or resources. We hear news
of a billionaire whose house costs a billion dollars, but at the same time see beggars on the roads with no food or shelter.
This called Class Inequality, where people of a high class have excess resources, while the majority live in poverty
with no basic food, water, clothes or shelter. There is no equal distribution of resources.

Income inequality:
Following the introduction of economic reforms in the early 1990s, India today is achieving unprecedented per capita
growth rates. Poverty reduction has also accelerated and is justly celebrated. There is great concern, however, that this
growth is being accompanied by rising inequality.

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Inequality has been rising sharply for the last three decades. The richest have cornered a huge part of the wealth
created through crony capitalism and inheritance.
They are getting richer at a much faster pace while the poor are still struggling to earn a minimum wage and
access quality education and healthcare services, which continue to suffer from chronic under-investment. These
widening gaps and rising inequalities affect women and children the most.

Figure Income share of top 1%

Source: Chancel and Piketty (2017) Figure: Gini coefficient of
wealth (asset holdings)
Source: Authors’ calculations based on AIDIS data.

The distribution of wealth provides a complementary perspective on consumption and income inequality. Wealth data
points to much higher levels of inequality than either consumption or income data. The Gini coefficient for wealth based
on The All India Debt and Investment Surveys (AIDIS) was 0.75 for 2012, rising from 0.67 in 2002
India has made substantial gains in health and education over the past few decades, but the picture is not uniformly
positive. Disparities persist across social groups, states, and rural–urban areas, reflecting inequalities in opportunity to
access basic services.

➢ Inequality in India is on the rise — but the speed and degree depends on how it is measured
➢ Inequalities across population groups remain stark
➢ Inequality in villages and urban neighbour hoods accounts for the bulk of national inequality
➢ Income mobility has been rising, but large numbers of people who have exited poverty in recent decades
remain vulnerable
➢ The poor today is largely poor in the long term
➢ Intergenerational mobility is low and shows no clear sign of improving — this implies pervasive inequality
of opportunity

Oxfam report:
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Let's look at the numbers:

1% The top 10% of the Indian population holds 77% of the total national wealth. 73% of the wealth
generated in 2017 went to the richest 1%, while 67 million Indians who comprise the poorest half of
the population saw only a 1% increase in their wealth.
70 There are 119 billionaires in India. Their number has increased from only 9 in 2000 to 101 in 2017.
Between 2018 and 2022, India is estimated to produce 70 new millionaires every day.
10x Billionaires' fortunes increased by almost 10 times over a decade and their total wealth is higher than
the entire Union budget of India for the fiscal year 2018-19, which was at INR 24422 billion.
63M Many ordinary Indians are not able to access the health care they need. 63 million of them are pushed
into poverty because of healthcare costs every year - almost two people every second.
941 Years It would take 941 years for a minimum wage worker in rural India to earn what the top paid executive
at a leading Indian garment company earns in a year.

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Consequences of Inequalities:
➢ Inequalities tend to produce social conflict among the social groups.
➢ Inequalities among ethnic groups have led to various ethnic movements demanding separate states or autonomous
regions or even outright secession from India. North East has been rocked by numerous such ethnic movement e.g.
by Nagas for greater Nagalim etc.
➢ Religious inequality tends to generate feeling of exclusion among religious minority groups. This reduces their
participation in mainstream, in India religious minorities have large population their economic exclusion
compromises the GDP growth of nation as whole.
➢ Poor development indicators like IMR, MMR, low per capita income, lower education and learning outcomes at
schools, high rate of population growth can be traced to existing socio-economic inequalities.
➢ High economic inequality is detrimental to public healthcare and education. Upper and Middle classes do not have
vested interest in well-functioning public healthcare and education as they have means to access private healthcare
and education.
Ways to tackle inequality in India:
➢ Introduce land reforms and raise taxation for the wealthy: Government should work towards reducing asset
inequality through redistributive land reforms but also through inheritance taxes, preventing monopoly of control
over water, forests and mineral resources and reducing financial concentration. The equality of opportunity needs
to be increased through good quality and universal public provision of essential amenities and social services.
➢ Government can raise the public resources for doing all this by taxing the wealthy more and by increasing the
effective taxation of corporations, which have benefited greatly from the boom and more than doubled their share
of national income, but not been taxed accordingly.
➢ Give a voice to oppressed groups: Government can tackle bias against caste and gender first of all by recognising
the value and dignity of all work (including unpaid work) and all workers (including those in the most difficult
arduous and degraded occupations).
➢ It should also provide a greater voice to traditionally oppressed and suppressed groups, including by enabling unions
and association, and making public and corporate private activity more transparent and accountable to the people
generally.
➢ Improve the balance of mass media: The media in India plays a role in sustaining inequality. This is becoming an
urgent problem. Serious measures should be taken to reduce corporate takeover and manipulation of mass media.
➢ Eliminate caste discrimination: Caste discrimination is still all pervasive. Discrimination based on caste status is
a root cause of the high poverty levels that caste-affected people experience. Most Dalits, live below the poverty
line, earn less than the minimum wage, have no access to education, experience segregation in access to housing
and suffer from numerous diseases, not least because of lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation. This
inequality is exacerbated by the lack of implementation of existing laws to protect the Dalits.
➢ Harness the power of technology: Policymakers should not forget that technology has helped in reducing some of
the access barriers in India, particularly in relation to access to information. Policymakers should focus on making
technology cheaper and deepening its penetration.
➢ Widen access to quality basic services: A two-tier system has been created, with largely privatised quality
education and health care for those who can pay, and a large population left to fend for themselves with very poor-
quality public services.
➢ Make women more visible in public life and institutions: It is shocking to see that in India women make up only
5% of the total police force, just two out of 24 supreme court judges and as we are going through polls right now,
only 11% of the last parliament are women.
➢ Ensure that India's growth is for the benefit of the many, not the few: India is a place of increasingly stark
extremes in wealth. In the same India where millions use smartphones, millions live in poverty. Within India, there
are many different countries. One is high-flying and tech-savvy, with people driving flashy cars in and out of top-
starred hotels and clubs. Another is white-collared middle class, and another is still struggling to survive.
➢ Make development inclusive of those with disabilities: As far as India is concerned, we might score very highly
in terms of growth of physical infrastructure, but most of the public places are inaccessible to people with
disabilities. As per the 2011 census, India has about 2.7 million people with disabilities, and only a handful of those
enjoy education and/or employment.
➢ Challenge the growth agenda: Beware of phrases like 'inclusive growth' and 'growth with a human face'. These
concepts are not helpful and basically serve the purpose of hiding the structural violence and poverty in India.
➢ Ensure that all groups and communities can express their voice without fear: While they may have the vote,
Dalits in the past experienced election violence. In the last election the National Dalit Election Watch (NDEW)
recorded 263 incidents of election violence against Dalits, formally known as untouchables, in India. The violence

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manifests in several forms with Dalits being threatened, abused and prevented from voting and also violently
attacked after the polls.
➢ Stop the blame game: Instead of addressing the actual causes of inequality, we indulge in a blame game. Both the
middle classes and political leaders have a tendency to blame the poor for their poverty, rather than to consider
broader structural issues. When visiting Anand in Gujarat last year, Narendra Modi blamed the huge problem of
child malnutrition in the state on the parents of the children. There is a very strong tendency among the middle class
to treat poverty and inequality as natural and inevitable.
COMPETING INTERESTS: THE CONSTITUTION, INEQUALITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE:
• India exists at so many levels. The multi-religious and multicultural composition of the population with distinct
streams of tribal culture is one aspect of the plurality. Many divides classify the Indian people.
• The impact that culture, religion, and caste have on the urban–rural divide, rich-poor divide and the literate-illiterate
divide is varied. Deeply stratified by caste and poverty, there are groupings and sub-groupings among the rural poor.
• The urban working class comprises a very wide range. Then, there is the well-organised domestic business class
as also the professional and commercial class. The urban professional class is highly vocal. Competing interests
operate on the Indian social scene and clamour for control of the State’s resources.
• However, there are some basic objectives laid down in the Constitution and which are generally agreed in the
Indian political world as being obviously just. These will be empowerment of the poor and marginalised, poverty
alleviation, ending of caste and positive steps to treat all groups equally.
• Competing interests do not always reflect a clear class divide. Take the issue of the close down of a factory
because it emits toxic waste and affects the health of those around. This is a matter of life, which the Constitution
protects.
• The flipside is that the closure will render people jobless. Livelihood again, is a matter of life that the Constitution
protects.
• It is interesting that at the time of drawing up the Constitution, the Constituent Assembly was fully aware of this
complexity and plurality but was intent on securing social justice as a guarantee.

CONSTITUTIONAL NORMS AND SOCIAL JUSTICE: INTERPRETATION TO AID SOCIAL JUSTICE

AND TO ADDRESS INEQUALITY:
It is useful to understand that there is a difference between law and justice. The essence of law is its force. Law is law
because it carries the means to coerce or force obedience. The power of the state is behind it.
The essence of justice is fairness. Any system of laws functions through a hierarchy of authorities. The basic norm
from which all other rules and authorities flow is called the Constitution.
It is the document that constitutes a nation’s tenets. The Indian Constitution is India’s basic norm.

• All other laws are made as per the procedures the Constitution prescribes. These laws are made and implemented
by the authorities specified by the Constitution.
• A hierarchy of courts (which too are authorities created by the Constitution) interpret the laws when there is a
dispute. The Supreme Court is the highest court and the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution.
• The Supreme Court has enhanced the substance of Fundamental Rights in the Constitution in many important
ways.
• The Constitution is not just a ready reference of do’s and don’ts for social justice. It has the potential for the
meaning of social justice to be extended.

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Social movements have also aided the Courts and authorities to interpret the contents of rights and principles in keeping
with the contemporary understanding on social justice. Law and Courts are sites where competing views are debated.
The Constitution remains a means to channelise and civilise political power towards social welfare.

A Fundamental Right includes all that is incidental to it. The terse words of Article 21 recognising the right to
life and liberty have been interpreted as including all that goes into a life of quality, including livelihood,
health, shelter, education and dignity. In various pronouncements different attributes of ‘life’ have been expanded
and ‘life’ has been explained to mean more than mere animal existence.
These interpretations have been used to provide relief to prisoners subjected to torture and deprivation, release
and rehabilitation of bonded labourers, against environmentally degrading activities, to provide primary health
care and primary education.
In 1993 the Supreme Court held that Right to Information is part of and incidental to the Right to
Expression under Article 19(1) (a).
Ø Reading Directive Principles into the content of Fundamental Rights. The Supreme Court read the
Directive Principle of “equal pay for equal work” into the Fundamental Right to Equality under Article 14 and
has provided relief to many plantation and agricultural labourers and to others.

Social Mobility to address the problem of inequality:

Social mobility is a complex process to measure and requires a lot of data. Let’s discuss intergenerational income
mobility and intergenerational occupational mobility which has been very evident in India.
Intergenerational income mobility in India:
It is the association between the income of the parent with that of the children when they grow up. This mobility measure
helps to determine how a child’s income in future is similar to their parent’s income. This gives an idea about the society
in which they live. In India, for a child whose parents’ income is very low, their chances of reaching into a high-income
group are therefore low as well. Similarly, the children whose parents’ income is high tend to enjoy the same in the
future. Thus, most children will end up in the same position as their parents.
Intergenerational occupational mobility:
It is the relationship between the occupation of the parents and the future occupation of the children. In a simple sense,
it means the extent up to which the children are going to follow the same occupation as their parents. For instance, how
likely is it that the son of a barber would become a barber itself or go on to some other job.
In a country like India, this is more relevant. Occupations are related to the caste of the individual. The caste system has
a strong occupational affiliation. In this aspect also, India has less mobility. The children born to parents involved in
skilled occupations, end up in the same sector.
Similarly, the majority of children born to unskilled workers, also end up in unskilled professions. However, it is
important to know that this mobility is high in urban areas. Thus, a child of an unskilled worker in urban areas has more
chances of getting into skilled jobs than a child of unskilled labor in rural areas. Thus, here again, we see social inequality
playing a vital role in the social mobility of society.
Thus, we can say that social mobility in India is very low. This is proven by the Global Social Mobility Index, wherein
India stood at the 76th position out of 82 countries. Social mobility in the country has increased but it is still very low.
This signifies the unequal opportunities present in the country. It has led to a situation where rich people get more rich
and poor people to get poorer.
Recommendations for increasing social mobility and to reduce inequality:
➢ As stated above, India needs to improve its social mobility to provide a situation where everyone has the same
level of opportunities to excel in their life. Steps were taken earlier but they failed. There are a few areas where the
government needs to work for having a better society in the country. Some of these measures have been listed
below-
➢ There is a need to increase geographical mobility. As stated above states differ in opportunities that they provide
to their people. This is the reason many people get involved in internal migration that is moving within states itself
for better opportunities. People generally don’t involve in going from one state to another as social benefits are
issued at the state level. There are reservations by many states for their residents in many important jobs. This is not
favourable for migrants and they face discrimination as well. Thus, it is not possible for everyone to migrate to
different places to get equal opportunities. The government should take steps to create equal opportunities within

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the state itself. Also, a positive political discourse around migration is needed to increase geographic and social
mobility.
➢ Education plays a very important role in changing the social mobility of a country. The country should aim to
improve equality in education. It is seen that people belonging to high-class rich families are able to get a better
education than those who are not rich. There is a need for investment in the education sector particularly in areas
where access to education for the children is very low. New ways need to be developed to make education available
to the disadvantaged groups. Education should be made accessible not only for the children but for also those people
who want to learn again in their life. Education helps in bringing everyone on the same level thus, increasing social
mobility in society.
➢ Youth are very important for any country and especially whose majority population is youth. The
government should focus on these youth and invest in them. There is a need to create a situation where all these
youth have equal opportunities to excel. However, a major problem that youth is facing in the country is that most
of them find it difficult to get a job. This has to be solved. Moreover, youth need to be guided by various programs
like internships to develop their skill.
➢ A special focus needs to be given to social protection to the workforce. Social protection like maternity leave,
paid sick leave, etc support the individuals. These protections help the workers during hard times and thus help
in increasing mobility. This social protection can help the individual in reducing the risks of poverty and increasing
long-term earnings.
➢ Organizations and companies can also help in increasing social mobility in the country. Many times, companies
hire new individuals based on certain biases. Sometimes, the promotions given by these organizations are based on
gender. These types of practices increase the gap between individuals.
Thus, contributing to unequal opportunities for them and hence decreasing social mobility. Companies should try to
prevent these activities. For instance, a blind hiring process should be followed by the companies which would prevent
any type of biases while hiring. A fair promotion strategy needs to be implemented to reduce any disparity among
various groups. The government should play a role in making the companies accountable in these aspects.
Equal opportunities would lead to generating the true potential of the people of a country. Especially in India where
most of the people are young, there is an ardent need to work towards increasing social mobility in the country.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: GS 1 – SOCIETY
TOPIC: POVERTY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
POVERTY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS ................................................................................................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 3
THEORIES ON POPULATION: ................................................................................................................................................... 3
THE MALTHUSIAN THEORY OF POPULATION GROWTH: ............................................................................................... 3
THE THEORY OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION:............................................................................................................... 3
OPTIMUM POPULATION THEORY:...................................................................................................................................... 4
DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION: ......................................................................................................................................... 4
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: ............................................................................................................................................. 4
DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND: ................................................................................................................................................. 5
CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND IN INDIA: ............................................................... 5
GOVERNMENT’S INITIATIVES:................................................................................................................................................ 5
NATIONAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION (NSDC): ........................................................................................... 6
NATIONAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY:.................................................................................................................... 6
MEASURES TO CONTROL POPULATION: ............................................................................................................................... 7
SOCIAL MEASURES:.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
ECONOMIC MEASURES: ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
OTHER MEASURES: ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
POVERTY AND POPULATION: ................................................................................................................................................. 8
CAUSES OF POVERTY IN INDIA: ............................................................................................................................................. 8
SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF POVERTY: ...................................................................................................................................... 9
GLOBAL INDICATORS ON POVERTY:................................................................................................................................... 11
MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY INDEX (MPI): ............................................................................................................... 11
GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX: .................................................................................................................................................. 12
MEASURES TO REDUCE POVERTY: ...................................................................................................................................... 12
WAY FORWARD: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12

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POVERTY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS
Introduction:
Population trends and dynamics can have an enormous effect on prospects for poverty reduction and sustainable
development. Poverty is influenced by – and influences – population dynamics, including population growth, age structure, and
rural-urban distribution.
All of this has a critical impact on a country’s development prospects and prospects for raising living standards for the poor.
Investments in better health, including reproductive health, are essential for individual security and for reducing mortality and
morbidity, which in turn improve a country’s productivity and development prospects.

THEORIES ON POPULATION:

THE MALTHUSIAN THEORY OF POPULATION GROWTH:

➢ Malthus’s theory of population growth – outlined in his Essay on Population (1798) – was a rather pessimistic one.
➢ He argued that human populations tend to grow at a much faster rate than the rate at which the means of human
subsistence (specially food, but also clothing and other agriculture-based products) can grow.
➢ Therefore humanity is condemned to live in poverty forever because the growth of agricultural production will
always be overtaken by population growth.
➢ While population rises in geometric progression (i.e., like 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 etc.), agricultural production can only grow
in arithmetic progression (i.e., like 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 etc.).
➢ Because population growth always outstrips growth in production of subsistence resources, the only way to increase
prosperity is by controlling the growth of population. Unfortunately, humanity has only a limited ability to
voluntarily reduce the growth of its population (through ‘preventive checks’ such as postponing marriage or
practicing sexual abstinence or celibacy). Malthus believed therefore that ‘positive checks’ to population growth –
in the form of famines and diseases – were inevitable because they were nature’s way of dealing with the imbalance
between food supply and increasing population.

THE THEORY OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION:

Another significant theory in demography is the theory of demographic transition. This suggests that population growth is
linked to overall levels of economic development and that every society follows a typical pattern of development related
population growth. There are three basic phases of population growth.

✓ The first stage is that of low population growth in a society that is underdeveloped and technologically backward.
✓ Growth rates are low because both the death rate and the birth rate are very high, so that the difference between the
two (or the net growth rate) is low.
✓ The third (and last) stage is also one of low growth in a developed society where both death rate and birth rate have
been reduced.

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OPTIMUM POPULATION THEORY:

Optimum population is defined as“that population which produces maximum economic welfare”.
By optimum population we mean the ideal number of population that a country should have considering its resources.
The optimum size of population is which along with the existing natural resources and a given state of technology, yields
the highest income per capita in a country. The optimum population means the best and the most desirable size of a country’s
population.
The optimum theory of population is based on two important assumptions.

✓ First, it is assumed that the proportion of working population to total population remains constant as the population
of the country increases.
✓ Secondly, it is assumed that as the population of a country increases, the natural resources, the capital stock and the
state of technology remains unchanged.

DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION:
✓ Fertility, mortality and migration are principal determinants of population growth. Population change depends on the
natural increase changes seen in birth rates and the change seen in migration.
✓ Changes in population size can be predicted based on changes in fertility (births), mortality (deaths) and migration rates.

Demographic transition:
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Demographic transition is the transition from a stable population with high mortality and fertility to a stable population
with low mortality and fertility during the transition, population growth and changes in the age structure of the population
are inevitable.
Demographic Dividend is very important. Historically demographic dividend has contributed upto 15% of the overall
growth in advanced economies.

Demographic dividend:

As per the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the demographic dividend is the economic growth potential
resulting out of changing population age structure with a large section of people in the working-age group of 15 years
to 64 years as compared to the non-working age population of below 14 years and above 65 years.
Demographic Dividend helps in increasing the workforce, there will be rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. It leads to
more investment in physical and human infrastructure.
The productivity of the country’s economy increases due to increased labour force. Demographic Dividend will help in
witnessing a massive shift towards middle-class society.
Change in population structure occur due to

• Falling birth rate

• Lower fertility rate
• Increased longevity
Falling birth rate and lower fertility rate will contribute to a reduction in expenditure, increased longevity will lead to an
increase in the size of the working-age population.
India has 62.5% of its population in the age group of 15-59 years which is ever increasing and will be at the peak
around 2036 when it will reach approximately 65%.
• These population parameters indicate an availability of demographic dividend in India, which started in 2005-06 and will
last till 2055-56.
• India’s demographic bulge can translate into a demographic dividend lest this human resource takes shape of a productive
quality workforce through interventions in the areas of healthcare, education, skill training and creation of sustainable
employment opportunities, failing which the supposed demographic advantage could turn into a demographic disaster.

Challenges Associated with the Demographic Dividend in India:

• India’s challenge is to create conditions for faster growth of productive jobs outside of agriculture, especially in the
organized manufacturing and in services, even while improving productivity in agriculture. Whether we can reap this
demographic dividend to the nation’s advantage or let it become a curse depends on two factors-
• Drastic quality improvement in this new workforce by much better education, health and skill development and Creating
better livelihood opportunities.
• According to the document on the framework of implementation of the National Mission for Skill Development (2015),
“India currently faces a severe shortage of well trained, skilled workers. Large sections of the educated workforce have little
or no job skills, making them largely unemployable. Therefore, India must focus on scaling up skill training efforts to meet
the demands of employers and drive economic growth."
• In India, the broad picture shows a lack of highly trained, quality labour and job skills contributing to poor demographic
dividend realizations.
• A closer look implies various factors such as poor health which although obvious, play a major role in the poor performance
of working population.
• The status of institutions in India regarding caste discrimination, gender inequalities, widening income gap between the
rich and the poor, religious differences, inefficient and slow legal system- all contribute to the poor standard of living of the
masses.

Government’s Initiatives:
• To capitalize on the demographic bulge, the Government has undertaken a number of policy initiatives, programmatic and
systemic interventions.
Efforts are being made to equip youth with the skills required by today’s industries and address the demand & supply gaps,
but this is turning out to be a daunting task.
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National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC):

• Incorporated on 31st July, 2008, is a first-of-its-kind Public Private Partnership (PPP) in India set up to facilitate the
development and upgrading of the skills of the growing Indian through skill training programs.
• The vast majority of the unorganized sector does not possess the means to afford development workshops and training.
NSDC supports skill development efforts by funding skill training and development programmes and engages in detailed
research to discover skill gaps in the Indian workforce and developing accreditation norms.

National Skill Development Agency:

Currently, skill development efforts are spread across approximately20 separate ministries, 35 State Governments and
Union Territories and the private sector. The Office of the Advisor to the Prime Minister on PM‟s National Council on Skill
Development has been set up with the mandate to:
• Develop a strategy for skill development at the national and state level.
• Map the gaps in the area of skill development and develop strategies to address the deficit.
• Identify new areas for employability and promote skill development in such sectors.
• Promote greater use of Information Communications Technology.
• Develop and implement an action plan for skill development to maximize job generation within the country and create
human resources for global needs.
Under the National Skill Certification and Money Reward Scheme
encouragement is given for skill development for youth by providing monetary rewards for successful completion of
approved training programs.

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MEASURES TO CONTROL POPULATION:

Social Measures:

➢ Minimum age of marriage: The problem of child marriage is highly prominent .

➢ A marriage at a tender age leads to a long span for giving birth. Also young age marriage devoid people of
the education and awareness required to be sensitive towards and understand the consequences of raising too
many children.
➢ Raising the status of women: There is still discrimination to the women. They are confined to four walls of
the house.
➢ They are still confined to rearing and bearing children. So women should be given opportunities to develop
socially and economically.
➢ Free education should be given to them.
➢ Spread of Education: The spread of education changes the outlook of people. The educated men prefer to delay
marriage and adopt small family norms. Educated women are health conscious and avoid frequent pregnancies
and thus help in lowering birth rate.
➢ Adoption: Some parents do not have any child, despite costly medical treatment. It is advisable that they should
adopt orphan children. It will be beneficial to orphan children and children couples. Government should also
provide incentives for adopting.
➢ Social Security: More and more people should be covered under-social security schemes. So that they do not
depend upon others in the event of old age, sickness, unemployment etc. with these facilities they will have no
desire for more children.

Economic Measures:

➢ More employment opportunities: The first and foremost measure is to raise employment avenues in rural as
well as urban areas.
➢ Generally in rural areas there is disguised unemployment. So efforts should be made to migrate unemployed
persons from the rural side to the urban side.
➢ When their income is increased they would improve their standard of living and adopt small family norms.
➢ Another method to check the population is to provide employment to women.
➢ Women should be given incentive to give services in different fields. Women are taking an active part in
competitive examinations. As a result their number in teaching, medical and banking etc. is increasing rapidly.
➢ Providing incentives: Incentives have proved to be an efficient policy measure in combating most development
issues including population.
➢ Providing a health, educational or even financial incentive can be a highly effective population measure.
➢ There are certain incentive policies like paying certain money to people with not more than two kids or free or
discounted education for single children etc. which are in place in most developing countries facing population
related challenges and has also proved to be a useful measure.

Other Measures:

➢ Medical Facilities: One big drawback of developing countries is that of limited and highly centric medical
facilities.
➢ Because of the high rural-urban divide in developing countries, availability of good hospitals and doctors is
limited to urban centers thus resulting in high infant mortality rate in rural areas.
➢ Rural people, in order to ensure that at least some of their kids survive, give birth to more and more kids thus
contributing to the population growth.
➢ If provided with optimum medical facilities population rate will almost certainly decline.
➢ Legislative Actions: Not much result can be achieved from these if family planning and use of contraception
remains optional instead of mandatory.

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➢ Strict legal steps are required for child marriage, education, abolition of child labor and beggary and family
planning to reap significant benefits from it.
➢ Proper enforcement of laws related to child labour, slavery and beggary will ensure that parents don’t sell their
children or send them out to work thus forcing them to raise lesser number of kids.
➢ Recreational Facilities: Birth rate will likely to fall if there are different recreational facilities like cinema;
theatre, sports and dance etc. are available to the people.
➢ Spreading awareness: People need to be told and made to understand the consequences of having too many
children.
➢ Government and non-government institutions can carry awareness campaigns informing people how they will
be unable to provide good nutrition, education or medical facilities to their children if they have too many.
➢ Population is also a reason for illiteracy and diseases and malnutrition and the negative effects of it are required
to be communicated to the general public to expand their reasoning and understanding.

Strategies exist to exploit the demographic window of opportunity that India has today, but they need to be adopted and
implemented.
In addition, the challenge of meeting a range of goals related to education and health is bound to grow.
The dreams of huge income flow and resultant economic growth due to demographic dividend could be realized only when
we inculcate the required skills in the work force to make it as competent as its counterparts in the developed world.

POVERTY AND POPULATION:

Poverty and population can be described as two sides of the same coin. Although there are many other causes which
shall be listed below, the challenges differ from country to country, community to community and place to place.
The United Nations has made tireless efforts in eradicating poverty, yet nearly one billion people live in extreme poverty
and more than 800 million endure hunger and malnutrition. The United Nations has set 2030 as its target to eradicate
poverty. The problem of poverty has engaged the attention of individual scholars, institutions, governments and, above all,
state and society in tackling it in their sphere of activity.

CAUSES OF POVERTY IN INDIA:

• Heavy pressure of population:
Population has been rising in India at a rapid speed. This rise is mainly due to fall in death rate and more birth rate.
India’s population was 84.63 crores in 1991 and became 102.87 crores in 2001. This pressure of population proves hindrance
in the way of economic development

• Unemployment and under employment:

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Due to continuous rise in population, there is chronic unemployment and under employment in India. There is educated
unemployment and disguised unemployment. Poverty is just the reflection of unemployment.

• Capital Deficiency:
Capital is needed for setting up industry, transport and other projects. Shortage of capital creates hurdles in development.

• Under-developed economy:
The Indian economy is under developed due to low rate of growth. It is the main cause of poverty.

• Increase in Price:
The steep rise in prices has affected the poor badly. They have become more poor.

• Net National Income:

The net national income is quite low as compared to size of population. Low per capita income proves its poverty. The per
capita income in 2003-04 was Rs. 20989 which proves India is one of the poorest nations.

• Rural Economy:
Indian economy is rural economy. Indian agriculture is backward. It has great pressure of population. Income in agriculture
is low and disguised unemployment is more in agriculture.

• Lack of Skilled Labour:

In India, unskilled labour is in abundant supply but skilled labour is less due to insufficient industrial education and training.

• Deficiency of efficient Entrepreneurs:

For industrial development, able and efficient entrepreneurs are needed. In India, there is shortage of efficient entrepreneurs.
Less industrial development is a major cause of poverty.

• Lack of proper Industrialisation:

Industrially, India is a backward state. 3% of total working population is engaged in industry. So industrial backwardness
is major cause of poverty.

• Low rate of growth:

The growth rate of the economy has been 3.7% and growth rate of population has been 1.8%. So compared to population,
per capita growth rate of economy has been very low. It is the main cause of poverty.

• Outdated Social institutions:

The social structure of our country is full of outdated traditions and customs like caste system, laws of inheritance and
succession. These hamper the growth of economy.

• Improper use of Natural Resources:

India has large natural resources like iron, coal, manganese, mica etc. It has perennial flowing rivers that can generate hydro
electricity. Man power is abundant. But these sources are not put in proper use.

• Lack of Infrastructure:
The means of transport and communication have not been properly developed. The road transport is inadequate and railway
is quite less. Due to lack of proper development of road and rail transport, agricultural marketing is defective. Industries do
not get power supply and raw materials in time and finished goods are not properly marketed.

SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF POVERTY:

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• Health:

The poor suffer worse health and die younger. They have higher than average child and maternal mortality, higher levels of
disease, more limited access to health care and social protection, and gender inequality disadvantages further the health of
poor women and girls.

➢ For poor people especially, health is also a crucially important economic asset. Their livelihoods depend on it.
➢ When a poor or socially vulnerable person becomes ill or injured, the entire household can become trapped in a
downward spiral of lost income and high health care costs.
➢ The cascading effects may include diverting time from generating an income or from schooling to care for the sick;
they may also force the sale of assets required for livelihoods.
➢ Poor people are more vulnerable to this downward spiral as they are more prone to disease and have more limited
access to health care and social insurance.
• Education and Children:

➢ It is a fact that statistics show that for children who live below the poverty line, the chances of having school success
is much lower than their other peers .
➢ Coming on poverty, Children living in poverty often get exposed to more stress, more intense & longer lasting stress
that negatively impact attention, lowers fitness and focus, cognition, intelligence quotient (IQ) and social skills.
➢ Children living in poverty also tend to hear less reciprocal conversations, are engaged in conversation with less
complex vocabulary and less sentence structure, and are read to less frequently than their peers not living in poverty.
➢ This can lead to severe mental conditions that impact a student’s motivation and desire to do well in school.
➢ The low-income children are many a times more likely to drop out when they reach high school.
➢ In fact all possible consequences of poverty have an impact on children. Poor infrastructures, unemployment, lack
of basic services and income reflect on their lack of education, malnutrition, violence at home and outside, child
labour, diseases of all kinds, transmitted by the family or through the environment. Indeed, poverty had long lasting
and much regressive impacts on education.
• Women:
➢
Feminization of poverty is a trend of increasing inequality in living standards between men and women widening
gap in poverty between women and men as noticed towards the end of the twentieth century.
➢
This phenomenon is not only a consequence of lack of income, but is also the result of the deprivation of capabilities
and gender biases present in both societies and governments.
➢
It covers the poverty of choices and opportunities such as the ability to lead a long, healthy, and creative life, and
enjoying basic rights like freedom, respect, and dignity.
➢ The term "feminization of poverty" has been defined in many different ways focusing on income, assets, time,
health deprivations, and social and cultural exclusions.
• Environment:
➢ Poverty often causes people to put relatively more pressure on the environment which results in larger families (due
to high death rates and insecurity), improper human waste disposal leading to unhealthy living conditions, more
pressure on fragile land to meet their needs, overexploitation of natural resources and more deforestation.
➢ Insufficient knowledge about agricultural practices can also lead to a decline in crop yield and productivity etc.

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• Social exclusion:
Social exclusion causes the poverty of particular people, leading to higher rates of poverty among affected groups. It
hurts them materially – making them poor in terms of income, health or education by causing them to be denied access
to resources, markets and public services.

• Eldery prople:
➢ Studies show that an estimated 18 million elderly in India are living below the poverty line.
➢ On adjusting the consumption expenditure to household size and composition, there are no significant
differences in the incidence of poverty among elderly and non-elderly households in India.
• Differently abled people:
➢ Disability is both a cause and consequence of poverty.
➢ It is a cause because it can lead to job loss and reduced earnings, barriers to education and skills
development, significant additional expenses, and many other challenges that can lead to economic
hardship.
➢ Poverty and disability go hand in hand.
GLOBAL INDICATORS ON POVERTY:

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI):

The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) was developed in 2010 by the Oxford Poverty & Human
Development Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations Development Programme and uses health, education and standard
of living indicators to determine the incidence and intensity of poverty experienced by a population.
India is 62nd among 107 countries with an MPI score of 0.123 and 27.91% headcount ratio, based on the NFHS 4.

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GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX:

To comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels.
The GHI scores are calculated each year to assess progress and setbacks in combating hunger. It is calculated on the
basis of four indicators:

o Undernourishment: Share of the population with insufficient caloric intake.

o Child Wasting: Share of children under age five who have low weight for their height, reflecting acute
undernutrition.
o Child Stunting: Share of children under age five who have low height for their age, reflecting chronic
undernutrition.
o Child Mortality: The mortality rate of children under the age of five.
India has been ranked at 94 among 107 countries in the Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2020.

MEASURES TO REDUCE POVERTY:

The nine important measures which should be taken to reduce poverty are as follows:
1. Accelerating Economic Growth
2. Agricultural Growth and Poverty Alleviation
3. Speedy Development of Infrastructure
4. Accelerating Human Resource Development
5. Growth of Non-Farm Employment
6. Access to Assets
7. Access to Credit
8. Public Distribution System (PDS)
9. Direct Attack on Poverty: Special Employment Schemes for the Poor.

WAY FORWARD:
✓ The existence of poverty and rapid population growth has been seen in many LDC’s. These concepts have largely
been accepted as being interrelated however these relationships have proved to be highly complex therefore addressing
these problems have been difficult globally.
✓ Sustainable development practices within areas of poverty and levels of high population growth have historically
been poor. Poor rural areas often engage in overgrazing, water pollution and soil erosion.
✓ An increase in population levels are expected to exacerbate these areas forcing the movement into less productive, lesser
quality marginal lands. Urban areas, although said to not have an immediate dependence on resources to suffer from
practices which do not encourage sustainable development especially with respect to overpopulation.
✓ Efforts to combat the ‘vicious circle’ of poverty, rising population growth and environmental degradation are said to
require multidisciplinary policies in all sectors.
✓ These policies need to be carefully established taking account of the need to achieving sustainable development if the
resourced that are available for future generations are to be preserve.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: GS 1 SOCIETY
TOPIC: REGIONALISM

For my daily unique initiatives follow https://optimizeias.com/

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
REGIONALISM ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
REGION: ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
REGIONALISM:........................................................................................................................................................................... 3
TYPES OF REGIONALISM: ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
FEATURES OF REGIONALISM: ................................................................................................................................................. 4
REGIONALISM IN INDIA: .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
HISTORICAL LINEAGE: ............................................................................................................................................................. 4
FACTORS BEHIND REGIONALISM IN INDIA: ......................................................................................................................... 4
GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR: ................................................................................................................................................... 5
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS: .......................................................................................................................... 5
CASTE AND REGION: ............................................................................................................................................................ 5
ECONOMIC FACTORS: .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
POLITICAL-ADMINISTRATIVE FACTORS: ......................................................................................................................... 5
EFFECTS OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA: ................................................................................................................................... 5
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF REGIONALISM: .............................................................................................................................. 5
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF REGIONALISM: ............................................................................................................................ 6
SONS OF SOIL: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6
RECENT ISSUES ON REGIONALISM: ....................................................................................................................................... 6
ARGUMENTS AGAINST RESERVATION BASED ON PLACE OF BIRTH:.............................................................................. 7
ARGUMENTS FAVORING RESERVATION BASED ON PLACE OF BIRTH: .......................................................................... 7
SC JUDGMENTS:......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
WOMEN AND REGIONALISM: .................................................................................................................................................. 7
IMPACT OF REGION ON WOMEN: ........................................................................................................................................... 9
REGIONALISM AND NATIONALISM: ...................................................................................................................................... 9
1. REGIONALISM AND SECTIONALISM: ............................................................................................................................. 9
2. REGIONALISM AND SUB-REGIONALISM: ...................................................................................................................... 9
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICS OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA: ......................................................................................... 9
1. A PRODUCT OF DIVERSITIES:.......................................................................................................................................... 9
2. LINGUISTIC AFFINITY: ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
3. ECONOMIC DISPARITIES: ............................................................................................................................................... 10
4. PERPETUATION OF SOCIAL INJUSTICE: ...................................................................................................................... 10
5. FULFILLMENT OF ASPIRATIONS OF POLITICAL OPPORTUNITIES: ......................................................................... 10
6. FEDERAL SYSTEM AND URGE FOR MORE AUTONOMOUS STATES: ...................................................................... 10
REGIONALISM AND STEPS TO CONSTITUTIONAL RECOGNITION- DHAR COMMISSION REPORT: ........................... 10
STATE REORGANIZATION COMMISSION REPORT 1955: ............................................................................................... 10
INCEPTION OF REGIONAL COMMITTEES: ....................................................................................................................... 11
MEASURES TO CONTROL REGIONALISM:........................................................................................................................... 12
TO WITHER REGIONAL IMBALANCE: .............................................................................................................................. 12
STREAMLINING REGIONAL PARTIES: ............................................................................................................................. 12
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: ............................................................................................................................................. 12
RESTRUCTURING THE SOCIETY: ...................................................................................................................................... 12
CUSTOMS AND VALUES:.................................................................................................................................................... 12
DEVELOPED MEANS OF COMMUNICATION: .................................................................................................................. 13
EDUCATION: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 13
MASS MEDIA: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 13

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REGIONALISM

REGION:
When we think of a region, we imagine a space with a common language, particular people and their attachment to that
space. The culture of a region distinguishes it from other forms of spatial and political forms.
Region is always interpreted on the basis of geography, culture and so on. It is also linked to state, political parties,
leaders and other institutions.

REGIONALISM:

Regionalism means to situate the approach and sentiments towards the particular region. It is argued that regionalism
can be a form of resistance against the imposition of a particular cultural ideology that is linked to the integration of a
nation.
Regionalism is found to have connections with the cultural patterns that exist as a part of the dominant culture. Sometimes,
it becomes a threat to the nation state by regional groups who struggle for their particular sectional interests.
Regionalism is defined as a phenomenon in which people’s political loyalties become region centric. Regionalism is
an ideology which is based upon a number of factors like – language, race, religion, geography and so on and is
usually a result of ‘diversity’ and ‘disparity’. Interregional conflict is usually shaped around insider-outsider
complex - a complex that nurtures nativism and son-of-the-soil ideology.
Regional movement is an Identity Movement seeking special privileges, protection, and concessions from the state. It is a
movement for regional self-governance. In other words, it is a movement and ideology which aims to culminate itself
into formation of a state — i.e. a movement seeking pluralisation and federalization of existing polity and political
process.
Regionalism can have two aspects: –

• Functional: It aims to strengthen the roots of the federal system and is a device to promote and preserve local cultures,
languages etc.
• Dysfunctional: It has fissioning tendency and can lead to disintegration of the political system and can provoke people
against each other. It promotes parochialism.

Types of Regionalism:
• Though the typology of regionalism is an overlapping concept, a state is widely accepted as a unit for evolving the types
of regionalism. Three main types of regionalism may be conceived on that basis.
• First type of regionalism may be designated as supra —state regionalism which is an expression of group identity
of several states. In this type of regionalism, the group of states join hands to take common stand on the issue of mutual
interest vis-a- vis another group of states or at times against the union. The group identity thus forged is negative in
character and based on specific issue or issues.
• It is not an instance of permanent merger of state identities in the collective identity. Even at times inter-group rivalries,
tensions, and conflicts may tend to persist, simultaneously along with their cooperation. North Eastern states in India
may be said to have possessed the supra-state regionalism.
• The Second type of regionalism may be designated as inter-state regionalism which is coterminous with provincial
territories and involves juxtaposing of the identities of one or more states against another. It is also issue specific. The
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issue is highlighted because it sabotages their interest. Disputes between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the distribution
of Kaveri water may be construed as inter-state regionalism.
• The Third type of regionalism refers to intra-state regionalism wherein a part of the state strives for self-identity
and self-development and therefore, it is taken in a positive sense. In negative terms it militates against the collective
interest of the state as well as the nation. As for instance there is always a feeling of coastal region and western region
in Orissa.

Features of regionalism:
1. Regionalism is a psychic phenomenon.
2. It is built around as an expression of group identity, as well as loyalty to the region.
3. It presupposes the concept of development of one’s own region without taking into consideration the interest of other
region.
4. It prohibits people from other regions to be benefitted by a particular region.

Regionalism in India:
While there is an innate sense of a pan-Indian identity, various foreign sociologists/scholars have noted the fixation on caste,
tribe, language and community. Counter points include that regionalism has given rise to multi-party politics in India,
deepening federalism. Regionalism is not necessarily ‘anti-nation’ or even ‘anti-people’ but there are both functional and
dysfunctional aspects to consider.
In the last 100 years, there have been many regional movements in India with demands following into the following broad
categories:

• Secessionist Demands – Extreme form – Militant/Fundamentalist Groups – a new country separate from India
• Separatist Demands – A new state to be formed which can better serve the linguistic/ethnic minorities in the region.
• Full Statehood – Over the years, several Indian Union Territories got full statehood.
• Autonomy – demand for more power versus political interference from the central government.

We can trace back to the divide and rule colonial policies which sowed the seed in India.

Historical lineage:
➢ Pre-independent India was a land with fragmented regions that possessed autonomy in different degree. British
colonizers re-structured those regions for colonial exploitation.
➢ At the same time, privileged sections of the population responded to British colonialism in two ways. On the one hand,
they adopted colonial modernity for their upward mobility. On the other hand, they questioned the colonial onslaught
on their region.
➢ Thus, the notion of region in India during the period of colonialism and post-independent state is a skewed one. Regional
culture persisted in a dynamic fashion even after the formation of India. In other words, various strata of people in India
associated themselves with their regional cultures. At the same time, they are governed by the nation at large. Thus, the
regional cultures shape the consciousness of plural and unequal masses that are scattered throughout the country.
➢ Colonial modernity structured the regional cultures in different ways. In Regions and Regionalism other words,
missionaries and the British rulers engaged with the regional knowledge systems in a creative manner. They constructed
schools and provided social mobility to the women and other marginalized sections.
➢ They codified the regional and vernacular knowledge for purpose of governance. This helped the codification of the
vernacular cultures. The interests related to the ‘civilizing mission of the orient’ are political in nature.
➢ India was ‘colonized by caste’ before the entry of British colonizers. However, post-colonial formation of an
independent Indian state re-configured new class and caste structures under the form of new sovereignty. In the next
section let us look at the current trends on region and regionalism.

FACTORS BEHIND REGIONALISM IN INDIA:

Regionalism in India is a multidimensional phenomenon as it is a complex amalgam of geographical, historical, cultural,
economic, politico- administrative and psyche factors. It is not possible to indicate exactly any particular factor, which
has been solely responsible for the phenomenon of regionalism. Therefore, all these factors need to be explained briefly.
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Some of the most important the causes of regionalism in India are as follows:

Geographical Factor:
✓ The territorial orientation based on geographical boundaries relate to the inhabitants of a particular region which are
symbolic, at least in the Indian context.
✓ This is more so because of the linguistic distribution along geographical boundaries. The topographic and climatic
variations along with differences in the settlement pattern induce in people the concept of regionalism.

Historical and Cultural Factors:

✓ In the Indian scenario the historical or cultural factors may be considered the prime components of the phenomenon of
regionalism.
✓ The historical and cultural components interpret regionalism by way of cultural heritage, folklore, myths, symbolism
and historical traditions. People of a particular cultural group also derive inspirations from the noble deeds and glorious
achievements of the local heroes.

Caste and Region:

✓ Caste system and religion in Indian society play only a marginal roll in causing regionalism. Only when caste is
combined with linguistic preponderance or religion it may cause regional feeling.
✓ In the like manner religion is not so significant except when it is combined with linguistic homogeneity or based on
dogmatism and orthodoxy or linked with economic deprivation.

Economic Factors:
✓ In the present times, uneven developments in different parts of the country may be construed as the prime reason for
regionalism and separatism. There are certain regions in the country where industries and factories have been
concentrated, educational and health facilities are sufficiently provided, communication net work has been developed,
rapid agricultural development has been made possible.
✓ But there are also certain areas where the worth of independence is yet to be realized in terms of socio-economic
development.
✓ Of course, the British administration may be held responsible for causing such wide regional variations due to their
suitability for the purpose of administration, trade and commerce.
✓ But in the post-Independence era, efforts should have been made for regional balance in matters of industrial,
agricultural and above all, economic development.
✓ This disparity has caused the feeling of relative deprivation among the inhabitants of economically neglected regions.
It has manifested itself in the demand for separate states such as Bodoland or Jharkhand land, Uttarakhand, etc.

Political-Administrative Factors:
✓ Political parties, especially the regional political parties as well as local leaders exploit the regional sentiments, regional
deprivation and convert them to solidify their factional support bases. They give place to the regional problems in their
election manifesto and promise for political and regional development.
✓ In the present day Indian political scenario some regional parties have strongly emerged and captured power in some
states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Assam .
✓ Apart from that some other regional parties like Akali Dal in Punjab, Jharkhand party in Bihar, etc. have posed constant
threat to the nation.

EFFECTS OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA:

Positive effects of regionalism:
✓ Positive regionalism promotes a sense of pride in connecting to one's roots and culture.
✓ It has been noticed that often regional movements have helped the art and culture of many neglected regions to
flourish by increasing their exposure through local emphasis.

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Negative effects of regionalism:

The drawbacks of regionalism include the possibility for each individual city or county to lose their respective
independence and/or identity.”

• While trying to ensure the culture and tradition of a particular geographical area is sustained, regionalism often ends up
making the people of a certain region narrow minded and less accepting of other cultures found in different parts of
the country.
• In certain cases it develops a superiority complex in the minds of the people who have inhabited a place for many
years and gives them a false sense of ownership over the region. These effects of regionalism greatly hurt and disturb
one`s national identity.
• National identity is a sense of belonging to one nation, a feeling one shares with a group of people, regardless of one`s
citizenship status.
• Another regionalist policy known as decentralization is usually employed by the central government to spread its
decision making governance closer to the people. While these measures are often taken to improve the governance at
the grassroots level, it can lead to rebellion which is aided by the newly empowered inhabitants of a region.
• Another problem regionalism brings about is its disastrous effect on national integration.
• This leads to the formation of multiple communities within one nation and restricts the free interplay of culture and
tradition between a country`s citizens.
• The nation consists not only of variations in terms of people from different states, but also different languages, religions,
economic backgrounds as well as ethnic roots.

Impact of Regionalism on Indian Polity-

● Rise of regional parties.
● Re-focus on regional issues.
● Regionalist tendencies often stir inter-state hostility as its spillover effect.
● Regional movements often result in violent agitations, disturbs not only the law and order situation but also have
negative implications on the economy of the state as well as the nation.
● Regionalism sometimes undercuts the national interest by being a hurdle in international diplomacy.
● For instance- the opposition of regional/state parties of Tamil against the stand of the central government had a
direct implication on the relation of India with Sri Lanka.
● The disagreement of political leadership in West Bengal with the central government over the Land Boundary
Agreement and Teesta River Water sharing treaty with Bangladesh resulted in increased tensions between the two
nations.
● Regionalism can become a shield for militancy, extremism to create an internal security threat. Kashmir militancy
is an example of this type of regionalism.

SONS OF SOIL:
Sons of soil:

Sons of Soil doctrine underlies the view that a state specifically belongs to the main linguistic group inhabiting it or that
the state constitutes the exclusive 'homeland' of its main language speakers who are the 'sons of the soil' or the 'local
residents'.

RECENT ISSUES ON REGIONALISM:

• In recent times, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana and Assam have come under heavy criticism for countless
attacks on people who migrated from other states. At times, regionalism has been used for political leverage in order to
secure a vote bank
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• People are brain washed into believing philosophies that go against the very principles that establish us as a unity in
diversity.
• Worse still is the fact that once hatred develops towards a particular group of people, it persists throughout the ages.
• The Andhra Pradesh and Haryana governments has made it mandatory for existing and upcoming industries in
the state to reserve 75 per cent jobs for locals.

Arguments against Reservation Based on Place of Birth:

• Article 16 in the Constitution of India refers to equality of opportunity in government jobs.

• Article 16(1) provides for equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to 'employment or appointment' to
any office under the State.
• Article 16(2) provides that there cannot be any discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent,
place of birth, residence or any of them.
• Reservation on the basis of domicile and residence would mean discrimination as even a minimal departure creates an
irrational class depriving a meritorious candidate of his fundamental rights.
• This kind of parochialism encourages regionalism and threatens the unity of the nation.

Arguments favoring Reservation Based on Place of Birth:

• Article 16(3), allows for making provisions in government appointments with respect to residence (not place of birth).
• The Parliament (and not the legislature of a state) can prescribe residence within a state or union territory as a condition
for certain employments or appointments in that state or union territory, or local authority or other authority within that
state or union territory.
• Some states have been using the loopholes in the laws to reserve government jobs for locals. They have used other
criteria like language tests or proof of having resided/studied in the state for a certain period of time.
• In Maharashtra, only those living in the state for over 15 years with fluency in Marathi are eligible.
• In Jammu and Kashmir, government jobs are reserved for “domiciles”
• In West Bengal, reading and writing skills in Bengali is a criterion in recruitment to some posts.
• It is argued that giving preferential treatment to the residents of a state will help in rightful allocation of the resources
of the state and would encourage people to work within the boundaries of their state.
• This is also seen as a way to stop migration of people from backward states to metropolitans, thereby reducing the
burden on such cities.

SC Judgments:

• In 2019, the Allahabad High Court struck down a recruitment notification issued by the Uttar Pradesh Subordinate
Service Selection Commission, which prescribed preference for women who were “original residents” of the state.
• In the Kailash Chand Sharma vs State of Rajasthan case, 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that residence, be it within a
state, district or any other area, cannot be a basis for preferential reservation or treatment.
• While the Constitution specifically prohibits discrimination based on place of birth, the Supreme Court, in DP Joshi vs
Madhya Bharat case, 1955 has held domicile reservation, especially in educational institutions, as constitutional.

WOMEN AND REGIONALISM:

• The issues of region and regionalism have wider linkages with gender and particularly, women. But, the role of women
in relationship to region and regionalism remains invisible.
• In fact women’s participation is seldom recognized by institutions such as state, political parties and so on due to
patriarchal modes of operation in several forms. For instance, the formations of separate states such as Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand have had various political wings of women.

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• In the recent Telangana movement in which women are protesting against the Central government for a separate
Telangana from Andhra Pradesh, the participation of women is often ignored.
Eg: Chhattisgarh Mukti Morcha and Mahila Mukti Morcha.

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IMPACT OF REGION ON WOMEN:

• The social development of a particular region affects the gender relations of that region. For instance, women are
socially mobile in places such as Kerala.
• On the other hand, states such as Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh are backward in terms of development. This is
reflected in the gender indices of these states.
• Women still undergo different forms of oppression. ‘Secession’ also determines the status of women.

Regionalism and Nationalism:

It is imperative to distinguish between Nationalism and Regionalism. The former subordinates regional or sectional loyalties
to the latter, whereas in the case of latter local or regional loyalties are given precedence over national interests. Thus,
sectional interests are furthered and the national interests are made to suffer.

1. Regionalism and Sectionalism:

Regionalism can be differentiated from localism or sectionalism. The latter is motivated by very narrow interests of a class
or a particular community, the former is founded on cultural or ethnic factors viz., linguistic or traditional peculiarities. It
furnishes a ground for conceiving a sub-nationality.

2. Regionalism and Sub-Regionalism:

It is rather difficult to draw a line between regionalism and sub-regionalism precisely in the contemporary Indian political
scenario. However, factually speaking, a sub region refers to a small area within a region having different characteristics.
As such it can claim distinct identity. For example the Telangana Movement for carving out separate Telangana state being
a part of the Telugu speaking region of Andhra Pradesh may be categorised as sub-regionalism.

Characteristics of Politics of Regionalism in India:

The following are the salient characteristics of Politics of Regionalism in India:

1. A Product of Diversities:

India is a land of diversities. Indians have varied cultures. They speak different languages. They observe different customs.
Their socio-economic development also varies from state to state and even from one part of a state to the other. Even after
the redrawing of maps of the states on the linguistic basis, some areas of certain states are keen for their regional autonomy.
It has resulted in series of agitations for furthering their individual regional interests. A mention may be made of such
agitations—Marathwada in Maharashtra; a Saurashtra in Gujarat, a Jharkhand in Bihar and Orissa, Chhattisgarh in Madhya
Pradesh, a Bundelkhand or Uttarakhand in Uttar Pradesh, a Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir and Telangana in Andhra
Pradesh and Punjabi Suba in Punjab.

2. Linguistic Affinity:

Linguistic attachment constitutes another salient factor in this regard. In 1948, the report of Das Commission which opposed
the creation of the states on the language basis earned appreciation at the hands of Indian National Congress. But soon after
the top leaders of the Congress—Sardar Patel and J.L. Nehru endorsed the creation of Telugu speaking state. There was a
strong agitation in Madras and the eventual inception of Andhra state in 1953. It opened the Pandora Box. Henceforth
political reorganization of the country on linguistic basis gained momentum.

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3. Economic Disparities:

Economic disparities in the state resulting in injustice to a certain part of the state aggravates discontent among the people
and resentment begins. The protection
of interests of Maharashtrians was led by Shiv Sena (formed in 1967) to agitate against the non-Maharashtrians. Later the
All-Assam Students Union and All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad did the same in Assam to safeguard the interests of the
original Assamese. The safeguarding of the interests of the sons of the soil as apparent in the move for separate Telangana
state out of Andhra Pradesh, has become an essential ingredient of the politics of regionalism.

4. Perpetuation of Social Injustice:

Social injustice with a section of people in a part of state compels them to forge a united front and struggle for social equality
and social justice. The tribals of Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh voiced their sentiments for a separate Jharkhand state
as they were conscious of social injustices and poor economic plight. Like-wise people of Meghalaya and agitations in
Uttarakhand could not stand social inequalities and injustices and fought for separate states. The Gorkhas of Darjeeling ask
for Gorkhaland and Bodos of Assam demand Bodoland.

5. Fulfillment of Aspirations of Political Opportunities:

Some local or regional leaders aspire to gain better positions in political hierarchy if they manage to get carved a separate
state for catering to their interest. A minority in bigger state may become a majority in a smaller state. The agitations in
Punjab for Punjab Suba and Nagaland in the state of Assam and Gorkhas asking for inclusion of Nepali in VIII schedule
with an eye on Gorkhaland were governed mostly by the political reasons.
The Party system of the country is affected by the impact of regional politics. Regional parties are gaining ground in National
Politics. In the last four General Elections they have provided crutches to the National Parties to survive. They are the potent
supporters of National parties. The NDA led by Vajpayee banked on regional parties for sustenance. The UPA under Dr.
Manmohan Singh as P.M. also banks upon Trinamool Congress, RJD and DMK a great deal.

6. Federal System and Urge for more Autonomous States:

We have opted for federal mechanism of Government. It assures regional autonomy. Hence the people living in a vast
country like that of ours’ aspire for autonomous regions out of the big states which formed Union of Indian states after
merger and integration of princely states and Indian provinces in the Indian Union.
The party system is also affected by the concept of Regionalism. All major national and regional parties try to appease
regional or sub-regional or sectional organization. This hobnobbing eventually results in redrawing of the map of the states.
Hence it can be concluded that cultural diversities, economic disparities, social injustices, political aspirations of the self-
seekers and above all federal political system have resulted in sustenance of politics of Regionalism in Indian Polity.
Regionalism and Steps to Constitutional Recognition- Dhar Commission Report:
The Dhar Commission was appointed to give its report regarding the reorganization of the states on the linguistic basis. The
committee in its report submitted “in 1949 rejected the case of regionalism on language basis on the plea that it would prove
insidious to the national integration.

State Reorganization Commission Report 1955:

The states reorganization commission appointed in 1954 in its report in 1955 suggested political reorganization of the
country on the linguistic basis. Thus, fourteen states were created mainly on the linguistic basis in 1956, through the seventh
constitutional amendment act.
In 1960, 15th state of Gujarati speaking people was carved out of Bombay in 1956. The New Bombay state linguistically
homogenous was named Maharashtra. Besides, the Act devised an innovative scheme of zonal councils. The Indian union
was regrouped into five zones: Eastern, Western, Northern, Southern and General. The Planning Commission’ portrayed
these zones as regions.

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Inception of Regional Committees:

Under articles 371, the President of India issued order for the inception of Regional Committees for the states of Punjab
and Andhra in 1957 and 1958 respectively. This was done with an idea to safeguard the interests of the regions in these two
states by enabling these Regional Committees to render advice to their legislative and executive departments for taking
statutory and advisory actions in regard to ‘scheduled subjects.’
This step was taken to concede autonomy to the regions in the socio-economic and cultural affairs without attempting a sub-
federation in these two states of the Indian Union. The Regional Committees for the Hindi and Punjabi speaking areas in
the Punjab were created to effect transfer of autonomy in socio-economic spheres and checkmate separation being demanded
vehemently.
The chief minister, the speaker and members of legislative councils were excluded from their membership. The ministers
could participate in the proceedings but they could exercise vote in the committee of which they happened to be members.
Functions of the Committee Referred Above:
1. The Primary Functions of these Committees were:
(a) To deliberate over Bills other than money bills which contained provisions concerning the scheduled matters,
(b) To recommend to the State Government any legislative or executive action affecting the regions concerned regarding
any of the scheduled matters.
The scheduled matters comprised local self-government, public health and sanitation, higher and primary education,
regulation of admission to educational institutions in Telangana region, small and heavy industries, cooperative societies,
methods of recruitment of public servants to subordinate posts, adequate opportunities to the people of Telangana region in
public employment, prohibition of intoxicating liquors except for medicinal purposes.
2. Status of these Committees:
These committees were purely of an advisory type. Their meetings were held in camera and their deliberations were kept
secret until the legislative and executive departments of the state concerned took some concrete action in this regard. The
recommendations of these committees were normally accepted by State Government. However, in case of difference of
opinion between the committees and the state cabinet, decision rested with the Governor of the state. The decision of the
Governor was to be final.
3. Committees Wound up:
However, these committees were not a success. Hence they were described as ineffective bodies and hardly of much use to
the Region for which they were meant. They could not pull on well with the ministries or the state legislative assemblies.
The leaders of these committees also were at times provocative.
They complicated the matters and induced the people of the Region to demand the carving out of a full- fledged state. The
bifurcation of the Punjab in 1966 can be attributed to this fact. The Regional Committees of the Punjab and of the Telangana
eventually came to an end in 1966 and 1974 respectively. Thus, experiment of sub-federalism in India through these
committees was a failure. It could not even have a fair trial and met its doom un-ceremonially.
V. Amendment Acts:
Once the political leaders relented from the position they had earlier adopted, the states on the linguistic basis were brought
into existence. The seventh Amendment Act 1956 brought about most momentous changes in the constitution by
reorganizing the states on language basis. Thus, linguistic regionalism had its sway eventually.
A few examples are quoted as under:
1. The 12th Amendment Act 1961:
Integrated Goa, Daman and Diu with the Union of India with effect from December 20, 1961 and included them in the First
schedule as the eighth Union territory.
2. The 13th Amendment Act 1962:
It carved out Nagaland for offering special protection to Naga regarding their religious or social practices, their customary
law and ownership of transfer of land. No act of parliament was to interfere in the above affairs of the Naga till Legislative
Assembly of Naga so desired it through a resolution.
3. The 14th Amendment Act 1962:
It declared Pondicherry formerly a French possession as the integral part of the Indian Union. It was made a Union territory.
4. The 18th Amendment Act 1966:
It created two new states—Haryana and Punjabi Sabha as a result of re-organisation of the state on linguistic regional basis.

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5. The 22nd Amendment Act 1966:

It carved out an autonomous Hill state ‘Meghalaya’ out of Assam territory to benefit residents of the Region.
6. The 27th Amendment Act 1974:
It created two Union territories—Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.
7. The 36th Amendment:
It carved out Sikkim as full fledged state of Indian union, the 35th amendment act 1974, hand provided for ‘Sikkim’ the
status of Associate State. A little later through 36th amendment act, its status was made higher is that of a full fledged state.
All these amendments reflect that the constitution of India has duly recognized the aspirations of the tribals, scheduled
tribes, linguistic minorities, the socially and economically discriminated people. Hence it has been carving out full fledged
states for the social uplift, economic amelioration of the downtrodden people and in certain cases for safeguarding the
linguistic interests of the minorities.
Hence left to itself, regionalism has not been an evil. It has been made a tool in the hands of self-seeking opportunistic
political leaders for exploiting the sentiments of the people just to strengthen their vote bank and attain success at the
elections. Regionalism leading to Secessionalism is a curse for the Nation and it necessitates a firm handling as has been
done in case of the Punjab and Telangana Region of Andhra Pradesh.

MEASURES TO CONTROL REGIONALISM:

In order to eliminate the regionalism and achieve national integration the following suggestions may be given.

To wither regional imbalance:

➢ It has been experienced that the regional imbalance has been the main cause of disgruntlement among the inhabitants
of a particular region for regionalism.
➢ If the national resources are distributed in a balanced manner, the problem of regionalism will be mitigated.

Streamlining regional parties:

➢ The regional parties play a dirty role in exploiting the regional feelings of people. This solidifies the base for
regionalism.
➢ Therefore, efforts should be made to streamline all regional parties posing threat to national unity.

Economic development:
➢ Due to uneven development of different areas of the country, political issues have been made and enmity between
different regions increased.
➢ Therefore, if top priority is given to economic development of those areas where the people have developed the feeling
of relative deprivation, the situation will improve and they can be drawn into the national mainstream.
➢ The experience of the past shows that it is the human element which is crucial in development.
➢ This requires a multipronged approach including social, economic and structural changes to free the poor from the
visible as well as invisible fetters.

Restructuring the society:

➢ The social structure of the developing societies at the national or regional level is essentially anti-development. India is
no exception to it.
➢ The benefits of increased investment in economic and social activities in this society often go to those who need them
the least and the majority is the deprived section.
➢ Hence our social structure needs to be restructured. In a modified social structure, the low level of development can be
taken care of through growth and anti-national feeling through regionalism.

Customs and values:

➢ The regional groups of people also maintain their cultural distinctiveness. This delimits the interaction between different
regional and cultural superiority for each group.
➢ Frequent cultural contacts should be promoted to break the regional barriers and to develop the nationalistic spirit. This
is quite possible because although each region has its own distinct folk or tribal music, mutual influences are not rare.
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Developed means of Communication:

➢ Most of the backward regions of the country do not have proper link with the rest of the country through transport and
communication system.
➢ Due to this reason their interaction and contact with other regional groups become restricted and they develop a, feeling
of alienation.
➢ Therefore, transport and communication system should be developed in the backward areas in order to bring economic
and social development.

Education:
➢ Education may be construed as a very powerful agent for doing away with the separatist tendencies and for flourishing
the sense of nationalistic spirit among the country men.

Mass media:
➢ Today mass media have become very powerful agents of change. If both direct and indirect appeals are made
highlighting the concept of equality of opportunity to every region for their development and the concept of national
unity through various programs and awareness campaigns.

Regionalism leads to a feeling of collective consciousness, togetherness and so on. The ethnic identity, language and culture
also play a vital role in this process of emergence of regions and regionalism.
However, it is often observed that women are also contributing equally to the phenomenon of the emergence of a separate
state. Simultaneously, they are always marginalized due to the persisting ideology of patriarchy.
In the words of a scholar, “………. The creation of new smaller states therefore can fulfill local politicians’ aspirations for
personal administrative role and a greater participation in state politics.” However, creation of too many states is a big drain
on national exchequer. Besides, it entails administrative problems vis-a-vis other neighborly states. The lurking danger lies
in weakening of federation if the small states get over- ambitious and add to their demands at the cost of national integrity
or all-round prosperity of the nation.
The values enshrined in the constitution should be upheld by the Government in power in order to foster unity and
fraternity amongst the people of India.

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MAINS MASTER NOTES

SUBJECT: GS1 SOCIETY

TOPIC: SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

For my daily unique initiatives follow https://optimizeias.com/

For my unique UPSC CSE exam tips & strategies follow Optimize IAS telegram
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CONTENTS
WHAT IS EMPOWERMENT? ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
CORE ELEMENTS OF EMPOWERMENT: ................................................................................................................................ 3
DIMENSIONS OF EMPOWERMENT: ........................................................................................................................................ 3
EMPOWERMENT AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT: ....................................................................................................................... 4
PARADIGM SHIFT IN DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY AND EMERGENCE OF THE NOTION OF EMPOWERMENT ........... 4
WORLD SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT SUMMIT, 1995............................................................................................................ 4
WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1997 ............................................................................................................................ 5
A REDEFINED ROLE OF THE STATE ...................................................................................................................................... 5
CIVIL SOCIETY.......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
MARGINALISATION AND THE MARGINALISED: TARGET EMPOWERMENT .................................................................. 6
DEFINITION: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6
DIMENSIONS: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6
MARGINALISED GROUPS IN INDIA ................................................................................................................................. 7
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES ............................................................................................................................................... 7
ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN ............................................................................................................................ 8
SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN ................................................................................................................................... 9
SCHEMES FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT ...................................................................................................................... 9
LEGAL PROVISIONS ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
DALIT EMPOWERMENT: ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
ISSUES: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 13
LEGAL PROVISIONS ......................................................................................................................................................... 13
ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT .......................................................................................................................................... 13
TRIBAL EMPOWERMENT ...................................................................................................................................................... 13
ISSUES: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 13
PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TRIBAL GROUPS: ...................................................................................................... 14
EMPOWERMENT OF TRIBALS ........................................................................................................................................ 15
SENIOR CITIZENS: .................................................................................................................................................................. 16
POPULATION METRICS: .................................................................................................................................................. 17
FEMINIZATION OF AGING: ............................................................................................................................................. 17
ISSUES ................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
GOVERNMENT SCHEMES:............................................................................................................................................... 17
LEGAL PROVISIONS: ........................................................................................................................................................ 18
DIFFERENTLY ABLED PERSONS: ......................................................................................................................................... 18
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES: ............................................................................................................................................ 18
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS: ................................................................................................................................... 18
LEGAL PROVISIONS: ........................................................................................................................................................ 18
GOVERNMENT SCHEMES/ INITIATIVES: ...................................................................................................................... 19
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 19

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SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

WHAT IS EMPOWERMENT?
• Strengthening the capacities of individuals, eliciting their participation in the development process
• Mobilising people’s initiatives in the development process
• World Bank’s definition (which is fairly straight forward), empowerment stands for ‘the expansion of assets and
capabilities of poor people to participate in, negotiate with, influence control, and hold accountable
institutions that affect their lives’.
• The process of gaining control over self, ideology, material and knowledge resources, which determine power may
be termed empowerment.

Core Elements of Empowerment:

1. Access to Information
2. Inclusion and participation
3. Accountability; and
4. Local organised capacity and subsequent networking with wider movement groups to create a climate of pressure
on the holders of power
Dimensions of Empowerment:
1. Dimension of legitimacy of Power:
i. The centrality of the notion of empowerment is located in the dynamics of sharing, distribution and
redistribution of power, which has a basis of legitimacy.
ii. Max Weber has talked about three types of authority, which have three distinctive bases of legitimacy.
a. rational legal authority draws its legitimacy from the established rules and procedures,
b. traditional authority from the established values, norms, mores, customs, traditions etc.,
c. charismatic authority from the personalised capacity or aura.

2. Authority in general is used in the following contexts

i. Regulatory, based on one’s formal position and status in relation to others;
ii. Expert knowledge, where the expert may possess the power to define ordinary people or to withhold
knowledge from those whose well-being is affected by it; and
iii. Relationship ability or interpersonal skills, where power comes from interpersonal influence based on
abilities to work with people.
3. Dynamics of Power Relations
i. Ability to exercise power in a given context as having power is not the same as exercising it.
ii. Seizing or creating opportunities in the environment, changing structural conditions
iii. Relations of symmetry, where relatively equal amounts and type of power and authority, are exercised and
are based on reciprocity.
iv. Relations of asymmetry, involving unequal amount and types of authority and are those of subordination
and superordination
4. Principle of Change and Transformation
i. Empowerment is concerned with the transformation of the structure of subordination.
ii. It implies a process of redistribution of power within and between families/societies and a process aiming
at social equality, which can be achieved only by disempowering some structures, system and
institutions.

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iii. Emancipation was associated with a view of progress as a movement towards freedom and equality. Over
the years, it has been circumscribed in a general sense of gaining freedom and especially in the process of
entry of the disadvantaged into the mainstream

EMPOWERMENT AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT:

• In the wake of the proliferation of new social movements, the dimensions of new collective identity formation
and resources mobilisation have got added emphasis.
• Social movements grow around relationships of new social identity that are voluntarily conceived ‘to empower’
members in defense of this identity.
• A social movement is a collective actor constituted by individuals who understand themselves to have common
interest, and at least some significant part of their social existence, a common identity.
Process of empowerment is to be understood in the context of transformative politics.
• Empowerment deals with the process of gaining power by way of transforming the pre-existing arrangement of
sharing and distribution of power.
• The pre-existing arrangement(s) of distribution of power (legitimate power/authority) is but hierarchical in nature
with a powerful few at the social and economic command, deciding the mainstream of the society, polity and the
economy.
• As the normative, institutional, ideological foundations of the society legitimise this process of unequal
distribution of power, from the perspective of the marginalised sections of the society, empowerment implies a
process of gaining power by transforming the pre-existing normative, ideological and institutional arrangements.
• Indeed empowerment is a long drawn process and cannot be achieved within the given arrangements without a
proactive State intervention.
• In this backdrop, the notion of empowerment has been widely integrated with the development strategy of the
state since early 1990s.
Paradigm Shift in Development Strategy and Emergence of the Notion of Empowerment
• The post-colonial developing world since early 1970s, has experienced a phenomenal shift in the development
strategy of the marginalised (who were otherwise known as the deprived, underprivileged, disadvantaged, weaker
sections, dispossessed, socially and economically depressed groups etc.).
• For example, immediately after independence, India adopted a developmental strategy of ‘growth with stability’
with the basic thrust on industrialisation, agricultural modernisation, expansion of infrastructure, education and
mass communication.
• However, in the backdrop of the declining access of a vast number of people to the means of livelihood security,
literacy/education, health care facilities, housing and other basic necessities of life, the philosophy of ‘social justice’
was integrated in the development discourse in 1970s.
• Again, since early 1990s, especially in the wake of globalisation, the strategy of ‘empowerment with
development’ has been adopted to integrate the marginalised sections into the mainstream

WORLD SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT SUMMIT, 1995

• Talks about 'people’s initiatives’, 'people’s empowerment' and 'strengthening capacities of the people'.
• Regarding the objectives of development, it specifically mentions that empowering people particularly women,
to strengthen their capacities is the main objective of development and its principal resource.
• Empowerment requires the full participation of people in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of
decisions determining the functioning and well-being of the societies.

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• To ensure the full participation of the people, it is pointed out that State should provide 'a stable legal framework'
in accordance with the 'Constitution, laws and procedures consistent with international laws and obligations'
which promotes among the other things, the encouragement of 'partnership with free and representative
organisations of civil society, strengthening of the abilities and opportunities of civil society and local communities
to develop their own organisations, resources and activities'.

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 1997

• In view of the collapse of the command and control economies, fiscal crisis of the welfare states, explosion in
humanitarian emergencies in several parts of the world, growing lack of confidence in the governance by the private
investors, increase in the corruption and poverty, various dramatic events especially the technological change in the
world economy on the one hand, and the growing discontent of the people, manifestation of grass-roots mobilisation
and increasing pressure of the civil society on the other, a redefinition of the State's responsibilities was suggested
as a strategy for the solution of the some of these problems.
• According to World Bank (1997), this will include strategic selection of the collective actions that States will try
to promote, coupled with greater efforts to take the burden off the State, by involving citizens and communities
in the delivery of the collective goods.

A Redefined Role of The State

(a) all initiatives for empowerment of the marginalised groups should be in accordance with the prescribed rule
of the land.
(b) State will selectively co-opt peoples’ initiatives as and when required.
(c) the civil society organisations would play a significant role for empowerment of the marginalised.

CIVIL SOCIETY

• The civil society is, together with State and market, one of the three spheres that interface in the making of the
democratic societies. Civil society is the sphere in which social movements become organised. Emphasis has been
a. on the increasing roles of the civil societies “to take burden off the State, by involving citizen and communities
in the delivery of the collective goods” (World Bank, 1997)
b. on “strengthening of the abilities and opportunities of civil society and local communities” to ensure the process
of empowerment of the marginalised in society.

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• Civil society represents a vision of politics and democracy that is State-centered and that has taken root in
contemporary social movements and non-governmental organisations
• Civil society is the terrain where the State, people and the market interact and where people wage war against
the hegemony of the market and the State.
• However in the contemporary development initiatives, there has been a process of co-option of the civil society
organisations by the State and in may places civil society organisations have emerged to be the states in disguise
to hegemonise over the local beneficiaries
MARGINALISATION AND THE MARGINALISED: TARGET EMPOWERMENT

Definition:
• Marginalisation in the conventional parlance is a complex process of relegating specific group(s) of people to the
lower or the outer edge of the society. It effectively pushes these groups of people to the margin of the society
following the parameters of exclusion and inclusion economically, politically, culturally, and socially.

DIMENSIONS:
1. Denials and deprivations

• Economically denies a large section of the society equal access to productive resources, avenues for the
realisation of their productive human potential, and opportunities for their full capacity utilisation.
• Politically, this process of relegation denies these people to have equal access to the formal power structure
and participation in the decision-making processes leading to their subordination to and dependency on the
economically and the politically dominant groups of the society
• Culturally excluded from the mainstream of the society becoming the ‘part society with part culture’, ‘outsider
for within’, alienated and disintegrated.
• Socially ignorant, illiterate, uneducated and dependent. Devoid of the basic necessities of life, they are relegated
to live in the margin of the society with a subhuman existence.
2. Artificial structure of hierarchy
• The natural differentiation between men and women, linguistic or ethnic groups and so on are put in an order
of hierarchy with the guiding principle of domination and subordination.
• This process of hierarchisation has arranged social groups in steep ordering of people, with a powerful few at
the social and economic command deciding the mainstream of the society, polity and the economy.
• Powerless majority, occupying the bottom of the socio-economic hierarchy and surviving at the periphery of
the social order.
3. Bases of legitimacy and reproduction
• The process of marginalisation has also been historically embedded in a socio-cultural context.
• Significantly there are strong institutional, normative and ideological bases, stemming out of the primordial
interpretation of the institutional and normative arrangements of caste, ethnicity, race, gender, patriarchy,
religion and so on, to provide legitimacy to the processes of marginalisation.
• Again, the ongoing processes of socialisation, education, politicisation, enculturation etc contribute to their
reproduction in the society.
• Thus over time the socially constructed marginalised categories tend to appear to be the empirical categories
viz. the low caste, tribes, women, blacks and so on.
4. The Human Development Report (1996), has drawn attention to the realities of ‘jobless’, ‘voiceless’, ‘ruthless’,
‘fruitless’ and ‘futureless’ growth, all of which contribute, directly into creating marginalised population.

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Marginalised groups in India
• The social categories such as the Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes
(OBCs), educationally backward minorities, women, children, aged, spatial categories like backward/remote village
and slum dwellers.
• Economic categories including people living below poverty line, petty artisans, landless agricultural labour, semi-
landless marginal cultivators, unskilled or semiskilled construction labours, workers of the unorganised sectors etc.,
• Special categories like the physically challenged etc.,

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Women’s Empowerment has been an issue of immense discussions and contemplation over the last few decades
world-wide. This as an agenda has been on top of the lists of most government plans & programs as well. Efforts have been
made on a regular basis across nations to address this issue and enhance the socio-economic status of women

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

1. Selective abortion and female infanticide
It is the most common practice for years in India in which abortion of female fetus is performed in the
womb of mother after the fetal sex determination and sex selective abortion by the medical professionals.
2. Sexual harassment
It is the form of sexual exploitation of a girl child at home, streets, public places, transports, offices, etc by
the family members, neighbors, friends or relatives.
3. Dowry and Bride burning
It is another problem generally faced by women of low or middle class family during or after the marriage.
Parents of boys demand a lot of money from the bride’s family to be rich in one time. Groom’s family perform
bride burning in case of lack of fulfilled dowry demand. In 2005, around 6787 dowry death cases were registered
in India according to the Indian National Crime Bureau reports.
4. Disparity in education
The level of women education is less than men still in the modern age. Female illiteracy id higher in the
rural areas. Where over 63% or more women remain unlettered.
5. Domestic violence
It is like endemic and widespread disease affects almost 70% of Indian women according to the women
and child development official. It is performed by the husband, relative or other family member.
6. Child Marriages
Early marriage of the girls by their parents in order to be escaped from dowry. It is highly practiced in the
rural India.
7. Inadequate Nutrition
Inadequate nutrition in the childhood affects women in their later life especially women belonging to the
lower middle class and poor families.
8. Low status in the family
It is the abuse or violence against women.
9. Women are considered as inferior to men
So they are not allowed to join military services.
10. Status of widows
Widows are considered as worthless in the Indian society. They are treated poorly and forced to wear white
clothes.

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ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN
1. Poverty Eradication
• Women comprise the majority of the population below the poverty line.
• The harsh realities of intra-household and social discrimination, macro-economic policies and poverty
eradication programmes will specifically address the needs and problems of such women.
• Steps to be taken for mobilization of poor women and convergence of services, by offering them a range of
economic and social options, along with necessary support measures to enhance their capabilities.
2. Micro Credit
• In order to enhance women’s access to credit for consumption and production, the establishment of new and
strengthening of existing micro-credit mechanisms and micro-finance institution will be undertaken so that
the outreach of credit is enhanced.
3. Women and Economy
• Women’s perspectives will be included in designing and implementing macro-economic and social policies by
institutionalizing their participation in such processes.
• Their contribution to socio-economic development as producers and workers will be recognized in the formal
and informal sectors (including home based workers) and appropriate policies relating to employment and to
her working conditions will be drawn up.
• Such measures could include: Reinterpretation and redefinition of conventional concepts of work wherever
necessary e.g. in the Census records, to reflect women’s contribution as producers and workers.
4. Globalization
• Globalization has presented new challenges for the realization of the goal of women’s equality, the gender
impact of which has not been systematically evaluated fully.
• However, from the micro-level studies that were commissioned by the Department of Women & Child
Development, it is evident that there is a need for re-framing policies for access to employment and quality
of employment.
• Strategies will be designed to enhance the capacity of women and empower them to meet the negative social and
economic impacts, which may flow from the globalization process.
5. Women and Agriculture
• In view of the critical role of women in the agriculture and allied sectors, as producers, concentrated efforts
will be made to ensure that benefits of training, extension and various programmes will reach them in proportion
to their numbers.
6. Women and Industry
• The important role played by women in electronics, information technology and food processing and agro
industry and textiles has been crucial to the development of these sectors.
• They would be given comprehensive support in terms of labour legislation, social security and other support
services to participate in various industrial sectors
• Suitable measures will be taken to enable women to work on the night shift in factories.
7. Support Services
• The provision of support services for women, like child care facilities, including crèches at work places and
educational institutions, homes for the aged and the disabled will be expanded and improved to create an enabling
environment and to ensure their full cooperation in social, political and economic life.
• Women-friendly personnel policies will also be drawn up to encourage women to participate effectively in the
developmental process.

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SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN
1. Education
• Equal access to education for women and girls. Special measures will be taken to eliminate discrimination,
universalize education, eradicate illiteracy, create a gender-sensitive educational system, increase enrolment and
retention rates of girls and improve the quality of education to facilitate life-long learning as well as development
of occupation/vocation/technical skills by women.
• Gender sensitive curricula would be developed at all levels of educational system in order to address sex
stereotyping as one of the causes of gender discrimination.
2. Health
• The reduction of infant mortality and maternal mortality, which are sensitive indicators of human development,
is a priority concern. This policy reiterates the national demographic goals for Infant Mortality Rate (IMR),
Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) set out in the National Population Policy 2000.
• Account the reproductive rights of women to enable them to exercise informed choices, their vulnerability to
sexual and health problems together with endemic, infectious and communicable diseases such as malaria, TB,
and water borne diseases as well as hypertension and cardio-pulmonary diseases.
• The social, developmental and health consequences of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases to be
tackled from a gender perspective
• Strict implementation of registration of births and deaths would be ensured and registration of marriages would
be made compulsory.
• National Population Policy (2000) to population stabilization, this Policy recognizes the critical need of men and
women to have access to safe, effective and affordable methods of family planning of their choice and the need to
suitably address the issues of early marriages and spacing of children
3. Women in Difficult Circumstances
• In recognition of the diversity of women’s situations and in acknowledgement of the needs of specially
disadvantaged groups, measures and programmes to be undertaken to provide them with special assistance.
• These groups include women in extreme poverty, destitute women, women in conflict situations, women affected
by natural calamities, women in less developed regions, the disabled widows, elderly women, single women in
difficult circumstances, women heading households, those displaced from employment, migrants, women who are
victims of marital violence, deserted women and prostitutes etc.
4. Violence against women
• All forms of violence against women, physical and mental, whether at domestic or societal levels, including
those arising from customs, traditions or accepted practices shall be dealt with effectively with a view to eliminate
its incidence
5. Rights of the Girl Child
• All forms of discrimination against the girl child and violation of her rights shall be eliminated by undertaking
strong measures both preventive and punitive within and outside the family.
• There to be special emphasis on the needs of the girl child and earmarking of substantial investments in the
areas relating to food and nutrition, health and education, and in vocational education. In implementing
programmes for eliminating child labour, there should be a special focus on girl children.
6. Resource Management
• Availability of adequate financial, human and market resources to implement the Policy will be managed by
concerned Departments, financial credit institutions and banks, private sector, civil society and other connected
institutions.

SCHEMES FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

1. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Yojana
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• Launched on January 22, 2015, in Panipat, Haryana, it aims to generate awareness and also improve the
efficiency of welfare services for the girl child.
• The initial aim of the campaign was to address the declining Child Sex Ratio (CSR) but has come to include
gender-biased sex-selective eliminations, and propagating education, survival, and protection of the girl child.
It is being implemented through a national campaign and focussed multi-sectoral action in 100 selected districts
low in CSR, covering all states and UTs.

2. Mahila-E-Haat
• Under the purview of the Ministry of Women and Child Development, the government launched Mahila-E-
Haat in 2016.
• It is a bilingual online marketing platform that leverages technology to help aspiring women entrepreneurs, self-
help groups, and NGOs to showcase their products and services.
• Among the many services provided by Mahila-E-Haat is facilitating direct contact between the vendors and
buyers, sensitisation, advocacy, training, packing and soft intervention workshops, and offering a web-based
approach
3. Mahila Shakti Kendra
• The government launched the Mahila Shakti Kendra in 2017 to empower rural women with opportunities for
skill development, employment, digital literacy, health and nutrition.
• The Mahila Shakti Kendras will work through community engagement through student volunteers in the 115
most backward districts.
• Each Mahila Shakti Kendra will provide an interface for rural women to approach the government to avail of
their entitlements through training and capacity building. It works at the National, State, District, and Block
levels.
4. Working Women Hostel
• The government launched the Working Women Hostels to ensure availability of safe, convenient
accommodation for working family, along with daycare facilities for their children, wherever possible in urban,
semi-urban and rural areas.
5. Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP)
• The STEP scheme was set up to provide skills to women so that they can take up gainful employment.
• It also provides the right competencies and training for women to become entrepreneurs. Open to every woman
above the age of 16, it is run through a grant given to an institution/organisation including NGOs directly.
• According to the Ministry website, the assistance under STEP Scheme will be available in any sector for
imparting skills related to employability and entrepreneurship.
6. Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana
• Falling under the ambit of the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao scheme, the Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana is a
government-backed savings scheme for girl children.
• The account can be opened at any India Post office or a branch of an authorised commercial bank anytime
between the birth of the girl child and till the age of 10 by a parent or guardian.

LEGAL PROVISIONS
To empower women there are some following laws :
i. Equal Remuneration Act-1976;
ii. Dowry Prohibition Act-1961;
iii. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act-1956,
iv. Medical termination of Pregnancy Act-1971;
v. Maternity Benefit Act-1961;
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vi. Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act-1987;
vii. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act-2006;
viii. Pre-Conception & Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act-1994;
ix. Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Prevention, Protection and) Act-2013.
The National Commission of Women (NCW) was started in 1992 to review the constitutional and legal safeguard
of women, recommend remedial measures, facilitate grievance redressal, and advise the government on policy matters

DALIT EMPOWERMENT:

Suffer from extreme social, educational, and economic backwardness arising out of the age-old practice of
untouchability and certain others on account of lack of infrastructure facilities and geographical isolation, and who need
special consideration for safeguarding their interests and for their accelerated socio-economic development.

Article 341(1) - the President of India, after consultation with the Governor, may specify,
“the castes, races, tribes or parts of groups within castes or races, which shall be deemed to
be Scheduled Castes”.

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ISSUES:
1. Dalit women
• A significant proportion of India’s Dalit women face verbal abuse, physical assault, sexual harassment and
assault, domestic violence and rape.
2. Bonded labour
• The use and abuse of Dalit bonded labourers remains endemic within a range of occupations. Children are
particularly vulnerable.
3. Forced prostitution
• Young Dalit girls suffer systematic sexual abuse in temples, serving as prostitutes for men from dominant
castes.
4. Manual scavenging
• An estimated 1.3 million Dalits in India make their living through the vile, inhuman and outlawed practice
of manual scavenging.
5. Political participation
• Dalits are often limited from equal and meaningful political participation.
6. Non-implementation of legislation
• Legal mechanisms to protect Dalits are in place, but their implementation remains very weak. Consequently,
atrocities against Dalits are almost inevitably committed with impunity

LEGAL PROVISIONS
• The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955: In pursuance of Article 17 of the Constitution of India, the
Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 was enacted. The Act extends to the whole of India and provides punishment
for the practice of untouchability. It is implemented by the respective State Governments and Union Territory
Administrations.
• Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Assistance is provided to States/
UTs for implementation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Financial
assistance is provided to the States/ UTs for implementation of these Acts, by way of relief to atrocity victims, an
incentive for inter-caste marriages, awareness generation, setting up of exclusive Special courts, etc.

ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT
• National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC): Set up to finance income-
generating activities of Scheduled Caste beneficiaries living below double the poverty line limits.
• National Safai Karamchari Finance and Development Corporation (NSKFDC): It is another corporation
which provides credit facilities to beneficiaries amongst Safai Karamcharis, manual scavengers, and their
dependents for incomegenerating activities for socio-economic development through State Channelizing
Agencies
• Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled Castes: The objective of the fund is to promote entrepreneurship
amongst the Scheduled Castes who are oriented towards innovation and growth technologies and to provide
concessional finance to the scheduled caste entrepreneurs.
• The Stand Up India scheme - aims at providing people belonging to the scheduled caste or scheduled tribe or
women of the country a loan between Rs.10 lakhs to Rs.1 crore, based on their requirement. The aim is to
promote entrepreneurship among them.
TRIBAL EMPOWERMENT

ISSUES:
1. Land Alienation:
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• Tribal lands were occupied by moneylenders, zamindars and traders by advancing them loans etc.
• Opening of mines in the heart of tribal habitat and even a few factories provided wage labor as well as
opportunities for factory employment.
2. Poverty and Indebtedness
• Majority tribes live under poverty line. The tribes follow many simple occupations based on simple technology.
• Most of the occupation falls into the primary occupations such as hunting, gathering, and agriculture.
3. Health and Nutrition
• In many parts of India tribal population suffers from chronic infections and diseases out of which water borne
diseases are life threatening.
• They also suffer from deficiency diseases. The Himalayan tribes suffer from goiter due to lack of iodine. Leprosy
and tuberculosis are also common among them. Infant mortality was found to be very high among some of the
tribes.
4. Education
• Educationally the tribal population is at different levels of development but overall the formal education has
made very little impact on tribal groups.
5. Cultural Problems
• Due to contact with other cultures, the tribal culture is undergoing a revolutionary change.
• Due to influence of Christian missionaries the problem of bilingualism has developed which led to indifference
towards tribal language
6. Concept of Private Property
• The advent of the concept of private property in land has also adversely affected tribals whose community-based
forms of collective ownership were placed at a disadvantage in the new system.
• Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest's Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006 popularly
known as Forest Rights Act, 2006 tried to restore this status quo and ownership of the tribals but its
implementation is not up to the mark.
7. In Migration
• Many tribal concentration regions and states have also been experiencing the problem of heavy in migration of
non-tribals in response to the pressures of development.
• The industrial areas of Jharkhand have suffered dilution of the tribal share of population.
8. Problem of separatism
• The divide and rule policy adopted by the British did a lot of damage to the tribal community of India.
• The Criminal Tribes Act which the British introduced gave an impression that the tribals were either criminals
or anti socials.
• All these activities alienated tribals which continued even in the post independent India.

PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TRIBAL GROUPS:

While some tribal communities have adopted a mainstream way of life at one end of the spectrum, there are 75
Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs), at the other, who are characterized by
a) a pre-agriculture level of technology,
b) a stagnant or declining population
c) extremely low literacy and
d) a subsistence level of economy.
• Among the 75 listed PVTG’s the highest number are found in Odisha (13), followed by Andhra Pradesh (12),
Bihar including Jharkhand (9) Madhya Pradesh including Chhattisgarh (7) Tamil Nadu (6) Kerala and Gujarat
having five groups each. The remaining PVTGs live in West Bengal (3) Maharashtra (3), two each in Karnataka

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and Uttarakhand and one each in Rajasthan, Tripura and Manipur. All the four tribal groups in Andamans, and
one in Nicobar Islands, are recognised as PVTGs.
• The five PVTGS residing in Andamans are Great Andamanese, Jarwas, Onges, Shompens and North
Sentinelese.
• The Saharia people of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan are the largest among the PVTGs with population more than
4 lakhs.

EMPOWERMENT OF TRIBALS
1. Constitutional Provisions and Safeguards:
• Article 164 provides for a Ministry of Tribal Welfare in each of the State of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and
Orissa which have large concentration of Scheduled Tribes population. These Ministries are required to look
after the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in their respective States.
• Article 244 provides for the inclusion of a Fifth Schedule in the Constitution for incorporating provisions for
the administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribes of the States which have sizeable tribal population (other than
those of Assam)
• Article 275 provides for the grant of special funds by the Union Government to State Government for
promoting the welfare of Scheduled Tribes and providing them with a better administration.
2. Representation in Legislatures and Panchayats:
• The Constitution of India prescribes protection and safeguards for Scheduled Tribes with the object of promoting
their educational and economic interests. Under Article 330 and 332 of the Indian Constitution, seats have
been reserved for Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha and state Vidhan Sabhas.
• Following the introduction of Panchayati Raj, Suitable safeguards have been provided for proper
representation” of the members of the Scheduled Tribes by reserving seats for them in the Gram Panchayats,
Block Panchayats, District Panchayats etc
3. Reservation in the Service:
• Government has made provisions for their adequate representation in the services.
4. Administration of Scheduled and Tribal Areas :
• ‘Scheduled Areas’ have been declared in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan. The scheme of administration of’ Scheduled Areas under
the Fifth Schedule visualises a division of responsibility between the State and Union Governments.
5. Tribes’ Advisory council:
• The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution provides for the setting up a Tribes’ Advisory Council in each of the States
having Scheduled Areas. According to this provision, Tribes’ Advisory Councils have been set up so far in the
states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and West Bengal.
• The duty of these Councils is to advise the Government on such matters concerning the welfare of Scheduled
Tribes and development of Scheduled Areas.
6. Educational Facilities:
• Measures to provide educational facilities have been taken by the Government Emphasis is being laid on
vocational and technical training.
• According to these measures, concessions, stipends, scholarships, books, stationery and other equipments are
provided. Residential schools have been set up for them. Eg: Ekalavya model schools.
7. Scholarships:
• The Central Government awards scholarships to deserving students for higher studies in foreign countries.
Seventeen and half per cent of the merit scholarships are granted by the Centre, to deserving students of lower
income groups.
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8. Economic Opportunities:
• A large number of tribal people practice shifting cultivation.
• TRIFED - objective of TRIFED is socio-economic development of tribal people in the country by way of
marketing development of the tribal products on which the lives of tribals depends heavily as they spend most of
their time and derive major portion of their income.
9. The Tribal Sub-plan Approach includes:
(a) Integrated Tribal Development Projects comprising generally administrative units like sub-divisions /
Districts / Tehsils with 50 per cent or more Scheduled Tribe population.
(b) Pockets of tribal concentration having a total population of 10,000 or more and a ST population of 50 per cent
or more.
(c) Primitive Tribal Group Projects.

The major objectives of the tribal development have remained as follows:

• To take up family oriented programmes in order to raise productivity levels of the beneficiary families in the
fields of agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, small scale industries etc.

• To liberate tribals from the exploitation of land grabbing, money-lending, debt- bondage, forest-labour etc.

• To improve the quality of life through education and training programmes and

• To provide infrastructural Facilities in tribal areas.

• The Tribal Sub-plan is financed through the resources drawn from:

• State plans

• Special Central assistance of Ministry of Home Affairs (now Ministry of Welfare).

• Central and Centrally sponsored programmes, and

• Institutional finance
SENIOR CITIZENS:
Ageing can be sociologically defined as the combination of biological, psychological and social processes that
affect people, as they grow older. Gerontology is studying the aging and the elderly in the population.

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POPULATION METRICS:
• Age division of Indian population (0-14) is 30.8%, (15-59) is 60.3%, (60+) is 8.6%.
• According to Population Census 2011, there are nearly 104 million elderly persons in India.
• It has increased from 5.5% in 1951 to 8.6% in 2011.
• Projected a rise upto 19% in 2050.
• As regards rural and urban areas, more than 73 million persons i.e. 71% of elderly population resides in rural
areas while 31 million or 29% of elderly population are in urban area.

FEMINIZATION OF AGING:
• Among the challenges which India faces, UNPF report says the feminisation of ageing remained a key one.
• The sex ratio of the elderly has increased from 938 women to 1,000 men in 1971 to 1,033 in 2011 and is projected
to increase to 1,060 by 2026.
• The report also noted that between 2000 and 2050, the population of 80-plus people would have grown 700%
“with a predominance of widowed and highly dependent very old women” and so the special needs of such old
women would need significant focus of policy and programmes.

ISSUES
1. Social
• Indian society is undergoing rapid transformation under the impact of industrialization, urbanization, technical
& technological change, education and globalization.
• Consequently, the traditional values and institutions are in the process of erosion and adaptation, resulting in
the weakening of intergenerational ties that were the hallmark of the traditional family.
• Industrialization has replaced the simple family production units by the mass production and the factory.
• Negligence by kids towards their old parents.
• Disillusionment due to retirement.
• Feeling of powerlessness, loneliness, uselessness and isolation in elderly.
• Generational gap.
2. Financial
• Retirement and dependence of elderly on their child for basic necessity.
• Sudden increase in out of pocket expenses on treatment.
• Migration of young working-age persons from rural area have negative impacts on the elderly, living alone or
with only the spouse usually poverty and distress.
• Insufficient housing facility.
3. Health
• Multiple disabilities among the elders in old age.
• Health issues like blindness,locomotor disabilities and deafness are most prevalent.
• Mental illness arising from senility and neurosis.
• Absence of geriatric care facilities at hospitals in rural area.

GOVERNMENT SCHEMES:
1. Integrated Programme for Older Persons (IPOP)
2. Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana (RVY)
3. Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS)
4. Varishtha Pension Bima Yojana (VPBY)

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5. The Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana
6. Vayoshreshtha Samman

LEGAL PROVISIONS:
• Article 41 and Article 46 are the constitutional provisions for elderly persons. Although directive principles are
not enforceable under the law, but it creates a positive obligation towards the state while making any law.
• Section 20 of Hindu marriage and adoption act, 1956 makes it obligatory provisions to maintain an aged
parents.
• Under Section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code, the elder parents can claim maintenance from their children.
• The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007, seeks to make it legal for the children
or heirs to maintain their parents or senior citizens of the family.
• In 1982, the Report of the World Assembly on Ageing (also known as "the International Plan on Ageing") was
published, which represented the first international debate on the rights of older persons and presented a plan for
their implementation.
• The UNPF were tasked with implementing the Plan of the Second World Assembly which adopted “Madrid
International Plan” on ageing in 2002.

DIFFERENTLY ABLED PERSONS:

• An impairment is a problem in body function or structure;
• An activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action;
• A participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations.
• As per Census 2011, in India, out of the total population of 121 crore, about 2.68 Cr persons are ‘Disabled’
(2.21% of the total population)

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES:

• Disability is not being measured properly due to different definitions of disability in various censuses
• India looks at disability from medical or pathological angle only, not from social angle
• Census depends on self-reporting of disability which may leave out mental & even physical disability
• Lack of Institutional and Infrastructural Support for the disabled in India
• Social and physical barriers – led to inaccessibility of social security mechanisms
• Lack of comprehensive coverage of problems.
• Lack of information dissemination and lack of single window approach to address the problems.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS:
• Article 41 of the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) states that State shall make effective provision for
securing right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and
disablement, within the limits of its economic capacity and development.
• The subject of ‘relief of the disabled and unemployable’ is specified in state list of the Seventh Schedule of
the constitution.

LEGAL PROVISIONS:
• Right of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016
• The Act replaces the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full
Participation) Act, 1995.
• "Person with disability" means a person with long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory
impairments which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in society
equally with others.
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• "Person with benchmark disability" means a person with not less than 40% of a specified disability
where specified disability has not been defined in measurable terms and includes a person with a disability
where specified disability has been defined in measurable terms, as certified by the certifying authority.
• Disability has been defined based on an evolving and dynamic concept.
• Principles stated to be implemented for empowerment of persons with disabilities (PWD) are respect for
the inherent dignity, individual autonomy including the freedom to make one's own choices, and
independence of persons.
• The principle reflects a paradigm shift in thinking about disability from a social welfare concern to a
human rights issue.
• The types of disabilities have been increased from 7 to 21. The act added mental illness, autism, spectrum
disorder, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, chronic neurological conditions, speech and language
disability, thalassemia, hemophilia, sickle cell disease, multiple disabilities including deaf blindness, acid
attack victims and Parkinson’s disease which were largely ignored in earlier act.

GOVERNMENT SCHEMES/ INITIATIVES:

1. Accessible India Campaign: Creation of Accessible Environment for PwDs
2. Deen Dayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme
3. Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase / fitting of Aids and Appliances (ADIP)
4. National Fellowship for Students with Disabilities (RGMF)
Previous Year Questions
1. Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women‟s organization free from gender bias.
Comment(2013)
2. How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle class working woman in India?(2014)
3. Why do some of the most prosperous regions of India have an adverse sex ratio for women? Give your
arguments(2014)
4. How do you explain the statistics that show that the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more favourable to women
than the sex ratio among Scheduled Castes?(2015)
5. Debate the issue whether and how contemporary movements for assertion of Dalit identity work towards
annihilation of caste.(2015)
6. Why are the tribals in India referred to as “the Scheduled Tribes‟? Indicate the major provisions enshrined in
the Constitution of India for their upliftment.(2016)
7. What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence addressing discrimination against
Scheduled Tribes(STs)?(2017)
8. The women‟s questions arose in modern India as a part of the 19th century social reform movement. What are
the major issues and debates concerning women in that period?(2017)
9. Women’s movement in India has not addressed the issues of women of lower social strata.‟ Substantiate your
view.(2018)
10. “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss.(2019)
11. What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space?(2019)

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MAINS MASTER NOTES 2023

GS1 SOCIETY
TOPIC: COMMUNALISM

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COMMUNALISM ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
WHAT IS COMMUNALISM? ............................................................................................................................................................. 3
HOW COMMUNALISM ARISES? ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
STAGES OF COMMUNALISM .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
FEATURES OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA .................................................................................................................................... 4
TYPES OF COMMUNALISM ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
EVOLUTION OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA ................................................................................................................................. 5
COMMUNALISM IN PRE-INDEPENDENCE INDIA ...................................................................................... 5

COMMUNALISM IN POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA ................................................................................... 6

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS ......................................................................................................................................................... 8

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR COMMUNALISM ......................................................................................................................... 8
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
IMPACT OF COMMUNALISM ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
MEASURES TO DEAL WITH COMMUNALISM: .......................................................................................................................... 11
EIGHT-POINT OBJECTIVES ARE AS FOLLOWS: ...................................................................................... 12

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COMMUNALISM
WHAT IS COMMUNALISM?
Communalism in a broad sense implies blind allegiance to one’s own communal group – religious, linguistic or
ethnic – rather than to the larger society or to the nation as a whole. In its extreme form, communalism manifests itself in
hatred towards groups perceived as hostile, ultimately leading to violent attacks on other communities.
Communalism is an ideology used to fulfill socio, economic and politico hopes of a community or social groups. It
requires proposals and programmes to ensure its very existence. These become active in phases of social change.

HOW COMMUNALISM ARISES?

Communalism arises out of a belief system, and assumes great solidarity within a community which is not always true.
We find that there are often inter community quarrels. They consider egalitarianism as abnormal and support patriarchy
as a familial and social norm.
Communalism is therefore a
➢ belief system
➢ social phenomenon.
Further, the protagonists of communalism hold a particular view of history and take care to point out that a community
has been identified with common members of different communities.

Third Stage
Second Stage
Extreme
First Stage Liberal Communalism
Communalism

Communal
Consciousness

STAGES OF COMMUNALISM
Bipan Chandra in his book India's Struggle for Independence says that communalism or communal ideology
consists of three basic elements or stages one following the other,
1. Communal Nationalism - The 1st stage of communalism, according to Bipan Chandra, originated mainly in the second
half of the 19th Century, due to the social religious reform movement. It is the belief that people who follow the same
religion have common secular interests, which is a common political, economic, social and cultural interest. These
religious units are seen as the fundamental units of Indian society.
2. Liberal Communalism - The second element of communal ideology rests on the notion that the secular interests of
one community are divergent and dissimilar to the interests of the followers of the other community. The liberal
communalist was basically a believer in and practitioner of communal politics; but he still upheld certain liberal,
democratic and nationalist values.
3. Extreme Communalism - The third stage of communalism is reached when interests of different communities are
seen as mutually incompatible, antagonistic and hostile. So communalism is basically an ideology on which
communal politics is based. It was based on the theory that fear and hatred has a tendency to use violence of language,
deed or behaviour, the language of war and enmity against political opponents. It was at this stage that both the Hindus
and Muslim communalists put forward the theory that Muslims and Hindus constitute separate nations whose mutual
antagonism was permanent and irresolvable.

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FEATURES OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

Communalism is more about politics rather than religion. Although communalists are intensely involved with
religion, there is no necessary relationship between personal faith and communalism. A communal person may or may
not be a devout religious person, and devout believers may or may not be communal beings.
However, all communalists believe in a political identity based on religion. The key factor is the attitude towards
those who believe in other kinds of identities, including other religion-based identities. Communalism claims that religious
identity overrides everything else- such as poverty, occupation, caste or political beliefs. So, communalists cultivate an
aggressive political identity, and are prepared to condemn or attack everyone who does not share their identity.
Therefore features of Communalism are,

Exclusive in out
look, a
communalist
considers his
own religion to
be superior to
other religions

Adopts
extremist tactics
Based on
including use of
orthodoxy
violence against
other people

Features of
Communalism

Stands for
elimination of Based on
other religions intolerance
and its values

Propagates
intense dislike
of other
religions

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TYPES OF COMMUNALISM
Indian Sociologist, T.K Ooman has mentioned six dimensions of Communalism which are given the list below

Dimension of Features of Communalism Dimensions

Communalism
Assimilationist T.K Ooman describes it as a dimension where a small religious group or groups are integrated
or assimilated into a larger religious group. For example, the Hindu Code Bill is applicable to
Sikh, Buddhists and Jains as well.
Welfarist When a community works for the welfare or betterment of a particular community, it leads to
welfarist communalism
Retreatist When a community proscribes its members to abstain from politics, it leads to retreatist
communalism. Eg: Members of the Bahai community
Retaliatory When, in rivalry, one community harms or injures people of other community, it is termed as
retaliatory communalism
Separatist When the demand for a separate identity surfaces or a group of people demand separation from
a larger group, it is termed a separatist communalism. Example- the demand for Punjab state
Secessionist To have a separate political identity, a group of people can demand secession from a state or a
nation, that often leads to secessionist communalism. Example- the demands for Khalistan, Azad
Kashmir.

EVOLUTION OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

COMMUNALISM IN PRE-INDEPENDENCE INDIA

During the Indian National Movement communal ideology evolved in three stages and two phases (Liberal and
Extremist) and ultimately resulted in the bifurcation of India and the creation of Pakistan.
I. Liberal Phase:
• Post 1857 revolt, the British preferred Hindus over Muslims in matters of employment, education etc. Muslim
intellectuals too realized that Muslims lagged behind their Hindu counterparts in terms of education,
government jobs etc. Eventually, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a Muslim intellectual founded Aligarh College to fight
the bias against modern education among Muslims. He also started numerous scientific societies in the 1860s, in
which both Hindus and Muslims participated.
• Communalism in India got its initial start in the 1880s when Syed Ahmed Khan opposed the national movement
initiated by the Indian National Congress. He decided to support British causes and opposed the functioning of
the Indian National Congress and deemed it a pro-Hindu party, which was against Muslim interests.
• Eventually, prominent Muslims like Aga Khan, Nawab Moshin-ul-Mulk etc., founded the All India Muslim
League, to consolidate Muslim interests. One of its major objectives was to keep the emerging intelligentsia among
Muslims from joining the Congress.
• Simultaneously, Hindu communalism was also being born. It manifested in Hindu leaders disseminating notions of
tyrannical Muslim rule, espousing the language issue and giving it a communal twist. They declared Urdu to be the
language of the Muslims and Hindi of Hindus. Further, anti-cow slaughter propagation was undertaken in the
1890s and it was primarily directed against Muslims.
• Eventually organizations like the Punjab Hindu Sabha (1909), All India Hindu Mahasabha (1st session in 1915),
etc. were founded.
• Revivalist movements like Arya Samaj, Shuddhi Movement (among Hindus), Wahabi Movement and Tabligh
movements (among Muslims) etc., gave further impetus to communalist tendencies.
• This phase saw eventual communalization of leaders like Syed Ahmed Khan, Lala Lajpat Rai, M.A. Jinnah, Madan
Mohan Malaviya etc.
• The British gave a momentum to the communalist divide through their administrative decisions and policies such as
division of Bengal, Morley- Minto reforms (1909- Separate electorates), Communal Award (1932) etc.
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II. Extremist Phase:

• Post 1937, India witnessed extreme communalism based on the politics of fear, psychosis and irrationality.
During this phase, the interests of Hindus and Muslims were deemed to be permanently in conflict.
• Communalism acquired a popular base among urban lower middle class groups and mass movements around
aggressive, extremist communal politics emerged.
• Communalism also became the only political recourse of colonial authorities and their policy of divide and rule.
• During the period, M.A. Jinnah declared that ‘Muslims should organize themselves, stand united and should
press every reasonable point for the protection of their community.’ He eventually stated that Muslims would be
suppressed under the Hindu dominated Congress after the British left India and thus, the only recourse would be a
separate state for Muslims i.e. creation of Pakistan.
• Hindu communalism too did not lag behind. The Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
(RSS), began propagating extreme communalism. They demanded that the non-Hindu groups of India adopt the
Hindu culture and language and hold Hindu religion in reverence. They too espoused that Hindus and Muslims are
two separate social and political entities with opposing interests.

COMMUNALISM IN POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA

Colonialism is perceived as a prominent factor for emergence of communalism in India. However, overthrowing of
colonial rule proved to be only a necessary condition for fighting communalism, not sufficient. Because even post-
independence, communalism persisted owing to various factors as have been discussed before. Communalism has been the
biggest threat to the secular fabric of our nation.

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•About a thousand Assamese people surrounded the Nellie village with deadly weapons.
The minority people living in the village were attacked resulting in the death of 1800
people officially. The conflicts were majorly directed to eject “outsiders” by the “original
inhabitants” of Assam to protect their land, language and ethnicity. The aggression
Nellie Massacre groups were different in many areas, like Bengali Hindus & Muslims against Assamese
(1983) people, Hindus against Muslims, Muslims against Hindus, etc.

•Sikhs in large numbers were murdered by mobs post assassination of the then Prime
Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi.
Anti-Sikh riots
(1984)

•Spread of Islamic fundamentalism and terrorism in the Kashmir valley led to mass
killings and large-scale exodus of Kashmiri pundits during 1989-90. The region continues
Issue of Kashmiri to be threatened by communal violence.
Hindu pundits
(1989)

•On December 1992, a large crowd demolished the 16th century Babri masjid (mosque) in
Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh claiming the site to be Ram Janmabhoomi (birthplace of Ram).
This led to months of inter-communal rioting between the Hindus and Muslims resulting
Babri Masjid in deaths of hundreds of people.
incident (1992)

•In February 2002, four coaches of the Sabarmati Express were set on fire. The
passengers, mostly Hindu pilgrims were returning from Ayodhya after a religious
ceremony at the site of the demolished Babri Masjid. Following the attacks, several
Hindu groups declared state-wide bandh in Gujarat and started brutally attacking Muslim
Godhra Riots colonies. This went on for months post Godhra incident, resulting in the death and
(2002) displacement of thousands of Muslims.

•There were frequent clashes between the Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims due to
increased competition for livelihood, land and political power. In 2012, one such
outbreak escalated into a riot in Kokhrajhar, when unidentified miscreants killed four
Bodo youths at Joypur. This was followed by retaliatory attacks on local Muslims killing
Assam violence two and injuring several of them. Almost 80 people were killed, most of whom were
(2012) Bengali Muslims and some Bodos. Approximately, 400,000 people were displaced to
makeshift camps.

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•The clashes between the Hindu Jats and Muslim communities in Muzaffarnagar, UP
resulted in at least 62 deaths, injured 93 people and left more than 50,000 displaced. The
riot had been described as "the worst violence in Uttar Pradesh in recent history", with the
Muzzafarnagar army being deployed in the state for the first time in the last 20 years.
Riots (2013)

•The issue of beef consumption and transportation has been a contentious issue in India and
has triggered communal outbreaks in various parts of the country. Muslims were the target
of 51% of violence centred on bovine issues over nearly eight years (2010 to 2017) and
Beef consumption, comprised 86% of 28 Indians killed in 63 incidents, according to an IndiaSpend content
lynching and analysis
ensuing deaths

•It is a series of religious conversion activities, facilitated by Indian Hindu organizations to

facilitate conversion of non-Hindus ( who in past converted to other religion from
hindusim) to Hinduism. While the organizing groups claimed that people voluntarily came
Ghar Wapsi forward to convert to Hinduism, some participants claimed that they were lured to do so.
programmes Also, raising the fear of ‘Love Jihad’ for inter-faith marriages.

•In the year 2020, Delhi witnessed its first major riot since 1984 between Hindu-Muslim
communities. In a series of bloodshed, property destruction, and rioting in North East
Delhi, 53 people were killed.
Delhi Riots 2020

Previous Year Questions

1. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has
got transformed into the latter in independent India. (2017)

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR COMMUNALISM

One must understand that the differences between Hindus and Muslims were actually not the reason for
communalism because these differences were there during the medieval times itself. Hindus and Muslims were living with
their own distinct identities, but they had a common, unifying culture. The difference of faith alone wasn’t a reason for
conflict. The differences arose only during the colonial period (mainly after 1857 revolt), when many developments were
seen and they were responsible for the rise and growth of communalism in modern India. The major factors that contributed
towards the emergence and growth of communalism in modern India involves:

1. Divide and Rule Policy of British-

➢ The British government used communalism to counter and weaken the growing national movement and the
welding of the Indian people into a nation. It was presented by the colonial rulers as the problem of the defence of
the minorities.
➢ Hindu-Muslim disunity was sighted as the reason for the continuation of the British rule. They favoured one
community against the other in services and promotions.

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➢ Communal demands like separate electorates were accepted and thus, they helped in politically strengthening
communal organizations. The colonial rulers showed extreme tolerance towards communal organizations &
leaders and did not care to crush the communal riots.

2. Communal Appeal of Political Parties and Organization

➢ Several religious organizations were formed by the Hindu and Muslim communities whose goals were poles
apart by now. These were organizations that began to play communal politics.
➢ They declared agenda that was different, but deep within, their agenda and activities were contradictory to what
they were claiming. Issues like cow slaughter, Urdu-Hindi conflict, Dussehra and Muharram falling in the
same month, clashes for procession, etc. often led to clashes with other community.
➢ At the time of elections, the political parties and organizations make an appeal to the people on communal lines
to garner their support and keep their communal feelings alive. They find the appeal in terms of communal lines
more paying in terms of votes. In many instances, the communal riots are often politically motivated. These are
pre-planned and most of the times are preceded by almost identical incidents which rouse religious sentiments
among the people. This would lead to a chain of events that would ultimately lead to the partition of India.

3. Communal view of Indian history

➢ A communal and distorted view of Indian history, particularly of the ancient and medieval period, was also
responsible for its growth. A beginning in this regard was made by the British historian, James Mill in the early
19th century, who described the ancient period of Indian history as the Hindu period and the medieval period
as the Muslim period. Other British and Indian historians followed him in this respect.
➢ This divided the historians also in two categories:
o Historians with Hindu communal tinge claimed that Indian society and culture in ancient times under
Hindu rulers had reached ideal heights but fell into permanent decay under the Muslim rulers.
o Historians influenced with Muslim communalism labelled the rule of Muslim rulers as the ‘golden age
of Islamic achievement’ in West Asia and hailed their cultural achievements. They glorified the Muslim
rulers including the religious bigots like Aurangzeb.
➢ British historians and, following them, Indian historians failed to bring out the fact that ancient and medieval politics
in India, as politics everywhere else, were based on economic and political interests and not on religious
considerations. Rulers as well as rebels used religious appeals as an outer colouring to disguise the play of
material interests and ambitions. Moreover, the British and communal historians attacked the notion of a composite
culture in India.

4. Economic and Educational Backwardness of Indian Muslims

➢ Muslim upper classes consisted mostly of zamindars and aristocrats. Because the upper- class Muslims during
the first 70 years of the nineteenth century was very anti-British, conservative and hostile to modern education,
the number of educated Muslims in the country remained very small.
➢ Consequently, modern Western thought with its emphasis on science, democracy and nationalism did not spread
among Muslim intellectuals, who remained traditional and backward. The relative backwardness of the Muslims
and their failure to benefit from the socio-cultural reforms of 19th century made them to view Hindus as
competitors and aspire for political dominance.
➢ In these circumstances, it was easy for the British officials and the loyalist Muslim leaders to incite the educated
Muslims against the educated Hindus. Sayyid Ahmad Khan and others raised the demand for special
treatment for the Muslims in the matter of government service. They declared that if the educated Muslims
remained loyal to the British, the latter would reward them with government jobs and other special favours.
Therefore, the religious distinction between communities coincided with social and class distinctions resulting in
communal disharmony.

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5. Stagnant Economy
➢ It was an expression of the interests and aspirations of the middle classes in a social set up in which opportunities
for them were inadequate. The communal question was, therefore a middle-class question par excellence.
➢ According to Bipan Chandra communal politics till 1937 was organized around government jobs, educational
concessions and the like as also political positions - seats in legislative councils, municipal bodies, etc - which
enabled control over these and other economic opportunities. According to him communalism developed as a
weapon of economically and politically reactionary social classes and political forces.
➢ Communal leaders and parties were in general allied with these classes and forces. The vested interests deliberately
encouraged communalism because of its capacity to distort and divert popular struggle, to prevent the masses from
understanding the real issues.

6. Hindu Tinge in Nationalist Propaganda

➢ During the national movement, a strong religious element was introduced in nationalist thought and
propaganda. Hindu idiom was introduced to its day-to-day political agitation. For instance, Bal Gangadha Tilak
used the Ganesh pooja and Shivaji Mahaotsav to propagate nationalism. Incidentally, association with God
Ganesh and Shivaji was used as a tool by the communal Muslims to alert Muslims. This was also a reason behind
non-participation of Muslims in large numbers in Indian National Congress till 1919.
➢ In fact, in the early decades, only about 8-9% of the members of the Indian National Congress were Muslims.
Similarly, the agitation against partition of Bengal began with people taking dips in the Ganges. Also,
prominent personalities like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee often cited Muslims as foreigners in their writings.
➢ All these incidents played with the emotions of the Muslims and alienated them from the Hindus. This proved to
be particularly harmful as clever British and pro-British propagandists took advantage of the Hindu colouring
to poison the minds of the Muslims.
➢ The result was that a large number of educated Muslims either remained aloof from the rising nationalist movement
or became hostile to it, thus falling an easy prey to a separatist outlook.

7. Side-effects of socio-religious reform movements

➢ Reform movements such as Wahabi Movement among Muslims and Shuddhi among Hindus with their
militant overtones made the role of religion more vulnerable to communalism. Reforms, at times, were seen as a
process of insulating one community from the influence of another religious community.

8. Psychological factors
➢ Paul R Brass in his edited book Riots and Pogroms says that riots occur in waves, records, and in the wake of a
"psychological atmosphere". Yet, after the trauma of Partition, riots decreased in frequency. The graph began to
rise only after the Jabalpur riots in 1961.
➢ Riot is "a violent disturbance of peace by an assembly or body of persons," a pogrom is "an organised
massacre". We have had at least two pogroms since Independence. One was against the Sikhs in Delhi in the wake
of the assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984. The other was in Mumbai in the aftermath of the demolition of the
Babri Masjid, in December 1992 and January 1993.

9. Role of Media
➢ Rumours, abetted by the media, play a role in almost every major communal riot. By virtue of their proximity to
the source, many vernacular newspapers disseminate rumours as "news".
➢ In fact, the system of communal information dissemination and perpetuation is far more sophisticated than that of
mere words. During the 1969 Ahmedabad riots, newspapers headlined rumoured reports of attacks on Hindu
temples.

10. Politics of appeasement

➢ Political parties, prompted by political considerations, take decisions, which promote communal violence.
o Take the example of Shah Bano case. Muslims reacted aggressively against the Supreme Court judgement
which granted a Muslim divorcee, Shah Bano, maintenance in excess and in protraction of the Shari'ah,
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which permits maintenance only for the iddah (three months post-divorce) period. The then Central
government headed by Rajiv Gandhi overturned the judgement by passing the Muslim Women's Act in
early 1986.
Previous Year Questions
2. Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation. Argue by giving suitable illustrations.’
(2018)
IMPACT OF COMMUNALISM
Communalism has divided our society for long. It causes belief in orthodox tenets and principles, intolerance, hatred
towards other religions and religious group, distortion of historical facts and communal violence.
➢ Political Impact:
o Voters voting on communal lines. After getting elected, the representatives try to safeguard the interests
of their community and ignore national interests. These conditions hinder the progress of democracy in the
country.
o It is also a threat to Indian constitutional values, which promotes secularism and religious tolerance.
In that case, citizens don’t fulfill their fundamental duties towards the nation.
➢ Social Impact:
o Communalism promotes feeling of hatred in all directions, dividing society into communal lines. It
becomes a threat to the unity and integrity of the nation as a whole, disrupting the peaceful social
fabric of our society.
o With mass killings, the real sufferers are the poor, who lose their house, their near and dear ones, their lives,
their livelihood, etc. It violates human rights from all directions. Sometimes children lose their parents
and will become orphans for a lifetime.
➢ Economic Impact:
o Communal activities occurring frequently do harm the human resource and economy of the country and act
as a barrier in the development of the nation.
o The investment attitude towards the country from foreign investors would be cautious; they tend to avoid
the countries with a highly communal country, for not take the risk of end up losing their investment.
o The flow of labor from productive activities is diverted to unproductive activities
o There is massive destruction of public properties to spread the ideology.
➢ Psychological Impact:
o Ghettoization and refugee problem are other dimensions of communalism induced violence, whether its
inter country or intra country. Sudden increase in violence against any particular community causes mass
exodus and stampede which in turn kills many number of people. For example, this was seen in the case of
Bangalore in 2012, with respect to people from North eastern states, which was stimulated by a rumour.
➢ Impact on Minorities:
o Minorities are viewed with suspicion by all, including state authorities like police, para military forces,
army, intelligence agencies, etc. There have been many instances when people from such community have
been harassed and detained and finally have been released by court orders guilt free. For this, there is no
provision for compensation of such victims, about their livelihood incomes forgone, against social stigmas
and emotional trauma of the families.
MEASURES TO DEAL WITH COMMUNALISM:
I. Short Term Measures
➢ Building solidarity and assimilation of various religious groups at different levels in society workplace,
neighborhood etc. by fostering a secular culture. Eg: Celebrating each other’s religious festivals.
➢ Peace Committees can be set up in which individuals belonging to different religious communities can work
together to spread goodwill and fellow-feelings and remove feelings of fear and hatred in the riot-affected
areas. This will be effective not only in diffusing communal tensions but also in preventing riots from breaking
out.
➢ The state has to plan and use new strategies in dealing with communal violence. India’s experience in recent
years confirms the utility of this step. Whenever strong and secular administrators have used or threatened the

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use of strong steps, riots either did not occur or were of short duration. For example, strong police and army
intervention prevented repetition of riots in Calcutta in November 1984 and in Mumbai in January 1994.
➢ The role of media is immensely heightened during the course of communal violence. Newspaper can pour oil
over the troubled waters or extinguish the raging fire. The fear and hatred can be checked if the press, radio
and TV report the events in a way conducive to soothing the frayed nerves of people instead of inflaming the
temper further. The media can contradict rumours in a sober manner. A careful restraint has to be exercised
in reporting the number of persons of different religious communities killed or injure
➢ Ensuring that political parties refrain from using religion, religious ideologies in order to garner votes
through strict vigilance by institutional mechanisms such as the Election Commission, media, civil society etc.
➢ Instances of an inter-religious marriage of two consenting adults should not be construed as “love jihad
issue” and highlighted in the media. Thus, media persons should be sensitized regarding the issue.
➢ Religious heads can play an important role in dissemination of ideas of diversity of religion, ideas, etc. which
can help in spreading peace among different communities.
II. Long Term Measures
➢ Role of education, particularly emphasizing on value-oriented education both in schools and
colleges/universities, is important in preventing communal feelings. Education based on traditional cultural
ideologies can protect the young people from philosophies and ideologies of hate.
➢ History education should be de-communalized as the present categorization of Indian history into ancient,
medieval and modern has contributed to communal thinking as it has effectively divided history into the Hindu
period, Muslim period and Christian period respectively. This has given rise to notions that India was a Hindu
country which was ‘invaded’ by Muslims and Christians.
➢ Pluralistic settlement where members of different communities live together should be encouraged by
removing existing barriers as religious segregation strengthens communal identities and reinforces negative
stereotypes of other religious groups. Eg. taking action during instances of intolerance where Muslims, Dalits,
North-Eastern citizens etc. are denied housing owing to their identities. Sachar Committee report on the status
of Indian Muslims recommended the creation of an Equal Opportunities Commission to deal with complaints
of intolerance and exclusion.
➢ Increased employment opportunities for minorities can lead to decrease in communal discord. Thus, there
should be focus on skilling members of minority communities through various programmes and initiatives.
➢ Stern laws should be framed by the Parliament against communal violence. The weaknesses of laws have
resulted in escape of politicians and other influential persons who have openly indulged in inciting communal
violence.
➢ The CBI or a special investigative body should investigate communal riots within a stipulated time frame.
Further, special courts should hear such cases for quick delivery of justice to victims.
➢ Police and other bodies upholding law and order should be held accountable as sometimes the police bow
down to pressure from politicians and remain inactive during communal violence and in the course of its follow
up eg. while filing FIRs, arresting the accused, producing charge sheets etc. Thus, legal reforms must be
introduced which hold them accountable for swift action.
➢ Uniform Civil Code should be formulated and implemented with the consensus of all religious communities
so that there is uniformity in personal laws.
EIGHT-POINT OBJECTIVES ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. Evaluating the working of various safeguards for the minorities in the Constitution and the laws passed by the
union and state governments.
2. Recommending the most effective way to implement the laws pertaining to the minorities.
3. Looking into specific complaints.
4. Conducting studies and research on the question of avoidance of discrimination against minorities.
5. Reviewing union and state government policies towards minorities.
6. Suggesting appropriate legal and welfare measures to be undertaken by the union and state governments.
7. Submitting reports (on minorities) to the government from time to time.
8. Serving as a national clearing house for information in respect of the conditions of the minorities.
Way forward:
➢ Posting of secular-minded district and police officials in riot-prone areas.

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➢ Setting up of special courts to try communal offences.
➢ Providing immediate relief and adequate financial assistance to victims of communal riots for their
rehabilitation.
➢ Taking severe action against all those who incite communal tensions or take part in violence.
Thus, multipronged measures are needed to contain the communal tensions and bring about communal harmony in the
country. We have not only to fight religious communalism but have also to contain political communalism which is
more degrading and dangerous. A vast majority of Muslims and Sikhs in India have no appetite for communal violence,
and this mirrors the sentiments of most Hindus. Social scientists and intellectuals have to evince serious interest in
controlling the national malaise of communalism and in related issues like religious violence, separatism, secessionism, and
terrorism.

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Mains Master Notes

GS 1 – Society
Topic: Salient features of Indian society- Unity in Diversity

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Contents
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY – UNITY IN DIVERSITY: ............................................ 3
Introduction: ......................................................................................................................................... 3
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY:................................................................................ 3
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY:............................................................................... 5
CASTE SYSTEM: .............................................................................................................................. 5
CASTE SYATEM AND ITS CHANGES: .......................................................................................... 5
RELIGION IN INDIA: ....................................................................................................................... 6
KINSHIP IN INDIA: .......................................................................................................................... 7
DEFINITION OF KINSHIP SYSTEM:.............................................................................................. 7
DIMENSIONS OF KINSHIP SYSTEM:............................................................................................ 7
THE BASIC DIFFERENTIALS FOUND IN THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN KINSHIP
SYSTEM: ........................................................................................................................................... 8
MARRIAGE IN INDIA:..................................................................................................................... 8
CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE IN INDIA: ................................................................... 9
FAMILY IN INDIA:........................................................................................................................... 12
FAMILIES BASED ON MARRIAGE: ............................................................................................ 13
FAMILIES BASED ON STRUCTURE AND SIZE:........................................................................ 13
FAMILIES BASED ON AUTHORITY: .......................................................................................... 13
ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS OF A FAMILY: ................................................................................... 14
CHANGES IN THE FAMILY STRUCTURE: ................................................................................ 16
DIVERSITY IN INDIA:..................................................................................................................... 17
UNITY IN INDIA: .............................................................................................................................. 19
Threats to National Integration and unity in India:......................................................................... 22
Way forward: ...................................................................................................................................... 24

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SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY – UNITY IN DIVERSITY:

Introduction:
Unity in diversity is used as an expression of harmony and unity between dissimilar individuals or
groups.
It is a concept of "unity without uniformity and diversity without fragmentation" that shifts focus from
unity based on a mere tolerance of physical, cultural, linguistic, social, religious, political, ideological
and/or psychological differences towards a more complex unity based on an understanding that difference
enriches human interactions.
The phrase is a deliberate oxymoron, the rhetorical combination of two antonyms, unitas "unity,
oneness" and varietas "variety, variousness".

When used in a political context, it is often used to advocate federalism and multiculturalism.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY:

· Fusion of tradition and modernity:

Globalization might have bought with it a surge of modern values and practices, but traditionalism is
still prevalent and preserved in India. The traditions of Indian society have also made its way to the
outside world

· Static and dynamic:

Our Indian society promotes accommodation as well as assimilation.

Over the years, multiple tribes have lost their core indigenous culture due to assimilation into the major
population of Indian society. Such contacts with different cultures also gave birth to newer practices. The
society is dynamic as it is changing everyday.

· Unity in diversity:

Indian society has challenged the skepticism of many political thinkers post-independence that were
doubtful regarding India’s amalgamation as one nation amidst vast differences and big numbers of ethic
groups, languages, culture and diversity.

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The core values in the constitution, the reorganization by the state on the basis of language as well as the
efforts of the government to protect the interests of minorities has helped in keeping up this unity.

· Patriarchy:

Patriarchy is a family system within which the supreme decision-making power rests with the male
head/members of the family.

Women are treated as second-class citizens in a patriarchal society. This system is degrading to
women; it hinders the social and emotional development of the fairer sex of the society.

Gender discrimination is a universal deterrent for women.

· Rural agrarian social structure:

For more than half of the population of India, agriculture remains the sole source of livelihood. An
estimated 70% of our population lives in rural territories.

· Caste and class nexus:

The modern caste system is the result of the age-old varna system

Economic reforms have led to flourishing urban areas. Here people are categorized based on class (such
as income) rather than their social identity.

The emerging class system though closely resembles the caste hierarchy. It has also provided
downtrodden sections an opportunity for upward social mobility.

Co-existence through inter-caste marriages and endogamy are examples of this. The divide is evident in
the economic structures(poverty, education, income, asset ownership, trades and professions etc.)

It holds collective values above the individual achievements

· Tolerance and mutual respect:

The Indian society has survived in the face of diversity, thanks to its accommodative values of tolerance
and mutual respect that have existed from the early times.

The multitude of invaders who made India their home lead to the mixing and co-existence of many
different cultures .

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SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY:

CASTE SYSTEM:

· The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It has origins in ancient
India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India,
especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj.
· It is today the basis of affirmative action programmes in India.
· The caste system consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be regarded as
different levels of analysis of this system.
· The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of
the Mughal era and the rise of the British colonial government in India.
· Caste-based differences have also been practised in other regions and religions in the Indian
subcontinent like Nepalese Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Sikhism.
· It has been challenged by many reformist Hindu movements, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, and also
by present-day Indian Buddhism.
· New developments took place after India achieved independence, when the policy of caste-based
reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
· Since 1950, the country has enacted many laws and social initiatives to protect and improve the
socioeconomic conditions of its lower caste population.

CASTE SYATEM AND ITS CHANGES:

Change is the law of nature. Everything changes. For change various factors are responsible. As a result,
a number of changes have taken place in caste system.

1. Decline in the supremacy of traditional strata:

In the traditional caste system, the Brahmins occupied the highest position. But, due to the process of
secularization and westernization, the supremacy of Brahmins have gradually declined.

2. Caste hierarchy and sanskritisation:

Traditionally, each caste has a definite stand in the social hierarchical order. Each caste has its own life
style and the higher caste people maintained a better life than the lower caste people. In course of time the
process of Sankritization started.

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The process of Sanskritization has been the main method for the low castes to improve their social
status by imitating the habits of the higher castes. So, the caste hierarchy has been changed.

3. Changes in social intercourse:

In the past, caste system had impaired certain restrictions on food, drink and social intercourse. But some
of the factors like modern education, transportation and communication have brought a radical change in
this sphere.

4. Changes in occupation:
In caste society choice of occupation was not free. Each caste has its own traditional occupation. But
now-a-days, people follow those occupations, which they consider more suitable and income-oriented.

5. Changes in marriage:
Under caste system, there were some rules and regulations in the choice of mate selection. Every caste or
sub-caste was an endogamous group. The person who married outside his own caste or sub-caste was
severely punished. But now-a-days, the spread of modern education and westernization has declined all
these restrictions on marriage. The Special Marriage Act and the Hindu Marriage Act, which declared
inter-caste marriages as legally valid, have removed all these restriction on marriage in caste system.
Some State Governments give incentives to inter-casted marriages.

6. Changes in caste structure:

In the traditional caste system, caste as a symbol of social status, was fixed by virtue of birth. But, under
the changing situation birth is no longer regarded as the symbol of social prestige. Today wealth and
achievement replaced birth as the symbol of social status.

RELIGION IN INDIA:
Religion in India is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices.

· The preamble of Indian constitution states that India is a secular state. The Indian subcontinent is the
birthplace of four of the world's major religions namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,
and Sikhism.

· According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the population of India practices Hinduism, 14.2% adheres
to Islam, 2.3% adheres to Christianity, 1.7% adheres to Sikhism, 0.7% adheres to Buddhism and 0.4%
adheres to Jainism.

· Zoroastrianism, Sanamahism and Judaism also have an ancient history in India, and each has several
thousands of Indian adherents.

· India has the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism (i.e. Parsis and Iranis) in the
world, even though this religion initially grew in Persia.

· Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture.

· Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established in the country by
the law and custom, the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be
a fundamental right.

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KINSHIP IN INDIA:

· Since India is a land of immense diversity, its different regions reflect different systems of kinship. In
the limited scope of two units, it is not possible to even outline all the various types of kinship
systems found in India.

· As the country’s two major geographical divisions, the north and the south, present two distinct forms
and have been described in sociological literature.

· It is to be remembered that this does not mean that there are no further varieties of kinship systems in
certain pockets of both North and South India.

· India’s north eastern parts, as well as, other regions in its west and south provide many other types.

DEFINITION OF KINSHIP SYSTEM:

It said that the kinship system refers to a set of persons recognised as relatives either by virtue of a
blood relationship or by virtue of a marriage relationship.

In sociological terms,

· All blood relationships are known by a technical term, consanguinity.

· Similarly, all relationships through marriage are given the term affinity.

For example, the relationships between mother and son/daughter, sister and brother/sister, father and
son/daughter are consanguinal , while relationships between father/mother-in-law and daughter-/son-in-
law are affinal.

Mostly, it is the social recognition of these relationships that is more important than the actual biological
ties. Networks built around kin relationships play a significant role in both rural and urban social life in
India.

DIMENSIONS OF KINSHIP SYSTEM:

In order to describe the features of kinship systems found in North and South India, we need to focus on
certain aspects.

i) Kinship Groups: Kin relationships provide both a method of passing on status and property
from one generation to the next effective social groups for purposes of cooperation and conflict.

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ii) Kinship Terminology: The list of terms used by the people to refer to their kin relationships
expresses the nature of kinship system. This is why by describing kinship terminology, we are
able to throw light on the kinship system. Most features of the kinship system of any society are
usually reflected in the way kinship terms are used in that society.

iii) Marriage Rules: Just as kinship groups describe the form of kinship system found in a society,
so also rules for marriage, categories of people who may/ may not marry each other,
relationships between bride-takers and bridegivers provide the context within which kin
relationships operate.

iv) Exchange of Gifts: As there are always two terms to any relationship, kinship behaviour is
described in terms of pairs. For example, the parent-child relationship would describe kinship
behaviour between two generations. We cannot therefore describe kinship behaviour. Instead we
consider the chain of gift giving and taking among the relatives for understanding the
behavioural aspects of kinship system.

THE BASIC DIFFERENTIALS FOUND IN THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN KINSHIP

SYSTEM:
(1) In northern India there is a prevalence of the patriarchal kin system. In the south, however, there
exist both patriarchal and matriarchal systems of kinship. The matriarchal kinship system is found in
Kerala among the Nairs, Moppilas and Teeyyars.

Studies also finds matriarchal system in the east among the Garo (Megha- laya) and Khasi tribes. There
are no traces of matriarchal kin system in north. However, patriarchal system is also popular among
castes of southern parts of India along with matriarchal system.

(2) In the north sapinda marriage is prohibited, whereas in the south cross-cousin marriage has the
status of a preferential marriage.

(3) Bride-price marriage is not recognized in the north. In the south it is a common practice in
marriage.

(4) Normally, village endogamy is not preferred in the north. In the south, on the contrary there is no
prohibition against endogamy, that is, one can marry from his own village.

(5) In the north, there is a specific kinship terminology for blood kin and marital kin. In the south, there
is no difference in kinship terminology between these two groups.

Kinship terminology depends largely on the language. Karve has studied both the Indo-Aryan
language family and the Dravidian language family.

MARRIAGE IN INDIA:
Marriage is an important social institution that it has a universal reference and application. Marriage is a
socially supported union involving two or more individuals in what is regarded as a stable, enduring
arrangement typically based at least in part on a sexual bond of some kind.

All the same it is a relationship that has, in the context of India, given rise to many controversies relating
to the definition of marriage.

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In all societies we find ways of regulating who may not marry whom and who may marry whom.

Incest rules: The rules of incest decide who is outside the category of those one can marry. Incest
refers to sexual union of near kin.

Positive (endogamy) and negative (exogamy) rules :

There are positive and negative rules of marriage to determine the unit within which one should marry
and the unit within which one must not marry. The positive rules pertain to the unit of endogamy within
which one can marry. In India, among the Hindus this refers by and large to one’s caste or sub-caste. The
negative rules pertain to the unit of exogamy within which one must not marry.

Local caste panchayats have reportedly taken action against such couples though the courts have upheld
their marriages. Such cases are indicators of changes in the perceptions of people about rules of marriage.
Even the unit of endogamy is no longer a universally accepted unit of positive rules of marriage.

CHANGING PATTERNS OF MARRIAGE IN INDIA:

1. Changes in the Aims of Marriage:

The main objective of marriage in India was Dharma Although Kama or sex was one of the aims of
marriage, it was the least desirable aim. In recent years, the order of aims of marriage has undergone
change Sex has become primary and Dharma has become least important aim to marriage. In this manner
the aims and the basis of marriage are undergoing changes.

2. Change in the process of Mate Selection:

· As far as the selection of the bride and bridegroom was concerned it was the prerogative of the
parents or the guardians.

· This tradition of selecting the marriage partner for sons and daughters continued till the end of 19th
century when the ideas of liberalism and industrialism were incorporated into Indian society as a
result of the impact of Western culture.

· As a result of this some cases of individual choice of mate was found. In the post independent India,
the tendency of selecting one’s own partner has remarkably increased.

· Now-a-days the younger generation is not very much in favor of parental choice in matter of
selection of marriage partners.

· A new trend is emerging in the process of mate selection among the middle and upper class educated
youth in urban areas. In some case marriage partners are chosen by children. In most of the cases the
parents allow their children to have a say in selection of partners.

3. Changes in the Rules of Endogamy and Exogamy:

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· There have been some visible changes in the matter of rules of endogamy and exogamy. The rules of
Varna, caste and sub-caste endogamy, Gotra and Pravara exogamy have been banned by
legislations.

· Now we do not find restriction in cross-cousin marriages. Cross-cousin marriages were taking place
but these were not very common. It appears that the attitude of people towards cross-cousin marriage
is changing. The numbers of cross-cousin marriages are gradually increasing. Under certain
circumstances these types of marriages are found to be accepted by people.

· As regards the rules of endogamy, remarkable changes have taken place. The Hindu Marriage
Disabilities Removal Act of 1946 allowed marriage between different subdivisions of the same caste.
The Special Marriage Act of 1954 and Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have enabled marriages between
persons of different castes and religions.

Arya Samaj Movement has promoted inter-caste marriages. Inter-caste marriages, hitherto considered
unthinkable, are now not only permitted but also encouraged. Besides the legislations, the freedom
in mate selection has promoted inter-caste marriages.

4. The Age at Marriage:

· In course of time child marriage became the prevalent mode of marriage in India. Hence, child
marriage was the practice to safeguard chastity and purity of females. The practice of child marriage
was strong even in the 20th century. In the 20th century, the Child Marriage Restraint Act, popularly
known as Sharada Act prescribed the minimum age of marriage at 14 years for girls and 18 years for
boys.

· Then, the Indian Parliament raised the age of marriage. For girls, the minimum age is 18 years and for
boys 21 years. Marriage of boys and girls below the prescribed age has been made a cognisable
offence.

· Various sociological studies conducted in the last few decades have revealed that the trend in age at
marriage from 1930 onwards has shown a continuous change. Due to certain changed social
conditions, people prefer marriage at a higher age now-a-days.

5. Changes in the Rites of Marriage:

· Traditionally, marriage is a religious sacrament and the marriage can take place only through the
performance of certain rites and rituals.

· Some of the most important rites and rituals connected with Indian marriage are Kanya Dana, Vivaha
Home, Panigrahana, Agni Parinayana and Saptapadi etc. But today the situation is that some changes
have taken place regarding the rites and rituals of marriage.

· On the one hand, we find that due to shortage of time the rites and rituals connected with Hindu
marriage have been cut down. Generally, it is observed that people sometimes ask the priest to hasten
the ceremonies of the marriage.

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· On the other hand, some marriages are performed in civil courts. As a result of this, the sacred
nature of rites and rituals has been diminished to a considerable extent.

· Apart from this, the Arya Samaj movement has also simplified the rites and rituals of marriage.
Another factor responsible for the decline in the religionsity of marriage is that Indian society as a
whole is moving from sacred to secular nature and as a result of this; the traditional values are
undergoing vast changes.

6. Change in the Stability of Marriage:

· Traditionally, divorce was not easily granted and permitted in Indian society. The hindrance on
divorce made the institution of family and marriage stable and enduring.

· Due to the enactment of marriage and family legislations and many other factors the divorce rate in
India has been steadily increasing.

· The incidence of divorce is a clear indication of the fact that the institution of marriage is undergoing
changes. The stability of married life is gradually being affected. Marital instability is gradually
increasing. There was a time when a wife could not think of divorce. But now women have started
taking resort to dissolution of marital bond.

7. The Problem of Remarriage:

· The old tradition of Kanya Dana prohibited the marriage of widows. The remarriage of widows was
generally not favoured in Smritis.

· Although widow remarriage was in rare cases permitted, it was not regarded as sacramental as the
first marriage was. The remarriage is not marriage once a maiden is given in marriage.

· The Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 allowed widows to remarry if they liked. Apart from this law, the
Arya Samaj Movement also favoured widow remarriage. During early period of the 20th century, we
come across sporadic cases of widow remarriage.

· In the post- independence era the number of widow remarriages has considerably increased.

· Hence, we can say that our old values are changing. The attitude of hatred and abhorrence which was
associated with the idea of widow remarriage is being replaced by more liberal ideas of accepting the
widow remarriage.

8. Dowry Systems:

· The traditional form of marriage implies Kanya Dana in which the father of the bride provides jewels
and ornaments to daughter at the time of marriage. It was only a token of love and affection.

· Actually this was not a dowry which was being practiced in ancient India. In course of time, child
marriage emerged and with this also emerged the necessity of providing a huge dowry because the
selection of bridegroom became difficult in recent years.

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· The problem of dowry has led to many problems namely suicide by the girls, malpractices by the
father and humiliation of the father who cannot provide dowry.

· Although the Government has taken steps to eradicate the evil practice of dowry, it persists and
gradually the problem of dowry is becoming acute Bride-burning cases have been increasing every
year in different parts of our country due to failure to meet the expected demand by the family of the
bridegroom.

· In many cases conjugal rights have been denied to the newly married girl on the plea that her father
has not given all agreed amount of dowry.

9. Marriage and Morality:

· One of the most important values connected with Hindu marriage for boys and girls was chastity.

· The Hindu Sastrakaras have emphasised on pre- nuptial chastity of both boys and girls. They were
not one-sided in their valuation of chastity but they placed equal value on the pre-nuptial chastity on
the part of the male as well is evident that elaborate rules were laid down for the sexual conduct of
both boys and girls till his or her marriage.

· Pre-marital and extra-marital relations were not allowed. Love was the consequence of marriage
between boys and girls, and marriage was not the consequence of love.

· “The development of new mores in sex is generally presented in a society which has its roots in
tradition and religious belief. Conventional sex morality cannot however stem for long the tide
of a new awakening the need for a new concept of sex relationships is now as much as
recognized by the older as by the younger generation only. This recognition has not percolated
to all layers of Indian society. Changes is hence slow and therefore less dramatic.”

· However, remarkable changes are taking place in sex mores and values. Pre-marital sex relationship
which was totally unknown in traditional Indian society is gradually becoming visible.

· Youths have started establishing sex relationship much before marriage; Brahmacharya Vrata has
become irrelevant because of new values. Due to the impact of Western culture and weakening of
regulation of sexual conduct married persons are keeping sexual relationships beyond their partners.
The Vedic ideal embodied in the Saptapadi formula’, I take thee to be my companion in life, is not
acceptable to people in some cases.

FAMILY IN INDIA:
A family is a place where one can freely express one’s feelings, emotions and needs without being
threatened or ashamed of them. Family is a place where one can feel security, wholeness and a sense of
being wanted.

Family can also be defined as “Those related persons who live together within a household, usually
with common eating habits or one kitchen.” It is experienced and proved that children grow best in an
atmosphere of security and affection and that material attributes can never be substituted for true love.

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FAMILIES BASED ON MARRIAGE:

Families formed on the basis of marriage are of two types:

· monogamous family, in which one man marries one woman at a time,

· polygamous family is formed by the concurrent marriage of one sex to two or more members of the
opposite sex.

FAMILIES BASED ON STRUCTURE AND SIZE:

a) The large Joint Family

b) The Nuclear Family

c) The Extended Family

Joint family:

Joint family is one that has a greater generation depth than the nuclear family, in which members are
related to one another by property, income, mutual rights and obligations.

Nuclear Family:

Nuclear family is one in which the parents and their unmarried sons and daughters live together.

Extended Family:

The extended family is a later development of the joint family system with a transformed image. It
mediates the nuclear family and the large joint family.

FAMILIES BASED ON AUTHORITY:

On the basis of authority and power family may be classified into the following three types. They are:

 Patriarchal Family:
In this family the power and authority is vested in the hands of the male member of the family. In other
words the patriarch or father is the; center of power and authority.

He is the owner and administrator of the family property and right. He exercises un challengeable
authority over his family members.

 Matriarchal Family:
Matriarchal family is just the opposite of patriarchal family. It is also known as maternal family or
mother-right family or mother dominated family.

In this family, the authority rests with mother or some other female members. She owns all the family
property and rules the family as male member, in case of patriarchic family. Descent is reckoned through
the mother.

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The female members alone have the right to succeed to property of a maternal family. Thus husband is
sub-ordinate to his wife and plays a secondary role.

This type of family is found among the Nayer and Tiya castes in Kerala, the Khasi and Garo tribes of
Assam and the North American Indians.

 Egalitarian Family:
When power and authority are shared by husband and wife in the family they said family is termed as
egalitarian family. This type of family is also known as equalitarian family or symmetrical Family. In this
type of family, both husband and wife are more alike. They take decisions jointly. Both sons and
daughters inherit family property equally. In short, this type of family provides equals opportunity to both
male and female to enjoy their rights and authority. In modern societies this type of family is very
common.

ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS OF A FAMILY:

These functions are basic for continued existence of family. They may be regarded as primary functions
of family.

(I) Satisfaction of sex need:

The primary objective of family is satisfaction of sex need. The sex need is irresistible and satisfaction of
this need brings the desire for union of man and woman through marriage institution. If sex instinct is
suppressed, it may create personality maladjustment and disrupt social relations. Havelock states “with
failure of sexual harmony, the marriage structure rests on shifting sand”. The family fulfils sex instinct in
better way.

(II) Production and rearing of children:

Family is an institution par excellence for the production and rearing of children. No other institution can
as efficiently bring up the child as can the family.

The process of reproduction is institutionalized in the family. The task of race perpetuation has always
been an important function of the family.

The Hindu scriptures point out that the religious activities of man cannot be consummated unless he has a
son. Legitimate production and rearing of children can be possible only through family. The family gives
the individual his life and a chance to survive with appropriate protection.

(III) Provision of home:

Home is the sanctuary place to provide comfort and affection to its members. The family satisfies the
need for love and affection of human being through home and eliminates emotional behaviour problem of
human beings. Man after the hard toil of the day returns home where in the midst of his wife and children
he sheds off his fatigue. Children are born and brought up in homes only.

Non-essential Functions:

In addition to the essential functions the family performs a number of non essential functions which may
be discussed under the following heads. The non-essential functions of family are various which differ
from one another.

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 Economic:
Firstly, it serves as an economic unit. Family is a consumption and production unit as well Most of the
commodities for consumption are made at home even though readymade foods, clothing and other
commodities are available in the market. Family serves as insurance company for the family members at
the time of financial constrain. The movable and immovable property of family are protected and
maintained by family members.

 Religious:
Family is the centre of religious training centre of the children. In the family children learn religious,
virtues and practices like idol worship, yogyo, religious discourses and sermons. Family plays an
important role to make the outlook of children religious.

 Educational:
The family is an important educational agency. It is the first window of the child to the world outside.
The child learns the first letter under the guidance of parents, though nowadays, there are provision of
many kindergarten and public school. Family is also the centre of vocational education because in low
socio economic status family, from the childhood children are associated with the families is occupation
like carpentry, tailoring, blacksmith though the children of rich family are taking admission in many
technical institutes and college for vocational education.

 Health:
Family fosters health services to its members. Sick man was cared for in the family by his own kith and
kin though today various nursing home and govt. medical facilities are available. The consolation and
hearty care of family members enable to cure the illness of sick member quickly and they forget their
pain to some extent.

 Recreation:
Family is the centre of recreation for family members. Children keep themselves engaged in many indoor
games like carom, ludo, cards playing, chess, watch T.V. in the family. They also get chance of merry
making with siblings and relatives in the family.

 Civic:
Family is the cradle of civic virtues. The child learns the first lessons of citizenship in the family. The
virtues of love, cooperation, toleration sacrifice, obedience and discipline are first learnt by the child in
the family. These qualities enable him to grow into a good of citizen in the country.

 Socialization:
The process of socialization of family members begins within the family. Its members are imbued with
“We” feeling in the family. It also imparts the knowledge of social customs mores etc. to the future
generation. It is an important agency of social control. It exercises social control over its members which
helps in the maintenance of a well organised society. It is also the custodian of culture and serves as the
natural and convenient channel of social continuity.

 Family an instrument of culture transmission:

Family serves as an instrument of culture transmission. It guarantees not only the biological continuity of
the human race but also the culture continuing of the society of which it is a part. It transmits ideas and
ideologies, folkways and mores, customs and tradition, beliefs and values from one generation to the
next.

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 Affectional function:
Family is an institution to provide emotional satisfaction and security to its individual members. The
individual first experiences love and affection in his family within the circle of parents and siblings. A
person who has never been loved is seldom happy and ability to thrive is damaged.

Family, the only primary group, keeps close contact with children throughout life and exerts a persistent
intimate influence on the habits, attitudes and social experiences of the child. No other group can compete
with the family. The influence of the family upon the child is deeper and more abiding than of other
group. It plays the foremost role in the formation of personality and occupies a key place in social
organisation.

CHANGES IN THE FAMILY STRUCTURE:

· In India, the old traditional joint family system no longer continues.

· It was patriarchal in nature, its size was large, status of women in the family was very low,
members of family had no individual identity, and the decision-making power lied exclusively
with the eldest male member of the family.

· The members were the blood relations, and had property, residence and hearth, and even
worship, in common. The members in a joint family could be of three or more generations, and were
morally bound to one another by rights and duties.

· Indian family system has undergone drastic change in response to development in terms of
industrialization, education and urbanization. Industrialization and urbanization, leading to
accelerated rate of rural-urban migration, diversification of gainful economic activities and
individual-friendly property laws, have had consequential impact in terms of drastic reduction in
the size of family in the country.

· Most families, particularly in urban areas, have only one or two generation members (i.e., parents
and their unmarried children). But, it does not mean that the Indian family is becoming nuclear.
Actually, the existence of nuclear family in India is only circumstantial.

· The culture and attitude of people is still in favour of the joint family system. Existing nuclear
families in the country (whatsoever is the number) are only a temporary phase. In reality, the joint
family has been a tradition of India. The nuclear families also existed though it is not an Indian
tradition.

· The family in the country is no longer patriarchal in true sense of the term; it exists as a patri-local
household. There is a lot of individual autonomy and no longer is decision-making the exclusive
right of the eldest male member of the family.

· The family is now essentially democratic and most of the decisions in the family are taken
collectively. However, the extent of autonomy and democracy may vary from region to region,
community to community and caste to caste, depending upon the degree of its adaptation of the
modern values and the urban way of life.

· The family in India is passing through a contradiction. Even educated males, though are in favour of
modern education for their girl children, continue to expect them to remain inside homes and

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have their decisions be taken by the elder male members, particularly their parents. They also
wish them to be working women but continue to expect them to work in the house and, in some cases,
observe purdah.

· As most people have now started taking up jobs in different parts of the country leaving their
parental family behind, they are having separate households.

· Such small households look forward to maintaining relationship with the parental family and
extending help and support to it.

· Changes in the structure and function of joint families in India are thus following a reconciliatory
pattern, a pattern common in the structural changes in the Indian society.

· In mate selection, the principle of personal choice, especially in urban families, is today
increasingly reconciled with parents’ approval.

· The wife’s freedom in middle-class homes to work outside in offices and schools operates within
the traditional framework of the husband’s approval and sometimes the approval of husband’s or even
wife’s parents.

· Such reconciliations are, however, not without tension which is an inalienable aspect of social
change. Despite these changes, traditional views on joint family still prevail.

· Passing away of the traditional joint family system and not being replaced by nuclear family system
has resulted into a new kind of family set-up in the country.

· Today, most families form as nuclear kind of households and continue to exist as constituents of
joint families. Therefore, today, it has become more relevant to study households rather than joint or
nuclear families.

DIVERSITY IN INDIA:
India is a vast country and is considered as a Sub-Continent for its vastness. The Persians of ancient time
called the river Indus as Hindu. The ancient Greeks referred the river Indus as Sindhu.

They named this land as India and called its people as Indians. During the Medieval age the writers called
this land as Hindustan or the land of the Hindus.

The extra ordinary characteristic of this land is that in-spite of all diversity in different fields-physical,
social, linguistic, cultural and religious, there is a fundamental thread of unity in the history of India.

1. Geographical Diversity:
Geographically India can be divided into four regions.

The first is the Himalayan region or the Northern Mountain wall that extends from Kashmir in the West
to Assam in the East.

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The second region is the great and big Northern Plains which are provided with water by the rivers like
Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra and their tributaries.

The third region comprised of the plateau of the Central India and the Deccan. The Western Ghats and the
Eastern Ghats are stretched on the two sides of the Deccan which meets at the Nilgiris. The Coromandal
Coast stands between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.

The region between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats is known as the Konkan up to Goa beyond
which it is known as Kanara or Karnataka while the Southern most part is known as the Malabar Coast or
Kerala. India contains about one fifth of the total population of the whole world.

Thus the physical features of the country with its numerous rivers and lofty mountains favour a
speculative bent of mind among the people living in these geographical regions. This geographical feature
promoted the growth of composite culture of the country.

2. Racial Diversity:
Along with the physical variety the most remarkable feature of India is the presence of the variety of
human beings which she presents through her teeming millions. The people of India can be divided into
four major groups on ethnic and linguistic grounds.

The first group include the Neolithic and Paleolithic men who inhabited in this country since the remote
past.

The second group of people belong to the Mongoloid type and they are found in Bhutan, Sikkim and
Nepal.

The third group is identified as Dravidians living in the Southern part of the country.

The fourth group include the tall and fair complexioned Indo-Aryans living in the North-Western part of
India.

Other races like Persians, Greeks, Kushanas and Huns came to India at different periods and permanently
settled in the country. From the Seventh century onwards Muslim invaders made India their hunting
ground. The Arabs, Turks and the Mughals came to India and settled here. Thus the racial diversities play
a vital role in Indian society and culture.

3. Diversity in Climate:
The extreme diversity of physical features presents different kinds of climatic conditions for the
inhabitants. India has high mountains, and deserts, plateaus, fertile plains, rivers, valleys and vast sea
coasts. Cherrapunji in Assam is the place which records the highest rainfall in the World and on the other
hand there is no rainfall in the deserts of Rajasthan.

There are also varieties of temperature and climate in this country. When pinching winter is felt in the
Kashmir region for more than six months the people of the extreme South like Kerala never experience
such cold at any time. One can find varieties of temperature and climate in India.

4. Social Diversity:

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The people differ considerably in the social habits. They differ in their dresses, customs, food habits and
manners.

Different kinds of festivals are observed in different parts of the country by different categories of
people.

5. Diversities in Language:
The people of India speak different languages. There are in India separate group of people with their own
language.

Each of these people’s has its own literature. More than 200 different dialects and languages are used in
this vast sub-continent.

The principal languages of India are Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Oriya, Assamese, Gujarati, Marathi, Sindhi,
Urdu, Punjabi, Tamil, Telgu, Malayalam, Kashmiri and Kannada.

The hill tribes of Central India speak Austric type of languages.

The people of the South who belong to the Dravidian group speak Telgu, Tamil, Malayalam and
Kannada.

On the other hand the languages like Hindi, Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Gujarati and Punjabi are used by the
Indo-Aryans.

6. Religious Diversities:
There is also to be found an equal variety of religions. All the world religions are found here —
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam and Christianity. All have their sects and sub-divisions.

The Hindu religion itself is split up in countless creeds, the Vedic religion, the Puranic Hinduism, the
Sanatan Dharma, the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj. Originally Brahmanical Hinduism was the religion
of the people. But the sixth century gave birth two new religions namely Buddhism and Jainism.

During the medieval period Sikhism emerged as a new religion. Gradually, Persian, Zoroastrianism, Islam
and Christianity also spread in India.

Thus India is a land of many religions. The people therefore differ considerably in the social habits and
cultural differences vary from State to State which has become the fabric of Indian culture composite in
nature.

Conflicting and varying shades of blood strains of culture and modes of life all-together build up rich and
complex diversity in India.

UNITY IN INDIA:
There is no wonder that “India is a museum of cults and customs, creeds and culture, faiths and
tongues, racial types and social systems” yet India is a land of unity.

There is deep underlying fundamental unity in India. An observer fails to discover the one in many, the
individual in aggregate, and the simple in the composite.

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The sense of geographical unity of the country was always present in the minds of the founders of the
Indian Civilization.

This unity has undoubtedly nurtured in recent times by the uniform system of administration and the
spread of modern education.

1.Geographical Unity:
· The country that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bharat for their
dwell the descendants of Bharata. Its people are designated as Bharata santati. The term Bharata
varsha stands for fundamental unity, the term was not only associated with the geographical
boundaries but with the idea of universal monarchy.
· The theologians, political philosophers and poets have always referred to India as one and have
highly praised the rulers who attempted to extend their political supremacy from Himalaya in the
North to Cape Camorin in the South, from the river Brahmaputra in the East to Indus in the West.
· The rulers of the Medieval period also considered India as one geographical unit and sought to extend
their supremacy over this whole land. Even now this Geographical unity is reinforced by the
conception of common motherland “Bharatmata”. The song Vandemataram characteristically
embodies this sentiment of unity.

2. Political Unity:
· The sense of the unity of the whole country was promoted by politics also. The rulers of India
established their sway over the whole country and consequently contemplated over it as a unit.
· The rulers of India from ancient times aimed to rule over the entire country and to become
Chakravarti. Chandragupta, Asoka and Samudragupta had established their suzerainty over the whole
of India and became Chakravarti. The institution of paramount sovereignty was a familiar political
idea of the Hindus in ancient ages.
· The frequent use of the terms Rajadhiraj, Samraj, Eka-raja, Adhiraja, Virat, and Sarvabhauma etc. in
the ancient Sanskrit literature and the repeated performance of such rites and sacrifices as the
Rajasuya, Vajapeya, Punaraviseka, Mahabhisekha etc. show that the idea of universal conquest and
an all India overlord-ship was well-known to the ancient Hindus.
· In the Medieval period Ala-ud-din Khilji, Akbar and Aurangzeb sought to establish their political
supremacy over the whole of the country.
· The Mughals established an imperial system which deepened the conception of oneness of rule and
sameness of political experience. The British also achieved the political and administrative unity of
India. After the political emancipation of India the incorporation of the Princely States in the Indian
Union has completed this political unity of the country.

3. Religious Unity:
· There is an under current of religious unity among the various religious sects in the country. The
worship of Vishnu and Siva under different names is as widespread in the North as in the South.
· The temples of Vishnu and Siva have been constructed all over the country. They raise their spires
not only in the snow covered Himalayas and Indo-Gangetic plains but in the deltas of the
Tungabhadra, Kaveri and Krishna also.
· The Ramayana and the Mahabharata have been studied in the far South as well as in the Punjab,
Kashmir and the Doab.
· The stories of Ram and Krishna are sung with much devotion and respect in the South, North, East
and West.
· The Cow, the Vedas, the Gita, the Puranas and other scriptures are respected equally throughout the
country.

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· Monotheism, immortality of the soul, reincarnation. Karma, Moksha, Nirvana etc. are the doctrines
believed in and followed by all the sects of the country.
· The most sacred places of Hindu pilgrimage such as Badrinarayan in the North, Dwaraka in the West,
Rameswaram in the south and Jagannath Puri in the East embrace the whole of the country and they
speak of India being one land.
· The daily prayer of the Hindus include the names of all the main rivers of the north and the south like
the Indus (Sindhu), the Ganga, the Jamuna, the Godavari, the Saraswati, the Narmada and the Kaveri.
This speaks of the fundamental unity of the people of India. These religious beliefs lay emphasis in
the fact that India is one land.

4. Cultural Unity:
· Indian culture and civilization is unique in its features. No doubt people follow different languages
and customs but one can find a basic unity of literary ideas, philosophy, literature, and conventions
throughout the country.
· The festivals like Diwali, Dashera, Rakshabandhan and Holi are celebrated in every part of the
country. The cultural unity and the homogeneity is also reflected in the social ceremonies and the
religious rites, festivals and modes of life which are the same in north, south, east and west.
· The sanctity of the family, the rules of the castes, the Sanskars, the rite of cremating a dead body, the
cleanliness of the kitchen etc. are common to all the communities and sects of India.

5. Unity of Language:
· India enjoyed unity of language. Before the Christian era Prakrit was a common language of the
people.
· The message of the missionaries of Asoka was successfully carried in this language to the doors of
his subjects. Subsequently Pali and Sanskrit replaced Prakrit language.
· Sanskrit has been acknowledged as one sacred language by all sections of the people irrespective of
their race, rank and creed. Different sects and creeds have adopted Sanskrit as the sacred language of
their scripture.
· Sanskrit has become the original source of different languages of the country like Hindi, Marathi,
Gujarati, Oriya and Bengali etc.
· Sanskrit has always been the medium of philosophy, theology and mythology. During the time of the
British rule English language achieved success in uniting the people of India when it was declared as
the medium of instruction in all educational institutions and used as the official language. At present
Hindi has been doing the same work.
· In course of time they had lost their separate individuality and were completely absorbed in the Hindu
fold. Even large number of Muslims and Christians who have been living in India are the descendants
of the Hindus who were converted to Islam and Christianity. All the races and tribes living in India
have acquired the physical uniformity.
· Indian culture is an organic and harmonious synthesis of a large number of human cultural trends.
Thus in-spite of the appalling diversity India is herself the great example of the doctrine of one in
many.
· There is unity in diversity — a unity for more profound than that produced either by geographical
isolation or by political suzerainty. In India there is unity that transcends the innumerable diversities
of blood, colour, language, dress, manners and sects.
· The unique feature of Indian culture, civilization and its history lies in the continuity of religious
practices and the spirit of tolerance by its people in all ages.
· Thus in-spite of the appalling diversity India is herself the great example of the doctrine of one in
many. There is unity in diversity — a unity for more profound than that produced either by
geographical isolation or by political suzerainty. In India there is unity that transcends the
innumerable diversities of blood, colour, language, dress, manners and sects. The unique feature of

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Indian culture, civilization and its history lies in the continuity of religious practices and the spirit of
tolerance by its people in all ages.

Threats to National Integration and unity in India:

1. Communalism:
· It is the biggest challenge to national integration and democracy. Threat of communal hat redness has
shaken the very unity and integrity of our nation.
· There is a growth of feeling of hat redness of one religious community against other community on
the grounds that religion of one community is anti-thesis to other religion.
· Religious fundamentalism and communal fanaticism have raised their ugly heads which vitiate the
atmosphere of peace and tranquility of the nation.
· Misinterpretation of religion by fundamentalists is said to be the chief reason of spreading the fire of
communalism.

2. Sectarianism:
· Sectarianism poses another threat to national integration because it creates a further gulf among
various sects of the people belonging to the same religion.
· This trend is surely a threat to the hard-won fabric of national unity and integration.

3. Casteism:
· Caste is the basis of the division of our society. It is often remarked that in India one can change
everything except ‘caste’. Everything is organized on the line of caste. Caste loyalties are looming
large. Different castes look to the benefit of their own castes.
· As things are today, more and more power is getting concentrated in the hands of the dominant castes
and the latter resent the attempts made by the lower castes to move up. This has resulted in inter-caste
rivalries and tensions.
· High caste people develop a feeling of superiority over the low caste people who are always despised
by the former.
· While the high castes have not shed their sense of superiority, the low caste especially Harijans and
backward castes have become increasingly assertive about their rights.
· The result is the overt rivalries and clashes which pose a grave danger to the vital aspect of the nation
i.e., national integration.
· Now, politics is getting affected by caste. Politicization of caste is a recurring phenomenon in India
which divides the people on caste lines.
· Therefore, caste plays a dominant and formidable role in every affair of the people which is
detrimental to the vibrant force of national cohesion and unity.

4. Linguism:
· Although language plays an integrative role, in a number of times, it plays a disintegrative role. The
linguistic cultural divide between the Aryan-Sanskritic North (Heart land) and the Dravidian South
has put to test India’s hard-won integration.
· Controversy over ‘official language’ had triggered off serious law and order problems in southern
belts. Tamilians are quite reluctant to accept ‘Hindi’ as official language in their states.
· Their slogan is ‘English ever and Hindi never’ and they say they are Indians but not Hindians. Even
other states are not free from linguistic animosities. Linguistic differences have created social
tensions and marred the social solidarity of the people. This situation poses a grave danger to the
unity and integrity of the nation.

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5. Regionalism:
· Regionalism presents a serious threat to national integration. It can be defined as a feeling of
attachment to a geographically and culturally marked segment of the national territory.
· Cultural diversity, economic and social disparities, religious and linguistic differences, economic
imbalances and uneven regional development are the root causes of the growth spurt of regionalism.
Regionalism is visible in every domains of national life—industry, business, education, politics and
service.
· Political parties have been formed on regional basis whose concerns are to uphold the supreme
interest of the state.
· Even within the states, regionalism raises its ugly head. Parochial loyalties and acute regional sense
have been the order of the day.
· The offshoot of this sense is the “theory of sons of the soil” which fundamentally implies the
attachment of people of one area to such an extent that other people particularly ‘minorities’ so-
called ‘outsiders’ are not allowed to remain in their former regions to function in different aspects of
life. This aspect of regionalism is the most powerful threat to national solidarity and cohesion.

6. Economic Differences:
· The socio-economic reality in India exposes the glaring contrast between the ‘rich’ and ‘poor’; the
chasm between wealth and affluence on the one hand and abject poverty and inhuman misery on the
other, between haves and have-not’s. Thus there is the existence of two Indians inside India.
· A few people are rolling in wealth and living a life of ostentation and submerge in conspicuous
consumption while masses are deprived of even a square meal per day who bear the brunt of endless
exploitation and perennial oppression. As such, this wide hiatus gives birth to anti-national elements.
· Poverty compels the poor to resort to anti-national activities which are suicidal for the preservation of
national integration. They are apathetic to national development and do not accept governmental
activities as a sign of their upliftment.
· Due to poverty, many a youth do prefer to join in the camps of anti-nationalist organizations like
Naxalite and Maoist. This is not a healthy symptom for the largest democracy in the world.

7. Politics:
· India is a nation accommodating different political parties which are formed on the basis of caste,
language, region and personal charisma. These parties play a dubious role in disintegration of the
nation. They give top priority to their own interests at the cost of the national interest.
· They uphold their own values of self-aggrandizement and busy in amassing of wealth. They do not
think of the interest of the nation and continue to misled people through their false propaganda and
slogans to upgrade their positions.
· They play dirty and narrow politics for the interests of their own which sap the national feeling and
solidarity. Thus, politics is played to consolidate one’s position vis-a-vis other’s at the cost of
national interest.

8. Terrorism:
· Terrorism poses a great threat to national unity and integration. The main objective of terrorism is to
create a climate of extreme fear psychosis and thus, it undermines the confidence of people in the
political system and the government. Violence is a means to achieve the goal of destabilizing the
nation by infusing a spectra of fear in the minds of common people.
· The reasons for the growth of terrorism are historical, political, economical and religious. Bomb-
blasting, arsons, hijacking, abduction, killing, maiming etc. are some of the means to destabilize the
country. State-sponsored terrorism is the ugliest manifestations of it pointed to disturb the unity and
stability of other nations.

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9. Student Unrest:
· Now student unrest stands as a great stumbling block on the path of national integration. In-fact,
students are the future of a nation. If they get dissatisfied and frustrated due to unemployment,
internal bickering, defective educational system, etc.

Misled by politician’s students commit a plethora of sinful activities which are detrimental to the
health of our nation? They paralyze the machinery of government by going on strike, dharana, and
setting fire major offices, vehicles, shops etc. Hence, Student unrest is a serious threat to the national
unity and integrity.

10. Lack of Good and Committed Leadership:

· The success of a democratic republic harbours on good and committed leaders who are the harbingers
of national development. But now, most of our leaders are swayed by petty interests, alienated from
doing things for the interest of the nation.
· Leaders are found to be interested in their own affairs setting the ground for sowing the seed of
communalism, casteism, linguism and provincialism. Such leaders do not provide a berth to the rise
of national culture.
· Hence, these leaders stand as obstacles on the path of national unity. Therefore, national integration is
under the fire of threats from myriad forces.

Way forward:

National integration is highly necessary in a multi-religious, multi-ethnic, multi-caste, multi-regional

society like India. Realizing the need of it, the National Integration Conference organised in 1961, had
suggested a code of conduct for political parties. Besides the suggestions of the National Integration
Conference, some other steps can be recommended for securing high level of national integration.

 Promotion of Secularism:

The spirit of secularism is highly necessary in Indian multi-religious society. For this reason the National
Integration Conference of 1961, suggested that no political party should indulge in any activity
aggravating the differences or causing any tension between various castes, communities or linguistic
groups. There is a demand to ban all communal parties and communal organisations by which the danger
of communalism can be made less serious. Any sorts of activities creating communal reactions in the
public mind should be prohibited. No discrimination among the people on the grounds of religion should
be made.

 Cultural Integration:

Recognizing the existence of a wide range of groups, inter-group relations should be promoted in India.
Though not uniformity, yet unity among the people can be created with a common set of values. National
goal or national objectives generate cultural integration which partially favours emotional integration of
the nation.

 Economic Development:

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Regional imbalance in economic development and acute poverty of certain section of the people impose
serious impediments in the achievement of national integration. Despite the adoption of five-year
economic planning’s and a number of socio-economic welfare measures, poverty continues as a serious
problem. A great chunk of people remain far away of national mainstream. Economic development means
the development of whole people and the development of entire nation. Special efforts are necessary in
this direction to ensure common national prosperity.

 Education:

Illiterate and ignorant people cannot be conscious of the values of national integration. Education only
can promote faith in the integrity and the moral worth of the individual. The educational institutions can
play important role as forums for arousing the spirit of national integration.

The study and solution of various social problems can be assigned to the educational institutions. In case
of higher educational institutions like colleges and universities, exchange of teachers and students from
one institution to another for lectures or seminars can promote national integration. Reading materials
used by students in schools and colleges should be properly examined to avoid communalization of text
books.

 Political and Administrative Measures:

Since India is a federal-democratic country, its integration in all respects should also be done on a
democratic basis. Each ethnic, caste, tribal, religious and linguistic group should have freedom for
protecting and promoting their own culture and traditions. Emotional integration with the development of
a strong brotherhood among the people, discourage the growth of separatism, regionalism or
secessionism.

The agencies of media both electronic and print should be used for inculcating a national outlook.
Academic seminars and entertainment programmes on the theme of communal harmony should be
organized. Cultural Academies should be established and they should work for strengthening the
movement for unity.

 Role of Non-Government Organisations:

Besides the governmental steps, non-government social service organizations can play an important role
in strengthening the process of national integration. These organizations can create necessary social
awareness for bringing social reforms and change in the mind set of the people. Emergence of awareness
can subsequently promote national integration.

In conclusion, Unity in Diversity is an integral part of ethics and morality. The concept is certainly
essential for the future progress of human society. People must display faith in this concept. Above all,
they must keep aside feelings of racism, discrimination, and oppression.

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Mains Master Notes

GS 1 – Society
Topic: Cultural changes in Indian society

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Contents:
CULTURAL CHANGES IN INDIAN SOCIETY........................................................................................ 3
INDIAN SOCIETY – A GLIMPSE:........................................................................................................... 3
CULTURAL CHANGES: ......................................................................................................................... 3
SANSKRITIZATION: ............................................................................................................................. 3
Meaning of Sanskritization: ............................................................................................................... 3
Definition of Sanskritization: ............................................................................................................. 4
An analysis of the process of Sanskritization: ................................................................................... 4
Impact of Sanskritization: .................................................................................................................. 4
Criticisms of Sanskritization: .............................................................................................................. 5
WESTERNIZATION: ............................................................................................................................. 5
Definition of Westernization: ............................................................................................................ 5
Meaning of Westernization: .............................................................................................................. 5
Impact of Westernization: ................................................................................................................. 6
Criticisms of Westernization: ............................................................................................................. 6
Difference between Sanskritization and Westernization: ................................................................ 7
MODERNIZATION: .............................................................................................................................. 7
Characteristics of Modernization: ..................................................................................................... 8
Responses to modernization: ............................................................................................................ 9
Modernization in India:.................................................................................................................... 10
DOMINANT CASTE: ........................................................................................................................... 10
Characteristics of a dominant caste: ............................................................................................... 11
Criticisms of Dominant caste: .......................................................................................................... 13

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CULTURAL CHANGES IN INDIAN SOCIETY

INDIAN SOCIETY – A GLIMPSE:

 India presents one of the oldest, continuous and uninterrupted living civilizations in the whole
world known as Hinduism. One of the prominent features of Indian civilization is its ‘Caste-
system’.
 Caste system is a unique way of stratifying the society. It has been conceptualized, originated
and practiced exclusively in India.
 It has given a distinguished identity to Indian society. Caste-system is one of the prominent
features running through the entire social fabric of India.
 Castes have its ethnic roots as denoted by “Jati”, and a ritualistic and symbolic significance in
its Varna aspect.
 It has greatly influenced the culture of the whole of India. Caste system has maintained its
continuity without interruption.
 It has survived the vicissitudes of time, saved itself by erosion from within and assault from
outside only because of the adaptability.
 Its absorptive nature has internalized alien influences. It has taken different shades and meaning
with the changing times and places.
 Its character during Indus Valley Civilization was altogether different from what exists today. It
is still in a transient phase. Its shade is different in the context of village, locality, region or
religion. Once changed, the system never returned to its original form. Its absorptive nature has
internalized alien influences.
 Though the Indian Society which is based on caste system is often regarded as “closed society”,
it is not altogether changeless. Within the framework of the caste itself, some kind of mobility is
observed.
 The socio-cultural changes that has taken place in India can mainly be categorised into these
processes namely; sanskritization, westernization and modernization.

These Three process reflect an attempt on the part of Indian masses to achieve some amount of
mobility both within and outside the framework of the caste system.

CULTURAL CHANGES:
SANSKRITIZATION:
The term Sanskritization was introduced into Indian Sociology by Prof. M.N. Srinivas. The term
refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to adopt upper caste practices
and beliefs, as a preliminary step to acquire higher status. Thus, this indicates a process of cultural
mobility that took place in the traditional social system of India.

Meaning of Sanskritization:
 Sanskritization is not a new phenomenon. It has been a major process of cultural change in Indian
history, and it has occurred in every part of the Indian sub-continent.
 It denotes the process in which the lower castes try to imitate the life-styles of upper castes in
their attempt to raise their social status. The process seems to be associated with the role of
local “dominant caste”.

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Definition of Sanskritization:
The definition of Sanskritization was given by M.N. Srinivas in his “Social Change in Modern India”
published in 1971.

It means “a process by which a low caste or a tribe or other group changes its customs, rituals,
ideology, and a way of life in the direction of a high and frequently, twice born caste.”

An analysis of the process of Sanskritization:

 Sanskritization denotes the process of upward mobility. In this process, a caste is trying to
increase its position in the caste hierarchy not at once, but over a period of time. It would take
sometimes, a period of one or two generations.
 Mobility that is involved in the process of Sanskritization results only in “positional changes”
for particular castes or sections of castes, and need not necessarily lead to a “structural change”.
 It means, while individual castes move up or down, the structure as such remains the same. The
castes which enjoyed higher economic and political power but rated relatively low in ritual
ranking went after Sanskritization for they felt that their claim to a higher position was not fully
effective.
 Economic betterment is not a necessary pre-condition to Sanskritization, nor economic
development must necessarily lead to Sanskritization.
 However, sometimes a group (caste/tribe) may start by acquiring political power and this may
lead to economic development and Sanskritization.
 Sanskritization is not necessarily confined to the castes within the Hindu community, it is found
in tribal communities also.
 The Bhils of Western India, the Gonds and Oraons of Middle India and the Pahadiyas of
Himalayan region have come under the influence of Sanskritization. These tribal communities are
now claiming themselves to be Hindus.
 The process of Sanskritization serves as a “reference group”. It is through this process a caste
group tries to orient its beliefs, practices, values, attitudes and “life-styles” in terms of another
superior or dominant group, so that it can also get some recognition. Sanskritization does not take
place in the same manner in all the places.

Impact of Sanskritization:
 Modern education, Western literature and philosophy of people widened, and as a result the
mental horizons and visionary of people changed. They welcomed rationality and other good
features of and made good use of liberal, and humanitarian ideas and thoughts.
 Vedas has been conceived through intellectual contemplation and empirical observation and
used Upnishads (speculative interpretation of Vedas or Mythology) for the creation of human
imagination.
 Reformists and their organizations had purely an economic and social thrust. They aimed at
establishing a social order based on Vedic teachings and practices.
 They criticized the mumbo-jumbo of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to
entangle the ignorant and poor masses.
 They laid emphasis on interpreting Vedas in a rational and scientific way. It reduced or removed
the gap between the ritual and secular rankings. It also helped upliftment of weaker persons.
 The lower caste group which successfully got into the seat of secular power also tried to avail
of the services of Brahmins especially at the time of observing rituals, worshipping and offering
things to God.

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Criticisms of Sanskritization:
 The term itself seems to be misleading, since its relationship to the term Sanskrit is extremely
complicated.
 Sanskritic influence has not been universal to all parts of country. In most of northern India,
especially in Punjab, it was the Islamic tradition which provided a basis for cultural imitation.
 When we try to interpret certain changes that have taken place in the field of social mobility in
the light of Sanskritization, we face certain paradoxes.
 According to Dr. Srinivas, political and economic forces are normally favourable for
Sanskritization. But the “policy of reservation” a politico-constitutional attempt to elevate the
status of lower caste, and class people, presents here a different picture.
 Theoretically, the policy of reservation must be supportive of Sanskritization. But paradoxically it
goes against it.
 Those who avail of the “reservation benefits” have developed a vested interest in calling
themselves “Dalits” or Scheduled Caste people. They want to be called so in order to
permanently avail of the benefits of reservation.

WESTERNIZATION:
 The process of Westernization of caste-system in India began with the frantic efforts of
missionaries to convert as many Indians as possible into Christianity and coming of East India
Company in India first to trade and later on to increase its political power in India. East India
Company successfully established ‘British Imperial Rule’ in India by 1958.
 British rule produced radical and lasting changes in the Indian society and culture. The British
brought with them new technology, institutions, knowledge, beliefs, and values. These have
become the main source of social mobility for individuals as well as groups.
 It is in this context, M.N. Srinivas, introduced the term “Westernization” mainly to explain the
changes that have taken place in the Indian society and culture due to Western contact through the
British rule.

Definition of Westernization:
According to M.N. Srinivas, “Westernization” refers to “the changes brought about in the Indian
society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes
occurring at different levels – technology, institutions, ideology and values.”

Meaning of Westernization:
 In comparison with Sanskritization, Westernization is a simpler concept. It explains the impact of
Western contact (particularly of British rule) on the Indian society and culture.
 M.N. Srinivas used the term “Westernization” to describe the changes that a non-western country
had undergone as a result of prolonged contact with the western one.
 It implies, according to Srinivas, “certain value preferences”, which in turn subsumes
several values, such as “humanitarianism”. It implies an active concern for the welfare of all
human beings irrespective of caste, economic position, religion, age and sex.
 Westernization not only includes the introduction of new institutions, but also fundamental
changes in old institutions. For example, India had schools long before the arrival of the British,
but they were different from the British introduced schools.
 Other institutions such as army, civil service and law courts were also similarly affected.
However, the increase in Westernization does not retard the process of Sanskritization. Both go

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on simultaneously, and to some extent increase in Westernization accelerates the process of

Sanskritization.
 For example, the postal facilities, railways, buses and newspaper media which are the fruits of
Western impact on India render more organised religious pilgrimages, meetings, caste solidarities,
etc., possible compared to the past.

Impact of Westernization:
 Opened up the doors of the knowledge – Modern education opened up the doors of the
knowledge flourished in Europe after Renaissance movement of Middle Ages.
 It had widened the mental horizons of Indian intelligentsia.
 Education for all - During second half of the nineteenth century, British government in India
opened the doors of education to all the sections of Indian society, irrespective of caste or creed.
 Still, very few amongst the general public could avail the advantages of formal modern
education. Education remained confined within a small section of society.
 Highlighted evil practices – Modern education had highlighted the evil practices and weaknesses
developed into the system like rigidity and harshness of many social customs and practices
prevalent at that time for the weaker sections of the society i.e. un-touch-ability and inhuman
treatment to women, Sati, Polygamy, child marriage etc. etc. prevalent at that time.
 Attracted attention of social reformers – Modern education had attracted the attention of
intellectuals and social reformers towards real issues evils caused by ignorance, irrationality of
mumbo-jumbo of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to entangle the ignorant
and poor masses.
 They suggested remedies for social, political and economic ills of the country. They took upon
themselves the responsibility to build a modern, open, plural, culturally rich, prosperous and
powerful India out of a fragmented, poverty stricken, superstitious, weak, indifferent, backward
and inward- looking society.
 As a result of such efforts, it led to the abolition of Sati System and slavery. Female infanticide
practice lowered to a great extent.
 Realization of the worth of liberty and freedom – It equipped national leaders with intellectual
tools with which they fought the oppressive British Raj.
 Realized the worth of liberty and freedom. They got exposure to the philosophies of thinkers
like Locke, Mill, Roussseau, Voltaire, Spencer and Burke etc. They understood the reasons and
impact of English, French, American revolutions.

Criticisms of Westernization:
 The concepts of Sanskritization and Westernization primarily analyse social change in “cultural”
and not in “structural” terms.
 This denoted that these terms have limited range of application and use. Srinivas’s model explains
the process of social change only in India which is based on the caste system. It is not useful for
other societies.
 Though Srinivas claimed that the concept of Westernization is “ethically neutral”, it is not really
so. The Western model which Srinivas has eulogised has its own contradiction.
 Mention can be made of the facts of Western life such as racial prejudice, colour segregation
and exploitive nature of the Western economy, etc. These facts contradict humanitarian ideals or
rational outlook on life.

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 It is also commented that the Western model which Srinivas has eulogised has its own
contradiction. The western model sometimes conveys values that are contrary to the ones
referred by Srinivas.
 In this context, mention can be made of the facts of Western life such as racial prejudice, colour
segregation, and exploitative nature of Western economy, etc.

These facts contradict humanitarian ideals or rational outlook on life. It is too local label and the
model which is imitated may not be western country; but Russia.

 One of the results of prolonged contact with the west is the rise of the elite class whose attitude
towards the West is ambivalent is not invariably true. In this context, Lerner refers to the appeal
of Communism in non-western countries.
 Westernization in one area or level of behaviour does not result in Westernization in another
related area or level.
 While there are certain common elements in Westernization, yet each represent a particular
variant of a common culture and significant difference exists between one country and another.

Difference between Sanskritization and Westernization:

1) Sanskritization process promoted the sacred outlook; while Westernization process promoted
secular outlook.
2) Sanskritization is a process of upward mobility by a process of imitation while Westernization
is a process of upward mobility by a process of development.
3) Sanskritization implies mobility within the framework of caste while Westernization implies
mobility outside the framework of caste.
4) While Sanskritization puts a taboo on meat-eating and consumption of alcohol, Westernization
promoted meat-eating and consumption of alcohol.

MODERNIZATION:
The term ‘Modernization’ is a broader and complex term.

 Modernization is a process by which modern scientific knowledge is introduced in the society

with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and more satisfactory life in the broadest sense of
the term accepted by the society concerned.
 Modernization symbolizes a rational attitude towards issues and their evaluation but not from
particularistic point of view.
 He (MN Srinivas) also says that modernization is rooted in the scientific world view and it has
deeper and positive association with levels of diffusion of scientific knowledge, technological
skill and resources.

Modernization refers to a common behavioural pattern characterised by:

 A rational and scientific world view.

 Growth and ever increasing application of science and technology.
 Adaptation of new institutions emerged in the society to cope with the new situation dominated
by science and technology.

“Dynamics of Modernization” defined modernization as, Modernization is a process by which

historically evolved institutions are adopted to the rapidly changing functions that reflect the
unprecedented increase in man’s knowledge permitting control over his environment, that
accompanies the scientific revolution.

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Modern society has specific economic, political and cultural characteristics:

In economic sphere a modern society is characterised by:

 Development in technology.
 Specialization in economic role.
 Scope for saving and investment.
 Expansion of market (from local to international)

In political sphere modernization of a society expects:

 Declining of traditional rulers.

 Formulation of ideology for the rulers to handle the power.
 Decentralization of power among the members of the society. Scope must be provided to all to
participate in the decision-making process.

In the cultural sphere a modernizing society is characterised by:

 Growing differentiation among the major elements of culture like religion, philosophy and
science.
 Spread of literacy and secular education.
 Introduction of complex institutional system for the advancement of specialized roles.
 Expansion of media communication.
 Development of new cultural elements based on:
 Progress and improvement.
 Expression on ability.
 Emphasis on dignity of the individual and his efficiency.

Modernization is a process of adaptation of new values, cultural elements and technology in the
various fields of life. It is indeed the ability of a society to confront, overcome and prepare itself to
meet the new challenges.

While doing so the society adopts two methods:

1. By rearranging its social structure.

2. By modifying the traditional norms and values.

Scholars emphasized upon mobility and high level of participation. A modern man is more mobile in
the sense that he can more frequently move from one place to another and from one occupation to
another, from one status to another. A high degree of participation indicates a strong sense of
participation in common affairs of the state and community.

Characteristics of Modernization:
 It is a revolutionary process.
 It is a multidimensional process.
 It is a universal process.
 It is a complex process.
 It is a global process.
 It is a irreversible process.
 It is a continuous and lengthy process.
 It is a systematic process.

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 It indicates scientific temper, rationality and secular attitude.

 It is a phased process.
 Modernized society is an open society.
 It is a progressive society.
 It is a critical process because it requires not only a relatively stable new structure but also
capable of adopting continuously changing conditions and problems.
 It is a centralized process.

Modernization is critical in the sense that it requires not only a relatively stable new structure in
the society but it also expects that the society must acquire capability of adopting to continuously
changing conditions and problems. Its success depends on the ability of the society to respond the
elements. But all societies don’t respond modernization uniformly.

Responses to modernization:
(a) Rejective response:

A traditional society may not like the elements of modernization and the society may reject it.

Mainly two factors come to the forefront to reject modernization:

(i) Human factor which includes powerful group, Zamindars/land lords, middlemen etc. to protect
their vested interest.

(ii) Values system of the society which includes traditional values, customs, belief system etc. Both
the factors try to maintain traditional order and to reject the process of modernization.

(b) Disjunctive Response:

In this type of response, modernization as a process operates as a detached development. The old
elements and new elements co-exist but without any interference. People do not face any type of
conflicting situation due to modernization. They could lead their traditional life.

(c) Assimilative Response:

Society, in this case, accepts the elements of modernization without affecting its, own organisation
and way of life. It assimilates the elements within its system without disruption. For example, in
Indian rural society the farmers use fertilizer and other modern machineries like tractor but without
affecting their pattern of life.

(d) Supportive Response:

In supportive response society accepts modern elements to strengthen the conditional order. The
traditional groups and institutions want to take advantages of use of modern elements. Here
modernization acts as the supportive source to the traditional pattern. For example, introduction of
science and technology in educational system.

(e) Disruptive Response:

 This type of response takes place, when the traditional order is underestimated at many points. It
occurs when the society tries to accommodate modern elements in the traditional order. For
example, the situation of Oriya language in Orissa.

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 Considering these five responses two types of situations may occur in the society. In one situation
society may respond all these in different points or period and in another situation society may
express all these responses with different combinations.

In India, response to modernization depends on three factors as it constitutes a multi-dimensional

process.

 Firstly, the nature of the choice that our society has made on the preference of the people in
accepting modern elements.
 Secondly, interest of the people in using modern elements also counts much for that expresses the
nature of our response to the changes due to modernization.
 Thirdly, the role of the cultural tradition based on history is important as value system controls
our behaviour in using and interpreting modern elements.

Modernization in India:
Due to modernization so many changes are found in India:

1. Introduction of new institutions like banking, mass media communication etc.

2. Introduction of new value systems such as equality, justice, individualism, secularism etc.

3. Acceptance of scientific innovation.

4. Increase in the standard of living.

5. Introduction of large-scale industries.

6. Restructuring of political system, i.e., introduction of democracy.

7. Introduction of structural changes in social institutions like marriage, family, caste etc.

8. Emergence of the middle class.

9. There are some eliminative changes like disappearance of cultural traits, behaviour pattern, values
etc. Example, abolition of feudal power.

10. There is shifting of attitude from sacred to secular.

11. Emergence of new forms because of synthesis of old and new elements. For example, nuclear
family in structure but functioning as joint.

12. Adoption of new cultural traits such as new election system.

DOMINANT CASTE:
The concept of ‘dominant caste’ was propounded by M.N. Srinivas. The definition of ‘dominant
caste’ has undergone some change over a period of time. Srinivas worked in Rampura in 1948.

The concept of dominant caste which has emerged in recent socio-logical research is important in this
connection.

A caste is dominant when wields economic or political power and occupies a fairly high position
in hierarchy (even in the traditional system of a caste which acquired economic and political
power did succeed in improving its ritual status).

 Srinivas says that the existence of dominant caste is not particular. It is found in other villages of
the country also.

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 For instance, in Mysore villages, Lingayat and Okkaliga; in Andhra Pradesh, Reddy and Kamma;
in Tamilnadu, Gounder, Padayachi and Mudaliar; in Kerala, Nayar; in Maharashtra, Maratha; in
Gujarat, Pati- dar; and in northern India, Rajput, Jat, Giyar and Ahir are dominant castes.
 Traditionally, numerically small castes owning land in rural areas or wielding political power
or inheriting a literary tradition were able to dominate the villages.
 Srinivas has provided historical reasons for the power exercised by the traditional higher
castes. He says that the traditional high castes had influence because of western education and the
benefits which they conferred.
 Earlier, numerical strength of a caste was not much important. But with the coming of adult
suffrage and the reservation given to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, numerical strength
has assumed importance.

Srinivas writes:

 Nowadays, with the coming of adult suffrage, numerical strength has become very important
and the leaders of the dominant castes help the political parties to secure votes.
 But the traditional forms of dominance have not entirely disappeared and neither has
dominance shifted fully to the numerically strongest caste, there is no doubt, however, that there
is a shift and this traditional phase is marked by inter-group tensions.
 But what is significant from our point of view is that in many parts of India there are castes which
are decisively dominant.

Characteristics of a dominant caste:

1. A caste dominates when it wields economic and political power.
2. It has a high rank in caste hierarchy.
3. Numerical strength.
4. own a sizable amount of the arable land locally available

1. Economic and political power:

 The power of a particular caste lies in the owning of land. The caste which has larger portion of
the land in the village wields greater power.
 First, his agricultural income increases. The size of the land is also related to irrigation. In case
of larger landowning and adequate ir-rigation facilities, naturally the wields of the caste man
increase.
 Second, the larger landowning caste also provides jobs to the landless farmers and marginal
farmers. Such a situation renders the super-ordinated landless labourers as the ‘servants’ of the
large landowning caste. These castes also apply modern techniques of agriculture such as
chemical manure, improved implements and new patterns of cropping.
 The basic determinant of a dominant caste is the superior economic status, especially in land.
 In the south Indian villages, for instance, Brahmin and Okkaliga are dominant castes. “The Havik
Brahmins in village Toltagadde in Malaud area of Mysore and Smarth Brahmins in the
Kumbapettai village in Tanjore (Tamilnadu) have been observed to be dominant castes. Okkaliga
are dominant in the village Rampura, Wangala and Delana studied in Mysore.”
 Higher education is also accepted by the big landowning castes. Administrative and income
generated in urban areas have also given economic power to these caste groups. Besides
economic power, namely, agriculture and jobs in administration, the big landowning castes have
increased their prestige and power because of their role in Panchayati Raj.

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 Srinivas says that “the introduction of adult franchise and Panchayati Raj has resulted in
giving a new sense of self-respect to the villagers”. Srinivas argues that the economic and
political power which has come to the big landowning castes has thus enhanced their power
status.

2. High rank in caste hierarchy:

 Normally, the caste which is traditionally higher in the caste hierarchy enjoys the status of
dominance. The Brahmins and the Rajputs have traditionally been dominant in the villages. The
Brahmins have at the top of the caste hierarchy and they officiate at the religious festi-vals and
rituals of the village.
 The Rajputs have been the feudal thakurs in the village. They have traditionally occupied larger
portions of the village land. The economic and political power, thus, in the vil-lage has given the
dominant status to the Brahmins and Rajputs.
 Recently, the criterion, namely, economic and political power, has undergone a change. The
reservations made for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women have given a new attribute to
the concept of dominant caste.
 As a result provision power has passed into the hands of numerically large landowning
peasant castes. Some of the scheduled castes, who are numerically strong and also, take
advantage of the new educational and other opportunities, available to them have also gained
economic and political power.
 The high rank in the caste hierarchy has now gone in favour of those castes which have
benefited from their reserved status. Now, the traditional higher status in the hierarchy no more
remains an attribute of a dominant caste.

3. Numerical strength:

 Before the advent of modernization and development, numerical strength did not have any
strength of the dominance of a caste. Recently, numerical strength of a caste, assumes importance
because of the vote bank created by adult suffrage.
 The castes which have larger number of voters, naturally, determine the fate of a candidate
contest-ing elections. What is called these days as caste-war is actually the importance of a caste
to determine the fate of a candidate.
 Now, a caste is dominant not only in single village. It extends to a cluster of villages. A caste
group which has only a family or two in a particular village but which enjoys decisive dominance
in the wider region will still count locally because of the network of ties binding it to its
dominant relatives.
 What is equally important is that others in the village will be aware of the existence of this
network. Contrari-wise, a caste which enjoys dominance in only one village will find that it has to
reckon with the caste which enjoys regional dominance.

4. A sizeable amount of the arable land:

 Normally, in India’s villages, smaller number of big landowners occupy larger portion of land. In
other words, the caste which has larger portion of village land wields power. The big landowners,
thus, are patrons of the bulk of the poor villagers.
 In villages, those castes which have larger portion of land enjoy power and prestige. Srinivas
says that landownership is a crucial factor in establishing dominance.

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He observes:

 Landownership confers not only power but prestige, so much so that, individuals who have made
good in any walk of life tend to invest in land.
 If landownership is not always an indispensable passport to high rank, it certainly facilitates
upward mobility.

Criticisms of Dominant caste:

1. Dominant caste today is found only in traditional villages:

Srinivas has argued that a dominant caste has most of the power in the village within its fold. In
fact, it is the dominant caste which runs the village; maintains the village system. The empirical
reality today has undergone vast transformation.

 Surely, in the past, the powerful families in the village were the big landowning families. The
Brahmins and the Rajputs, in the earlier periods of history, got immense favour from the feudal
lords and the British rulers.
 In order to keep these higher castes in favour of the ruling group land was given as gift. Those
who received such favours included Brahmins, Rajputs and the Marathas. Viewed from this
per-spective admittedly, the Brahmins and the Rajputs became big landowning castes.
 But, with the land reforms including land ceiling and abolition of Zamindari and Jagirdari,
big landowning has ceased to be a determi-nant factor of dominant caste. In place of big
landholding, political power has become a decisive factor in the formation of a dominant caste.
 If economic power is considered to be an important factor of the formation of a dominant
caste, it is only limited to the traditional vil-lages, such as, that of tribals which have not received
the impact of modern political transformation.

2. Dominant caste is not always numerically a preponderant caste:

 Yet another criticism of dominant caste falls into two camps. One camp of scholars argues that in
traditional villages it is not the numerical strength but secular power and ritual status that
determine the status of a dominant caste.
 Historically, “Indian villages probably never exercised majority rule or accepted majority
verdict. The feudal India did not compromise with numerical strength.
 Besides, alone-Brahmin, a sadhu, a Zamindar, alone social worker each has exercised more
influence than a numerically preponderant community in the village”.
 Thus, on one hand, it is argued that numerical strength has ceased to be a factor in the making
of a dominant caste while it is also held on the basis of empirical strength that the modern forces
of democ-racy and development including the improvement of the status of scheduled groups
have gone a long way in making a group dominant in a village.

3. Dominant caste is a part of structuralist approach:

 Most of the criticism labelled against the dominant caste is that of those theorists who oppose
structuralist approach in the study of Indian society.
 M.N. Srinivas, while giving the concept of dominant caste, also follows the line of a structuralist.
Srinivas stands far hierarchy, i.e., the opposition between pure and impure.
 He looks at the pure caste, namely, Brahmins and Rajputs as the higher castes in the caste system;
he has taken upper caste view in the construction of dominant caste. This perspec-tive of Srinivas
has been criticised by Edmund Leach.

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 In fact, Srinivas has overlooked the force of history when he writes: Historical data are neither
as accurate nor as rich and detailed as the data collected by field anthropologists, and the
study of certain existing processes in the past.

The making of a dominant caste, thus, is highly empirical and does not take into consideration the
forces of history. A cursory view of the contemporary rural India would immediately show that much
of the relevance of dominant caste has fallen into erosion.

As a matter of fact, there has been sea- change in the social reality of Indian villages that much cannot
be comprehended with the help of this concept.

The reservation given to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, the intensification of
democratisation, and the introduction of Panchayati Raj through 73rd amendment to Indian
Constitution have gone a long way in shrinking the influence of dominant caste. However, there are
some politically dominant groups which have begun to exercise influence on the villagers.

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Mains Master Notes

Subject: GS 1 (Post-Independent India)
Topic: Challenges at the time of independence

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS IN NATIONAL BUILDING: ..................................................................................................... 3

IMMEDIATE CHALLENGES: ........................................................................................................................................... 3

MEDIUM TERM CHALLENGES: ..................................................................................................................................... 3

LONG-TERM CHALLENGES: .......................................................................................................................................... 3

TERRITORIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE INTEGRATION OF THE PRINCELY STATES................................................... 4

POLITICAL STABILITY AND SOLVING COMMUNAL TENSIONS DUE TO PARTITION ................................................ 5

REHABILITATION OF REFUGEES ...................................................................................................................................... 6

TRIBAL INTEGRATION ........................................................................................................................................................ 6

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CHALLENGES IN NATION BUILDING- INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

India attained the greatest cargo of independence but with a custom duty of partition. The independence
accompanied by a multitude of problems in a both long-term and short-term manner.

CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS IN NATIONAL BUILDING:

It can be classified in three categories:

1. Immediate Challenges
2. Medium-term Challenges
3. Long-term Challenges

IMMEDIATE CHALLENGES:
1. Territorial and administrative integration of the Princely states.
2. Partition and Refugee crisis post 1947.
3. Maintain Political Stability and solve communal tensions due to Partition.

As Nehru rightly says in 1947, “First things must come first and the first thing is security and stability of
India ''.

MEDIUM TERM CHALLENGES:

1. Framing of Inclusive constitution
2. Building a democratic political order in both centre as well as states.
3. Organisation of first general election
4. Abolition of semi-feudal agrarian order.
5. Promoting National Integration.

LONG-TERM CHALLENGES:

1. Removing the endemic poverty:

In 1947, India gained independence from Great Britain. The poverty rate at the time of British
departure was at 70 percent. From then, India’s poverty reduced to approximately 21.1% in recent years.

2. Long term planning process

Need for framing of long-term planning process in the field of agriculture, industries and other
service sector areas. India started coming up with 5year plans under the planning commission.

3. Rapid Economic Development

After 200 years of colonial exploitation, India was a poor country with an agrarian economy.
90% of the population depends upon the land with no development of industries.

4. Resolving the colonial disasters and sins

Due to Britain policies of Land revenue settlements, there was a huge number of inequality
in land as well as resources. Land Reforms were needed to create an equitable society.

5. Peace and stable foreign policy

India as a nascent nation was yet to frame a stable, reliable, peaceful foreign policy to
cooperate with the neighbours as well as the western countries. Jawaharlal Nehru, the chief architect
shaped India’s foreign policy with both neighbours and International countries.

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TERRITORIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE INTEGRATION OF THE PRINCELY STATES

In 1947, 65% of the Indian territory belonged to British India, remaining 35% belonged to 560
princely states. The bigger princely states were Hyderabad, Mysore and Jammu & Kashmir. Some states
like Bikaner, Rajput kingdoms have shown realism and degree of patriotism by joining in constituent
assembly and while some other states like Hyderabad, Travancore, Bhopal stayed away and claimed
Independent status.

Leaders Responsible For Integration:

In June, 1947, Sardar Vallabhai Patel assumed the charge of the state department with V.P
Menon as its secretary. Both were aware that the divisive situation of the princely states may affect the
hard-earned freedom and Nation’s unity and Security.

With great skill and masterful diplomacy and using both persuasion and pressure Sardar Patel played a
strong role in integration of India. His Persuasion plus Pressure approach was evident in integration of most
of the princely states barring J&K, Hyderabad, and Junagarh. To persuade he assured of autonomy with
transfer of powers only in case of, foreign relations, Defence and communications and implied threat was
the govt may not be able to control impatient people post 15 august 1947
His role in integrating Hyderabad through force after negotiation was going in no direction shows his iron
fist policy.

Another leader K.M.Panikkar also contributed towards integration of princely states.

Measures of Integration:
After Independence, Patel’s first step was to appeal to the princes who territories fell inside the
Indian Union to accede to the Indian Union in
three primary subjects like Communications, Basis and considerations which drove integration
Defence and Foreign relations. Already most of the princely states were willing to join
so no need of iron fist except in case of exception.
Rising tide of the people’s movement and Flexibility in approach with regard to granting some
Patel’s reputation of firmness made all
form of autonomy to accommodate diversity
princely respond to integration except
Junagadh, Hyderabad and Jammu and In the back drop of Partition, the territorial sanctity must
Kashmir. be ensured (Ex- Hyderabad integration).

Junagadh:
● Junagadh was a small state on the coast of Saurashtra surrounded by Indian territory and therefore
without any geographical contiguity with Pakistan
● Nawab of Junagadh (Muhabat Khan) wanted accession of the state to Pakistan against the interest
of people in the state.
● People started a popular movement against the Nawab move and they forced the Nawab to flee and
established the provisional government.
● In the invitation by the Dewan of Junagadh, Shah Nawaz Bhutto invited India to intervene.
● Plebiscite was held in feb 1948, with people supporting the state in favour of joining India.

Kashmir:
● The state of Kashmir was under the Hindu ruler Maharaja Hari Singh, while nearly 75% of the
population were Muslims.
● Hari Singh wanted to create an independent state, he did not accede to neither India nor Pakistan
because of fearing democracy in India and communalism in Pakistan.
● Having faced setbacks in Junagadh and Hyderabad, Pakistan followed short-sighted policy in
Kashmir.

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● During the fine winter, Pathan tribes led unofficially by Pakistani army officers invaded Kashmir
and marched towards Srinagar. Unable to control the situation, Maharaja asked India’s military
assistance.
● After prolonged negotiations, Kashmir was acceded to the Indian union as the Instrument of
accession clause under article 370.
● Indian army contained Pakistani troops in Kashmir and successfully airlifted many people.
● On Mountbatten suggestions, Nehru referred the decision of Kashmir to UNSC to avoid any full-
fledged war after independence.
● Ceasefire agreement was signed between India and Pakistan on 31 December 1948 and a ceasefire
line was drawn.
● In 1951, the UN passed a resolution to hold a referendum under UN supervision after Pakistan
had withdrawn its troops from the part of Kashmir.
● The resolution remains in place since Pakistan has refused to withdraw its forces from what is
known as Azad Kashmir.
● Since then, Kashmir has been the main obstacle in the path of foreign relations between India and
Pakistan.

Hyderabad:
● Hyderabad, largest princely state was ruled by the Nizam of Hyderabad who did not accede to India
as he claimed Independent status.
● Encouraged by Pakistan, Hyderabad began to expand his army forces.
● The Nizam of Hyderabad wished to prolong negotiation of merger inorder to build his military
strength and force India to accept his sovereignty.
● Several political developments took place In the state which caused many civil unrest.
● Telangana Congress committee started satyagraha movement to force democratisation on the
Nizam. There was also communal tensions due to militant comunist organisation called Razakars.
● By June 1948, Patel became impatient about Nizam’s dragging of situation and move of importing
more and more arms.
● India followed the hard step of integrating Hyderabad by force. Within three days Nizam
surrendered and acceded to the Indian Union.
● Indian Government attained the support of majority of Indian muslims in Hyderabad who were
against the Nizam policies.

The integration of the states compensated for the loss of the territories constituting Pakistan in terms
of area as well as population. It certainly partially healed ‘the wounds of partition’

Integrating foreign owned territories in its coastal region:

● French- and Portuguese-owned settlements dotting India’s east and west coasts, with Pondicherry
and Goa forming their hub.
● On 1 November 1954, the four enclaves of Pondichery, Yanam, Mahe, and Karikal were de facto
transferred to the Indian Union and became the Union Territory of Puducherry.
● On 19 December 1961, the Indian Army invaded with Operation Vijay resulting in the annexation
of Goa, and of Daman and Diu islands into the Indian union.

POLITICAL STABILITY AND SOLVING COMMUNAL TENSIONS DUE TO PARTITION:

● Indians faced gravest of crises. The great danger was that the atmosphere and the mentality
generated by Partition and the riots might persist and strengthen communal tendencies in Indian
politics. The deaths of more than 5 lakh people with months point the scale of crisis India was
facing.

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● The situation was brought under control within a few months through decisive political and
administrative measures. For example, during August–September, the back of communal violence
in Delhi was broken by bringing.
● The communalism even affected many Congress leaders apart from many people. Yet, the national
leadership and people in general with the towering figure like Mahatma Gandhi, Pt Nehru etc. the
nationalism of India withstood the test.
● Decisive political and administrative measures were also responsible to check rising riots. Ex-
during August–September 1947, the back of communal violence in Delhi was broken by bringing
the army on the streets and ordering the police to shoot at communal mobs indulging in looting and
killing.
● 45 million Muslims chose to remain in India is a reflection of India able to meet this gravest of
threat. Though the idea and discontentment remained in some or other form with communalism
raising its head till date. i.e., Communalism was thereby contained and weakened but not
eliminated, for conditions were still favourable for its growth which needed a long-term approach
in developing national harmony.

REHABILITATION OF REFUGEES:

Western Border:
● After partition, nearly 6 million refugees came to India from Pakistan. Land was given to Punjabi
farmers who came to India from Pakistan based on their property limits and assessment.
● Refugees mainly occupied the lands and property left by the muslim migrants.
● Due to closer linguistic affinity, it was easier for Punjabi and Sindhi refugees to settle in Haryana,
Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi.

Eastern Border:
● Task of rehabilitation in Eastern Bengal was more difficult when compared to the western border.
● Due to communal riots in the Eastern Bengal there were a large number of Hindu refugees to India.
● Assurance of work and shelter with psychological support to the refugees was a difficult task unlike
Punjabi settlements.
● Due to Linguistic unity, there was a resettlement of refugees in Bengal but to a lesser extent in
Assam and Tripura.

Gradually India tried to accommodate the refugees to attain maximum cooperation and better livelihood.

TRIBAL INTEGRATION
● Indian tribal population was highly diverse, distributed widely and different groups were at
different stages of development (Some still untouched by outside culture to some being
synchronized with the outside culture).
● However, what all of these shared were exploitation, historical injustice, low socio-economic
indicators, major changes in way of life, penetration of capitalist forces etc.
● They were in different states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, North-eastern India, West Bengal,
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan where they constituted minority largely, and in North-East
they largely were majority.
● The tribal integration process started with the Indian Constitution itself with reservation rights,
protection of cultural and linguistic rights as fundamental rights. The approach was in for of a set
of guidelines which is also sometimes called as the “Tribal Panchsheel”.
1. No imposition to promote own traditional arts and culture.
2. Tribals rights to land and forest to be respected.

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3. Training and building up a team of tribals to do the work of administration and development
and avoiding introducing too many outsiders into tribal territory.
4. Over administering of these areas’ multiplicity of schemes and top-down approach to be
avoided.
5. Judging outcome by the quality of human character that is involved

On the eve of independence India met huge challenges. Yet, for a newly independent nation it took strong
and effective steps towards nation building by addressing immediate challenges and laying a foundation
for medium and long-term challenges.

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