Review Article on the Hindsight and Traditional Motifs of Indian Embroidery

Vishali M1, Nandhetha S S2, Dr. K. M. Pachiyappan3, Dr. R. Divya4, Jothi J5

1,2
M.Sc. Student, 3Dean, School of Applied Science, 4Associate Professor, 5 Research Scholar
Department of Costume Design and Fashion, PSG College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore.
Abstract
Indian embroidery, with its rich history and intricate motifs, reflects the diverse cultural,
religious, and social traditions of the Indian subcontinent. This article traces its roots through
various dynasties, regions, and communities. The study examines the distinct styles such as
Phulkari from Punjab, Chikankari from Lucknow, Aari from Gujarat, Zardosi from Lucknow,
and Kantha embroidery from Orissa, highlighting their unique techniques, materials, and
symbolic meanings. It also delves into the motifs used in these embroideries, which often draw
inspiration from nature, mythology, and everyday life, serving as a visual narrative of India's
heritage. Through this exploration, the article underscores the importance of preserving these
traditional art forms in the face of modernization, ensuring that they continue to thrive and
inspire future generations.
Keywords: Indian embroidery, Phulkari, Chikankari, Aari, Zardosi, Kantha, History, Motifs.
Introduction
India's vibrant cultural heritage is vividly expressed through its intricate embroidery, showcasing
the remarkable craftsmanship and diverse traditions of its artisans. From regal silks to humble
cotton, embroidered fabrics have long been integral to India's textile heritage, adorning royalty,
nobility, and everyday people.
Employing embroidery as a means of embellishing garments has existed since the advent of
clothing, with its origins traceable to the Iron Age. This development commenced when early
humans realized that they could utilize thread to stitch together various materials, thereby
creating wearable items[1].
Yeon-Hee Han's 2011 study on Mirror Work examines the diverse regional adaptations,
distinctive techniques, and materials associated with this craft, as well as its current relevance in
the realm of fashion and wearable art. In a complementary analysis, Yi Rang Kim and Mi Jeong
Kwon's 2021 research, which is informed by Bourdieu's cultural theory, delineates four unique
regional embroidery styles: the vibrant, Hinduism-influenced patterns of Eastern India; the
Persian-inspired gold thread embroidery of Western India; the straightforward, Dravidian
culture-based cross-stitch of Southern India; and the varied, floral designs characteristic of
Northern India. Collectively, these investigations highlight the cultural importance of Indian
embroidery and its capacity for contemporary artistic innovation[2]. Exploring a wide range of
styles, techniques, and materials, Indian embroidery captures the beauty of Mughal-inspired
florals and the boldness of tribal patterns. This article sets out to uncover the complex history of
embroidery in India, delving into its development, regional variations, and the talented
craftspeople dedicated to preserving this ancient art form.

Indian Embroidery
Indian embroidery reflects a rich cultural exchange with other countries. Various stitches and
techniques, such as satin stitch from China and darning stitches similar to those in the Middle
East and Europe, demonstrate global influences. Regional Indian styles, like Kasuti from
Karnataka and chikan work from Uttar Pradesh, show striking similarities with embroidery from
Austria, Hungary, Spain, and Europe. This cultural diffusion is attributed to ancient traders and
navigators, like the Arabs, who facilitated the sharing of designs and materials across borders[3].
Kantha of Bengal
Kantha may derive its name from the Sanskrit term "kontha," which translates to rags. The
earliest reference to kantha appears in the Chaitanya Charitamrita, a 500-year-old text authored
by the Bengali poet Krishnadasa Kaviraja. .In this study, the mother of the 15th-century saint
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu dispatches a handcrafted Kantha to her son via a contingent of itinerant
pilgrims.
A Kantha is traditionally composed of multiple layers of worn sarees or dhotis stitched together
to create a blanket, primarily utilized by the impoverished for warmth. Subsequently, the
decorative variant known as 'nakshi' emerged within the homes of undivided Bengal,
symbolizing women's aspirations and dreams. This art form served as a visual narrative of their
unspoken stories, which were bequeathed as a cherished legacy [4]. Additionally, this craft
served as a medium for women to showcase their artistic abilities, with nearly every woman in a
village engaging in this practice for her household. The designs often reflected the maker's
affection for her loved ones and were believed to offer protection against malevolent forces.
Kantha represents one of the oldest forms of Indian embroidery, with its origins traceable to the
first and second centuries A.D. This folk art arises from the interplay of material conditions and
everyday necessities. The quilting tradition in Bengal is particularly distinctive, as the indigenous
Kantha embodies a confluence of various elements that contribute to the cultural identity of the
region. Beyond its practical function, Kantha serves as a significant example of folk art,
especially as it pertains to women's creativity. Historical accounts suggest that Lord Buddha and
his followers utilized old rugs featuring diverse patchwork designs for warmth, which laid the
groundwork for the development of Kantha embroidery. Daily life provided the primary
inspiration for this craft, particularly during the relatively mild winters when there was a demand
for coverings. The Kantha evolved primarily from this necessity, while the extended rainy
seasons afforded the women of Bengal the opportunity to stitch together multiple layers of fabric.
The materials employed in Kantha typically consisted of old saris, lungis, or dhotis that had been
worn to the point of fragility. For many years, Kantha embroidery has served as a vital source of
income for rural women in West Bengal, thus acting as a medium through which their voices
have resonated across generations. Additionally, the broader historical context, including events
such as the partition of Bengal, the transition through East Pakistan, and the emergence of
Bangladesh, is reflected in the narratives woven into this women's art[5].
Initially, Kantha artisans did not sketch the design onto the fabric; rather, they embroidered the
outline using needle and thread. Once they were content with the outline, they proceeded to fill
the interior with vibrant stitches. Typically, a design was first outlined, and the stitching began
from the outer edges, progressively converging towards the center. This method ensures that the
texture remains uniform and prevents any bunching or folding within the outline[6].
Motifs: The running stitch represents the predominant technique employed in Kantha
embroidery. Frequently utilized motifs include traditional folk designs, floral patterns,
representations of animals and birds, geometric figures, chariots, as well as intricate floral scrolls
and creeping vines. Additionally, motifs reflecting daily life, such as combs, mirrors, and
umbrellas, are prevalent in this form of embroidery. Themes derived from everyday activities
also serve as common subjects for the artwork. The entirety of the fabric is adorned with running
stitches, resulting in a visually appealing composition[1].
Chikankari of Lucknow
The term "Chikan" is derived from the Persian words 'Chikan', 'Chikin', and 'Chikeen', which
refer to the art of creating delicate patterns on fabric. Chikankari represents a sophisticated and
detailed form of shadow-work embroidery, characterized by the use of white thread on colorless
muslin fabrics known as "tanzeb"—where "tan" signifies body and "zeb" denotes decoration[1].
The origins of chikankari in Lucknow remain largely speculative, with various narratives
emerging that reflect differing perspectives. Some accounts, which are more romanticized and
widely accepted in Lucknow, suggest a lineage rooted in Persian and aristocratic traditions, often
implying royal patronage. Conversely, other theories propose a Bengali origin for this intricate
craft. Despite their apparent differences, these narratives share common elements and are not
necessarily contradictory. One prominent tale involves Nur Jahan, who, captivated by the
intricate jali work and floral motifs adorning the structures of Isfahan, commissioned the
replication of these designs onto wooden blocks for printing on fabric and embroidering on fine
muslin. An alternative version of this narrative features Mughal empress Mumtaz Mahal, Nur
Jahan’s niece and the cherished wife of Shah Jahan, who commissioned the construction of the
Taj Mahal in her honor.
A new narrative surrounding the origins of chikan has emerged, attributed to the artistic talents of
a princess from Murshidabad, Bengal, who was married to the Nawab of Oudh. This princess,
renowned for her exceptional sewing skills, sought to alleviate the monotony of life in the harem
by creating an embroidered cap for the Nawab. Employing intricate stitches and diverse patterns,
she crafted a white cap, richly adorned with white thread on muslin fabric. She requested
permission to present the cap to the Nawab in person upon completion. This request was granted,
and during the private audience, the Nawab was captivated by both the gift and its creator,
leading him to bestow greater attention upon her. The other women in the harem, envious of the
princess's newfound favor, began to engage in their own embroidery projects, striving to surpass
one another in the intricacy of their stitches and the elegance of their designs. They guarded their
creations closely, ensuring that their efforts remained secret. Thus, a remarkable art form was
born from the tedium of harem life and the aspiration to gain the Nawab's affection.
In a contrasting account passed down through a prominent family of artisans, the inception of
this craft is attributed to a weary and enigmatic traveler who received aid from one of their
forebears, a humble peasant. Grateful for the hospitality extended to him, the traveler vowed to
impart a skill that would ensure the peasant would never face hunger. He subsequently taught
Ustad Muhammad Shahir Khan the art of chikankari, a practice that the chikankars believe was
divinely inspired.
Motifs: The motifs predominantly draw inspiration from the natural world, encompassing
elements such as flora—specifically flowers and creepers that resemble lace patterns, jaals, and
butis—as well as fruits like mangoes and almonds, which are integral to the paisley motif.
Additionally, avian representations, particularly of parrots and peacocks, contribute to a
harmonious blend of diversity. The traditional patterns reflect the artisans' adeptness in emulating
architectural designs, with influences derived from notable structures such as the Taj Mahal,
Fatehpur Sikri, and the Imambara mosque, which served as a foundation for motif development.
Initially characterized by white-on-white embroidery, this craft has gradually incorporated a
spectrum of colors, marking a contemporary innovation in Chikan embroidery. Historically, the
palette was limited to whites and pastels; however, it has since expanded to include a broader
range of hues. Chikan work is utilized in various decorative items, including blouses, sari
borders, caps, cuffs, cushions, curtains, mats, and table runners. It is also present in men's
garments such as kurtas, bandis, and chogas, typically worn during summer.
Phulkari of Punjab
Phulkari, which translates to "flower craft," is derived from the words "phul," meaning flower,
and "kari," meaning work, thus referring to floral artistry. This traditional embroidered shawl
was historically worn by women in Punjab and serves as a representation of the region's cultural
heritage. In Patiala, the phulkari craft sector is notably disorganized, resulting in the exploitation
of impoverished rural women. This art form is on the verge of disappearing due to intense
competition from phulkari products created by computerized machines. These machines can
produce phulkari items rapidly, making them more cost-effective for traders; however, the
essence of phulkari lies in its handcrafted nature. There is an urgent necessity to revitalize this
traditional craft and provide support to disadvantaged rural women. Additionally, there is a need
to enhance the quality of base materials, color combinations, designs, and decorative elements to
increase its appeal among the younger generation, ensuring that the spirit of traditional
craftsmanship endures for future generations[].
Phulkari embroidery's rich history is veiled by scarcity of documentation, leaving its origins
open to interpretation. Nevertheless, literary references, archaeological findings, and expert
insights provide valuable clues. The tradition of Phulkari is deeply rooted in Indian culture, with
mentions in ancient texts such as the Vedas, Mahabharata, and Guru Granth Sahib, indicating its
presence since the 15th century AD.
Literary works like Waris Shah's classic poem "Heer Ranjha" (1725-1790) vividly describe
Heer's attire, featuring Phulkari embroidery. Earlier, Bana Bhatt's "Harishcharitra" (7th century
AD) details embroidery techniques remarkably similar to Phulkari and Bagh, suggesting a long-
standing tradition. These literary foundations underscore Phulkari's significance in Indian
artisanship.
Scholars have proposed two potential origins: Iranian influence, where a similar technique called
"Gulkari" (flower work) exists, and Central Asian migration, where Phulkari accompanied Jat
tribes migrating to Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat. However, experts consider these theories
inconclusive due to lack of concrete evidence.
Historical artifacts preserved in Punjab's Sikh sites attest to Phulkari's heritage. Notably, Bebe
Nanaki's 15th-century Phulkari shawls and handkerchiefs, Guru Nanak Dev ji's sister,
demonstrate the art form's antiquity. Significant sites like Gurudwara Dera Baba Nanak
(Gurudaspur district) and Gurudwara Mao Sahib (Jalandhar district) house these treasures,
including a shawl used by Guru Arjun Dev ji during his marriage.
Experts like Jasleen Dhamija note similarities in 7th-century Indian embroidery techniques,
hinting at a broader regional influence. Phulkari designs have appeared in Bihar and Rajasthan,
reinforcing this theory. These findings collectively weave a narrative of Phulkari's evolution,
underscoring its significance in Indian artisanship. As this traditional craft evolves, its rich
history and cultural significance remain essential to understanding its beauty and value.
Motifs: Numerous phulkari patterns were consistently derived from natural elements or everyday
objects. A vast array of designs also established a nuanced vocabulary for their classification. For
instance, phulkari featuring a blue background was referred to as nilak, while thirma denoted a
style where the fabric remained un-dyed, creating a white canvas that was then adorned with
colored threads, such as red. Women from both Eastern and Western Punjab crafted phulkaris
incorporating both geometric and figurative motifs, which included shapes like lozenges,
squares, and triangles, as well as representations of animals, plants, jewelry, and human figures.
They meticulously counted the yarns or outlined intricate designs with black ink before filling
them in with darning stitches. The embroidered motifs ranged from stylized representations of
karela (bitter gourd), mustard flowers, and golden marigolds to jasmine buds, lotus flowers, and
flowering trees. Additionally, stylized depictions of men and women, along with various other
themes, were common. Curiosity also led to the inclusion of modern elements such as railway
trains, motor cars, lorries, and even chariots. Furthermore, phulkaris often featured birds and
both domestic and wild animals, depicted in various sizes and orientations.
Zardosi
Zardozi embroidery, revered as ShahiKaam, is a sumptuous and intricate craft that weaves
together 24-karat gold and silver threads with precious gemstones to create breathtaking
masterpieces. With its origins tracing back to the illustrious Mughal Period, this ancient art form
continues to embellish luxurious fabrics such as silk, satin, and velvet with elaborate motifs. The
opulent materials used in Zardozi embroidery include gold-plated threads like Kalabattu and
Kasab, twisted steel threads like Salma and Tikora, sequins known as Tilli, and round pieces
called Sitara.
The craftsmanship of Zardozi is further enhanced by the incorporation of zari threads, including
Kora and Chikna, which add depth and luster to the designs. Expert artisans meticulously outline
the intricate patterns using Gijai, a round, thin, and stiff thread. The result is a dazzling display of
gold, silver, and gems harmoniously blended to create awe-inspiring designs that reflect the rich
cultural heritage of India.
This traditional craft continues to evolve, with modern designers incorporating Zardozi
techniques into contemporary fashion and textile art. As a testament to India's rich cultural
legacy, Zardozi embroidery remains an enduring symbol of luxury, elegance, and craftsmen.
Zari zardozi, a form of embroidery characterized by the use of gold threads, has its origins in
Persia, dating back at least 300 years. The term itself translates to ‘embroidering with gold
threads’. This art form gained significant prominence during the 17th Century under the Mughal
Empire, particularly with the patronage of Emperor Akbar. However, its popularity waned during
the reign of Aurangzeb, primarily due to the lack of support for artisans from the ruler. The
scarcity and high cost of raw materials further exacerbated the situation, making it difficult for
artisans to meet the demand without royal patronage. Consequently, many artisans relocated
from Delhi to regions such as Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Punjab.
The advent of industrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries further hindered the progress of
this embroidery technique. It was not until 1947, following India's independence, that initiatives
were undertaken to revitalize various handicrafts, including zari zardozi.
The Begums of Bhopal themselves utilized 'batuas,' small purses designed to hold cash, snacks,
and personal items. Additionally, garments for the affluent and royal classes were crafted using
zari zardozi on opulent fabrics.
Motifs: The essence of all motifs has consistently been derived from nature. Elements such as
flowers, leaves, trees, and various animals and birds reflect the rich ecological heritage of India,
which is intricately woven into every piece of Zardozi embroidery.
Toda of Tamilnadu
The Toda tribes are widely recognized for their exquisite embroidered shawls, which play a
significant role throughout various aspects of their lives. These shawls are deeply embedded in
their traditions, culture, rituals, and daily activities. The women of the Toda community engage
in a sophisticated and aesthetically pleasing form of embroidery, which is culturally distinctive to
them. This unique style of embroidery is locally known as “Pugur” or “Pukhoor.”
The process of embroidery is meticulous and time-consuming, requiring considerable effort to
create a visually captivating piece. Toda embroidery is a hereditary art form characterized by its
geometric patterns and meticulous finish, resembling woven fabric. Historically, this craft was
practiced by the women of the tribe as a communal activity, where they gathered in shared
spaces to converse and work on their shawls. The embroidery technique produces a rich,
embossed texture on the fabric. The women possess remarkable skill, executing the embroidery
without the aid of traced patterns or reference materials. Traditionally, this embroidery is
performed on thick, off-white or cream-colored cloth, utilizing red and black woolen threads.
The stitches are applied in a lengthwise manner, creating a geometric design on the fabric, and
the embroidery is also executed on the reverse side without any drawn patterns, distinguishing it
from other embroidery styles.
The ‘poothukuli’ shawl holds significant importance during various occasions, including
weddings and funerals. Newly embroidered shawls are particularly favored for weddings, with
designs symbolizing prosperity, fertility, and security. In funerals, the newly embroidered shawl
is used as a shroud, referred to as “Pekhadaar Poothkuli.” Guests also wear ‘poothukuli’
embroidered fabrics during wedding celebrations. The expertise of Toda tribal women in this
craft is well-documented and celebrated.
Motifs: The traditional lifestyle of the Todas is intricately linked to their natural surroundings,
which serves as a significant source of inspiration for their motifs and patterns. The majestic
Nilgiri mountains have influenced the design known as ‘twehhdr’, while the stripes of the
squirrel have contributed to the ‘peshk’. The delicate chequered pattern of the butterfly is
reflected in the ‘kopaan’, and the structure of a beehive has inspired the ‘Kwudrkorr’.
Additionally, the yellow marsh flowers have shaped the design known as ‘modhery’. The natural
world provides a wealth of inspiration, including elements such as peacock feathers, buffalo
horns, rabbit ears, wildflowers, as well as celestial bodies like the sun, moon, and stars. The
patterns created are a testament to the ingenuity of Toda women, who envision designs in their
minds and skillfully transfer them onto fabric. Through dedicated practice, they have perfected
this craft, producing intricate designs without the need for tracing or reference materials. This
practice accounts for the subtle variations that may occur in designs derived from the same
natural inspiration. Like all art forms, Toda embroidery is dynamic and continues to evolve. As a
result, numerous new patterns have emerged since its inception, featuring a range of motifs that
either modify traditional designs or introduce new interpretations of earlier patterns[].
Conclusion
In summary, the evolution and themes of Indian embroidery encapsulate the nation's extensive
cultural legacy, regional variety, and artistic ingenuity. Over the centuries, Indian embroidery has
undergone significant transformation, shaped by numerous dynasties, trade interactions, and
cultural exchanges, while still preserving its unique character. Traditional methods such as
Zardozi, Kantha, Phulkari, Chikankari and Kasuti exemplify the exceptional craftsmanship that
has been inherited through generations.
The designs featured in Indian embroidery are rich in symbolism, frequently reflecting elements
of nature, mythology, spirituality, and societal practices. Common motifs include floral
arrangements, animal figures, geometric patterns, and abstract forms, each imbued with its own
cultural meaning. Many of these designs draw inspiration from local aesthetics and traditions,
further emphasizing the diversity inherent in Indian embroidery.
Although modernization and the decline of traditional crafts have affected certain regions, Indian
embroidery continues to be a significant and revered art form, both within India and on the
international stage. With ongoing revival initiatives and an increasing appreciation for artisanal
textiles, this craft persists in flourishing, effectively connecting historical practices with modern
fashion.