Topic: Assessing the efficacy of community-led sustainable solid waste

management practices among residents in Bukom, Accra

Chapter 2

Literature review and Conceptual review

2.1 Introduction

In many metropolitan areas, solid waste management is still a major concern, especially in

developing nations where the issue is frequently made worse by fast urbanisation, population

increase, and inadequate infrastructure (Memon, 2010). In Accra, Ghana, the problem is

particularly acute in crowded areas like Bukom, where garbage production outpaces the

capabilities of current management systems. Effective solid waste management has over time

resulted in serious environmental damage, hazards to the public's health, and deteriorated

living conditions for locals (Boadi & Kuitunen, 2005). Community-led initiatives have

surfaced as grassroots attempts to address the escalating waste management crisis. The ability

of community involvement in solid waste management to empower locals and encourage

sustainable practices has drawn attention (Zhuang et al., 2008). To cut down on waste

production and lessen their negative effects on the environment, these programs frequently

concentrate on trash segregation, recycling, composting, and community awareness

campaigns. The efficacy of these community-led strategies is still being investigated, though.

Although some research shows how these programs might promote sustainability, others

question their long-term effects, scalability, and consistency, especially in environments with

limited resources (Wilson et al., 2012). Policies that can promote more efficient and

sustainable waste management systems must be informed by an understanding of the

achievements and difficulties of these initiatives. With an emphasis on metropolitan locations

like Bukom, this literature study attempts to investigate the corpus of knowledge around

community-led sustainable waste management strategies. It will look at the theoretical

frameworks that support community involvement in waste management, assess the results of

community-led projects around the world, and pinpoint the elements that make them

successful or unsuccessful. In addition, the review will draw attention to the gaps in the

literature, providing a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of community-led solid waste

management initiatives among Bukom, Accra, inhabitants. Globally, the production of

municipal solid waste (MSW) is still increasing at a startling rate. According to forecasts, the

influence of urbanisation, population increase, and rising consumption levels could result in

an annual worldwide garbage creation of 3.4 billion tonnes by 2050 (Kaza et al., 2018).

Developed nations produce the most garbage per capita due to their higher levels of wealth

and consumption. However, improper waste management has serious negative effects on the

ecosystem; today, over one-third of the world’s trash is not properly handled, which pollutes

the air, water, and land (World Bank, 2018). Countries like Germany and Japan have

responded to these issues by putting in place sophisticated SWM systems that prioritise

energy recovery, recycling, and waste minimisation. Due to strict recycling regulations and

thorough trash separation at the source, Germany, for example, boasts a recycling rate of over

65% (Wilson et al., 2015).

The goal of Japan’s zero-waste strategy is to maximise resource recovery and minimise waste

production, especially in electronics and home appliances (Yoshida & Shimamura, 2015).

Rapid urbanisation, poor infrastructure, and a lack of funding are some of the special SWM

issues facing Africa. With the urban population predicted to quadruple by 2050, Sub-Saharan

African cities are especially vulnerable, putting tremendous strain on the continent’s current

waste management infrastructure (Kaza et al., 2018). Ineffective garbage collection systems

plague cities like Lagos, Nairobi, and Accra, which encourage the growth of illegal dumping

and open burning methods that pollute the environment. These behaviours pose serious

threats to human health and the environment. Residents face major health concerns as a result

of improper trash disposal, which also leads to soil degradation, water contamination, and air

pollution. As seen in Accra, where clogged drainage systems containing inappropriately

disposed of garbage exacerbate waterlogging problems, inadequate waste management

infrastructure also makes urban flooding worse during the rainy season (Mensah & Larbi,

2021). In many African nations, the informal trash business is vital despite these obstacles.

Significant quantities of recyclable items are recovered from landfills and streets by informal

rubbish pickers, who frequently work without official acknowledgement or assistance. Up to

70% of recyclable rubbish is thought to be recovered by informal waste pickers in areas like

Lagos, which helps significantly to efforts to divert garbage (Awortwi, 2013). The need for

better assistance and integration within official SWM frameworks is highlighted by the fact

that these workers operate in dangerous environments and do not have access to basic

resources like healthcare and personal protective equipment. Regarding our local residents,

Rapid urbanisation, inadequate infrastructure, and the absence of official waste management

systems have made solid waste management in Ghanaian cities—especially Accra—

extremely difficult throughout the years. These issues are particularly severe in Accra’s

heavily populated Bukom neighbourhood. The neighbourhood struggles with inappropriate

trash disposal practices that lead to environmental degradation and public health issues

because of its small streets, dense population, and restricted access to centralised waste

management services (Owusu-Sekyere, 2020).

2.1.1 Definition of concepts

2.1.2 Waste

Hoff et al. (2002) define waste as any material or substance that is not needed or desired.

Waste includes items such as trash, bottles, and other materials that are considered useless to

humans.

Forms of waste

Liquid waste

Liquid waste is defined as any waste material that exists in a liquid form (pros services,

2023).

Solid waste

Zerbeck (2003) described solid waste as non-hazardous industrial, commercial, and

residential waste, which includes organic waste from homes, street sweepings, institutional

waste, and construction debris.

Gaseous waste

According to Staff Writer (2020), gaseous waste is a waste product in gas form that comes

from a variety of human activities, including production, processing, material consumption,

and biological processes.

2.1.3 Sources and types of solid waste

Sonali (n.d.) discussed six categories of solid waste, which include

1. Municipal solid waste

These are solid wastes from establishments such as residences, workplaces, shops,

schools, hospitals, and lodging facilities. These household solid wastes are typically

dumped on open wastelands along the side of the road or in municipal garbage collection

cans. Municipal vehicles pick them up and transport them to specific disposal locations

for waste. They are spread across a sizable tract of land, which serves as a breeding

ground for rats and flies. They are typically not burned to lower the volume because

doing so would pollute the air, which is even more hazardous.

2. Solid waste from industry

The majority of hazardous industrial waste is disposed of on wastelands, where it will

slowly and gradually break down. The local population lives in a very unsanitary

environment as a result of some industries disposing of their wastewater on roadsides and

bare ground. During the monsoon season, heavy metals found in some effluents

contaminate groundwater through seepage. On farmed soils, several heavy metals have

been observed to gradually accumulate. Cadmium is one of these extremely harmful

heavy metals, and it can be found in tiny amounts in some fertilisers.

3. Solid wastes from mining

These consist of slag, slack, rock tailing, and mine dust. The surrounding soil is totally

ruined by open-pit mining. In addition to destroying vegetation, the toxic compounds and

metals found in mining tailings cause numerous animal and human malformations.
4. Fertilizers

Chemical fertilisers improve crop production faster and increase soil fertility. The land

soon loses its fertility and turns saline, acidic, or alkaline.

5. Pesticides and biocide

These harmful chemicals are utilised in agricultural fields and are not environmentally

friendly. Following their entry into the crop, they proceed to main and secondary

consumers. Humans are also impacted by bio-magnification.

2.1.4 Waste generation

Waste creation has skyrocketed globally in recent decades, and there are no indications

that it will slow down, according to Bruna (2023). Global urban solid waste production is

predicted to have grown by over 70% to 3.4 billion metric tonnes by 2050. Numerous

variables, including urbanisation, population increase, economic expansion, and

consumer purchasing patterns, are to blame for this. It is now more crucial than ever for

authorities to offer sufficient trash treatment and disposal services because of the

enormous amounts of waste that are produced. Nevertheless, only 20% of waste is

recycled annually, and a significant amount is still dumped in landfills. Additionally,

waste is frequently dumped at dangerous open landfills, particularly in underdeveloped

countries. Although wealthier nations generate more waste than poorer nations, they

usually have superior waste management systems to help address these problems.

2.1.5 Waste management

Waste management is the act of dealing or controlling waste since management is the act,

art, or method of managing, handling, controlling, or directing. Solid-waste management,

according to a Nathanson (2023) study, is the process of gathering, handling, and getting
rid of solid trash that has been used up or is no longer needed. Unsanitary circumstances

brought on by improper municipal solid waste disposal can pollute the environment and

cause epidemics of vector-borne diseases, or illnesses that are transferred by rodents and

insects. Solid-waste management tasks pose intricate technical difficulties. They also

provide a wide range of social, administrative, and financial issues that need to be

handled and resolved.

2.1.6 Strategy

A strategy is a course of action intended to accomplish a long-term or overarching goal.

Strategies for waste management

According to a study by Kamala (2014), the following are waste management techniques

Waste prevention

Preventing the creation of garbage in the first place is the best waste management option.

Therefore, one of the main objectives of all waste management methods is waste

prevention. During the production, usage, or post-use phases of a product’s life cycle, a

variety of technologies can be used to reduce waste and, consequently, pollution.

Innovative chemical neutralisation techniques to reduce reactivity, the use of

contemporary leak detection systems for material storage, environmentally conscious

manufacturing practices that use fewer hazardous or harmful materials, or water-saving

technologies that reduce the need for fresh water inputs are a few examples of

representative strategies, Kamala (2014).

Waste minimization

Many times, wastes from a range of processes cannot be completely removed.

Nonetheless, a variety of tactics can be used to cut down on or minimise waste

production. The term “waste minimisation,” also known as “source reduction,” describes
the combined methods of designing and producing goods and services that minimise the

quantity of waste produced and/or lessen the toxicity of the waste that is produced. These

initiatives are frequently the result of actions made to stop identified trends or particular

products that may be contributing to issues in the waste stream. Reusing materials,

switching to less dangerous substitutes, or altering design and processing elements are

some ways that industry can reduce waste. Waste minimisation or source reduction has

several advantages, such as less reliance on natural resources and less toxicity from waste

(Kamala, 2014).

Waste minimisation techniques are widely used in manufacturing applications; reducing

material consumption not only conserves resources but also lowers substantial

manufacturing-related expenses. Improvements in efficient packaging utilise less

material, while more effective distribution uses less gasoline and emits fewer emissions

into the atmosphere. Additionally, engineered building materials can frequently be

created with particular advantageous qualities that, when taken into consideration in the

overall structural design, can significantly lower the total mass and weight of material

required for a particular construction. As a result, less material is used, and component

fabrication waste is decreased.

An outstanding illustration of product substitution to lower the production of toxic waste

is the dry cleaning sector. Tetrachloroethylene, or “perc,” was a solvent used in dry

cleaners for many years. Tetrachloroethylene is a rather dangerous substance despite its

effectiveness. It is also readily incorporated into the environment, yet its physical

characteristics make it extremely resistant. Furthermore, the intermediate daughter

chemicals that are produced during its breakdown are more hazardous to the environment

and human health. The dry cleaning business has changed its methods and is using less

hazardous substitutes, such as petroleum-based substances, due to its toxicity and

environmental effects. Additionally, carbon dioxide and other comparatively innocuous

substances are being used into new and developing technology. These alternatives have

been implemented in response to consumer desires and other market-based forces, even

though government regulations have frequently required them, Kamala (2014).

Recycling and Reuse

Recycling, according to Kamala (2014), is the process of recovering valuable materials

from the waste stream, such as metals, glass, paper, plastics, and wood, so they can be

used to create new products. Greater usage of recycled materials reduces the amount of

raw materials needed for the same applications. Recycling not only makes it possible to

recover waste materials and use them as valuable resource materials, but it also lessens

the need to exploit natural resources for raw materials. Recycling directly conserves

natural resources, lowers energy use and emissions from the extraction of virgin materials

and their subsequent production into final goods, lowers overall energy use and

greenhouse gas emissions that fuel climate change, and decreases the amount of recycled

materials that are burned or dumped in landfills. Additionally, recycling generates a

number of economic advantages, such as the capacity to boost GDP and create job

markets. Materials like paper, plastics, glass, aluminium, steel, and wood are frequently

recycled. Furthermore, a lot of building supplies, such as masonry, concrete, asphalt, and

reinforcing steel, may be recycled. Waste from “green” plants is frequently retrieved and

utilised right away for fertiliser or mulching. Numerous industries additionally purify and

“re-generate” solvents for reuse, as well as recover other by-products. Oils, fats, and

plasticisers can be recovered by solvent extraction from filter media such activated carbon

and clays; copper and nickel can be recovered from metal finishing operations; and acid

can be recovered by spray roasting, ion exchange, or crystallisation. Additionally, a

variety of spent food-based oils are being recovered and put to use in “biodiesel.”
 According to Kamala (2014), there are many instances of effective recycling and reuse

initiatives that are seen on a daily basis. Recycled materials are occasionally utilised as

raw materials and undergo extensive processing to create final goods. Typical instances

include turning used aluminium cans into new aluminium products or using trash paper to

make new paper. In some instances, recycled materials are processed minimally or not at

all before being used again. Common examples are incorporating brick and other fixtures

into new structural building or using tree refuse as wood chips. Efficient collection and

processing of recyclables, markets for reuse (such as manufacturing and/or applications

that employ recycled materials), and public acceptance and promotion of recycled

products and applications using recycled materials are all necessary for recycling to be

successful.

Biological treatment

In many nations, including the US, it is becoming less and less common to dispose of garbage

with substantial organic fractions in landfills, according to Kamala’s (2014) study. In some

European nations, such dumping methods are outright forbidden. Other methods have been

found because landfilling is not a desirable management option. One choice is to process

trash in a way that breaks down biodegradable materials and leaves behind residuals, or

inorganic waste, which can then be disposed of or put to good use. Waste materials can be

biodegraded by mechanical biological treatment (MBT), anaerobic digestion, or aerobic

composting. Anaerobic digestion or aerobic composting can be used to break down trash and

turn it into useable compost if the organic portion can be isolated from the inorganic material.

For instance, under regulated conditions, organic wastes with naturally decomposing bacteria,

such as food scraps, yard trash, and animal manure, can be turned into compost, which can

then be used as natural fertiliser. By arranging specific amounts of organic waste in piles,
rows, or vessels—either outdoors or in enclosed structures with gas collection and treatment

systems—aerobic composting can be achieved. In order to promote the aerobic breakdown of

organic materials, bulking agents like wood chips are added to the waste material during the

process. Lastly, during a curing procedure that also eliminates microorganisms, the substance

is let to stabilise and develop. Carbon dioxide, water, and the useable compost material are

the final products of the composting process. Applications for compost material are

numerous. Compost can be used to remediate soils, groundwater, and storm water in addition

to being a soil additive for plant culture. It can take a lot of work to compost, and effective

management of the composting process is crucial to the compost’s quality. Compost that is

unsuited for beneficial applications may arise from improper management of the working

conditions. Composting, however, is gaining popularity; in 2009, it diverted 82 million

tonnes of waste material from the landfill waste stream, up from 15 million tonnes in 1980.

Approximately 178 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide, or the annual carbon dioxide

emissions of 33 million cars, were also avoided in 2009 as a result of this diversion. Aerobic

procedures are not always practical. Anaerobic procedures can be used as a substitute.

Anaerobic digestion is the process of breaking down mixed or segregated organic waste in

anaerobic containers. Methane and carbon dioxide (biogas) and residuals (biosolids) are the

products of the anaerobic degradation process. While residuals can be used as soil

amendments and fertilisers, biogas can be used to generate power and heat. For wet wastes,

anaerobic digestion is the favoured degrading method; for dry wastes, composting is the

preferable method. The benefit of anaerobic digestion is the gathering of biogas, which

makes it a desirable substitute for landfill disposal of waste due to its later beneficial use.

Additionally, anaerobic digestion breaks down trash more quickly than landfill disposal. In

the US, mechanical biological treatment (MBT), another waste treatment option, is

uncommon. In Europe, though, this substitute is frequently utilised. When this technique is
used, trash is put through a series of mechanical and biological processes that break down the

waste’s organic components and reduce volume. The waste is prepared for further biological

treatment, which includes either aerobic composting or anaerobic digestion, by mechanical

processes like sorting, shredding, and crushing. The reduced waste material may be burned

after the biological activities are finished.

Incineration

It was discovered by Kamala (2014) that waste degradation might yield helpful energy

sources in addition to valuable solid end products (like compost). As was previously

mentioned, biogas produced by the anaerobic digestion of garbage can be recovered and used

to generate power. As an alternative, waste can be burned directly to generate energy.

Incineration is the process of burning garbage at extremely high temperatures in order to

generate electricity. Ash is an incineration by-product that needs to be properly characterised

before being disposed of or, in certain situations, used for advantageous purposes. Because

landfill area is limited, it is commonly used in wealthy nations. An estimated 130 million

tonnes of trash are burned each year in over 600 plants across 35 nations. Furthermore,

hazardous wastes like oils, solvents, pesticides, medical wastes, and chlorinated hydrocarbons

are frequently efficiently mitigated by cremation.

Landfill Disposal

According to a study by Kamala (2014), landfill disposal is still the most common way of

disposing of waste in the US, even with improvements in recycling and reuse. As was already

indicated, while the total capacity of landfills is declining, the rate of MSW generation is still

rising. Landfill disposal costs have significantly increased as a result of new rules pertaining
to appropriate garbage disposal and the deployment of cutting-edge liner systems to reduce

the possibility of groundwater pollution from leachate migration and infiltration.

Additionally, recollections of past uncontrolled dumping techniques, the unpleasant side

effects of unregulated vectors, tainted groundwater, unrestrained odours, and consequently

decreased property values have contributed to the growing public hostility to landfills.

2.2 Waste management problems

Lisa et al.’s study from 2021 also showed that. Only 10% of the 12,710 tonnes of solid

garbage produced everyday in Ghana are collected and dumped at approved locations. The

collection and disposal procedures, which are time-consuming and frequently inefficient,

present a significant obstacle to Ghana’s solid waste management. For local government

officials in Ghanaian cities, problems with appropriate solid waste disposal pose a significant

obstacle. The amount of rubbish produced every day frequently overwhelms waste

management firms and city officials. One factor contributing to the poor status of solid waste

management, especially by Ghanaian municipal authorities, is the absence of effective and

well-planned waste management policies. It is estimated that municipal administrations spend

between 50 and 70 percent of their budget on trash management and disposal. According to

reports, Ghanaian city officials spend over Gh6.7 million (US$ 3.45 million) a year on the

collecting and transportation of waste for disposal, and Gh550000.00 (US$ 0.28 million) a

month on landfill upkeep and waste contractor payments. An estimated $290 million, or 1.6%

of the nation's gross domestic product, is lost annually due to poor sanitation brought on by

careless trash disposal. Rapid urbanisation and population growth, a shortage of trash cans, a

lack of waste transportation systems, a lack of public awareness of the negative health effects

of improper waste management, and lax enforcement of environmental laws are the main

obstacles to Ghana’s solid waste management. Additionally, cluttering the streets, waterways,
and other public areas is a reflection of the inadequate solid waste management methods of

urban dwellers. The difficulties with solid waste management are further exacerbated by

waste company managers’ lack of technical expertise in appropriate solid waste management

procedures. Flooding and disease outbreaks may result from the careless or hazardous

discharge of solid waste into open drains and bodies of water. There are still issues with trash

management in many Ghanaian cities, even with the efforts of succeeding administrations,

such as the policy on private sector involvement in waste control and the empowering of

local government agencies to regulate waste management. There have also been reports of

additional difficulties, including a lack of equipment, inadequate waste infrastructure, and a

lack of operating capital to support waste management initiatives. According to Buade

(2016), the majority of cities are also characterised by uncollected waste in the streets and in

the corners of the city, careless solid waste disposal, clogged gutters that cause flooding,

stagnant water pools that provide a breeding ground for mosquitoes and the subsequent

prevalence of malaria, and contaminated water and the environment that lead to a number of

cholera outbreaks.

2.3 Perceptions and attitudes on the handling of solid waste in households

According to a study by Sulemana et al. (2015). In order to explain intention or behaviour

towards solid waste management, attitude has been found to be a key predictor, and the

relationship between the two is noteworthy (Ifegbesan, 2010; Kumar, 2012). Campaigns to

raise awareness and educate people about the detrimental effects of insufficient rubbish

collection on the environment and public health can have a positive impact on attitudes.

People should be taught about their rights as citizens to proper solid waste management

services as well as their responsibilities as garbage generators (Bernstein, 2004). According

to Vicente and Reis (2008), household involvement is positively impacted by attitudes on

garbage recycling. In Malaysia, attitudes were found to have a moderating effect on the

intention to recycle waste, according to empirical findings presented by Goh, Tong, and

Ahmed (2013). The design and execution of a municipal solid waste management system,

therefore, necessitate an examination of the attitudes, perceptions, and values of key players

as well as their current behaviour. The social and cultural circumstances have an impact on

the underlying attitudes of the urban populace. Programs designed to promote waste

management behaviour and attitudes or to spread information and skills are founded on a

solid grasp of the social and cultural traits of the populace.

2.4 Community Participation in Waste Management

Involving the community is essential to changing waste management procedures from

reactive to proactive. In addition to keeping neighbourhoods tidy, including locals in waste

collection, sorting, and recycling programs fosters a sense of accountability and community

ownership. According to research, trash diversion from landfills is higher in communities that

actively participate in waste management initiatives (Amoah & Kosoe, 2021). Programs like

recycling drives, community-led cleanup projects, and educational initiatives enable locals to

take proactive steps towards sustainable trash management.

However, obstacles like unequal access to resources and information make it difficult to

achieve broad community participation. While some communities suffer with inadequate

knowledge of the significance of proper trash disposal practices, others lack the infrastructure

necessary for waste collection and recycling. Targeted education campaigns, fair resource

distribution for trash management, and the development of collaborations between local

governments, corporations, and community organisations are all necessary to remove these

obstacles. Giving communities the ability to handle their own garbage enhances social
cohesiveness and local resilience in addition to improving environmental results. Through

cultivating a culture of sustainability and accountability, communities can work together to

lessen the environmental impact of cities.

2.5 Ghana’s solid waste management policy

2.5.1 Policy framework

Ghana's solid waste management policy framework was discovered in a 2010 national solid

waste management research. In general, the Ghana SWM policy framework is thorough,

forward-thinking, and in line with contemporary waste management and recovery techniques.

For instance, the Strategic National Energy Plan (2006) recommended the creation of a tariff

regime that would be supportive of renewable energy, such as through pyrolysis or

gasification, while the Draft National Plastics Management Policy (2018) suggests an

extended producer responsibility scheme for Ghana's plastic products and packaging

industries. Through the idea of materials in transition (MINT), which views waste as valuable

and envisions the various components being recovered as a secondary resource, the National

Environmental Sanitation Strategy and Action Plan encourages material recovery. However,

in the context of the evolving national policy environment, many MMDA actors and

authorities lack sufficient information. Generally speaking, the operational concerns of basic

waste collection, transportation, and disposal—without recovery—are the main focus of any

local government attention paid to SWM. Furthermore, there is frequently no funding

mechanism or allocation to support the deployment of progressive policy instruments.

Furthermore, different ministries have diverse policies, which makes it difficult to coordinate

their implementation or consistency. For instance, MESTI oversees the National Plastics

National Solid Waste Management strategy for Ghana 6 Management Policy, whereas

MLGRD, which was previously in charge of sanitation, issued the Environmental Sanitation

Policy. The Ministry of Energy is in charge of the Energy Plan (2006). Timelines for
important policy frameworks and papers that have significantly impacted solid waste

management are shown here. Laws and policies pertaining to solid waste management:

• Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Act (Act 917)- 2016

• Local Governance Act (Act 936)- 2016

• Draft Ghana Public Private Partnership Bill-2013

• Public Health Act (Act 851) Policies and strategies-2012

• Draft National Plastics Management Policy-2028

• Coordinated Programmed of Economic and Social Development Policies (2017–

2024)

• Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda, 2014–2017

• National Environmental Policy-2012

 • Strategic Environmental Sanitation Investment Plan 2011

• National PPP Policy-2011

• National Environmental Sanitation Strategy and Action Plan (2010– 2015)

• Revised Environmental Sanitation Policy (2010)

• Energy Plan-2016.

(Draft national solid waste management, 2010)

2.6 Regulation of waste management

Over the years, the government has implemented appropriate national policies, regulatory,

and institutional frameworks in an attempt to address the waste management issue. In 1999, a

policy for environmental sanitation was developed. As of right now, this policy has been

modified, and implementation strategies have been created. A number of pertinent laws

pertaining to waste management have also been passed. These consist of the following:

Local Government Act, 1990 (Act 462);

• Environmental Assessment Regulations, 1999 (LI 1652);

• Criminal Code, 1960 (Act

29);

• Water Resources Commission Act, 1996 (Act 522)

• Pesticides Control and Management Act, 1996 (Act 528);

• National Building Regulations, 1996 (LI 1630).2

The following waste management guidelines and standards have been created by the Ministry

of Environment, Science and Technology, the EPA, the Ministry of Local Government and

Rural Development, and the Ministry of Health in addition to the aforementioned laws and

policies:

National Environmental Quality Guidelines (1998)

• Ghana Landfill Guidelines (2002)

• Manual for the preparation of district waste management plans in Ghana (2002)

• Guidelines for the management of healthcare and veterinary waste in Ghana (2002)
• Handbook for the preparation of District level Environmental Sanitation Strategies and

Action Plans (DESSAPs).

The primary organisations in charge of trash and sanitation management at the local and

community levels are the District Assemblies. However, a number of other organisations and

institutions assist them in this endeavour. For instance, by establishing environmental

standards and guidelines for waste management, administering the Environmental

Assessment Regulations, conducting environmental education and awareness campaigns, and

keeping an eye on environmental quality, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

provides technical assistance to the District Assemblies. Existing operations must file

Environmental Management Plans in accordance with the Ghana Environmental Assessment

Regulations, 1999 (LI 1652).

To supervise the execution of the policy's goals, the Ministry of Local Government and Rural

Affairs has formed a National Environmental Sanitation Policy Coordination Council.

(Source: Draft Anku_SCD_Waste Mgt [1]).

2.7 Institutional roles in solid waste management

2.7.1 Ministry of sanitation and water resources (MSWR)

Ghana’s solid waste management governance structure is intricate and multi-layered, with

various national and sub-national entities handling distinct roles. The main line ministry in

charge of developing policies and setting strategic direction for the SWM sector is the

Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources. When MSWR was created in January 2017, it

was generally regarded as an indication of the government’s dedication to and emphasis on

the sanitation industry as a whole, which includes the handling of solid and liquid waste.
However, institutional complexities continue to exist even after MSWR was established (see

Box 2 below). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the SWM sector’s

overall environmental compliance, while MMDAs oversee and monitor service delivery on a

daily basis and Regional Coordinating Councils (RCCs) are in charge of coordination. The

Ministry of Works and Housing, MESTI, and MLGRD are additional ministries that are

directly and indirectly involved in SWM.

2.7.2 Local government

District, municipal, and metropolitan authorities have very different capacities. Waste

Management Departments (WMDs) are specifically designated in each of the six

metropolitan assembly. The Environmental Health and Sanitation Units (EHSUs) of the 109

municipal legislatures are responsible for trash management. Despite having more resources

than EHSUs, WMDs still have staffing levels below the Office of the Head of Local

Government Service’s (OHLGS) recommended levels. Generally speaking, SWM issues are

barely mentioned in passing in local government District Environmental Sanitation Strategy

and Action Plans (DESSAPs), and they hardly seldom, if ever, include measures of SWM

progress. The majority of annual plans do not include any plans for water management

services or infrastructure, but they do include some generalised elements on more general

environmental health issues, such as community participation and sensitisation, criminal

prosecution, and clean-ups initiatives. The existence and general dependence on the Youth

Employment Agency (YEA) and SIP contracts is one of the stated causes of this. The lack of

attention paid to SWM issues in MMDAs’ Medium-Term Development Plans (MTDPs) is

mirrored in DESSAPs. Public education is the only solid waste management activity that the

Tema Metropolitan Assembly has scheduled, according to a review of the 2018–2021

MTDPs of a few chosen MMDAs. Plans to improve logistical support for trash management,
waste recycling, and source separation are not mentioned. The SWM strategies and suggested

activities for the Shai-Osudoku District Assembly, Nanumba North Municipal Assembly, and

La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Assembly all emphasise software-related aspects of solid waste

collection and management at the expense of infrastructure provision, painting a similar

picture.

2.7.3 Private sector

Ghana's private sector primary garbage collection services differ in their function and setup.

Big cities like Kumasi and Accra offer more dynamic competitive situations, which

encourage innovation and the creation of smart governance models for both local government

and service providers. Other MMDAs don't typically exhibit this level of creativity and

dynamism.

Primary (door-to-door) collection: Formal, primary service supply is not adequately zoned

and governed by national and local authorities. The need for a registered and zoned service

provider to service every property in their respective zones is a fundamental tenet of efficient

municipal zoning for SWM service delivery. Ghana is not experiencing this. Ghana's

National Solid Waste Management Strategy 10.• Communal collection: Based on the skip per

population criteria applied, the analysis supplied under the SIP is dreadfully insufficient, and

none of the MMDAs meet the minimal level of services required by the NESSAP for

communal collection. In addition to families, small-scale service providers also have

concerns about the location, density, and state of transfer stations, in this case skips. Service

providers are more prone to engage in fly-tipping and crude dumping if they are not readily

located or are regularly filled, which can worsen environmental standards, the local economy,

and public health in general.

2.8 Solid waste’s effects on the environment and society

2.8.1 Introduction

Our environment has been negatively impacted by the rubbish that humans produce. Our

ecology can be impacted by improper waste management in a number of ways. Climate

crises, detrimental effects on wildlife, the environment, and public health are all possible

outcomes.

2.8.2 Effects of solid waste on urban population

Some effects of solid waste on the urban population were disclosed by the World Bank in

2018. Don’t waste and don’t desire. As local communities and world leaders alike

increasingly demand a remedy for the so-called “throwaway culture,” this proverb still holds

true today. Waste, however, is a problem that extends beyond people and homes and impacts

the environment, prosperity, and human health and lives. The poor and most vulnerable are

disproportionately impacted, as over 90% of rubbish is burned or openly disposed of in low-

income nations.

Homes and persons have been buried beneath rubbish heaps due to landslides in the past year.

Additionally, the poorest people frequently reside close to landfills and use rubbish pickers to

power their city's recycling system, making them vulnerable to major health consequences.

According to Sameh Wahba, World Bank Director for Urban and Territorial Development,

Disaster Risk Management and Resilience, "poorly managed waste is contaminating the

world's oceans, clogging drains and causing flooding, transmitting diseases, increasing

respiratory problems from burning, harming animals that consume waste unknowingly, and

affecting economic development, such as through tourism" (The World Bank, 2018).
Collection is the most popular way to dispose of solid trash (67.9%). One out of every

hundred families disposes of their solid trash carelessly, and approximately one in ten

households (11.3%) burn their solid garbage. Due to the disposal of liquid waste, over one-

fifth of homes dispose of their garbage on the streets (21.0%) and the compound (22.3%).

(Statistical Service of Ghana, 2010) The residents of Bukom are exposed to numerous

diseases, including cholera, as a result.

2.8.3 Effects of solid waste on the environment

The garbage that people produce has been harming our environment for a while, according to

a 2019 study by Austin et al. Too much rubbish is being produced by humans, and there is no

sustainable way to handle it. Waste that is not biodegradable and cannot be recycled correctly

is piling up in landfills and our oceans. Let’s use the example of plastic garbage. 6.3 billion

metric tonnes of plastic waste have been produced, according to a recent study. For example,

the Environmental Protection Agency estimated that 267.8 million tonnes of municipal solid

garbage were generated in the United States in 2017. It was a 5.7 million rise over 2015

levels. The quantity of garbage produced has a severe influence on wildlife and the

ecosystem, contributes to the escalating climate problem, and harms our own public health,

among other effects on the environment (Austin et al. 2019). Given that plastic is not

biodegradable, a study conducted in Madina by Ramatta (2010) indicates that the phenomena

of the rise in plastic garbage is probably going to have an impact on disposal. At the final

disposal locations, garbage is typically burned outdoors. Burning plastic garbage increases

the amount of harmful gases released into the environment, polluting the air and depleting the

ozone layer and its protective qualities, which raises the risk of cancer and other health

problems. Aside from that, assemblies and governments as a whole may suffer financial and

socioeconomic losses in their attempts to handle the vast amounts of plastic trash produced.
More than 77.9% of families produced plastic waste as part of their household waste,

according to studies by Azeez (2006). Additionally, it appears that practically all of the waste

produced at home is made of plastic.

2.9 Challenges faced by residents in practicing sustainable solid waste management

Residents have a number of major obstacles when it comes to sustainable solid waste

management, according to research by Amasuomo et al. (2015). One of the main challenges

is that many locals are unsure of correct disposal procedures due to a lack of knowledge on

where and how waste should be disposed of. Additionally, the cost of garbage and

environmental levies, which many view as an extra expense with no discernible benefits,

frequently contributes to the public’s reluctance to engage in sustainable waste management

initiatives.

The government’s and other stakeholders’ inadequate assistance, which includes a lack of

infrastructure, funds, and resources to promote efficient waste management techniques, is

another significant obstacle. Residents’ capacity to handle garbage sustainably is hampered

by this deficit. Furthermore, the issue is made worse by inadequate government policies that

do not provide clear laws and enforcement procedures or address the underlying causes of

waste mismanagement. When taken as a whole, these elements produce a structural obstacle

to sustainable waste management, making it challenging for locals to embrace eco-friendly

behaviours.

Additional difficulties, such poor garbage collection infrastructure and little community

involvement, exacerbate the problem and raise issues related to public health and

environmental damage.
3.0 Key lessons learnt from the literature review

By examining academic sources, a literature review provides a basis for comprehending the

state of knowledge for a given subject. According to Shona (2023), a literature review offers

a summary of current theories, research gaps, and approaches that can be used to guide and

inform a paper, thesis, or dissertation. Numerous strategies have been shown to be crucial in

tackling the problem of solid waste management in urban settings. This is in line with one of

the goals of the study, which is to determine solid waste management plans for Bukom.

According to Lisa et al. (2021), the research demonstrated that urbanisation and population

expansion are major factors in the difficulties in managing solid waste. Due to the increased

trash creation caused by these factors, the current waste management systems are under

tremendous strain. Additionally, the main obstacles to Ghanaian citizens’ involvement in

solid waste management have been identified. These factors include a lack of knowledge

about appropriate waste disposal locations and methods, public reluctance as a result of

environmental levies and waste disposal fees, insufficient government and stakeholder

support, and ineffective government policies (Amasuomo et al., 2015). In addition to

lowering public participation, these obstacles jeopardise initiatives to manage trash

sustainably in cities. Because of its detrimental effects on public health, inadequate waste

management in urban settings has also been emphasised as a crucial concern. Unmanaged

solid waste buildup can result in air pollution, water source contamination, and the spread of

disease vectors, all of which are major health hazards for urban dwellers. This emphasises

how vital it is to create and put into practice efficient waste management plans. The dearth of

research on the efficacy of community-led approaches for sustainable solid waste

management, however, is a significant gap in the literature. There is little evidence that

grassroots, community-driven approaches could help create durable solutions, despite the fact

that a large portion of research has focused on institutional and government-led programs.
This disparity offers a chance for more study to investigate how community empowerment

could boost involvement and enhance waste management results in cities like Bukom. Future

research could fill this knowledge gap and shed light on how community-led activities might

support current tactics and promote sustainable development.

Connection between the study and the literature review

The literature reviewed has helped me to identify some gaps in the literature that this study

seeks to fill and help in achieving my objective.