THINKING

Why study the nature of

thought?
To fully understand how we do any of the things we do (such as
learning, remembering, and behaving), we need to understand
how we think. How do we organize our thoughts? How do we
communicate those thoughts to others?
 WHAT IS THINKING?
Thinking refers to all the mental activity that goes on in the brain
when a person is organizing and attempting to understand
information and communicating it to others.
It is a process of manipulating information, as when we form concepts,
engage in problem-solving, reasoning and making decisions.
Thinking is a higher mental process, which involves verbal symbols,
internal, visual and auditory images, ideas, concepts and
mathematical symbols. It takes into account past experiences, future
possibilities and external realities as well.
Definition of Thinking

According to Lee Ross: “Thinking is mental activity in its cognitive aspect

or mental activity with regard to psychological objects.”

According to Gilmer: “Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we

use ideas or symbols in place of overt activity.”

According to Henry Garrett: “Thinking is a behavior which is often

implicit and hidden and in which symbol are ordinarily employed.

Thinking process

We think either in words or mental images. The symbols

that we use in thinking are often words and language and
therefore thinking and language are closely related.
Although language is a powerful tool in human thought, as
when we "talk to ourselves" internally, images are another
important type of symbol used in thinking.
IMAGES AND THINKING

Mental Imagery: Mental imagery are mental representation

that stand for objects or events and have a picture like
quality. It is a mental representation of stimuli that are not
presently perceived by the senses
IMAGES AND THINKING
Mental imagery is something people use everyday.
People can even mentally rotate or turn images in the
brain. Creating a mental image is almost opposite of
seeing an actual image.
If you close your eyes and mentally picture a beach
with white sand,blue waves, and palm tress swaying in
the breeze, you are engaging in mental imagery.
LANGUAGE AND
THINKING
For many people, much of the time, a good deal of
thinking involves the use of word symbols and the rules
of grammar to join the words into phrases and sentences.
when we think with language, we draw on this store of
information to use language a tool of thought.
Concepts and prototypes
Concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of objects,

events, or activities. Concepts not only contain the important

features of the objects or events people want to think about, but

also they allow the identification of new objects and events that

may fit the concept. The human ability to form concepts enables

us to classify things into categories. Example of concepts include

fruits, animals and so on.

Concepts can have very strict definition such as concept of

square. Such concepts are define by scientific rules or features

are called formal concepts. These are pretty rigid and clearly

defined.

Natural concepts are those that people form as a result of their

experiences in the real world. Such concepts are fuzzy. Natural

concepts are important in helping people understand their

surroundings in a less structured manner.

Example: The concepts of “birds” includes various

species like Sparrows, Eagles, and penguins. They share

common attributes like having feathers, wings, and

beaks. ‘Bird’ is a concept that allows us to categories

and understand these diverse creatures as a single

group
Prototype: It is an example of a concept that clearly
matches the defining characteristics of that concept.
Prototypes develop according to the exposure a person
has to objects in a particular category.
They serve as a mental reference points and help
individuals quickly recognize and identify members of a
category them to the prototype.
Example: In the concept of ‘fruit’, a prototype might be an
apple or a banana because these are typically associated
with the most common attributes of fruits(e.g., being
sweet, edible and growing on trees). When encountering
a less familiar fruit, like a dragon fruit people might
compare it to the prototype of an apple or banana to
determine if It fits the category of fruit.
 Types Of Thinking

1. Concrete Thinking :Concrete thinking is based on perception. It is

the process of interpretation of sensation according to one’s
experience. This kind of thinking is the simplest form of thinking.
For example, children perceiving objects and events. Example:
When you observe and describe the color, shape, and texture of an
object without delving into abstract or symbolic interpretations,
you are engaging in perceptual thinking.
 Types Of Thinking

2. Abstract Thinking: It does not require the perception

of actual objects or events. It is superior to perceptual
thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and
helps in discovery and invention. Language also plays a
major role in conceptual thinking.
3. Logical Thinking: It is also a higher type of thinking which usually
aims at problem solving. There is an insightful approach, which
accounts all the relevant facts before finding a solution of the
problem in hand.
4. Creative Thinking: It is aimed at creating something new. For
example, thinking of scientists, inventors, writers and artists, etc.
 5.Analogical thinking : Analogical thinking involves
drawing comparisons between two or more situations,
objects, or concepts to highlight similarities or differences. It
can be a powerful tool for problem-solving and creativity.

Example: When you use the analogy of "the human brain is

like a computer" to explain cognitive processes, you are
using analogical thinking to relate two different concepts.
 PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem: A problem is a situation

you want to change, a risk you want

to reduce or an opportunity you

want to seize.
 Problem solving
Problem solving is a mental process that involves discovering,
analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem
solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution to set things in
order.
Problem solving can also be viewed as the use of thought process to
overcome obstacle
 Problem solving
Problem solving is a process of
cognition that occurs when a goal
must be reached by thinking and
behaving in certain ways.
Problem solving an effort to
overcome obstacles obstructing
the path to a solution(Reed, 2000)
Stages In Problem Solving
Stages In Problem Solving
 Methods of Problem solving
Algorithms: Algorithms are
specific, step-by-step
procedures for solving certain
types of problems. Algorithms
will always result in a correct
solution, if there is a correct
solution to be found, and you
have enough time to find it.
Mathematical formulas are
algorithms.
This strategy is not always
practical for many situations
because it can be time
consuming.
Heuristic
A heuristic in psychology is a mental shortcut or rule of thumb
that simplifies decision-making and problem-solving. Heuristics
often speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution, but
they can also lead to cognitive biases.
Heuristics can be thought of as general cognitive frameworks
humans rely on regularly to reach a solution quickly.
They serve as quick mental references that are used for everyday
problems and experiences. With the help of these shortcut
techniques, the brain can make faster and efficient decisions
despite the consequences.
They serve as quick mental references that are used for
everyday problems and experiences. With the help of these
shortcut techniques, the brain can make faster and efficient
decisions despite the consequences.
Sometimes it may result in incorrect judgments or cognitive
biases. Thus It is important to be aware of what is
influencing our decisions in order to avoid potential
cognitive biases.
Trial and Error Method
Trial and error is a problem solving method in which
multiple attempts are made to reach a solution. It id a
basic method of learning that essentially all
organisms use to learn new behaviors.

Trial and error is trying a method, observing if it

works and if it does not trying a new method. This
process is repeated until success or solution is
reached. This method is useful only if we have limited
number of options available
Trial and Error Method

4x +2 =10

a)1
b) 3
c)5
d) 2
Insight

Insight is something that just occurs suddenly.

Researchers suggest that insight can occur if you
have dealt with similar problems in the past.

However, the underlying mental process that

lead to insight happen outside of awareness
Obstacles in Problem Solving

Problem solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of

different obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a
problem quickly and efficiently.
1. Mental set: Mental set is the tendency to solve problems using procedure
that worked before on similar problems. Mental set is the tendency to adopt
a certain framework, strategy, or procedure or, more generally, to see things
in a certain way instead of in other, equally plausible ways. Mental set
seems to be induced by even short amounts of practice.
When problem solvers have a mental set, they keep trying the same
solution they have used in previous problems, even though the problem
could be solved by a different, easier method. If one has a mental set, one
may close their mind prematurely, and stop thinking about how to solve a
problem effectively.
2. Functional Fixedness: Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that
drives people to use objects in traditional, standard way. It also
means that the functions or uses we assign to an object tend to
remain fixed or stable. As a result, we fail to think about the other
features of this object that might be useful in helping us solve a
problem.
3. Conformation bias: A
confirmation bias is cognitive
bias that favors information that
confirms your previously existing
beliefs or biases. Confirmation
biases impact how we gather
information but also influence
how we interpret and recall
information.
Decision Making

It is a cognitive process by which individuals or groups select a

course of actions or choose among different alternatives. It
involves evaluating available actions, considering potential
outcomes, and making a choice that aligns with ones goal,
preferences and values.
Decision making is a kind of problem solving in which we are
presented with several alternatives, among which we must
choose.
Decision Making

Decision-making process is of identifying and choosing

alternatives based on the values, preferences and belief of the
decision maker.
For some of the complex and important decisions, we are more
likely to invest a lot of time, research,effort and mental energy to
come at right conclusion.
Decision Making

Decision-making differs from other types of problem solving .In

decision making we already know the various solutions or
choices and one has to be selected.
Decision making is blend of thinking, deciding, and acting. It
deals with uncertainty as the outcome of each course of actions
is unknown.
• Different people use different strategies while making decisions, depending on
individuals differences. Maximizers are people who have a maximizing decision
making style and tend to examine as many options as possible.
• Satisficers are people who have a satisficing decision making style and tend to
settle for something that is satisfactory.
Add up the total number
of points. If your total is 65 or higher, you are in the “maximizer”
region of the scale.
If your total is 40 or lower, you are in the “satisficer” region of the
scale. Scores between 41 and 64 are in the intermediate region.
Nature of Decision-making process

1. Selective process: Decision-making is the process of selecting a

course of actions among many alternatives.
2. Dynamic process: While making a decision, it is crucial to consider
the time factor and existing environment, whenever a course of
action is taken .
3. Positive or Negative Impact: A course of action may either have a
positive or negative impact on an individual or any organization
Decision-making process

The typical phase or process of decision making involves the following

steps:
1. Setting the goals
2. Gathering Information or Making plans
3. Structuring the decision
4. Making a final choice
5.Evaluating
Methods of Decision-making

According to Patterson Grannry and Suitabler, there are 4 common

ways of making decisions:
• Command style decision making: It is also known as authoritan
type of decision making method, in this type a person take decision
on various issues without consulting anyone.
• Consultation: Consultation is the most common among all the
decision making style. For taking long term decision, under this
decision maker seeks input from others and consider them diligently,
but the eventual power of decision making is reserved with the
person
Methods of Decision-making

• Voting: Voting is considered one of the most democratic

techniques of decision making in management. During the
process the available options are brought to the notice of
member and each action is deliberated upon. Once the
discussion are complete the members vote in favor of the
option they find most suitable.
• Consensus: In consensus method everyone honestly agrees
with the one decision.
 Cognitive Errors in Decision Making

1. Heuristic: It is a mental shortcut that helps us in

taking a decision quickly by decreasing cognitive load
Even though these heuristics are very helpful in
making an everyday decision but, it is always not a
flawless process. Sometimes, it leads to an incorrect
decision. Following are some major types of heuristics/
mental shortcuts:
1. Availability Heuristics :This involves making
decisions based on the information that is readily
available in one’s mind. When an individual makes a
decision, they immediately refer to a number of
relevant examples. Since the relevant information is
readily available in their memory, they are more likely
to conclude that these outcomes are common.
Examples of the Availability Heuristic
Here are a few scenarios where this could play out in your day-to-day life.
After reading an article about lottery winners, you overestimate your
likelihood of winning the jackpot. You start spending more money than
you should each week on lottery tickets.
After seeing news reports about people losing their jobs, you might
start to believe that you are in danger of being laid off. You begin lying
awake in bed each night worrying that you are about to be fired.
After seeing news stories about high-profile child abductions, you
believe such tragedies are quite common. You refuse to let your
children play outside alone and never let them leave your sight.
2. Representative Heuristics: This involves making a decision based on
the comparison of the present situation and the most relevant mental
prototype.
❑ To arrive at subjective probabilities , we decide, whether the current
situation is similar to one we have encountered before and then we act
accordingly. In other words, we ask whether the current situation is a
representation, or instance, of something we have already experienced.
❑ For instance, an older woman sitting beside you at a train station may
remind you of your grandmother. You may immediately assume that
she may be kind, gentle, and trustworthy. People tend to believe in the
existing mental information since the traits match up to the
individual’s mental prototype.
3. Anchoring and adjustment :Anchoring and adjustment is a
heuristic people use. They begin with a first approximation, which is used
as an anchor. They then make an adjustment to that number on the basis
of additional information. Normally, people rely too heavily on the
anchor and the adjustment is too small so that the number is biased in
direction to the anchor .
Hind Sight Bias
Creativity: Creativity is a cognitive activity that results in a
new or novel way of viewing a problem or situation. This
definition does not restrict creative processes to utilitarian
acts, although the examples of creative people are almost
always drawn from some useful invention, writing, or theory
they have created.
Creative thinking can also be viewed as personal, imaginative
thinking which produces a new, novel and useful solution.
Here, the individual generates an original, unusual and
Nature of Creative
thinking

Several attempts have been made to develop tests that

will measure creativity in people . In one elaborate
study (Guilford, 1967), a battery of tests was constructed
and carefully analyzed. Out of this work came the
concepts of "convergent'' and "divergent thinking."
Creative thinking uses divergent thought and not convergent
thought.
Convergent
thinking
In convergent thinking a problem is seen as having only one
answer and all lines of thinking will lead or converge to that
answer.
It is concerned with a particular end result. The thinker
gathers information relevant to the problem and then
proceeds by using the problem solving rules to work out the
right solution. The result of convergent thinking is usually a
solution that has been previously arrived at by someone else
Divergent thinking
Divergent thinking is the reverse of convergent thinking.
Here a person starts at one point and comes up with
many different or divergent ideas and possibilities
based on that point.
The characteristic of divergent thinking is the variety of
thoughts involved. When thinking creatively, people
tend to think in a divergent manner, thus having many
varied thoughts about a problem.
 For example: What is a pencil used for?
Convergent thinking: Writing
Divergent thinking: Piercing a whole in paper, using a
weapon etc.
 Newell, Shaw and Simon (1963) have suggested four criteria
for creativity. One or more of these criteria must be satisfied
for an answer to be considered creative:
• It has novelty and usefulness, either for the individual or the
society.
• It demands that we reject ideas we had previously accepted
• It results from intense motivation and persistence.
• It comes from clarifying a problem that was originally vague.
Characteristics of creative thinkers

Although creative people are generally high in

intellectual ability as measured by standardized
intelligence tests, they are not necessarily in the very
highest brackets measured by these tests.
Many creative people are talented in some special way,
in music or mathematics for instance. In other words,
they have certain specific abilities that they can use in
their search for new ideas
 Characteristics of creative
thinkers
People who think creatively seem to have some personality
features in common:
They prefer complexity and some degree of apparent imbalance
in phenomena.
• They are more complex psychodynamically and have greater
personal scope.
• They are more independent in their judgments.
• They are more self-assertive and dominant.
• They reject suppression as a mechanism for the control of
impulse.
• Origence (a personality dimension) person high on this
dimension resists conventional approaches that have been
determined by others.
Creative
process
According to Graham Walls (1926), there are four main stages in
creativity:
1. Preparation: Formulating the
problem and making initial
attempts to solve it. This
stage prepares a person to
acquire. This stage prepares
individual to gain relevant
and necessary facts,
experience, and skills for the
task and to ask the right
question.
2. Incubation: Leaving the problem while considering other
things. In this stage one leaves the problem alone to develop
in the unconscious mind.
several hypotheses have been proposed about incubation
phase.
One suggestion is that the incubation period allows us to
recover from the fatigue associated with problem solving.
Also, interruption of an arduous task may allow us to forget
inappropriate approaches to a problem.
3. Illumination: Achieving insight to the problem. In this stage a person gets a
crucial idea or any sudden appearance or insight, when relaxing or dreaming.
Incubation does not always lead to illumination. When it does, however, the
sensation is unmistakable. Suddenly, the lightbulb is turned on.
The creative person may feel a rush of excitement as all the bits and pieces of
ideas fall into place. All of the pertinent ideas complement each other, and
irrelevant thoughts are discarded. The history of creative breakthroughs is replete
with examples of the illumination stage
4. Verification: Testing and/or carrying out the
solution. The person then tries to evaluate and verify the
ideas and solutions in this stage. It may result in some
modifications of the solution. In some cases, the person
may also need to go back to the first stage to gather or
generate more information about the problem, thus
more ‘preparation’ is required.
Aspect of Creativity:
According to Guilford (1950), creativity involves divergent thinking in
contrast to convergent thinking
one of the key aspects of creativity is divergent thinking. It consists of four
processes/aspects such as,

1) Fluency: refers to how rapidly the person comes up with ideas. It can be
in respect of words, ideas, expression or associations. For example, write
words containing a specified letter like p, ‘pot’, ‘hop’, ‘option’ etc. (word
fluency); tell the fluids that will burn (ideational fluency); and write
words similar in meaning (associational fluency)
2)Flexibility: refers to the ability to produce a large
variety of ideas such as thinking of varied uses of a
particular object, e.g., list the different ways of using a
rope or a newspaper. It also includes activities to make
objects, e.g., drawing specified objects using a set of
given figures.
3)Originality: refers to the uniqueness or novelty of
ideas. It is the ability to produce ideas that are unusual,
statistically infrequent and not obvious.

4)Elaboration : Involves the ability to develop and

describe an idea, such as, consequences of a hypothetical
event, e.g., what would happen if no sleep is required?.