History.L-3.

Delhi : 12TH TO 15TH Century

Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi became an important commercial centre.
Many rich Jaina merchants lived in the city and constructed several temples. Coins
called dehliwal were minted here and had a wide circulation. Transformation of Delhi
into a capital that controlled vast areas of the subcontinent started with the foundation of
the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century. The Delhi Sultans built many
cities in the area that we now know as Delhi.

Rulers of Delhi

Tarikh (singular) or tawarikh (plural) are important histories written in Persian, the administrative
language during the Delhi Sultans' rule. These histories were created by educated individuals like
secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers, who reported events and gave advice to rulers
about governance, emphasizing the need for just leadership. Key points to remember include: (1)
tawarikh authors mainly lived in cities, particularly Delhi, rather than villages. (2) They often wrote for
Sultans hoping for financial rewards. (3) They advised rulers to maintain an “ideal” social order
based on birthright and gender roles, though not everyone agreed with these ideas.

In 1236, Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan. Chronicler Minhaj-i Siraj noted that
she was more capable than her brothers, but his discomfort with having a female ruler reflected the
nobles’ dissatisfaction with her independent rule. In 1240, she was removed from the throne.

In the early 13th century, the Delhi Sultans controlled only fortified towns with garrisons, lacking real
authority over surrounding areas. They depended on trade, tribute, and plunder for resources, and
faced challenges in managing distant regions like Bengal and Sind due to rebellion and adverse
weather affecting communication. Mongol invasions and disobedient governors threatened the
Sultanate's survival. Consolidation happened during Ghiyasuddin Balban’s reign, while expansion
occurred under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. They initiated campaigns to strengthen
control of the hinterlands surrounding garrison towns, clearing forests and dispersing local peoples,
granting land to peasants to enhance agriculture. New fortresses were built to safeguard trade.

The second phase of expansion involved military campaigns into southern India, starting during
Alauddin Khalji's reign and continuing under Muhammad Tughluq. These expeditions brought back
valuable resources and extended the Sultanate's power across much of the subcontinent. The
Sultanate collected taxes and exercised judicial authority over the regions they controlled.

A mosque, called a masjid in Arabic, is where Muslims worship Allah. Congregational mosques
(masjid-i-jami) host collective prayers led by an imam chosen for his knowledge. During prayer,
Muslims face Mecca, which is west in India. The Delhi Sultans built numerous mosques across the
subcontinent to show their commitment to protecting Islam and its followers.

Consolidating a kingdom as large as the Delhi Sultanate needed dependable governors and
administrators. Early Sultans like Iltutmish favored loyal slaves for governance, rather than
aristocrats. The Khaljis and Tughluqs maintained this practice but also promoted individuals from
humble backgrounds to significant positions, leading to political instability. These loyal slaves often
did not remain loyal to successors, resulting in conflict during transitions of power. Critics
disapproved of favoring the “low and base-born. ”

Khalji and Tughluq rulers assigned military commanders as governors, known as muqtis,
responsible for military campaigns and maintaining law and order in specific areas (iqtas). They
collected revenue from these regions as a form of payment and had their position monitored to
prevent power from becoming hereditary. As the Delhi Sultans secured hinterlands, they forced local
aristocrats and landlords to accept their rule. Under Alauddin Khalji, the state took control of land
revenue assessments, curtailing the powers of local chieftains who had to pay taxes themselves.

There were three types of taxes imposed: (1) kharaj on cultivation, making up about 50% of the
peasants’ yield, (2) taxes on cattle, and (3) taxes on houses. Many areas remained outside the
Sultanate's control, with ongoing challenges in governing distant provinces like Bengal and southern
India. Local rulers established their authority in forested areas that the Sultanate could not easily
penetrate.

In 1219, Mongol forces led by Genghis Khan invaded, threatening the Delhi Sultanate shortly
thereafter. Attacks intensified during Alauddin Khalji and early Muhammad Tughluq’s reigns, forcing
both to maintain large standing armies in Delhi, complicating administration. Alauddin focused on
defense, whereas Muhammad Tughluq adopted an offensive approach against the Mongols.

From the 15th to the 16th century, the Tughluq, Sayyid, and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and
Agra, with various regions like Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, and others obtaining independence. These
areas saw new ruling groups emerge, such as the Afghans and Rajputs. Sher Shah Sur, who began
his career under the Mughals, defeated Emperor Humayun and established his own dynasty,
bringing efficient administration practices from Alauddin Khalji. His system served as a model for
Mughal Emperor Akbar's later consolidation efforts.

Q1Why were the Delhi Sultans famous?

Q2Who was Alauddin Khilji?

Q3What is Delhi famous for?