EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEFINITIONS

Psychology is the study of behaviour both of humans and non-humans. This behaviour can be
external (overt) or can be internal (covert). Internal behaviour is not easy to observe and
therefore not easy to measure. External behaviour is easy to observe and therefore easy to
measure. The following are examples of internal behaviour; thinking processes or thought
processes which are also known as cognitive processes. Emotions are also an example of internal
behaviour and dreams as well. The following are examples of external behaviour: walking,
writing, jumping, sitting and so on The examples are plenty

- A perspective is a point of view. It is a position from which one tries to understand, analyse,
examine or interpret something. Psychologists do not agree on how best to study and examine or
analyse human behaviour. Therefore psychologists take different perspectives in trying to
understand human behaviour.

-The following are perspectives in Psychology.

1. BEHAVIOURISM

2. COGNITISM OR COGNITIVISM

3. NATIVISM

4. PSYCHODYNAMISM

5. HUMANISM. These are the perspectives which are in your BTTC TOE Syllabus

- Education can be defined as the process of socialising an individual into the norms, values and
beliefs of society so that the individual becomes a functional member of society. Education
involves the transmission and acquisition of knowledge and skills. The transmission is done by
more experienced members of society such as teachers and the acquisition is done by less
experienced members of society such as pupils. Education can be defined as the the process of
socialising the individual into the culture of society. It involves socialising the individual into the
ways of living of society. Therefore, educational psychology is the application of psychology to
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education. It is the study of human behaviour within educational situations such as in schools and
classrooms.

- BEHAVIORISM

- Behaviourist psyhologists go further by suggesting that there is good stimulus which brings
about good or pleasant experiences when humans encounter the stimulus such that they want to
encounter the stimulus again or over and over again. Such stimulus acts as a form of
reinforcement on our behaviour as humans.

-Behaviourists therefore suggest that any behaviour that undergoes some form of reinforcement
is likely to happen again, occur again or recur.

- Psychologists who belong to this perspective emphasize that the environment in which the
individual is located at any given time determines the behaviour of the individual to a large
extent.

- They suggest that there is stimulus in the environment and individuals respond to this stimulus
when they encounter the stimulus. The response that is made by individuals or humans to
stimulus is the very behaviour. This is known as S-R MODEL of behaviour.

- But there is bad stimulus in the environment which brings about unpleasant experiences when
we encounter it.

-The unpleasant experience acts as some of punishment. Behaviourist psychologists conclude

that any behaviour that undergoes punishment is likely to become extinct. Extinction is another
concept of behaviourism.

- Reinforcement and Punishment result in conditioning of behaviour. In other words,

conditioning is when people are made to get used to behaving in certain ways either to get
reinforcement (rewards) or to avoid punishment.

- Behaviorism is associated with the term NURTURE and some of the famous behaviourists are
Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner. The two have written on behaviourist theories of learning.

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Pavlov's theory is known as CLASSICAL CONDITIONING and Skinner's theory is known as
OPERANT CONDITIONING.

- Cognists do not deny the existence or presence of stimulus in the environment but there
argument is that humans even animals think first before responding to stimulus.

- Therefore, it is the mind that ultimately decides on the response hence it is the mind that
ultimately determines how the human being is going to behave.

-So to cognitive psychologists the mind plays a greater role than stimulus in the environment in
deciding how a human being behaves. The term cogntion refers to thoughts. It refers to the mind
and how it processes information, experiences and events.

- Cognitive psychologists go further by explaining that the capacity and capability of the mind to
process information or to understanding information depends on the age of the individual and
under normal circumstances age determines stage of biological growth or stage of biological
maturation.

-That is why all theories that fall under the cognitive perspective have stages that represent
different age groups.

-Cognitists suggest that children of different age groups think differently hence they behave
differently.

- This perspective came about as a reaction to behaviourism. Psychologists in this perspective

argue that behaviourism treats humans as if they have no minds.

-Cognists argue that behaviourist psychologists seem to assume that all that humans do is to
respond to stimulus without thinking as if they are machines which operate or function
mechanically

- Some of the famous cognitive psychologists are Jean Piaget who has a theory of cognitive
development.

-This theory has 4 stages namely;

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-1. sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)

- 2. preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)

-3. concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years) and

- 4. formal operational stage ( 12 years and above).

-We shall do this theory in detail in future lessons.

-There is Jerome Bruner whose theory of cognitive development has 3 stages namely;

-1. enactive stage

-2. iconic stage and

3. symbolic stage.

-Another theory that you are going to study under this perspective is Lawrence Kohlberg's theory
of moral development which has three levels that represent different age groups.

NATIVISM

- Psychologists who belong to Nativism argue that human behaviour is largely influenced by
the genes that we inherit from our biological parents during the process of reproduction.

-These genes determine our physical features, i.e. how we appear externally and also determine
our psychological characteristics. i.e. our behaviours

- Genes are located in what are known as chromosmes. When a child is conceived during
prenatal development, he or she receives 23 chromosmes from each parent, which means that a
normal individual has 46 chromosmes or 23 pairs of chromosmes.

-These chromosmes are found in pairs. There is a pair for skin complexion, a pair for height, a
pair for weight, a pair for colour of eyes and so on.

-But these genes which are in these chromosmes also influence and detrmine our behaviours as
well.

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- Natists psychologists have done research studies using

1. identical twins who are also known as monozygotic twins

2. fraternal twins or unidentical twins or dizygotic twins

3. biological parents and their biological children and adopted parents and their adopted children.
They have these research studies to prove the influence of genes in dtermining human physical
and psychological (behavioral) characteristics.

-These genes are believed to influence such characteristics as intelligence, talent and so on.
Genetic abnormalities also result in such conditions as Down's syndrome and albinism. The
sexual identity of the child or of the individual is determined genetically.

-So genes play a dominant role in who we are ultimately as individual therefore genes play a
greater role in determining human behaviour according to the nativist perspective. Its not the
environment as behaviourists argue and its not the mind and age as cognitists argue.

- Fraternal twins are 50% similar and 50% different genetically because these are two individuals
formed by two different eggs and two different sperms. These fraternal twins are 50% similar
and 50% different physically.

-They are also 50& similar and 50% different psychologically (behaviour-wise) because of the
genes they have. Fraternal twins are not different from ordinary brothers and brothers or sisters
and sisters. Their uniqueness is only that they are conceived at the same time and born at the
same time.

- Through these research experiments nativist psychologists have proved that identical twins are
99,99% similar physically and psychologically because they are formed by one egg and a one
sperm which split into two equal halves resulting in two identical individuals being formed.
Identical twins look the same and they behave the same because they almost 100% genetically
the same. Even their performance at school is the same.

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: Studies of biological parents and their bilogical children have shown the power of genes
because biological children share their parents' genes from their physical appearance to their
behaviors

- If one parent has a disease that can be genetically passed such as asthma their are 50% chances
that one or more of their children can also be asthmatic. This shows the power of genes in
determining our biological make up and our behaviour as well according to the nativists.

- Nativists have also shown that adopted parents and their adopted children have no biological or
genetic relationship and as such they dont look the same physically neither do they have any
natural behavioural similarities.

-The simple reason is that they are not biologically or genetically related. This again shows
therefore that genes have a powerful role in determining who we are psychologically and
behavior-wise.

- The names of some of the early nativist psychologists are Chomsky, Travers and Lennenberg.

- I want you to think about the educational implications or applicability to teaching and learning
of the perspectives that we have done so far

- The nativist perspective is also identified by the following terms:

NATURE, HEREDITY, GENETIC INHERITANCE, INBORN AND INNATE.

PSYCHODYNAMISM

- The following are assumptions of the psychodynamic perspective.:

1. Early childhood experiences significantly determine or influence behaviour and hence

influence personality even later in life. Early childhood is the period between birth and 5 years.
2. The mind of the individual is divided into 3 levels.

- a). the conscious mind which is concerned with the here and now of mental awareness.

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-b). the subconscious or preconscious mind which has thoughts and experiences which if they are
given enough attention can come into the conscious. These are experiences which are often
described as being at the back of the mind.

3). The there is the unconscious mind which has experiences that seem forgotten yet they exist
in the mind. These experiences later on reveal themselves through making the individual to
behave in abnormal ways or ways that are strange and novel. Some of the experiences in the
unconscious mind are from early childhood according to Freud.

-The behaviour of the individual becomes more abnormal if the early childhood experiences
were full of emotional conflict and stress. Freud argues that the unconscious mind influences
behaviour more than the conscious mind and subconscious mind

- The father of psychodynamism is Sigmund Freud who wrote a theory on personality

development. This perspective, particularly Freud's theory on personality, belongs to abnormal
psychology.

-The fourth assumption of psychodynamism is that human sexuality plays a significant role in
human behviour and hence on personality. However, Freud defined sexuality in a broad and
complex way.

[7/11, 7:45 PM] +263 77 340 2913: The other assumption of the psychodynamic perspective is
that every individual human being is neurotic. This means every person engages in abnormal
behaviour time and again, here and there. This abnormality could be a result of early childhood
experiences that may have been unpleasant and may have caused emotional stress and conflict.
Freud made this assumption because he was a psychiatrist who treated patients with psychiatric
challenges. He himself also had abnormalities in his personality as reflected in his sexual
orientation as it is widely known that he was gay.

- Another name that is associated with psychodynamism is Erik Erikson who also wrote a theory
on personality. His theory is known as the psychosocial theory of personality development.

- The next and last perspective we shall cover is Humanism. It rejects all the assumptions of
psychodynamism

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- Like i said in the previous lesson, Humanism emerged as a reaction to Psychodynamism

HUMANISM

- The following are assumptions of Humanism

1. While childhood experiences may have influence on our behaviours and personality, they
alone cannot account for all our behaviours and personality later in life. Humanist psychologists
argue that all our experiences throughout all the stages of our lifespan play a part in determining
our behaviours and hence our personality.

-Therefore. Humanism rejects the psychodynamic assumption that only childhood experiences
play a significant role in determining our behavior and personality.

- The fathers of Humanism are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. We are interested in Maslow
because his theory of needs is in our syllabus

- 2. The conscious mind determines our behaviours and personality. Every human being acts
consciously as he or she goes about trying to achieve the kind of person they want to become in
life.

-This is the humanistic concept of SELF-ACTUALISATION. Humanist psychologists argue tat

every human being is unique and consciously knows what they want to be and become in life. It
is this conscious awareness of the self and the individual's intended goals and motives in life
which influence the behaviour and personality of each person.

- Therefore, Humanists reject the psychodynamic assumption that experiences in the unconscious
mind play a greater role in determining the behaviour and personality of every individual. person

- 3. The third assumption of humanism therefore is that every person is normal, not neurotic
(abnormal) as the psychodynamists would want us to believe. Since every person is influenced
by the conscious mind, it means every person is normal and knows who they are and who they
want to become in life.

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- Humanism derives its name from the word HUMAN. It emphasizes the unique aspects of us as
human beings who are conscious and mindful (cognisant or mentally aware) of what we want in
life and who we want to become as persons.

-Humanism also looks at human behaviour and personality as dominated and influenced by
emotional aspects (affective aspects). These are aspects that define and identify each person as a
human being hence the term HUMANISM.

- Humanism belongs to normal psychology not abnormal psychology of Freud and

psychodynamism.

- 4. The fourth assumption of Humanism is that while cognitive aspects are important in the
growth and development of each person, affective or emotonal aspects are also important.

-The emotional aspects of human growth and development are taken care of by providing the
individual with physical and psychological needs that each human being requires as a person for
them to be motivated to reach their full potential in life (self-actualisation.) Physical needs
according to Maslow are the survival needs that our biological bodies need to survive eg water,
food, warmth, oxygen. And then we as humans also have psychological needs which are mainly
emotion-based.

-These take care of our affective needs (emotional needs) eg love and belonging, self-esteem
needs. If these emotional needs are satisfied, we can be motivated to be and become who we
want as individuals; each human person can self-actualise. The emotonal needs are sometimes
referred to as psychological needs.

-Our perspectives are done. What is now important is to analyse or examine or critique their
applicability to teaching and learning especially at secondary school in particular and to
education in general.

APPLICABILITY & RELEVANCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES TO

TEACHING & LEARNING

-All the various materials and equipment that teachers and learners use in the various subjects
represent stimuli. Therefore, the right stimulus must be used for the right subject and for the right
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lesson so that effective teaching and learning can take place; so that learners can grasp the
intended concepts

- BEHAVIOURISM AND ITS APPLICABILITY TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

- The media, materials and equipment that teachers use must motivate learners towards learning.
The media should make learners curious. This means the media should function as some form of
reinforcement to learners' desire to learn. Remember, any behaviour that is reinforced is likely to
happen again. So, if the media stimulated learners, it means learners will be conditioned to want
to learn.

- The presence of parents and their cooperation with teachers can function as reinforcement to
teaching and learning as both learners and teachers feel acknowledged by parents of the good
work they are doing. When parents attend consultation days, sports events and important school
ocassions, teachers and learners experience reinforcement

- Behaviourism implies that teachers must create the appropriate environments in the school and
classrooms that will promote and facilitate teaching and learning. They may do so by using a a
variety of stimuli in the teaching and learning situation.

-Teachers can use a variety of media in the various subjects that are found in the school
curriculum. This media should solicit the response of pupils and as they respond to this media
pupils are likely to learn something in line with the teaching/learning objectives of the lesson.
This is in line with the behaviourist S-R Model of behaviour. If teachers introduce certain media,
pupils will respond and this will facilitate effective teaching and learning in and outside school
classrooms.

- Behaviourism also implies that teachers use other forms of reinforcement to promote teaching
and learning eg verbal and non-verbal reinforcement. A simple comment such as 'good' from the
teacher will go a long way in motivating learners towards learning.

-Non-verbal language (symbolic language) such as a facial expression of acknowledgement of

learners' performance of the desired behaviour can function as reinforcement. The prizes that are
given to learners for good performance in class or in any activities in the school curriculum all

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function as reinforcemnt and this shows that behaviourism is applicable to teaching and learning
in many relevant ways.

- Likewise, teachers can use various forms of punishment to discourage undesired behaviours
among learners. Remember, behaviourism says any behaviour that is punished is likely to
become extinct.

-Any undesired behaviour that solicits punishment is likely to undergo extinction. So, teachers
must use various forms of punishment to discourage the occurrence of undesired behaviours
which may disturb teaching and learning. Punishment does not necessarily mean beating. If
pupils dont do homework, they can be detained when others are going home so that they do their
work.

-There are various forms of punishment that can be used by teachers eg teachers can withdraw
certain privileges from pupils who may have misbehaved by taking advantage of the privileges
they are granted in the school. Prefects may misbehave and they are demoted from being
prefects.

-This shows that behaviourism is applicable and relevant to teaching and learning in various
ways. Through punishment and reinforcement, teachers can condition learners to behave in
certain ways in order to facilitate effective teaching and learning.

- Learners will behave in such a way that they are rewarded and avoid bad behaviour so that they
are not punished. By so doing, pupils will become conditioned to behave in the desired ways. If
learners come to school late they are punished. If they dodge lessons they are punished. If they
steal they should be punished. If they bully other learners they should be punished. If they
disrespect teachers they should be punished.

- Punishment can also be verbal and non-verbal. A simple verbal warning during a lesson can be
a form of punishment. A stern look by the teacher to learners who may not be paying attention
during the lesson can be a form of punishment.

- Suspension from school can be a form of punishment. Calling out names at assembly of pupils
who may have misbehaved during the previous sports day is a form of punishment.

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- Calling parents of misbehaving pupils to school is a form of punishment to the misbehaving
pupils. Bringing pupils into a disciplinary hearing in the school is a form of punishment

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE & ITS APPLICABILITY TO TEACHING & LEARNING

- The cognitive perspective informs teachers that they must use different pedagogical approaches
for juniour secondary school learners (Form 1 & 2), middle secondary school learners (Form 3 &
4) and different teaching methods for high school students (Form 5 & 6) because these learners
are at different stages of cognitive development. The same applies to primary school teachers.
They must use different teaching methods for the different grades in school namely Grades 1 to
2, Grades 3 to 5 and Grades 6 to 7.

Teachers must consider that learners do not just respond to stimulus without thinking. Pupils are
thinking beings through use of their minds. Therefore, teachers must consider the level of
cognitive development of learners when they scheme, plan and deliver lessons. Teaching and
learning entail that teachers must consider the age group of learners for them to determine the
teaching (pedagogical) methods/approaches they must implement in each class. The age group or
level of cognitive development of pupils also gives teachers an idea of the depth of content that
must taught to learners

- Teachers must understand how learners of different age groups think by giving them the chance
to explain their ideas or explaining the answers they would have given to teachers' questions. By
so doing, teachers will have an idea of pupils' reasoning so that teachers will figure out how best
to make learners understand concepts that are being taught.

APPLICABILITY OF NATIVISM TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

- Teachers must understand that learners have individual differences that are physical and
psychological as a result of heredity. Learners look differently in their physical features which
include skin colour. eye colour, type of hair, weight and height as result of genetic inheritance.
This means teachers should know that their classes can be made up of learners who come from
different racial backgrounds.

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-Therefore, teachers should treat all learners equally and fairly regardless of learners physical
appearance. Some learners may have albinism and teachers should be prepared to embrace all
learners without showing any form of discrimination.

-Nativism is applicable to teaching and learning because some learners are born very intelligent
and fast, while others are average and some are slow. Teachers should understand this and be
able to assist each category of learners without any bias or misgiving.

-Fast learners can be given more work (extension work) while slow learners can be given
remedials. This is a result of genetic inheritance.

- Since the sex of a child is determined genetically, teachers must appreciate and assist all male
and female learners without showing preference towards either sex because pupils do not choose
their se x before birth, it is something that is determined genetically or naturally.

- We often hear cases of teachers who show preference for either boys or girls. Such teachers
should know and understand that all learners are equal and therefore must be treated as such.
Even when it comes to subject choice or allocation at secondary school, teachers must allow
learners to choose subjects independently without any gender determined subject choices.

- Also, Nativism is applicable to teaching and learning when it comes to special needs education
arising out of such genetic abnormalities as Down's Syndrome. Genetic disorders necessitate the
practice of special needs education and inclusive education.

-This means that teachers will have to train and specialise in special needs and inclusive
education. Therefore, from this point of view, one may assert that Nativism is applicable to
teaching and learning.

-Nativism also informs teachers that there are certain learners who are born with certain
genetically inherited diseases such as asthma, diabetes, epilepsy and cancer.

-Such knowledge empowers teachers to understand how such diseases come about and how such
learners should be assisted unconditionally without any form of discrimination. This shows that
Nativism is applicable to teaching and learning.

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-Nativism also informs teachers that some learners are born as monozygotic twins as a result of
genetics. Therefore, teachers should not try to separate such learners during lessons because
these are learners are very close to each other.

-Even when it comes to sitting arrangements in the classroom monozygotic twins may want to sit
near each other of together. The similarities they may have concerning their likes and dislikes in
the school curriculum should be respected by teachers and school authorities. This shows that
Nativism is applicable to teaching and learning in various relevant ways

- Teachers must know that some the abnormal behaviours that are performed by learners could
be a result of early childhood experiences that may have been unpleasant. These early childhood
unpleasant experiences may have caused emotional conflict and stayed in the Unconscious mind
and begin to cause abnormal behaviours among pupils

- APPLICABILITY OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE TO TEACHING &

LEARNING

-Teachers should provide guidance and counselling to such pupils instead of waging a war
against such pupils. Pupils may engage in abnormal behaviours such as bullying, social
withdrawal, noise making, going to the loo too frequently, poor relations with authority such as
teachers and prefects, homosexuality, thumb, sucking, recklessness, substance abuse, showing
various types of phobias such as fear of colour red, spiders, fear of heights, hydrophobia and
many types of anxiety disorder

- Teachers must keep the social records of their pupils including family background so that they
may be aware of possible causes behind pupils" abnormal behaviours. This may enable teachers
and parents/guardians to work closely in order to assist pupils who show abnormal behaviours.
This will bring the school and the home closer to each other for the benefit of the pupils and all
learners

-Since Psychodynamism suggests that human sexuality plays a significant role in influencing
behaviour, it is important for teachers to guide and counsel pupils especially adolescent pupils on
matters to do with sexuality. Teachers should counsel adolescent pupils to delay engaging or

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indulging in sexual activities. This will protect pupils from unwanted pregnancies and sexually
transmitted infections.

-Teachers should know that every pupil is unique and should be treated as such. Teachers should
not compare pupils because every pupil is unique and an individual human being.

APPLICABILITY OF THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE TO TEACHING &

LEARNING

- Teachers should know that the affctive domain is as important as the cognitive domain in
teaching and learning. The emotions of pupils are as important as their minds in the teaching and
learning process.

-Therefore teachers must ensure the emotional we being of their learners through treating them
well and abuse them. Teachers must ensure that learners" physical and psychological needs
should be provided so that learners can pursue their learning goals and be able to self actualise
by becoming who they want to be and become in life

- Teachers must know that each pupil is normal and consciously acts and behaves towards self
actualization. Teachers must allow pupils to pursue subjects of their own interest because each
pupil has a motive in his or her actions and behaviours as each pupil strives towards self
actualization.

- Humanism is applicable to teaching and learning in the sense that it says that pupils' needs
such as safety and security, love and belonging and self-esteem must be provided

- Here are examples of past exam questions:

1) COMPARE AND CONTRAST BEHAVIOURISM AND COGNITISM. 2). CRITIQUE THE

PSYCHODYNAMIC VIEW OF BEHAVIOUR.

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SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

- There are several perspectives in sociology. This means that sociologists do not agree on how
best to study society and the human interaction that goes on in society.

1). Functionalism

2). Marxism, also known as the Conflict perspective

3). Symbolic Interactionism also simply known as Interactionism

4). Feminism

- Definition of Sociology: It is a discipline that is interested in the study of society, social

institutions and the human interaction that goes on in them. Sociology is a social science.
Sociology is interested in studying society from macro and micro points of view.

- Functinalism is a macro perspective. It is also described as a structuralist perspective. It is

described as such because it tries to understand society by focusing on the various social
structures or social institutions that make up society. It tries to understand society from a large-
scale point of view. By large-scale point of view it means functionalism focuses on the structures
that make up society and how these structures relate to each other

- One of the founders of functionalism is Emile Durkheim, a French Sociologist of the 19th
century. Functionalism says that society is like an organism. Society is analogous to an organism
eg society is similar to the body of a human being. The body of an organism is made up of
organs, that is why it is called an organism. Each organ or part of the organism performs a
certain function so that the whole body/organism remains functional. If one organ/part of the
organism fails to function properly, all the other organs are affected and the whole
body/organism fails to function properly. The whole body/organism becomes dysfunctional.

FUNCTIONALISM

- Likewise, society is made up of organs. These organs or parts are the social institutions or
social structures that make up society. The following are some of the social institutions that make
up society: education (schools, colleges & universities), health (clinics & hospitals), judiciary
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(courts of law), government (parliament, cabinet & presidium), security (police, prisons &
army), religion (churches & synagogues), family, the mass media (social media & newspapers)
and the economy (farms, mines, factories, banks, etc).

- Imagine the heart of a human being fails to function properly. All the other parts such as
kidneys, liver, lungs, the brain and many other parts are affected and they also become
dysfunctional which means they will not function properly resulting in the whole body becoming
dysfunctional.

-If one of these social institutions fails to function properly, then the other social institutions are
also affected resulting in the whole society becoming dysfunctional. Imagine that the economy is
not functioning properly, all the other social institutions are affected negatively and the whole
society is affected negatively resulting in the society becoming dysfunctional. For example, if the
economy is not functioning properly, education is affected, health too, the judiciary, even the
family is affected and there will be an increase in divorce rate or gender-based violence, spouses
will be separated as some leave for greener pastures overseas like in the case of Zimbabwe, there
will be corruption in courts of law as shown by too much bribery, clinics and hospitals will not
have equipment and drugs, there will be brain-drain as nurses and doctors leave to other
countries, even teachers too and so on. As such the whole society will not function properly

- Functionalism goes further by suggesting that the social institutions that are found in society
are governed by the same norms, values and beliefs. This means that the social institutions that
make up society are governed by the same culture. These norms, values and beliefs have been
agreed upon by the whole society through what functionalists call VALUE CONSENSUS. A
consensus is an agreement by all people in a society.

- Here are some examples of the norms that are found in many of society's social institutions: in
the family children are taught that do not steal, the same norm is taught in other social
institutions such as the school, the work place, in church, in economic institutions such as the
bank, in judiciary institutions such as the courts and in many other social institutions.

- Another example of a social norm that governs many social institutions is the practice of
putting on uniforms: at school pupils put on uniforms, at the work place too such as in the bank,
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in the factory workers put on work suits which reflect their rank, retail stores such as OK and
TM, in the police and army officers put on uniforms, judges, magistrates and even lawyers have
a special kind of dressing that they put on, even at church some put on uniforms and in many
other social institutions.

- Another example of a norm that we follow in the case of social institutions in Zimbabwe is the
use of English as the official language of communication. In school, in government offices, in
clinics and hospitals, in the police force, in economic institutions such as banks we use English
as the official language of communication because this what we have agreed upon as a society
through value consensus. This enables these various social institutions to interact and
communicate and make society functional

-The norms, values and beliefs that are agreed upon by the whole society are known as
FUNCTIONAL PREREQUISITES. This means that these norms, values and beliefs should be in
place for society to become functional.

-So, if you try to analyse or examine an institution such as a school or a college from a
functionalist point of view, you look at the various departments or sections that make up the
school or the college. In the case of BTTC you look at the departments and sections that make up
the college and how these sections interact with each other to make the college functional. For
example, at BTTC we have the admin section, the Human Resources section, TOE & PS
sections, TP section, all Technical/Vocational sections which include TTD, FTD, BTD, TG,
MTD, WTD, PES, Hostels section, DH section, Grounds section, Security section and so on.
Each of these sections plays a functional role to make the whole college functional as a society
or as an organisation or as a social institution.

- If one section fails to function properly, all the other sections will be affected too resulting in
the whole college becoming dysfunctional. For example, imagine if the Hostels section of
workers who clean the hostels, bathrooms and our rooms of convenience (toilets) and sweep our
classrooms and corridors in the whole college do not do their work properly, the whole college
will be affected as we may all get ill from the unhygenic conditions in the college.

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-All sections will become dysfunctional. Functionalism is called a macro perspective in
sociology because it looks at the structures or institutions of society and how they interact to
make society functional. Functionalism is not interested in the individual -to-individual human
interaction that goes on in society (micro perspective) but is interested in the structures of society
mainly and how they function to make the whole society functional as an entity.

-: Still on the example of BTTC as a society, one may also apply the functionalist concept of
VALUE CONSENSUS. If you look at the various college sections mentioned above, one may
suggest that they are all guided by value consensus. All the sections are guided by the same
professional codes and ethics, that is they are guided by the same norms, values and beliefs they
have agreed upon eg punctuality, code of conduct, doing lectures, giving assignments to
students, payment of fees by all students and many other norms. These norms represent the
culture of the college as a society at its own institutional level and these norms have been agreed
upon. It enables the college to be functional.

-Our next lesson will be on the functionalist views on the role of education in society. Please
read these notes and try to understand them. Questions and additions are most welcome. I will be
ready to clarify.

-Please read these notes and ask questions and make contributions. I will be ready to clarify any
areas that may not be clear.

THE FUNCTIONALIST VIEW OF EDUCATION

-Functionalist are of the view that education (schools, colleges and universities) plays the role of
socialising the individual into the norms, values and beliefs of society. Education socialises
children, pupils and students into the culture of society.

-Education plays the role of socialising children, pupils and students into the ways of living of
society. Therefore, education plays a functional role as one of the organs of society. All the
individuals who go to work in all the other social institutions or organs of society come through
education. Therefore, education plays a significant functional role of supplying all the other
organs of society with the required manpower or workforce.

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- Therefore education does what functionalists call ROLE SELECTION AND ROLE
ALLOCATION. This concept of role selection and role allocation means that education selects
learners into different careers. This role selection and role allocation results in the division and
specialisation of labour. The school curriculum offers learners the opportunity to prove what they
are good at. The school curriculum offers a variety of subjects or activities. As learners enter the
school system and rise within it they end up specialising in certain subjects. These subjects they
specialise in become the career or the job of the learner. That is the concept of role selection and
role allocation which shows that education plays a functional role.

- Education is a selection from culture. This means education teaches learners the ways of living
of society. Education prepares learners to play their functional roles in society. That is the role
selection and role allocation. Education teaches learners what is already in society so that
learners can go into society after completion of school to play their roles (careers). As such
societal institutions are made up of a workforce whose personnel have certain specialised skills
and knowledge which the whole society requires or which the other social institutions require..
This is how social institutions come to be dependent on each other in what Durkheim calls
ORGANIC SOLIDARITY.

-From the concept of role selection and role allocation functionalists conclude that education
selects and allocates learners into different careers based on merit. Therefore, education creates a
meritocratic society that is also described as a meritocracy. Education promotes equity (fairness)
in society in the sense that it offers everyone an opportunity to prove what they are good at
through the school curriculum. Therefore, every individual deserves to be where they are career-
wise because this is what they have proved to be good at right from the school. Therefore,
education promotes an egalitarian society or education promotes egalitarianism. An egalitarian
society is one that is based on equity (fairness) , merit and opportunities to all. According to
functionalists, education (schools) present each and every individual with a level playing field in
which they start equal. Then, each learner proves what he or she is good at within the school
curriculum. What they are good at becomes their career. So, functionalists go on and say that
there are certain roles (careers) that are more rewarding than others but this should not be seen as
promotion of inequality but rather a case of everyone fitting where they deserve. Functionalists

20
argue that we cant all be doctors. Some should be engineers, pilots, street sweepers, farm
workers, miners, housemaids, soldiers, lawyers, fireman, policeman, flight attendants, chefs or
cooks, builders, architects and so on because this is what they proved to be good at. Everyone
occupies his or her career on merit because this is what they proved to be good at in school,
college and university. Therefore, education plays a vital functional role in society. Society cant
function without an education system. This is what functionalists call the formal role of
education in society.

- For example, educational institutions such as schools socialise learners to co-exist (live side by
side) in schools regardless of ethnic, racial and religious identity. In other words, education
socialises learners to be tolerant of each other. In that way functionalists argue that education
promotes social cohesion, social solidarity and social integration. It trains learners to conform to
the norms, values and beliefs (culture) of society so that there is peace and tranquility in society.
This social solidarity, social cohesion and social integration enables everyone or every social
institution to function without disturbance for the benefit of the whole society. Education
propagates the values that society has agreed upon through VALUE CONSENSUS

-Functionalists go further and suggest that education plays a LATENT ROLE. Latent means
hidden, informal, invisible or non-formal. This means education does more that just the formal
role selection and role allocation that schools, colleges and universities were initially established
for.

-One example of the latent functions of education according to Schaefer (2010) is that some
marriages are born in educational institutions. Some people have married each other after
meeting at school. Some have become the best of friends after having met at school. Some
families have come to know about each other as a result of their children who went to the same
school. Some families have even become business partners after meeting at school. These are not
the original or initial goals for which schools where established but all the same they also
represent the functional role of schools, colleges and universities.

-We shall look at THE MARXIST/CONFLICT VIEW OF SOCIETY AND ITS VIEW OF THE
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIETY in our next lesson. As you shall find out the

21
Marxist/Conflict perspective of society is also macro or structuralist in approach but it goes on to
reject all the functionalist concepts of egalitarianism and meritocracy.

- We are moving on with Sociological perspectives

- The Marxist/Conflict perspective is a macro or structuralist perspective as well just like the
functionalist perspective. This means that it attempts to understand society by focusing on the
various social institutions or social structures that make up society. This also means that the
Marxist/Conflict perspective agrees with functionalism that the best way to understand society is
to analyse how various social structures or social institutions relate to each other. However, the
Conflict perspective argues that economic activities are the most important and influential
activities at the centre of any society and therefore if we want to understand society we must
focus on analysing the economy and identifying those who own and control the economy or the
major economic activities.

THE MARXIST/CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

-Think of a building or a house. It has a foundation and all other structures of the house such as
walls, windows and the roof rest on the foundation. So the foundation is the base of the house
and no house or building can stand without a foundation. The strength of all the structures of the
house depend on the strength of the foundation.

- The conflict perspective says that every other human activities revolve around the economy or
revolve around economic activities. Conflict theorists describe the economy as the BASE OR
FOUNDATION OF SOCIETY. All other social institutions such as education, health, judiciary,
government, media, family, religion and security rest upon the base/foundation(economy). These
other social institutions that rest on the base/foundation of society (the economy) are referred to
as the SUPERSTRUCTURE.

-Likewise, this is how society is structured according to the conflict perspective. Those who own
and control the major economic activities (the economy) have what conflict theorists call the
MEANS OF PRODUCTION. (Remember the economy is about production.) The following are
examples of the means of production: land, factories, industries, mines, banks, farms and so on.
Conflict theorists refer to those who own the means of production as the RULING CLASS or the
22
BOURGEOISIE. The bourgeoisie also own the FORCES OF PRODUCTION. The forces of
production are the equipment, machinery and tools that are used to work on the means of
production. For example; the land is the means of production and the tractors, harrows, planters
and combine harvesters, that are used to work on the land, are the forces of production.

-Usually, the bourgeoisie are a minority. But for the bourgeoisie to be able to carry out
production in their mines, factories, industries and farms they need labour. This labour force is
offered by people they employ: that is the WORKERS or LABOURERS who offer their labour
for a wage (some form of payment). Usually, the labourers are the majority. The labourers or
workers do not own the means of production and they dont own the forces of production. All
they have is their labour which they sell to the bourgeoisie. Conflict theorists refer to the
labourers (workers) as the PROLETARIAT or the POOR WORKING CLASS. (The terms
bourgeiosie and proletariat have been borrowed from the French language because Karl Marx
wrote his ideas with help of his friend named Frederick Engels.).

Marx saw how the poor working class (proletariat) was being exploited by the ruling class
(bourgeiosie) and he thought this exploitation was unfair. Marx saw the poor living and working
conditions of the workers on one hand, and the lavish living conditions of the ruling class on the
other hand. The poor got poorer and the rich got richer. Marx concluded that society is basically
composed of two classes: the rich and the poor or the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. He
concluded that these two classes have conflicting interests which originate in their economic
relations in which the ruling class makes profit out of exploiting the labour of the poor working
class.

-This economic system is called CAPITALISM according to Marx These two classes would
always be in conflict with each other according to Marx . Marx also concluded that a new
economic system called SOCIALISM would replace CAPITALISM after the poor working class
overthrows the bourgeoisie. Because, there is always a conflict of interests between the different
classes, Marx concluded that "the history of humankind is the history of class struggle" During
the feudal economic system (feudalism) it was struggle between the landlords and the peasants,
during slavery it was struggle between the slave masters and the slaves and now during
capitalism it was the struggle between the two classes namely: the bourgeoisie and the
23
proletariat. In other words Marx was saying that the history of society is characterised by "class
conflict" and this class conflict or class struggle can bring about change and transformation in
society either violently or non-violently. In short, Marx was saying there is always conflict in
society between different social classes because these classes have conflicting interests.

-So Karl Marx and Engels were writing in The 19th century in Europe. Marx was a German
national (citizen) of Jewish origin. It is at this time they were writing that Europe was
experiencing industrialisation after going through feudalism. Feudalism was an economic system
that mainly depended on cultivation of crops without much technology and the ruling class
during feudalism were LAND LORDS who owned vast estates of land and their workers were
PEASANTS and SERFS who had no land but depended on offering their labour on the land. But
by the middle of the 19th century (by 1850) feudalism was being replaced by industrialisation in
which industrial production and the manufacture of goods in industries and factories became the
major economic activities that replaced feudalism.

- So, how do we apply the conflict perspective in trying to understand the human interaction that
happens in social institutions such as schools? If you look at a school you can identify various
forms of conflict of school members who may be said to belong to different classes in the school
as a society. eg prefects have more power in the school than ordinary students therefore prefects
can be described as the ruling class and the ordinary students as the proletariat. That is why there
is frequent conflict between prefects and ordinary students. Another example is about HODs and
ordinary teachers. HODs act as the ruling class because they have more power and ordinary
teachers are the proletariat. That is why there is conflict between ordinary teachers and HODs.
Some HODs abuse their power and ordinary teachers may protest until something is done to
correct the situation. This is the concept of class struggle or class conflict. There can also be
conflict between the school admin (head, d/head. senior teachers) and the teaching staff. The
school admin are the ruling class who have more power in the school and the teaching staff are
the working class (proletariat) who are powerless. Remember, the school can be looked at as a
society on its own which has different classes of people that have conflicting interests.

- Even in the family. Parents can be looked at as the ruling class, especially fathers and the
children could be seen as the proletariat. That is why there may conflict between parents and
24
their children. Even in marriage, husbands may be regarded as the ruling class or husbands
behave as the ruling class and they may treat their wives as the proletariat. We shall use the
conflict perspective to interpret gender issues in the school. Even in patriarchal societies, men
and boys want to behave as the ruling class and women and girls are regarded as the proletariat
In sports teams in the school: coaches, captains and their deputies regard themselves as the ruling
class and the other players as the proletariat and there may be conflict between coaches and
players or between the team captain and the other ordinary players.

THE MARXIST/CONFLICT VIEW OF EDUCATION

-Conflict theorists reject the functionalist notion the education socialises learners into the culture
of society. Instead, education socialises learners into the culture of the ruling class (bourgeoisie)
who own and control the means of production and the forces of production. Education teaches
our children what the ruling class wants in the economy. This is done through the formal
curriculum and the hidden curriculum.

- Education is part of the superstructure that the ruling class controls because the ruling class is
powerful economically. In other words, education is one of the many social institutions that is
influenced by the ruling class because the ruling class is wealthy. Conflict theorists argue that
education teaches our children the norms, values and beliefs (culture) of the ruling class.

-The formal curriculum has subjects that represent the economic interests of the ruling class and
these subjects are given more value in the economy or in the work place. The subjects that do not
have much economic use to the ruling class are not rewarded that much. This means that the
ruling class dictates what must be promoted in the school curriculum

- For example, subjects such as the pure siciences (Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Maths),
Technical/Vocational subjects (TTD, FTD, BTD, MTD, WTD, TG, PES, Agric), Commercials
(Economics, Accounts, Commerce, Business Studies) are given more value in the economy is a
student specialises in them. Learners who do these subjects are likely to get good paying jobs or
careers under a well functioning economy when they leave school, college or university

-The Pure Science subjects, the Techicals and Commercials are needed in business activities that
are controlled by the ruling class because these subjects facilitate or represent the economic
25
activities of the ruling class who control and dominate the economy. Therefore, these subjects
are emphasized compared to Arts subjects such as Literature, History, Divinity and Social
Sciences such as Philosophy, Sociology and Psychology. Geography is important to the ruling
class because it teaches a lot of things that are related to Agriculture and Mining, the
development of settlements such as towns and cities that are important to the ruling class.
Therefore, Conflict theorists argue that education teaches and promotes subjects that are needed
by the ruling class. In fact it is the ruling class which tells educators what to emphasise in
teaching and learning. BTD, WTD, TG and MTD are important in the construction industry. The
construction industry represents big business that is owned and controlled by the ruling class.
Physics and Mathematics are very important in many industries that include mining, Agriculture,
Engineering and manufacturing. Commercials are important in trade, commerce, banking which
are also important economic activities that are controlled by the ruling class. So, from the
conflict perspective, education teaches our children what the ruling class wants not what
everybody wants. These subjects that are taught in school pave the way for the division and
specialisation of labour that we find in the economy. The division and specialisation of labour
benefits the ruling class because it promotes efficiency in the production of goods and services
which are the main focus of the ruling class.

-In the case of Zimbabwe the English language is given more value because it was the language
of the English ruling class that once colonised Zimbabwe. And the current ruling class has
adopted English as the official language of instruction in Zimbabwean educational
institutions(schools). English is used in many economic activities that are done in our
Zimbabwean society.

-The use of English disadvantages children of the poor working class who may not necessarily
speak English in their homes because they speak indigenous languages such as Shona, Ndebele,
Kalanga, Venda, Nyanja and so on. So, there is no value consensus which is suggested by the
functionalists in which they say all that we teach in schools was agreed upon by the whole
society because we never agreed that we use English. Rather, English was imposed by the ruling
class on the whole society. That is why English is one of the core subjects that are required at

26
Ordinary level in Zimbabwe. If u fail English you are told that you have not successfully passed
O level, and that includes Science and Maths.

- Conflict theorists reject the functionalist notion that education promotes a meritocratic society
because it offers every child an opportunity to prove what they can do through merit. There is no
meritocracy because children come from different social classes.

-The schools that children of the middle class and upper class go to are different from the schools
that children of the poor working class go to. So, education does not create a level playing field
as suggested by functionalism. Some children of the poor working class dont even go to school,
some drop out of school because of poverty-related causes yet children of the middle and upper
classes have access to education and go to good schools.

-Therefore, education does not create a meritocratic society. Education does not create
egalitarianism (fairness) in society as suggested by functionalism. Conflict theorists suggest that
education creates social stratification in which people are put into different social classes.

-Some social classes are well to do (have a good life) while some social classes have a not so
well to life (have a poor life). Education perpetuates or promotes inequality in society. Education
creates a false sense of equality and education does not promote equity. Education perpetuates
poverty especially among the poor working class.

-Punctuality is taught in the school as part of the hidden curriculum as a way of preparing
learners for the work place in the economy where punctuality for work is very important in the
production process.

- So, from the conflict perspective, education represents the culture of the ruling class. This
means education represents the interests of the ruling class. Education represents the economic
interests of the ruling class.

-It does so through the formal curriculum and hidden curriculum. The formal curriculum are the
subjects that are taught and are examinable. Formal curriculum is made up of subjects or
activities in which learners are later taken through examinations. The hidden curriculum is made
of the things or activities or norms and values that we teach learners but are not taken through

27
examinations. Though learners do not write examinations in the hidden curriculum, sociologists
argue that the hidden curriculum is more powerful than the formal curriculum because it stays
within learners for a lifetime.

The following are examples of the hidden curriculum: punctuality, discipline and conformity to
set rules and regulations, respect for the hierarchy of authority, putting on uniforms and the
fragmentation of knowledge into different subjects as if its God-made yet the fragmentation of
knowledge is man-made and serves the economic interests of the ruling class.

-Putting on uniforms is done at school as a way of discipline and control of students. This
prepares learners for the workplace where they are also required to put on uniforms. Uniforms
bring about discipline among the pupils as much as it promotes discipline among workers in the
work place within the economy.

-Look at the aspect of putting on uniforms in the police, army, at church, in banks, in retail shops
such as OK & TM, even in factories and in Mines. Even in prisons prisoners must put on a
uniforms and so on. Uniforms are part of the hidden curriculum that prepares learners for the
work place according to conflict theorists.

- The same applies to another aspect of the hidden curriculum which emphasises respect for the
hierarchy of authority which starts at school and continues into the work place. Students are
expected to follow and respect the hierarchy of authority at school in much the same way
workers are required to respect those above them in the work place.

-All these aspects of the hidden curriculum are meant to create a docile work force that does not
rise against the ruling class who exploit their labour in the work place. A docile work force is
one that is easy to control and manipulate.

-Therefore, conflict theorists such as Althusser argue that schooling is an ideological apparatus
of the ruling class. Bowles and Gintis (1976) are the other conflict theorists who have written
extensively on the hidden curriculum and how it represents the interests of the ruling class.
Bowles and Gintis (1976) wrote a book entiltled SCHOOLING IN CAPITALIST AMERICA.
Bowles and Gintis have advocated deschooling society.

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- Possible exam Q: 1). CRITIQUE THE MARXIST VIEW OF EDUCATION. 2) EDUCATION
PROMOTES SOCIAL STRATIFICATION. DISCUSS.

-It is different from Functionalism and Marxism (Conflict perspective) in the sense that it is a
micro perspective.This means it doesn't want to look at society from a structural point of view. In
other words interactionism doesn't look at society from a large scale point of view but from a
small scale (micro) point of view. What does this mean? It means interactionism argues that for
us to have a better understanding of society, we must look at the interaction that takes place
between and among individuals or the interaction between small groups of people in society or
in the various social institutions that are in society.

- The Interactionist is also referred to as the SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

-THE INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

- Interactionism suggests that in order to do this, we must analyse the symbols or signs that
people use when they interact with each other.These symbols have meaning attached to them.
This meaning is cultural which means these symbols carry a meaning that is understood and
shared by members of a particular society. The meaning of the symbols that are used during
interaction reveals the kind of relations that exist between the people who are interacting. That
will give us a better understanding of society instead of just looking at the structures of society as
functionalists and conflict theorists do.

-For example, verbal languages differ from society to society (from culture to culture). So, you
can not understand a particular society without an understanding of their verbal language and
the meaning of that verbal language which they use when interacting.

-This perspective is called symbolic interactionism because it focuses on the symbols that are
used by members of a particular society when they are interacting.

-These symbols give us an idea of the kind of society we are looking at and the sort of relations
that exist between and among members of that particular society. That's the most ideal way of
trying to understand society according to interactionism. Interactionism reveals that different
societies use different symbols that have different meanings. The meaning of the symbols

29
represents the culture of that particular society. Cultures differ from society to society and
therefore symbols also differ from society to society and therefore it is important to study the
symbolic interaction that occurs between and among members of a particular group, community
or society in order to try and understand the meaning that is carried by the symbols that they use.
These symbols are verbal and non-verbal.

- But to understand a particular society, you don't just analyse the meaning of the verbal
language they use when they are interacting with each other. You also analyse the non-verbal
language (symbols) they use when they are interacting. These symbols or non-verbal language
gives insights into the relations that exist between and among members of a particular group or
community or society. That's a better way of studying society according to interactionism.

-Interactionism goes further and identifies two kinds of people that each individual interacts with
in society: ie the significant others and the generalised others

-The significant others are the people that the child or pupil interacts with on a regular basis or
frequently eg parents, siblings, teachers and peers. They are called significant others because
they have a significant impact and influence on the individual. This influence is transmitted
during symbolic interaction.

-So according to interactionism, the symbolic interaction that occurs between the individual and
significant others and generalised others gradually results in the development of the self. The self
is the identity of the individual. This suggests that the self or identity that the individual
gradually develops is a result of the symbolic interaction that occurs between the individual and
the significant others and generalised others. This means the self- concept that the individual
develops is socially constructed.The person that each individual becomes is partly if not largely a
product of the symbolic interaction that occurs in society with significant others and generalised
others.

-What this means is that we as individuals tend to see ourselves from the way we are seen by
others. Our children or pupils tend to see their identities according to how we interact with them.
The verbal and non-verbal symbols that we use when we interact with them tell them how we
view them. They take or internalise that and develop it into their self-concept. This is an
30
Interactionist theory known as THE LOOKING GLASS SELF by Cooley. Cooley suggested that
every individual tends to view himself or herself by interpreting how others view him or her. The
way others symbolically interact with us tells us how they view us. Therefore, society is like a
mirror or looking-glass which reflects our image to us. We see that image and make it our own.
Have you heard this statement? I AM NOT WHAT I THINK I AM, I AM NOT WHAT THEY
THINK I AM, I AM WHAT I THINK THEY THINK I AM

-Generalised others are people that children or pupils don't interact with regularly. They just
interact with them here and there. They don't have as much influence and impact on the
individual

-In this way the self is a social construct. The identity or self of a person is socially constructed.
That is, studying society at a micro level..at a small scale by looking at the symbolic interaction
that occurs between and among individuals in a particular society. That's a better way of
understanding or analysing or examining society according to interactionism

-Physical aspects such as sitting arrangements also shows that teaching is situational

-INTERACTIONISM AND EDUCATION

-What are the interactionist views on Education? What are the implications of symbolic
interactionism on teaching & learning? How applicable is interactionism to teaching & learning?

- Interactionist are interested in studying the symbolic interaction that goes on between teachers
and pupils and the interaction that goes on between and among pupils themselves in the process
of teaching and learning in and outside the classroom.

- Teachers and peers are significant others to each individual pupil. The way teachers interact
with pupils in and outside the classroom may determine the performance of pupils and ultimately
determines the self or identity of the pupil. Remember, the self is socially constructed.

-Interactionists suggest that the verbal and non-verbal language (symbols) that teachers use when
interacting with pupils may label pupils either positively or negatively. Interactionists argue that
pupils become who we say they are. Remember the looking glass self theory by Cooley. Pupils
look up to teachers to give them the image or picture of who they (pupils) are. Pupils get an idea
31
of who they are through the verbal and non-verbal language that we use as teachers when we are
interacting with them.

- The verbal language that teachers use when interacting with pupils has implications on the
performance of pupils and hence has implications on the development of their identities (the
self). There same applies to the non-verbal language that teachers use when interacting with
pupils. Therefore, teachers should be mindful of what they say and do when interacting with
pupils during teaching and learning in and outside the classroom

- Therefore, the verbal language and non-verbal language (symbols) that are used by teachers
when they interact with pupils and used by pupils when they interact with each other may
determine the performance of pupils and may determine their identities. The symbolic interaction
that occurs between teachers and pupils and among pupils themselves may inform us about the
relations that exist between.

-Interactionists suggested that our symbolic interaction with pupils or among themselves can
result in labelling. This labelling can be positive or negative. Howard Becker (1965) came up
with the labelling theory which is based on the symbolic interaction that teachers have with
pupils or which is based on the symbolic interaction that goes on between pupils themselves.

-The interactionist perspective reminds teachers of the various symbols that we use in classroom
interaction and we must be mindful to use these symbols appropriately so that the right
interaction takes place.

-The following are examples of symbols that are used by teachers and pupils in the teaching and
learning processes that occur in and outside the classroom: thumbs up, raising of eyebrows,
biting of lips, frowning, nodding of head vertically or horizontally, movement of arms as
approval or disapproval raising and lowering of the voice by the teacher either for emphasis or to
convey a certain message, eye contact. picking on the same pupils to say something in class
while ignoring the rest, giving responsibilities to the same pupils as if they are the only ones who
are trustworthy and capable, showing preference for one gender of pupils over the other as in
showing that you have a preference for boys over girls or vice-versa are all forms of symbolic
interaction which promote or disturb the teaching learning process because pupils are able to
32
read these symbols and they react to these symbols accordingly. Remember Cooley's looking
glass self.

-But before we look at the labelling theory we have to know some of the general implications of
symbolic interactionism on teaching and learning. For example, teachers should understand that
pupils come from different cultural backgrounds and therefore symbols that the teacher uses in
class during teaching and learning may not have the same meaning that the teacher may want to
convey.

-The classroom environment is multicultural and the teacher should be mindful of that so that he
or she facilitates the intended learning. Foe example, teachers should know that not all pupils
have a strong English background. So, teachers should use the language in a simple way so that
all pupils may understand what is being taught instead of using deep English which will confuse
pupils.

-The manner in which teachers use verbal English language determines how far pupils may
understand and perform in different subjects in the school curriculum. Inappropriate use of the
English language, in the case of Zimbabwean schools, may result in pupils failing to understand
the concepts that are being taught. This may implications on pupils' achievement in school

-This becomes even more complicated when it comes to the use of symbols (non-verbal
language) in the process of classroom teaching and learning. These symbols have different
meaning in different cultures and a misunderstanding of these symbols may distort teaching and
learning in and outside the classroom. for example, a teacher may have an indigenous African
cultural background yet some of his/her pupils may have a European cultural background.

-This may confuse the teaching and learning that goes on in classrooms. Take this as an example:
in indigenous African cultural background a child/pupil must not look a older person like a
teacher straight in the eye because it is regarded as a sign of disrespect yet in European culture a
child/pupil should look a older person such as a teacher straight in the eye as a sign of confidence
and a sign of telling the truth. So, a teacher of indigenous African cultural background may think
that he/she is being disrespected by being looked straight in the eye by a pupil of European
cultural background and this may confuse the teaching learning process.
33
-U describe each part of the essay and explain what is expected to be written in each part of the
essay eg the introduction, the definitions of key terms. Explain why we should define the key
terms. How do u identify the key terms.

-Then u describe and explain the main body of the essay. What is it made of. Its made of several
paragraphs. What does each paragraph stand for? Then u do the same for the conclusion. Please
note that the right term is conclusion not summary. Then u also explain that an academic essay
has intext citations. What are they and why do intext citations in academic writing. Also do the
same for references. What are references and why should we have them?

FEMINISM

-Feminism came about out of the realisation that we can not get a complete understanding of
society without analysing the relationship between men and women in society. Therefore,
feminism is a sociological perspective that focuses on the relations that exist between women
and men with a view to seeing if and how women can be treated the same as men. The term
feminism is derived from the term feminine which refers to the condition or state of being
female.

- Feminism is divided into the following sub perspectives: LIBERAL FEMINISM, MARXIST
FEMINISM & RADICAL FEMINISM.

THE HISTORY OF FEMINISM

- Feminism started to rise in Europe and America after the end of the First World War (1914 -
1918). The First World War ended in 1918. But it was during the war that women proved to be
equally productive as men in the work place. Many men went to war leaving many jobs vacant
especially in industries.

-Many women replaced men in the jobs that were left vacant. This enabled European countries to
sustain (continue with) the war and it came apparent that women are just as hard working and
productive as men and could actually be better.

-Therefore, women in Europe and America started to advocate for recognition in various facets
of life. For example, women started to advocate for voting rights which had been denied them
34
before the war. Women started to advocate for their rights in the family such as the right to
inherit property and the right to marry or divorce without having seek approval from a male
figure such as a father or a husband. Women started to advocate for their rights in the work place
such as equal pay with men and the right to have a paid maternity leave. Women even advocated
for their right to political participation, right to be in business and many other spheres of life.

- The feminist movement continued to gain momentum in the 1930s as women continued to
advocate for equal treatment in society. The Second World War (1939-1945) came and went. But
it was during the Second World War again that women proved to be even more productive in the
work place especially in industrial production in Europe and America.

-Again, during the Second World War many women filled the vacant places that were left by
many men who went to war. Some men never returned from the war. The labour that was offered
by women helped European nations to continue with industrial production that enabled them in
the war effort.

-Therefore, after the war, that is in post 1945 period, feminism gathered more pace and by now
women were enjoying more rights as men. For example, it was after the First World War in
Britain, Europe and the United States of America that women were granted the right to vote. By
the 1960s feminism had made many inroads in ensuring that governments and nations had
granted women and girls equal rights in many areas of life.

- This is known as Liberal Feminism which advocated for the equal treatment of women and
girls in many areas of life such as the family, religion, work place, governance (politics) and
business.

-Marxist Feminism emerged in the 1970s. It came about as a reaction to Liberal Feminism.
Marxist feminists argued that liberal feminism had not achieved much since the end of the First
World War.

-More had to be done to achieve the emancipation of women. Marxist feminists argued that
liberal feminism had not achieved much because all that it had tried to do was to ensure that
women were granted equal rights in a system that was already being dominated by men. Marxist
feminists argued that as long as the economic system remained capitalist, women would not
35
enjoy their full rights as men. Therefore, the solution was to change the economic system from
being capitalist to being socialist

MARXIST FEMINISM

- Marxist feminist tried to explain the reasons why women continued to be oppressed in society.
They derive their ideas from the Marxist/Conflict perspective that is why they are called Marxist
feminists.

-The Marxist feminist argument is that the oppression of women is rooted in the capitalist
economy that is dominated by the ruling class which has economic power because it owns and
controls the means of production and the forces of production.

- So, the oppression of women in society is directly linked to the chain of exploitation that
characterises the capitalist system. The majority of women are wives, spouses or partners of the
proletariat (poor working class). The domestic that women do in their homes helps to keep the
capitalist system running. HOW?? The women cook, clean and wash for their partners at home
so that their partners can continue to go to work where they offer their labour to the ruling class.
Women are stress relievers to their partners whose labour is exploited by the ruling class in work
place. But women are denied their full rights both at home and the wider society. Men tend to
look at women in their homes as dependants not as partners.

-That is why even in the family women do not own as much property and rights as their male
partners. As a result women do not have that much power in society because they disempowered
by this capitalist chain of exploitation.

-Women are exploited at two levels in society: firstly as wives who support their husbands who
are exploited by the ruling class and secondly and secondly they are disempowered because they
are women.

- Therefore the oppression of women is largely economic according to Marxist feminists. This
oppression is rooted in the capitalist system in which women are not given equal opportunities to
own property and become prosperous. Therefore, Marxist feminists argue that the only way to
ensure that women are emancipated is to change the capitalist system which thrives on the

36
exploitation of the women and the working class. This emancipation of women can be done
away with by replacing the capitalist economic system with a socialist economic system in which
the means of production is owned by the majority of the people for the benefit of the whole
society not for the benefit of the minority ruling class. A socialist economy in which the society
is classless and their is equality of all citizens which Karl Marx envisaged.

- RADICAL FEMINISM

-Women were dominated by men in the early societies of primitive communalism in the stone
age and early iron age. Women were still oppressed during the feudal economic system in the
middle ages. Women were still oppressed during the days of slave trade and slavery (slave
economic system). Women were still oppressed during the era of merchant capitalism. And
women are still oppressed in this era of industrial capitalism. So, according to Radical feminists
the oppression of women is not rooted in the capitalist economic system but in the practice of
patriarchy which has existed since the beginning of humankind.

-Radical feminism emerged in the 1980s onwards. It came about as a reaction to Marxist
feminism. Radical feminists argue that Marxist feminism does not give a full explanation as to
where the roots of the oppression of women really lie. Radical feminists argue that the
oppression of women is not rooted in capitalism because the oppression of women started way
before the rise of the capitalist system.

-The oppression of women is rooted in PATRIARCHY according to radical feminism. Patriarchy

has existed since the creation or evolution of humankind. Patriarchy refers to male dominance in
society in many areas of life.

-The word RADICAL means extreme. This brand of feminism is described as radical because its
views on how to remove the oppression of women are viewed as extreme. Radical feminism
argues that we must get rid of patriarchy if we want to fully emancipate women. What does this
mean??? It means we must get rid of all the practices that represent patriarchy eg polygamy must
be stopped, men must stop paying bride-price (lobola) because paying lobola gives men the
impression that they own women as their property in much the same way men own livestock,
women and children must not adopt the surnames of their husbands and fathers, stop referring to
37
God as He, who says that the only child of God is a He, why should we be made to believe that a
woman was created out a man's rib, who says that the male species was the first to be created
(Adam in the Christian Bible), why do some Christian churches deny women from being in the
priesthood, why is it all of Jesus' disciples were men, women must stop from putting on dresses
and bras because this form of dressing symbolises some form of control, we must stop describing
some colours as feminine (pink, yellow and white) and other colours as masculine (blue, green,
black), we must change our language eg headmaster versus headmistress, it must just be head, no
chairman or chair woman it should just be chair, no senior master and senior lady, it must just be
senior teacher, no head boy and head girl, it must just be head prefect, no policeman or police
woman, it must just be police officer, teachers must not say "good morning boys and girls", they
must just say "good morning class", why is that women are given the titles Mrs, Miss, Ms to
show their marital status as if to suggest that women depend too much on being married yet men
are just referred to as Mr whether they are married or not, why is that the first degree that a
person has at university is described as a Bachelor's degree ( bachelor is masculine and refers to
a man who is not yet married)) why cant we have a spinster's degree (spinster is feminine and
refers to a woman who is not yet married). All these social practices and many more represent
PATRIARCHY and they must go if women are to be truly emancipated from oppression in
society according to Radical feminism

- Even some English names reflect patriarchy. These names seem to suggest that some of the
names of girls are derived from boys' names just like Eve was made out of Adam's rib eg Gerald
versus Geraldine, Francis versus Francisca, Paul versus Pauline, Stephen versus Stephanie. There
are many examples of these names.

Here are examples of past exam questions that can be answered by using the feminist
perspective.

--SCHOOLS PERPETUATE GENDER INEQUALITY.DISCUSS.👆

--DISCUSS THE ASSERTION THAT SCHOOLS ARE DISCRIMINATORY

-- GENDER EQUALITY IS A MYTH. DISCUSS

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-- EXAMINE THE VIEW THAT SCHOOLS PROMOTE SOCIAL STRATIFICATION.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF FEMINISM

-Boys and girls should treated equally in schools. Teachers should not stereotype girls into
feminine roles and boys into masculine roles. To stereotype is to assume that if one is a girl, then
one expected to behave in certain ways or if one is a boy, then he is expected to behave in certain
expected ways. For example, girls and boys may choose and prefer certain subjects in the school
curriculum based on gender expectations which are caused by cultural beliefs. Teachers must
influence learners not to prefer subjects based on gender lines. Teachers must assist learners to
make independent choices in the school curriculum that are not influenced by their gender. eg
girls should study subjects that have previously been perceived as for boys such as the Pure
Sciences, Technical subjects such as Wood and Building Technology, Mechanical Engineering
while boys can do Food Technology and Design and Textiles Technology and Design.

-Teachers must not assign tasks to learners that are gender-based. Sometimes you see boys being
given outdoor tasks such as carrying bricks while girls are assigned indoor duties such as
sweeping in classrooms. This is gender stereotyping which causes gender inequality because
girls and boys should be made to do similar duties that do not reflect gender stereotyping. What
this means is that boys must sweep at one or the other and girls can carry bricks as well.

- in other words, girls and boys should be treated equally in all aspects of the curriculum i.e. girls
and boys should be treated equally in both the formal curriculum and the hidden curriculum.

-Teachers should use gender-neutral language so as to avoid promoting patriarchy. Many aspects
of the hidden curriculum promote patriarchy in Zimbabwean schools. The symbolic interaction
between teachers and girls and between teachers and boys reflect gender stereotyping which
promotes patriarchy. This should be avoided. For example, the titles that are given to staff should
be gender neutral: we must say HEAD of the school instead of HEADMASTER or
HEADMISTRESS. HEAD PREFECT instead of HEADBOY or HEADGIRL. ....and many other
titles that we have mentioned in the previous lessons. SENIOUR TEACHER not SENIOUR
MASTER or SENIOR MISTRESS. All these titles have to be gender neutral because these titles
influence the way learners think.
39
-Teachers must not promote patriarchy in schools. In other words, teachers should not promote
male dominance in which girls end up being disadvantaged in various ways. Resources within
the school should be allocated and accessed equally by both girls and boys in the school e.g. the
budget for sports must be equal instead of focusing more on boys.

-In fact learners should not do sports based on gender lines where girls are expected to play
netball and boys football. More girls should paly soccer and more boys netball. Hockey should
not be seen as a girls sport and rugby and cricket should not be seen as boys' sports. Both girls
and boys should choose a sport without any gender influence.

-Textbook images and images in the teaching media that is used by teachers tend to promote
patriarchy and this tends to influence the way girls and boys think. This again tends to present
gender stereotyped notions of the role they should play in society and influences their subject
and career choices.

-Males are presented in dominant roles in textbooks and other forms of teaching media as
doctors, engineers, pilots, technicians while women are presented as nurses, teachers, mothers,
hair dressers, cooks and house cleaners. This is part of the hidden curriculum that socialises girls
into feminine roles and boys into masculine roles. This has to change otherwise one may agree
with the assertion that gender equality in Zimbabwean schools is a myth. Gender equality is
unachievable.

-Research in Zimbabwean schools has shown that teachers generally have higher expectations of
boys compared to girls. Teachers, generally think that girls are not as capable as boys. This is
gender stereotyping which reflects cultural influences (Mutekwe and Modiba, 2014). Teachers
give more attention to boys than to girls.

-Boys participate more in class discussions than girls not that girls are not capable of
contributing to discussion but because girls are not given equal opportunities to do so. Girls who
assert independent thinking are negatively looked upon yet boys are groomed (socialised) to
assert independent thinking in the activities of classroom teaching and learning. That is why boys
end up performing better than girls not that boys are more capable but are just given adequate

40
opportunities to develop during classroom teaching and learning. Teachers must avoid this if
gender equality is to succeed in Zimbabwean schools.

- Another aspect of the hidden curriculum is the imbalance between the distribution of female
and male teachers in the various subject areas within the school curriculum. Generally, there are
more male teachers in technicals such as Wood, Building and Metal Technology than females.
Then, there are more female teachers in technical subjects such as Food and Textiles Technology
than male teachers. This sends a message to learners who end up role modelling teachers of the
same sex and end up thinking that its natural (inborn or innate) for girls to do certain subjects just
like it is natural for boys to do certain subjects yet it is gender stereotyping which is socially
constructed and can be deconstructed.

-So, teachers should try as much as possible to promote gender neutrality in everything they do
in both the formal curriculum and the hidden curriculum otherwise gender equality may remain a
myth. Teachers should not create in the minds of girls that all they are destined for is marriage.
There are comments that teachers make which derogate and denigrate (mocking and teasing)
girls in schools.

-One research study by Mutekwe and Modiba (2014) in Masvingo in which girls and teachers
were participants revealed that some of the teachers' comments reflect gender stereotyping. For
example, one teacher was reported to have said to a female learner, " if you find school work
difficult you can go and get married".

- And another teacher said to a female learner who had done well in mathematics "you are doing
well in a boys' subject but dont forget your subjects such as Home Economics" Such comments
from teachers to female learners have an impact on the choices that girls make in the school and
career. Remember, teachers are significant others who have significant influence on the
development of the self (identity) within the learner.

-What complicates gender stereotyping in schools further is that some of these comments are
made by female teachers to female learners.

-Usually when you answer a question on gender, think of the FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE

41
PHILOSOPHY

DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY

-Philosophy is commonly defined as the love for wisdom. It can further be defined as a discipline
or subject that is concerned with the study of the nature of reality and human existence.
Philosophy is a subject that focuses on the fundamental nature of what the world is and what life
is. It is a subject that is very inquisitive about the reality of what this world is and what human
existence is all about.

-The philosophy of education or educational philosophy is the application of philosophy to

education.

- Philosophy is made up of BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY and PHILOSOPHICAL

PERSPECTIVES. Philosophical Perspectives are also referred to as SCHOOLS OF
PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT.

-The following are branches of philosophy: EPISTEMOLOGY, AXIOLOGY, LOGIC and

METAPHYSICS

- The following are perspectives in philosophy:

-IDEALISM,

-REALISM,

-PRAGMATISM,

-PROGRESSIVISM,

- RECONSTRUCTIONISM,

-ESSENTIALISM and

-PERERNNIALISM

-EPISTEMOLOGY: It is a branch of philosophy that is concerned about the nature of

knowledge. Epistemology is concerned about selecting the relevant knowledge that must be
42
taught to learners. Epistemology asks questions such as "what is knowledge?"......"who says this
is knowledge and why?" ....."how is knowledge relevant and relevant to who , in what context?"
Therefore, epistemology is that branch of philosophy which questions the nature of knowledge
so that educators select the right and relevant knowledge that must be transmitted to learners in
educational institutions such as schools.

-Epistemology is useful in curriculum design and the construction of syllabi of various subjects
in the school curriculum. Educators are guided by epistemology when they design the curriculum
or when they revise the curriculum like what was done in Zimbabwe in 2017 when the
curriculum was revised

- BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

-ETHICS: It is concerned about morals, rules and regulations. Ethics is concerned about good
conduct in society or in social institutions. In the case of Zimbabwe we can say that the
philosophical concept of UBUNTUISM/HUNHUISM is closely linked with the philosophical
sub-branch of ethics.

- In the case of the teaching profession the implications of this sub-branch of philosophy is that
teachers must follow the ethical guidelines of the teaching profession such as doing their work
on time, treating learners like their children, no abuse of learners, no improper association with
learners, proper use of language, descent dress code, non-disclosure of learners' personal
problems to the community and so on.

-Teachers must be respectful of the communities that surround the school and respect for higher
offices at school and in education structures. Each profession has ethical guidelines. So, when
you talk about ETHICS you must refer to the ethics that guide the teaching profession and the
good moral behaviour that is expected of teachers in the conduct of their duties.

- AXIOLOGY: It is that branch of philosophy that is divided into two; ETHICS and
AESTHETICS

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-LOGIC: This branch of philosophy is concerned about the application of rationale reasoning.
What is rationale reasoning? It is thinking that is guided by certain principles, ideas, concepts or
laws. For example, there are mathematical laws that guide mathematical thinking and
mathematical practice i.e. equations are guided by a certain logic that is behind the concept of
equations. So, when you work out equations following the laws that guide equations, you are
using logic or using rationale reasoning in the field of mathematics.

-There is logic in all the subjects that we find in the school curriculum e.g in Pure Sciences such
as Chemistry and Physics, in Languages, In Social Sciences such as Psychology, In Technicals
such TTD. FTD, BTD, AGRIC, PES, WTD, TG, in COMMERCIALS, in Computer Science and
so on. Logic includes the concept of critical thinking.

-From a general point of view, teachers apply logic in the execution of their professional duties
everyday. e.g. teachers use logic when preparing lesson plans, when they scheme, when they
deliver lessons and when they prepare examinations.

-Teachers use logic when doing measurement and assessment of learners; performance after
examinations. Logic enables teachers to be critical thinkers who have the power of analysis and
application. So, logic is very relevant and applicable to classroom teaching and learning.

-AESTHETICS: It is the other sub-branch of AXIOLOGY. Aesthetics emphasizes the

importance of artistic appreciation in life in general and in education in particular. By art,
aesthetics is referring to natural beauty that we see everyday in our world. Further, aesthetics
also includes visual and performing arts.

- Drawing, sculpturing and painting are examples of visual art which are an important
component of human existence. These works of Visual Art try to portray the nature of reality as
it appears to us. Aesthetics also includes Performing Arts such as drama, singing/music and other
forms of mass displays such as drum majorettes.

-The educational implications of aesthetics is that we include Arts in our curriculum so that we
tap into this artistic talent that some of our learners bring into the school. In the case of our
revised curriculum in Zimbabwe we do have these visual and performing arts from drawing,
painting, music, drama and mass displays. We even take our learners on educational trips to
44
various tourist destinations such as Vic Falls, Kariba, Nyanga mountains, Chinhoyi caves and
Great Zimbabwe so that they develop aesthetic appreciation of natural beauty which is part of
this world we live in and which is part of our life

HOMEWORK: Please research on Metaphysics. What is it concerned about as a branch of

philosophy?

-In Family and Religious Studies (previously called Bible Knowledge or Religious and Moral
Education or Divinity) learners are also given a religious or biblical explanation of how the
world, the universe and humans may have come into existence. Learners are taught the world,
the universe and humans were created by God, the Supernatural and Almighty. Even in our
Language subjects learners are taught that "nyika yakasikwa naMwari" (Unkulunkulu in
Ndebele). These subjects (History, Family & Religious Studies and Languages) show that
Metaphysics is relevant to our curriculum or to teaching and learning as these subjects try to go
beyond Physics and Science in offering explanations on the origins, nature of human existence,
the physical world and the universe that surrounds the physical world.

-Lets finish the branches of Philosophy by briefly looking at Metaphysics

-Metaphysics is a philosophical branch that is concerned with the study of the nature of the
physical world we live in and the nature of the universe. Metaphysics tries to provide answers to
such difficult questions such as "what is the nature of reality?"....."how did humans come into
existence?"......"how did the universe come into existence?"..."was the world and the universe
created?"....."does the world and universe exist outside human thoughts?". Meta means "beyond"
or "after". Therefore, metaphysics means beyond physics. Metaphysics is divided into
ONTOLOGY and COSMOLOGY.

-Cosmology is focused on understanding the origin, evolution and ultimate fate of the universe
which include the laws that keep the universe in its perfect order. Ontology focuses on the things
that make up the physical world and the relationship that exists between them. In short,
metaphysics is concerned about the nature of being and existence of the world and the universe
and how they could possibly have come into existence.

METAPHYSICS
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-So, if you look at the above notes on the branches of philosophy, you can actually write an essay
on the application of educational philosophy to teaching and learning. Remember you wrote an
assignment on the "application of educational philosophy to teaching and learning". In this essay
you could have looked at EPISTEMOLOGY, AXIOLOGY, LOGIC AND METAPHYSICS
and how relevant and applicable they are to our education or curriculum here in Zimbabwe.

-Our next step is to focus on Philosophical Perspectives which are also called Schools of
Philosophical Thought.

-So, of what relevance is metaphysics to education or to teaching and learning? How applicable
is metaphysics to teaching and learning? In which subjects do we teach our learners on how
human existence may have come about? Yes we do in such subjects as History, Family and
Religious Studies and the folktales that we tell in indigenous language subjects such as Shona,
Ndebele, Kalanga and Venda.

-In History teachers teach about the evolution of humans that occurred for thousands of years. In
history learners are taught about the stages of human evolution such as HOMO HABILIS,
HOMO ERECTUS, HOMO SAPIEN and the current stage where we are which is called HOMO
SAPIEN-SAPIEN. So, in this way we can say Metaphysics is reflected in our curriculum or we
can say Metaphysics influences our curriculum

-PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES (SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT)

- IDEALISM

-Idealism is a philosophical perspective which suggests that the only true reality in human
existence is the Mind and its Ideas which come out of it. Idealists argue that the Mind and its
Ideas are ABSOLUTE.

-By Absolute, idealism is suggesting that all that really matters in human existence is the human
mind and what it thinks and how it thinks. Everything else in human existence and in this world
is secondary and the mind and its ideas are primary (they come first).

46
- Idealism argues that whatever the human mind thinks is real even if you cannot prove it
scientifically. The father of idealism is Plato, the Greek philosopher who founded this
philosophical perspective around 400BC.

-If the mind thinks that God is there, then it is real even if you cannot scientifically prove it that
God is there. As long as the mind thinks it, then it is real. Therefore, one can say that idealism
tries to answer some of the questions that are asked by Metaphysics such as 'how did this world
begin and who created the universe and the order that we see in the world and universe?".
Idealism simply says God did because the human mind thinks so.

-How applicable is Idealism to teaching and learning or to education? How relevant is idealism
to teaching and learning?

-One can suggest that idealism implies that teaching and learning should provoke learners to
think or to come up with ideas Teaching and learning should make our learners to be idealists
who engage in thinking and coming up with thoughts and ideas which reflect what they could be
thinking regarding what they are learning in the school curriculum.

-Early idealists advocated the use of discussion in teaching and learning so that learners express
their thoughts. As such, early idealists favoured the teaching of subjects such as Religion,
Politics, History, Literature and Law. These subjects create a lot of discussions, debates and
arguments among learners. It is in the process of discussions, debate and arguments that learners
express their ideas which come out of their minds.

-So, is our curriculum in Zimbabwe guided by Idealism? The answer is a big YES! Most our
teaching in schools is meant to provoke learners to think and come up with ideas which they
should express in classroom discussions, contributions, debates and arguments.

-We teach subjects such as History, Literature, Languages, Family and Religious Studies and
even Law in our school curriculum. Further, even the other subjects that we teach in the school
curriculum which may not necessarily be Arts subjects, also promote our learners to use their
minds to think and come up with ideas which they must be given a chance to express. e.g the
Pure Sciences, Social Sciences, Technicals, Commercials and the Visual and Performing Arts all
provoke our learners to use their minds to think and express their ideas and be creative.
47
- Realism came about as a reaction to Idealism. The pioneer of Realism is Aristotle, another
Greek philosopher who at once was a student of Plato.

REALISM

- Therefore, if one considers IDEALISM as a philosophical perspective, one can argue that
educational philosophy (philosophy of education) is applicable and relevant to teaching and
learning in our Zimbabwean curriculum

-: Aristotle broke away from the idealist teachings of Plato and opted for what became known as
Realism. Realism argues that the mind and its ideas are not the only reality as argued by
idealists. Actually, reality exists independent of the human mind and its ideas. In other words,
even if there are no human beings and their minds, reality still exists.

-According to Realists, the only true reality is the world of objects and matter i.e. the world of
physical things, matter and objects that we can touch and feel in our physical environments.
According to realism, a stone, a flower, a tree, clouds, air, rain, soil, rocks and water are
examples of matter and physical objects that exist independently of the human mind and its
ideas. The human mind only comes in when we as humans try to study and understand these
objects and matter that are in our physical world and in the universe as well.

-So, if humans were not on EARTH or were not in existence, it does not mean that the Earth and
the Universe would not exist. The Earth and the Universe would still exist. Therefore, physical
objects and matter are the only true reality.

- Realism, therefore, argues that good education and good teaching and learning should assist
our learners to study the world of physical objects and matter. Good education must teach
learners to study the natural world and the natural scientific laws that govern and regulate the
natural world. This will enable us as humans to scientifically manipulate this world for our
benefit. So, good education should be based on science not on beliefs that cannot be
scientifically be proven as idealism does. Realism criticizes idealism for being unscientific.

-Realism suggests that good education must emphasize the inclusion of the Pure/Natural
Sciences such as Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Geography and Mathematics. These subjects help

48
us to understand the natural world and the scientific laws that govern and regulate the natural
world. For example, natural sciences (Physics) help us to understand the law of gravity
(remember Isaac Newton, the British scientist is the one who discovered the law of gravity which
explains why objects must fall back to the surface of the Earth if they are thrown up.) That is
Realism which is based on science. Science is real because it explains how this real world
functions according to scientific rules, principles and laws.

-The Science in Geography gives us a scientific explanation of how rain is formed in the
atmosphere, how various types of rocks are formed, how minerals are formed in the Earth's crust
and so many other scientific explanations about this natural world. Chemistry tells us about the
chemical qualities in the various chemicals we have in the world and how we can use these
chemicals as medicine, sometimes even as food and so on. Biology informs us about many
scientific functions of living organisms e.g. blood circulation, excretory systems, reproductive
systems, plant life and so many other natural biological functions of plant, human and animal
life. That is why surgeons are able to do surgical operations and save life. All this is based on
understanding the natural world of objects and matter and the scientific laws and rules that
govern it. These are just a few examples of the science that is behind this world and the universe.
All the machines, vehicles, aero planes, ships and space crafts are based on science and science
represents realism. There is a lot of science in TTD, FTD, BTD PES, TG, WTG, Mechanical
Engineering.

-The question now is " is our curriculum in Zimbabwe guided or informed by realism?" Again,
the answer is a big YES! We have many subjects in our curriculum that are based on Realism .eg
the Pure or Natural Sciences such as Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics and many other
subjects such as Geography, Agriculture, TTD, FTD, BTD, WTD, Mechanical Engineering, PES
and so on. Therefore, based on the philosophical perspective of realism, one can say that
educational philosophy (philosophy of education) is applicable to teaching and learning in
various and relevant ways within the Zimbabwean curriculum.

-We shall cover PRAGMATISM, PROGRESSIVISM & RECONSTRUCTIONISM in our

next lesson.

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- Remember, I have always said that for you to be able to interpret a question, you must identify
the key terms and define them appropriately. Once you understand the meaning of the key terms,
then you will be able to answer the question comfortably

Afternoon class determines learners achievement plizz help

- In this question "class" is one of the key terms. But this "class" refers to social class not classes
that are found in the school. In Sociology when we talk about class we are talking of the
socioeconomic (social.class) of the learner"s family. People belong to different social classes eg
the poor working class, the middle class and the upper class. Marxists would argue that basically
there are two classes in society eg the rich and poor. But now we know that society has more
than two classes. We can even say that we have the poor working class, the lower middle class,
the upper middle class and the upper class (ruling class) who own the means of production. The
middle class has educated people who have careers but don't own the means of production. The
poor working class are those who earn a living wage through selling their labour to the ruling
class.

-Then u define "learner achievement". It can be defined as the achievement that is attained by the
learner in his or her school work. The success that is attained by the learner in the school
curriculum.

-Therefore, the question is suggesting that the socioeconomic status of the learner"s family
influences or determines the success that is attained by the learner in the school curriculum. Do
children or learners from the different social classes mentioned above, achieve the same or attain
the same success in their school work?

-Since the question says DISCUSS, u must have the however side. It is not social class only that
determines learner achievement. Genetics, individual motivation, peer Influence, teacher
performance, school administration and so on.

- So, as u answer this Q, see how u can weave in sociological perspectives eg the symbolic
interaction that occurs between teachers and learners from different social classes is different i.e.
teachers tend to favour learners from middle and upper class families than learners from poor
working class families. Learners from middle and upper classes are given more duties of
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authority and responsibility such as being prefects unlike learners from the poor working class
(proletariat). Even streaming puts learners from middle and upper class families at an advantage
unlike learners from poor backgrounds and this influences learners" achievement in the school
curriculum. This is how you can bring the SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE in
this Q.

-U can also use the Marxist-Conflict perspective especially when you talk about the different
social classes that are found in society. U can give a Marxist-Conflict explanation as how these
social classes come about.

-When you talk about the influence of gender on learners" achievement u can use ideas from the
Feminist perspective

PRAGMATISM

Let us move on with philosophical perspective

- Pragmatism is a philosophical perspective which argues that the only true reality are the
practical activities that individuals engage in or participate in. Remember idealism says that the
only true reality is the mind and its ideas and realism says the only true reality is in the
natural/pure sciences and that reality can exist independent of the human mind. Pragmatists say
that the only true reality is what the individual does practically in an active way

-Reality is what we do in a practical way according to pragmatism. Reality is our participation in

and contribution to the activities that occur around us in various situations.

-Pragmatism means practical and do-able. It means something that can be done practically.
What a person does is the actual reality to the individual who is involved in the practical activity.
Reality is what we do in a practical way. Remember, there is a saying which reads as follows: "
if you are told something, you will forget. If you see something, you will remember. If you do
something you will understand".

-A person is defined by what they do. A person's identity is defined by the activities that he or
she does. The identity of an individual is derived from the activities that one participates in and
contributes to in a practical way. That is why many people are known by what they do in society.
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e.g. a person can be known as a singer, a soccer player, an actor, a teacher, a writer, a politician,
a rugby player, an engineer and so on. So, what an individual does is the only reality to that
individual.

-Therefore, when it comes to teaching and learning, pragmatist philosophers argue that good
teaching and learning is that which involves learners in practical activities in which they
participate. Pragmatism advocates that good teaching and learning must be learner-centred in
practical ways. If we want learners to understand, we must give them the opportunity to be
involved in practical activities of teaching and learning in and outside the classroom. If we just
explain to them or just tell them (teacher centredness), they will forget. If they see, they may
remember but if they actually do, they will understand and will not forget. Therefore, good
teaching and learning must engage learners in practical activities

- This means that teachers of various subjects such as Languages, Social Sciences, Arts subjects,
Pure Sciences, Commercials and Technical subjects must ensure that learners must be engaged in
practical activities if they (learners) are to understand what is being taught and learnt in and
outside the classroom. For example, a Maths teacher may ask learners to come to the chalkboard
or white board to demonstrate how a mathematical problem can be solved.

-Afterwards, the teacher will give all learners mathematical problems that they should solve in
pairs or in groups or as individuals in their maths exercise books. Science teachers involve
learners in practical activities such as experiments. Physical Education and Sport teachers also
engages learners in many practical activities of sport such as athletics, swimming, volleyball and
many sporting activities.

-Technical/Vocational subjects such as TTD, FTD, TG, WTD,BTD, AGRIC and MTD (metal
technology and design) are the ones that really represent pragmatism in our curriculum. That is
why these subjects are also described as practical subjects.

-In Zimbabwe, we now call them technical/vocational subjects. But, remember teachers of every
subject can give learners the opportunity to be practically involved so that they can understand
what is being taught and what is being learnt.

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- Pragmatism therefore argues that good teaching and learning must not only be knowledge-
based but must be skills-based. The skills which are developed from doing practical work enable
learners to be self-employed once they leave school.

-These skills can also enable learners to be entrepreneurs (business people) through the
production of goods and services. They can even become employment creators instead of just
hoping to be employees.

-This is line with the aims of the revised curriculum in Zimbabwe which aims to place our
learners in the production of goods and services through the ideology of indigenisation and
empowerment. Our economy and standard of living cannot improve if our learners and our
people dont have practical skills that they must learn from practical activities in the school
curriculum. Practical activities promote skills-literacy and skills-literacy has economic benefits
because it promotes production of goods and services. e.g a Computer Science learner can
become self-employed after leaving school by offering information and communication services
to his or her community because today's world cant do without ICT. Almost everything that we
do today needs ICT. Therefore, ICT skills can lead to self-employment and entrepreneurship.
This is what PRAGMATISM stands for as a philosophical perspective in EDUCATION. If you
look at traditional education (precolonial education) in Africa, you will realise that it was partly
based on pragmatism because children were taught in practical ways. They were taught skills in
hunting, fishing, crop cultivation, thatching, mining, weaving, pottery, cooking, cleaning and
washing, making of iron tools and weapons, making of jewellery, cutting wood, rock painting
and so on.

-Pragmatism argues that if learners are involved in practical activities, they will be able to apply
it in their everyday lives. So, pragmatism suggests that learners must be involved in practical
activities that are relevant in their every day lives within their communities, societies and within
their nation or country.

-For example, we teach Agriculture because we are an agricultural nation which has rich soils.
We teach Wood Technology and Building Technology because our nation is involved in
construction of buildings and many structures. We teach Food Technology because we are a

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nation that needs to be fed. We teach Textiles and Technology because we are a nation that needs
to be dressed and clothed. We teach Physical Education and Sport because we are a sporting
nation. All these practical activities that we involve our learners in are relevant to our daily lives.

PROGRESSIVISM

-Progressivism is another perspective that advocates for learner centredness in teaching and
learning. It has numerous similarities with pragmatism and a few differences. Progressivism says
that people or individuals should not just engage in practical activities as suggested by
pragmatism but these practical activities must bring progress in society, hence the name
PROGRESSIVISM.

- Like pragmatism, progressivism says that the learner is a problem-solver in practical ways
through using the knowledge and skills that would have been acquired from teaching and
learning.

-Progressivism is also similar to pragmatism in that it says the learner should be inquisitive about
present knowledge and ways of doing things. The learner should challenge current knowledge.
Progressivism like pragmatism says that teachers and learners must not treat textbook knowledge
as absolute.

-Learners and teachers should challenge current/present knowledge because knowledge and
skills are always in flux: this means knowledge and skills (ways of doing things) are always
changing as the time moves on.

- Like pragmatism progressivism therefore says that good teaching and learning should enable
the learner to be an inventor. Inventions bring progress and development in society. That is what
good teaching and learning must produce.

-Learners must be taught in practical ways that bring progress in society. Progressivists just like
pragmatists seem to embrace the idealist concept of the mind and its ideas because they argue
that the learner is a thinker who must question present knowledge and come up with knew ideas
and new ways of doing things.

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-This cannot be done without the mind and its ideas. (IDEALISM). However, progressivists just
like pragmatists argue that ideas should not just end up as ideas; the ideas (knowledge) must be
transformed into practice (skills) which must bring progress and development in society. That is
why we must have theory and practice in teaching and learning.

-The following could be regarded as differences between progressivism and pragmatism.

Progressivism unlike pragmatism says that schools and teachers should allow learners to pursue
their individual learning interests. Schools and teachers should not dictate what each learner must
learn. The learner should choose what he or she wants to learn and teachers and schools should
just facilitate not dictate what the learner wants to learn.

-Is this possible in developing nations such as Zimbabwe where we have a very high ratio and
limited material and financial resources?👆

...high teacher-pupil ratio......

-: Progressivism unlike pragmatism therefore argues that teachers must not teach the SUBJECT,
they must teach the LEARNER. If you ask many teachers about what they teach, they will tell
you the name of the subject which they teach. Yet teachers must know that they do not teach the
subject, they teach learners.

-Teachers teach the subject to learners therefore teachers must respect what each individual
learner wants to learn.

- Progressivism may also be seen to be different from pragmatism in that it says that the
classroom environment of teaching and learning should be very informal. This is related to the
earlier idea of progressivists in which they say that each individual learner must be allowed to
purse or choose what he or she wants to learn.

- By informal classroom environment progressivist suggest that there must not be close control
by the teacher of what learners are doing in the classroom. The teacher should just be an
assistant. As such teachers should be not be in close-control in the traditional teacher-centred
approach in which all learners pay attention to the teacher as the centre of all teaching and

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learning proceedings. Learners must go about pursuing their individual learning interests without
much control from the teacher.

- Progressivism unlike pragmatism speaks strongly against the use of corporal punishment
(beating of learners) during teaching and learning. That is why progressivism says that the
classroom environment must be very informal with very minimal teacher control.

- Corporal punishment is a characteristic of the teacher centred traditional methods of teaching

and learning. So, progressivism is known for its condemnation of the traditional methods of
pedagogy (teaching methods) that are teacher-centred. But the big question is "how applicable is
progressivism to teaching and learning in Zimbabwean schools?"

-Again, is this practical in developing nations such as Zimbabwe? Also, if progressivists say that
learners must pursue their learning interests without teachers imposing what must be learnt, at
what level of learning should this be done? Is it pragmatic? Can Grade 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 learners be
allowed to choose what they want learn without the guidance of the school and teachers? Is that
pragmatic (practical)? Is it possible practically? Even at secondary school, can Form 1.2.3.4
learners be allowed to pursue their individual learning interests without much guidance from the
Ministry, the school and teachers?

-We should be able to critique these philosophical perspectives. At the same time, we should try
to see how similar and how different they could be? Remember, that these perspectives overlap.
What this means is that they are related although they are not the same. eg there is idealism in
realism, pragmatism and progressivism.

- However, pragmatism and progressivism argue that ideas should not just remain as ideas, they
must be converted into practice (practical work)

- RECONSTRUCTIONISM

-While pragmatism and progressivism are associated with names such as John Dewey,
reconstructionism is associated with name PAULO FREIRE who published his famous book
entitled PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED in 1970. Freire was a Brazilian who was touched
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by the high level of poverty among Brazilians. Brazil is a former Portuguese colony whose
population of children of former slaves endured extreme exploitation and oppression under the
Portuguese colonisers.

- So, Freire asserted that education should be used as a tool to uplift the poor from poverty. Why
did he develop this philosophy of reconstructionism? He noticed that while Portuguese
colonisation of Brazil may have brought literacy and numeracy, why is it that the majority of the
Brazilian population remained poor yet people were made to believe that education brings
development and progress in society? So, Freire questioned: "if education brings progress and
development in society, who is benefitting from that progress?" Is education bringing progress to
all in society or it is bringing progress to a few?" He noticed that education was bringing
progress to the few middle and upper classes and the poor remained poor and did not benefit at
all.

-Reconstructionism is a perspective which agrees with the other perspectives such as realism,
pragmatism and progressivism but goes a step further. While reconstrctionism agrees that
teaching and learning should be realistic, practical and progressive, it goes further by proposing
that good teaching and learning must emancipate or liberate the disadvantaged, the
underprivileged and poor people in society.

- Good education is that which emancipates the poor from poverty. Therefore, reconstructionism
says that good education or good teaching and learning must correct inequalities or imbalances
between the different social classes in society with a view to improving the standard of living of
the poor.

- Reconstructionism agrees with pragmatism that teaching and learning should go beyond
theory by being practical (pragmatic), and reconstructionism agrees with progressivism that
education must be progressive but it must be progressive by liberating the poor from poverty. So,
good teaching and learning must bring development and progress to the disadvantaged and
underprivileged classes in society. Good education must reconstruct or rebuild society hence the
name RECONSTRUCTIONISM.

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- Freire pointed out that the poor were not benefitting from education because of the way they
were being taught in Brazilian schools. He noticed that much of the teaching and learning that
was going on in Brazilian schools was based on what he called the BANKING METHOD of
teaching.

-What is the banking method of teaching? It is a teacher-centred method of teaching and learning
which emphasises a top-down approach in which the teacher is the centre of all the knowledge. It
is a teaching and learning method which treats learners as TABULA RASA. What does this
mean?

-The banking method of teaching treats learners as empty vessels or containers that must be
filled with information from the teacher who is assumed to know everything and learners dont
know anything.

-The banking method of teaching and learning emphasises MEMORISATION of concepts or

information by learners. The information or concepts that are supposed to be memorised comes
from the teacher.

- Freire argued that memorised information vanishes or disappears very easily from learners'
minds because they just cram it and do not see the meaning or logic behind it. As a result, if
learners from poor families cram or memorise information or concepts, they are not able to
apply that information in a practical and progressive way so that they improve their lives.
Learners from poor families must be taught in such a way that they will see meaning behind
what they are learning.

- Once they see or recognise the logic and meaning behind what they have been taught, they will
be able to apply it in their everyday lives within their communities and this will lead to their
emancipation from poverty.

-That is why Freire entitled his book PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED. Pedagogy is a term
that refers to teaching methods. By calling his book PEGAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED Freire
was suggesting that we must come up with new methods of teaching children from poor families
so that the poor can see meaning behind what they are being taught. Once the poor see the
meaning behind what they are being taught they will use education in a practical way to get out
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of poverty. If they memorise, they will not be able to see the meaning of what they have been
taught and therefore will not be able to apply it in practical ways and will therefore remain poor.

-So, reconstructionism is a philosophical perspective which advocates for practical learner-

centredness in teaching and learning just like pragmatism and progressivism and this learner-
centredness must mainly benefit children from poor families so that they can use education as a
weapon to liberate or emancipate themselves from poverty.

-If teaching and learning are based on memorisation and treating learners as TABULA RASA,
learners from poor families will remain poor and therefore will not progress in society. Real
progress is that which liberates the poor from poverty instead of just benefitting those who are
already rich.

-Learners from poor families are not tabula rasa because they already know something when they
come to school. So, good teaching and learning must marry educational concepts with what
learners already know from their experiences in their communities.

-Once that happens learners in general and learners from poor families in particular will
practically apply what they have learnt at school to improve their lives. For example, a learner
from a poor family that survives by selling fruits and vegetables on the local marketplace can
learn accounts at school then can use this knowledge of accounts to help parents manage and
expand their fruit and vegetable business to an extent that they will end being very successful in
a big way.

-They may end up being entrepreneurs and employment creators. They may even build their
market place yet they started poor and small but through the teaching and learning of Accounts
may become successful within their community

-The philosophy of Reconstructionism was adopted by many African governments after the fall
of colonialism in Africa from the late 1950s. Reconstructionism is associated with such names as
Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, the first black president of independent Ghana. Ghana is the first
black African country to gain independence from British colonial rule in 1957.

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-Another name that is associated with reconstructionism is Julius Nyerere of Tanzania. Tanzania
was first colonised by Germany until 1919 and then taken over by the British until 1963 when it
gained independence. Nkrumah and Nyerere are some of the post colonial African leaders,
among many. who are described as AFRICAN THINKERS or AFRICAN PHILOSOPHERS.

-By so doing teaching and learning (education) can be used to reconstruct society by eliminating
social ills such as poverty. That is why we are saying education must correct inequalities that
may have been caused by certain historical developments such as colonisation. Education should
be used to correct social imbalances so that society progresses in a real way by liberating the
poor from poverty.

-As result African leaders or philosophers such as Nkrumah saw it fit to apply reconstructionism
to correct the past inequalities that had been caused by colonialism. Education was one way of
reconstructing African nations.

-That is why, for example, in countries such as Zimbabwe the government embarked on many
programmes which included MASS EDUCATION as way of using education to liberate
indigenous Zimbabweans from poverty which had been caused by British colonial exploitation
and oppression.

-There was talk of EDUCATION WITH PRODUCTION. Even in Tanzania Nyerere tried to
implement what was known as UJAMAA. Uhamaa is Swahili for cooperatives that are based on
educating local communities to be self reliant economically.

-The reconstruction was multidimensional. It was political, economic, social and cultural.
Political in the sense that African nations renamed themselves eg Rhodesia changed to
Zimbabwe. The Gold Coast became Ghana. New African governments were formed. New
national flags. Africans were granted the right to vote.

-New national anthems and so on. Economically African governments started to see how they
could improve the lives of Africans economically. Many schools were built. Adult education,
night school, hot sitting and massive enrollment of learners in primary and secondary schools
was initiated.

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-More teachers were trained and more colleges were built eg bttc. Universities too. Rhodesia had
one University, now they are more than twenty. Racism was done away with though it would
manifest in other hidden ways. Primary education in Zimbabwe was made free from 1980 to
1990. Colleges and universities gave grants and scholarships to tertiary students. These grants
and scholarships came from the State (govt). Hospitals and clinics were built More teachers
were hired from other countries like UK, Australia Canada, Mauritius and New Zealand. The
reconstruction was massive.

- Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia and Senghor of Senegal are also among these African thinkers or
African philosophers. They opted for the philosophy of reconstructionism because Africa was
coming out of colonial rule which had exploited Africa and Africans in many ruthless ways. The
majority of indigenous Africans had been victims of colonial exploitation perpetrated by
Europeans.

-Africans had been exploited and oppressed in political economic, cultural and social ways in the
same way as Freire had noticed in Brazil. Africans received brain-washed education during
colonialism which reduced them to cheap unskilled labourers who worked for the European
colonisers.

-While some people would want to say Europeans brought education to Africa, they forget that
Africans had their traditional education way before the coming of Europeans. European
colonisers did not bring education to Africa. They brought FORMAL SCHOOLING. It is this
schooling which was characterised by the BANKING METHOD of teaching which caused more
poverty

-From a cultural point of view, Africans were taught to be proud of their racial and cultural
identity because during colonialism Africans had been taught to be ashamed of their racial and
cultural identity and were made to feel inferior compared to European racial and cultural
identity. This is known as DECOLONISING THE AFRICAN MIND. All this was guided by the
Philosophy of Reconstructionism.

AFRICAN PHILOSOPHERS FAILED TO RECONSTRUCT AFRICA. DISCUSS

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AFRICAN PHILOSOPHERS ARE COPY CATS. DISCUSS

Past exam Q: TO WHAT EXTENT IS THE NEW CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTIONIST?

- We are almost done with Philosophical perspectives. There is not much to say on
ESSENTIALISM AND PERENNIALISM. Will cover these in the next lesson. They won't take
us much time and space. So, having covered all these perspectives in Psychology, Sociology and
Philosophy, we are now moving into specific theories and topics in Psychology, Sociology and
Philosophy. So, we will start with several theories in Psychology then we move to Sociology and
to Philosophy. We will continue to rotate the three sub disciplines of TOE.

ESSENTIALISM

- Essentialism believes that there is common core knowledge which is basic and which every
individual must acquire. This core or basic or essential knowledge must be transmitted to every
learner and will enable each learner to live and survive in society.

- Essentialism argues that this knowledge and skills are essential for the survival of the
individual learner in society hence it is called Essentialism. This core knowledge should be
intellectual and moral.

-It is the duty of schools and teachers to pass on this basic/core knowledge through the school
curriculum. This core knowledge prepares the individual learner to survive as a human being and
as a valuable member of society.

- Learners must be taught facts and objective reality which is out there in the world. This factual
reality is about humans and the natural world. This basic knowledge and skills include training
learners to read, write, speak, add, subtract, divide and multiply (computation) logically and
clearly.

-This is the basic education that is being taught in modern day schooling which was brought by
colonialism. But it does not mean that Africans could not count, multiply, add, subtract and
divide before the coming of European colonialism.

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- Africans could do all this but what Africans could not do was to read and write (literacy) as we
do today. Some of the basic/ core/ essential knowledge and skills that was taught in the
precolonial era (traditional education) included cooking, cleaning, speaking, washing, weaving,
cultivating, hunting, fishing, building, thatching, fire-making, pottery-making, cutting and so on.
This basic knowledge enabled children in the precolonial era to survive and live in society as
individuals. Even in today's schools learners are also taught essential/core/ essential knowledge
and skills such as cooking, weaving and sewing, building eg in FTD, TTD and BTD.

-Essentialism says that learners must not only be taught basic intellectual/academic knowledge
and skills but they must be taught morals as well. Morals represent basic values that enable
learners to live as human beings among others. These morals are essential and therefore are core
and basic to our lives as human beings. These are the morals that represent
UBUNTUISM/HUNHUISM. For example, learners should be taught to work hard, respect
authority and to be disciplined. These morals are basic and essential. as they teach learners how
to behave and interact with each other and with members of society. Learners should not be left
to do as they wish as advocated by progressivism.

-Essentialism. however believes that basic knowledge and skills can potentially change over the
passing of historical time. What may have been considered as essential/basic/ core knowledge
and skills one hundred years ago may not necessarily be essential today. This is where
essentialism differs from perennialism. Perennialism says that basic knowledge and skills do not
change over the passing of historical time.

-Are there any ideas that you have picked up in essentialism which you find in the other
philosophical perspectives and branches of philosophy that we have done so far? I have found
essentialism to have some ideas that are found in the philosophical perspectives of realism and
pragmatism where essentialism talks about teaching learners facts about the natural and human
world and the objective reality behind it (REALISM). I also find essentialism to have something
in common with PRAGMATISM when it talks about teaching learners basic practical skills that
will enable them to live and survive. I also found essentialism to have something in common
with AXIOLOGY as a branch of philosophy which talks about ethics and morals. Remember, i

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said that these perspectives and branches of philosophy overlap and are related. They may not be
the same but they share common ideas or tenets or principles.

- We are done with philosophical perspectives. Our next lessons will now focus on specific
theories and topics in Psychology, Sociology and Philosophy

- Perennialism is closely related to essentialism. It is different from essentialism in that it says

basic knowledge and skills do not change. Perennialism says all the basic knowledge and skills
that we need to live and survive have already been discovered by Western civilisations. This
unchanging core knowledge and skills that have been discovered by humankind should be
transmitted perennially to learners.

-To transmit something perennially is to continually transmit it from generation to generation. If

something is described as perennial it means it does not stop, eg a perennial river is one that
flows throughout all the seasons. Another example, bananas are perennial fruits because they are
found in all seasons.

-They are non-seasonal. So, perennialism says that this basic unchanging knowledge and skills
should be transmitted perennially to the different generations of learners who continue to be
born.

How would you respond to such questions?

1). ANALYSE THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE CURRICULUM.......

2). THE NEW CURRICULUM HAS NO PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS. DISCUSS........

.3). DISCUSS THE VIEW THAT TRADTIONAL EDUCATION (PRECOLONIAL

EDUCATION) HAD NO PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS.

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