Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

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Journal of Destination Marketing & Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jdmm

Navigating uncertainty: The role of perceived risks in supporting

sustainable tourism development in low-density territories
Isabel Vieira a, *, Elisa Alén b, Didiana Fernandes c, Ana Paula Rodrigues d
a
Lamego School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, CIDEI - Centre for Studies in Education and Innovation, Portugal
b
Marketing and Management at the University of Vigo, Spain
c
Lamego School of Technology and Management, Viseu Polytechnic Institute, CIDEI - Centre for Studies in Education and Innovation, CITUR (collaborator) - Centre for
Research, Development and Innovation in Tourism, Portugal
d
University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies - CETRAD, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: We are increasingly confronted with external factors that affect or promote sustainable tourism development.
Sustainable tourism development The pandemic triggered by COVID-19 has shown that to effectively manage uncertainty, it is essential to include
Perceived risk perceived risk as a predictor variable. This study analyses residents′ support for sustainable tourism development
Community attachment
in low-density territories and proposes a model that takes into account several known antecedents for this
Community involvement
support (community attachment, community involvement, economic dependence, local government manage­
Economic dependence
Tourism impacts ment of tourism, tourism impact) and gives relevance to the perception of risk, largely ignored in academic
Local government management of tourism studies and from the residents′ perspective. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection, applied to a
sample of 250 residents from Lamego-Portugal, a low-density territory. The data was analysed using the
Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The results show that perceived risk (associated with COVID) significantly
affects the perceived costs of tourism, but has no direct influence on residents′ support for sustainable tourism
development. This support is positively affected by community involvement, economic dependence, local gov­
ernment management of tourism and perceived costs. The results also show that community involvement and
local government management of tourism have a positive impact on perceived benefits. The results can help
tourism professionals strengthen sustainable tourism development programmes.

1. Introduction even stronger and more sustainable way, mentioning that sustainability
has become a central concern for authorities around the world - In the
We live in challenging and uncertain times, where challenges caused case of Portugal, the Strategic Plan for Sustainability 20–23 was created.
by sudden changes in macro-environmental factors can pose major In this post-covid period there is widespread optimism in the tourism
challenges to Sustainable Tourism Development (STD), especially in low sector and several actors are committed to building a future that bal­
density territories, which are even more vulnerable. In this sense, the ances environmental, social, cultural and economic factors (Pereira,
sudden occurrence of macro environmental factors, as happened with 2022). Thus, sustainable tourism ceases to be just a challenge for the
the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, which caused unprecedented disruptions in sector and becomes the main challenge (Pereira, 2022). Now, as it is
the tourism sector worldwide, can further highlight the importance of known, in building the STD requires multi-stakeholder collaboration
applying a planning based on STD, since the weaknesses presented by and strong political leadership (Akbar, Yang, Han, & Kanat, 2019),
the tourism model in force in most destinations, based only on flows and where the committed support of local communities is vital (Erul &
revenues, which did not take into account the overall risks of the activity Woosnam, 2022; Mathew & Sreejesh, 2017), especially in rural settings
(Irving, Coelho, & Arruda, 2020). And it is in this sense that in 2021 the (Blancas et al., 2011). Therefore, it is crucial to know whether residents
UNWTO (2021) reinforces its position about the importance of STD by support for STD and what factors influence this support (Khan, Khan, &
referring that the responsible recovery of the tourism sector after the Khan, 2022). Understanding residents’ perspectives on tourism is
pandemic situation should allow the sector to resume activities in an therefore considered “an essential part of tourism planning and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ivieira@estgl.ipv.pt (I. Vieira), alen@uvigo.es (E. Alén), dfernandes@estgl.ipv.pt (D. Fernandes), anarodri@utad.pt (A.P. Rodrigues).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2024.100895
Received 30 November 2022; Received in revised form 8 March 2024; Accepted 1 April 2024
Available online 17 April 2024
2212-571X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

management” (Sharpley, 2014, p. 42), yet we note that there are few countries are encouraged to achieve. The United Nations (2015) has
studies on small historic towns in rural areas (Mu & Aimar, 2022) and played a crucial role in advocating for the implementation of sustainable
even more so with regard to studies that focus on residents’ support for development principles. It is in this sense that, in 2015, within the scope
STD (Eusebio, Kastenholz & Breda, 2014). of agenda 30, they created 17 goals which included specific targets that
It is in this context that we found it extremely critical to explore the allow for the monitoring of sustainable development through
study on residents’ risk perceptions of a particular phenomenon. This is well-defined criteria (Hall, 2019). As is known, the tourism sector has
because, on the one hand, despite the plethora of studies on residents’ the potential to contribute directly and indirectly to all the goals set by
support for STD, there is a significant research gap when it comes to the UN, so for several years the World Tourism Organization, the United
understanding to STD support bearing in mind risk perception, on the Nations agency responsible for promoting responsible tourism, has been
other hand, the study of residents’ risk perception is almost residual as fighting for the application of the principles in this sector. Thus, the
most studies focus their attention on tourists’ perspective, neglecting the WTO describes sustainable tourism development as tourism that con­
residents’ point of view (Joo, Xu, Lee, Lee, & Woosnam, 2022). siders the economic, social and environmental impacts on the needs of
The main objective of this study is to analyse the factors that influ­ the sector, host communities, visitors and the environment (World
ence residents support for STD, in low density territories (small heritage Tourism Organization, 2021). Furthermore, as this organization un­
site). We propose that community-based factors (community attachment derstands it, STD requires the informed input of all stakeholders, giving
and community involvement), sector-related factors - the tourism sector primacy to the link that should be established with the local community,
and the local public sector (economic dependence and local government and strong political leadership to ensure their broad participation and
management of tourism), and risk-related factors (perceived risks buy-in. The promotion of STD is a continuous process and requires
associated with COVID-19) can predict tourism impacts and residents constant monitoring of the impacts of tourism and the implementation
support for STD (final dependent variable). We propose a model that of appropriate preventive and corrective measures where necessary.
establishes that these exogenous influencing factors (community, sector STD should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a
and risk factors) have relationships with the positive and negatives meaningful experience for tourists by raising awareness of sustainability
impacts of tourism and residents support for STD (final dependent issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices among them (UNEP
variable). & UNWTO, 2005).
In this context, we intend to fill the gap in the literature identified by Active support from the various stakeholders involved in the process,
Joo et al. (2022), in relation to the influence of risk-related factors especially the local population, is crucial for STD (Megeirhi et al., 2020),
(perceived risk). The perceived risk construct, which covers external so the tourism sector should recognise the rights and demands of the
factors such as political instability, religious conflicts, natural disasters, local community and provide opportunities for broad sectors of society
and infectious diseases, was introduced due to the negative impact of to participate in decision-making, planning and management of tourism,
pandemics on the economy and society. It is considered crucial to and the community is a key element in the successful implementation of
explore the perceived risk, especially considering the context of the STD plans (Olya, Alipour, & Gavilyan, 2018). Especially if we keep in
COVID-19 pandemic, which was associated with a significant increase in mind that community support is defined as an intentional or uninten­
uncertainty, as noted above. Also, to date, research on perceived risk has tional choice of residents after comparing development outcomes with
been conducted mainly from the perspective of tourists (Joo, Xu, Lee, their expectations (Xie, Lee, & Wong, 2020) and that their support is an
Lee, & Woosnam, 2021). The perspective of residents in low-density integral part of the offer, especially with regard to hospitality and
territories and its relationship with STD support remain largely tourism products, affecting cost levels, satisfaction and the propensity of
unknown. the visitor to return to the region (Fan, Wu, Wall, & Zhou, 2021). In this
In this framework, this study contributes to filling a gap in the sense, several studies have demonstrated the importance of this link
existing tourism literature by focusing on the concept of perceived risk (Carneiro & Eusébio, 2015; Dyer, Gursoy, Sharma & Carter, 2007; Erul
from the perspective of residents and its relationship with tourism im­ & Woosnam, 2022).
pacts and support for STD. To the best of our knowledge, Joo et al. Until the early 21st century, there was a significant scarcity of studies
(2021) is the only study that has examined the direct and indirect re­ about the relationship between tourism, heritage and STD (Garrod &
lationships between perceived risk and residents’ support for tourism Fyall, 2000; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2010). However, there has been a
development (mediated by the concept of emotional solidarity). shift in this paradigm over recent years, with a notable increase in
Therefore, it is believed that analysing the direct influence of perceived research dedicated to this topic (Delgado et al., 2020). Nevertheless,
risk on tourism impacts and its influence on STD support will lead to a despite these advances, research is still insufficient, especially regarding
more comprehensive understanding of these relationships within a small historic towns located in areas of low population density; there­
model that focuses on the sustainability of tourism destinations. fore, there is still much work to be done in this field (Pezeshki, Khoda­
Futhermore, it is important to highlight that the lack of studies on risk dadi, & Bagheri, 2023).
perception in low density territories limits our understanding of the A diverse range of studies (Eslami, Khalifah, Mardani, Streimikiene,
specific challenges faced by these communities. Therefore, this study & Han, 2019; Joo et al., 2021; Kim, Kang, Park, & Kang, 2021; Nugroho
seeks to fill this research gap and provide important insights for the & Numata, 2022; Rodrigues, Vieira, Fernandes, & Pires, 2020; Vieira,
development of sustainable tourism strategies in these areas. Rodrigues, Fernandes, & Pires, 2016, among others) related to residents’
This paper is divided into five sections. Following this introduction, perceptions, highlight the impacts of tourism and consider that (resi­
the second section presents a review of the literature and describes the dents’) support for tourism development is one of the main variables in
research hypotheses. The third section explains the methodology used. the models they propose (final dependent variable). Traditionally, the
In the fourth section, the results are presented and discussed. Finally, in social exchange theory (SET) framework is used to explain the perceived
the fifth section, the research results are analysed, with the aim of filling benefits and costs of tourism in determining residents’ perceptions, at­
existing knowledge gaps and providing significant contributions to the titudes, behaviors (Kim et al., 2021). However, there are not many
field of sustainable tourism in low density territories. studies that consider the mechanisms that will influence the relationship
between tourism impacts and support for (sustainable) tourism devel­
2. Review of the literature and research hypotheses opment, and that examine how residents perceives the effects of tourism
and residents’ support for STD in particular tourism destinations
2.1. STD and resident’s support (low-density territories).
Bearing that in mind, in this study, residents’ support for STD is
In the contemporary world, sustainable development is a goal that all considered as the final dependent variable of a model which aims to

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

analyse the factors influencing this support. The various antecedent results of the study carried out by Lee (2013), Chen and Chen (2010),
factors are related, on the one hand, to community-related factors and Kim et al. (2021) no significant direct relationship was found be­
(community attachment and community involvement), to sector-related tween community attachment and perceptions of tourism costs. How­
factors - the tourism sector and the local public sector (economic ever, stronger levels of community attachment lead, in the results of
dependence and local government management of tourism), and to risk- other studies (Chen & Chen, 2010; Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; Kim
related factors (perceived risks associated with COVID-19). These an­ et al., 2021; Lee, 2013; Nicholas et al., 2009; Nugroho & Numata, 2022;
tecedents’ factors are supposedly predictors of the impacts of tourism Rodrigues et al., 2020), to a more favorable perception of the benefits of
and of the STD support. On the other hand, it is assumed, taking the SET tourism. With this in mind, these relationships could be investigated in
framework as a reference, that the tourism impacts will also affect this study to assess whether in this low density territory, these effects are
support for STD. Fig. 1 shows the structural framework proposed in this maintained.
study. Furthermore, studies that confirm positive and direct relationships
Next, the proposed model hypothesis are described and justified. between community attachment and residents’ support for STD, are not
very common in this type of tourism destination.
Therefore, the following hypotheses are put forward.
2.2. Community attachment, tourism impacts and STD support
H1a. There is a relationship between community attachment and
Community attachment refers to the individual or emotional feelings residents’ perception of the positive impacts of tourism.
that exist between an individual and a particular community (Kyle, H1b. There is a relationship between community attachment and
Mowen, & Tarrant, 2004; Matarrita-Cascante, Stedman, & Luloff, 2010). residents’ perception of the negative impacts of tourism.
According to Casakin, Hernández, and Ruiz (2015), this concept is
defined as a state of solidarity between people and their geographical H1c. There is a relationship between community attachment and
place of residence. It is a complex, integrated and multi-layered concept residents’ support for STD
that encompasses the relationship between people and their community
and includes several components, the core elements of which are related
2.3. Community involvement, tourism impacts and support for STD
to emotions, affection, meaning, sense of belonging and appreciation of
the community (Nicholas, Thapa, & Ko, 2009; Ramkissoon, 2015). The
According to Lee (2013), tourism development based on community
bond that residents establish with their communities can be demon­
involvement is a factor that reflects the extent to which residents are
strated through the concepts of community identity, community de­
involved in the affairs of their lives in their community. The author
pendency, social bonding within the community, and affective responses
claims that community involvement is the degree to which residents are
to feelings about the community (Kyle et al., 2004). Residents’ attach­
involved in sharing their lives with their community. Community
ment to their community can enable communities to organise them­
involvement can foster favorable attitudes and backing for tourism
selves appropriately for their differentiation and sustainability, namely
development, as it empowers residents and motivates them to establish
through a proactive and collaborative attitude, awareness of the paths to
stronger connections with their local area. This increased involvement
follow and investment, for example, in the education of the youngest
can lead to positive perceptions and support for the growth of tourism
(Almeida, 2018).
(Látková & Vogt, 2012).
Several studies analysed the link between community attachment,
Most of the studies conducted point to the importance of participa­
perceptions of tourism impacts and residents’ support for STD (Brida,
tory planning, with the involvement of all stakeholders (Ap & Crompton,
Disegna, & Osti, 2014; Chen & Chen, 2010; Eslami et al., 2019; Gursoy,
1993; Gursoy et al., 2002; Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; Lee, 2013;
Jurowski, & Uysal, 2002; Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; Kim et al., 2021;
Nicholas et al., 2009) and demonstrate the enormous importance that
Lee, 2013; Nicholas et al., 2009; Nugroho & Numata, 2022; Nunkoo &
local community involvement has in planning and strategy definition,
So, 2016; Rodrigues et al., 2020; Rua, 2019).
being consensual that residents’ involvement is fundamental for sus­
As Lee (2013) mentions, the use of tourism impacts as a mediating
tainable development to exist (Goebel et al., 2020). Residents’
variable between community attachment and support for STD has been
involvement in the community can lead them to act toward supporting
explored by several authors. The results cited by Lee (2013) are mixed.
sustainable development (Lee, 2013; Nugroho & Numata, 2022).
Some authors claim positive relationships, others do not, leading him to
Thus, it is suggested in this research the following hypotheses.
conclude that “the notion that community attachment influences
perceived benefits and costs remains hotly contested.” For example, the H2a. There is a relationship between community involvement and

Fig. 1. Antecedents of (residents′) support for STD.

Source: Own elaboration

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

residents’ perceptions of the positive impacts of tourism to carrying capacity, one of the most important sustainability issues in
destinations, are solved through public policies defined for the sector. A
H2b. There is a relationship between community involvement and
variety of structuring plans related to the protection and preservation of
residents’ perceptions of the negative impacts of tourism
historic destinations are mostly led by public authorities.
H2c. There is a relationship between community involvement and In this sense, it is appropriate that the local community believes that
residents’ support for STD the existence of cooperative public tourism planning plays an important
role in reducing negative impacts. Assante, Wen, and Lottig (2012) have
2.4. Economic dependence, tourism impacts, and support of STD empirically confirmed the positive relationship between LGMT and
perceptions of the environmental impacts of tourism, arguing that res­
Economic dependence indicates the extent to which residents’ in­ idents are more likely to be receptive to tourism impacts when the local
come or household income depends on tourism-related activities (Chen government effectively manages the destination. Similarly, Vieira et al.
& Chen, 2010; Perdue, Long, & Allen, 1990; Vieira et al., 2016). Chen (2016) found out that LGMT has both a direct and a positive effect on
and Chen (2010) argue that economic dependence has been used to perceptions of the positive impacts of tourism, on perceptions of the
analyse whether residents are involved in tourism or not and whether negative impacts of tourism.
their income/employment depends on the tourism sector. Economic Conversely, a relationship between LGMT and residents’ support for
dependence is one of the essential variables for understanding residents’ STD could also be expected. Assante et al. (2012) argue that government
perceptions of tourism impacts and their support for STD. Residents’ management and stakeholder cooperation need to match in managing
views of tourism impacts (and their support for STD initiatives) may future tourism developments. This study concluded that residents have
vary depending on their greater or lesser economic dependence on more positive attitudes towards STD when management is carried out
tourism. effectively. Also, the study of Vieira et al. (2016) predicted and empir­
Despite this importance, there are still relatively few studies in the ically confirmed a direct and positive effect between the local govern­
last two decades that examine the influence of the level of tourism ment’s management of tourism and residents’ support to STD. That is,
development and dependence on the tourism sector on the perceived the local government’s perceived ability to effectively manage tourism
impacts of tourism (Gursoy et al., 2002; Kim et al., 2021; Vieira et al., positively influences residents’ support to STD.
2016). Considering the above, the following hypotheses are made.
Some studies have found a positive and significant impact on resi­ H4a. There is a relationship between residents’ perceptions of effec­
dents’ perceptions, concluding that those who earn more financially tive local government management of tourism and their perceptions of
from tourism tend to have more positive attitudes towards tourism (Ko the positive impact of tourism.
& Stewart, 2002; McDowall & Choi, 2010; Perdue et al., 1990). How­
ever, other research (Teye, Sönmez, & Sirakaya, 2002) challenges the H4b. There is a relationship between residents’ perceptions of effec­
prevailing hypothesis of “greater dependence on tourism - more positive tive local government management of tourism and their perceptions of
attitudes and support for tourism” and finds that residents who work in the negative impacts of tourism.
tourism or related fields have more negative attitudes towards the in­ H4c. There is a relationship between residents’ perceptions of effective
dustry. For example, Kim et al. (2021) found out that economic local government management of tourism and their support for STD.
dependence on tourism influenced residents’ perception of the negative
impacts of tourism development, but not the positive impacts. Other
research (Vieira et al., 2016) confirmed a non-significant influence 2.6. Perceived risk (associated with COVID-19) and the support to STD
either on the benefits of tourism, or on the perceived tourism costs. The
particular characteristics of the studied destinations may help to explain Tourism is a very vulnerable industry as its activity depends on
these findings, specifically the level of tourism development or the res­ external and mostly uncontrollable factors, such as economic and
idents’ education level. financial crises (e.g. the 2007–2008 global financial crisis), terrorism (e.
Also, there are studies that empirically confirm the positive and g., September 11), war (e.g. war in Ukraine); natural disasters (e.g.
significant relationship between economic dependence and STD support tsunami in Thailand); political instability (e.g. Arab Spring); infectious
(Kim et al., 2021; Ribeiro, Pinto, & Silva, 2017; Teng, 2019). The results diseases (e.g. swine flu pandemic - H1N1), Severe Acute Respiratory
of the study of Teng (2019), assert that residents who have a strong Syndrome (SARS) outbreak (2003), SARS-CoV-2] (Cró & Martins, 2017;
economic reliance on tourism have experienced positive outcomes in Okuyama, 2018; Ritchie & Jiang, 2019).
terms of their income and employment prospects, effectively balancing Considering the academic view, there are two primary contexts in
out the negative consequences of conflicts arising from tourism devel­ which tourism and crises go together: on the demand side, perceived risk
opment. As a result, these residents have developed a favorable refers to the negative outcomes that may result from people decision
perception of tourism development. making (individual level), and on the supply side, crisis management
Based on the previous arguments, this research aims to address the (Joo et al., 2021). In another approach to the same topic, it is also
following hypotheses. important to highlight that the study of tourism-related risks has focused
on the perspective of tourists rather than communities (Ceron & Dubois,
H3a. There is a relationship between residents’ economic dependence 2012; Sharifpour, Walters, Ritchie, & Winter 2014), although several
on tourism and their perception of the positive impact of tourism. authors draw attention to the importance of the well-being of destina­
H3b. There is a relationship between residents’ economic dependence tion residents in crisis management. The evolution of these studies
on tourism and their perception of the negative impacts of tourism. shows, in many cases, that local communities are aware of the positive
contributions of tourism and the risks associated with the development
H3c. There is a relationship between residents’ economic dependence of this sector (Schmidt, Gomes, Guerreiro, & O’Riordan, 2014).
on tourism and their support for STD It is therefore important to understand the impact of the COVID19
pandemic on tourism destinations, as the pandemic is known to have
2.5. Local government management of tourism (LGMT), tourism impacts brought the tourism sector to a standstill, affecting economic growth in
and support of STD several countries (Hallaj, Bijani, Abbasi, Valizadeh, & Mohammadi,
2022). Similarly, it also caused social and psychological costs to resi­
According to Gorica, Kripa, and Zenelaj (2012), LGMT is crucial for dents due to forced confinement, which changed the way of life and
designing sustainable place management. Many of the problems related behaviour of communities (Gursoy & Chi, 2020; Orîndaru et al., 2021).

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

The pandemic caused by COVID -19 brought uncertainty and 3. Methods

increased the demand and supply side due to its huge impact (Plzáková
& Smeral, 2022). Some recent studies have examined the risks perceived 3.1. Location of the study
by citizens in supporting tourism during the pandemic through indirect
impact analysis. The results of the studies by Joo et al. (2021) and Qui, The municipality of Lamego is located in the district of Viseu
Park, Li, and Song (2020) show a negative and significant relationship (Portugal). It borders the Douro River to the north and is administra­
between perceived risk and residents’ support for tourism. The number tively divided into 18 municipalities. The main activities of the munic­
of studies looking at host populations’ perceptions of tourism activities ipality are services, some trade and agriculture, which is a major source
during or after a pandemic is minimal (Vinerean, Opreana, Tileagă, & of wealth, mainly through the wine sector.
Popșa, 2021). And this is even truer for small historic towns. Herein lies According to the results of the 2021 census (PORDATA, 2022),
the particular contribution of this study, which aims to analyse the Lamego has 24313 inhabitants, of which 12 073 live in the urban centre.
relationship between the perceived risk and impact of tourism and its The town has an ageing index of 249.5 and a low per capita purchasing
influence on the support of STD in areas with low population density and power compared to the national level (52.7). These and other factors
the specificities of a small town. result in this municipality being on the list of low population density
Accordingly, the following assumptions were made. territories. The municipality is integrated into the delimited Douro re­
gion and part of its territory is part of the Douro World Heritage Site. The
H5a. There is a relationship between residents’ perceived risk associ­
town has a heritage of considerable historical value and was the first
ated with COVID and their perception of the positive impacts of tourism.
Portuguese town to establish a rehabilitation plan for a historic district
H5b. There is a relationship between residents’ perceived risk asso­ in the 1980s. In the last 20 years, especially after the classification of the
ciated with COVID and their perceptions of the negative impacts of Douro as a World Heritage Site, tourist demand has increased consid­
tourism. erably, bringing the tourism dimension to the forefront.
The choice of Lamego was made because this small town is located in
H5c. There is a relationship between residents’ perceived risk associ­
the centre of the Portuguese Douro World Heritage Site, which has led to
ated with COVID and their support for STD.
an exponential growth in tourism supply and demand. This growth has
led to the appearance of the first less positive impacts, which are
2.7. Tourism impacts and support for STD
beginning to be felt by the local population, which should be minimized
through the development of a STD plan. We believe that this study can
In tourism literature, the term ’tourism impact’ has gained new ap­
help local authorities to take more assertive measures, avoiding the
proaches since the Second World War, continuously linked to the
temptation to repeat management models based on flows and revenues.
development of tourism, its characteristics and its perception (Postma &
Schmuecker, 2017). Tourism impacts are the result of human behaviour
3.2. Sampling and data collection methods
arising from interactions between tourists and the subsystems of the area
in which they occur (Ardahaey, 2011). Tourism is one of the main types
A quantitative approach was used, carried out through the use of a
of human activities that have an impact on the local community. In
questionnaire. The questionnaire was applied to the residents of the
recent years, several studies have examined residents’ perceptions of
historic town of Lamego-Portugal.
tourism impacts (Sharma & Dyer, 2012; Stylidis, Biran & Szivas, 2014;
Due to cost and time constraints, as well as the tightness caused by
Timothy, 2021; Vareiro & Mendes, 2015), and this issue continues to be
the pandemic (restrictions and residents’ fears of health repercussions),
of great importance (Deery, Jago, & Fredline, 2012; Ko & Stewart, 2002;
the sample for the study was chosen based on the convenience and
Rua, 2020). Based on the ’triple bottom line approach’ (Stylidis, Biran,
purposive sampling technique. As a non-probability sampling technique,
Sit, & Szivas, 2014), several studies have described the impacts of
not all population members had an equal chance of participating in the
tourism in its economic, socio-cultural and environmental dimensions
study. However, this method is efficient and cost effective to access
(Nematpour & Faraji, 2019; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2010). Each of
subjects who would otherwise be difficult to reach. As considered by
these dimensions can include both positive (benefits) and negative
Abedsaeidi and Amiraliakbari (2015), the risk of bias is low because the
(costs) impacts (Prayag, Hosany, & Odeh, 2013; Stylidis et al., 2014).
population is homogeneous in terms of the target characteristic used in
In recent decades, many authors have conducted research on the
this research (to be resident of Lamego). Other studies (Rodrigues et al.,
links that can be established between residents’ perceptions of tourism
2020; Vieira et al., 2016; Vinerean et al., 2021) used this design to
impacts and their support for tourism development (Gursoy et al., 2002;
determine the sample from residents and measure their perceptions,
Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; Ko & Stewart, 2002; Nicholas et al., 2009;
attitudes, and behaviors concerning tourism activities.
Nugroho & Numata, 2022; Rodrigues et al., 2020; Sharma & Dyer, 2009;
The questionnaire was conducted online, using Google Forms. Data
Vieira et al., 2016). Consequently, this study assumes that residents’
collection took place between May and August 2021. Only Lamego
support for tourism development can be influenced by their perceptions
residents who had lived in the town for at least one year were invited to
of tourism impacts (economic, social, cultural and environmental), both
take the survey. The link to the questionnaire was posted on social
negative and positive. Thus, based on the social exchange model, there
networks and on local groups of interest for the residents (for example,
will always be groups of residents who are in favour of tourism devel­
institutional facebook page of the Higher School of technology and
opment if they perceive the exchange to be valuable for the well-being of
management of Lamego). Also, some respondents were selected purpo­
the community, while others will take an opposite position if they feel
sively from the local community and the questionnaire was sent it to
that the exchange has detrimental effects (Cañizares, Tabales, & García,
them by email. The email addresses were selected purposively due to
2014; Chang & Huang, 2017).
suitable access to the respondents, as well as their importance in this
In this context, the following hypotheses were established.
community (key-informants) (local public sector managers, heritage and
H6a. There is a relationship between residents’ perception of the hospitality managers). Once the respondent completed the survey they
positive impacts of tourism and their support for STD were asked to invite other people who had also lived in Lamego for at
least 1 year and were over 18 years old.
H6b. There is a relationship between residents’ perception of the
In total, 270 response entries were received. After data inspection, 20
negative impacts of tourism and their support for STD
responses were removed. Some reasons for this removal were: some
respondents had not resided in the town for over a year (5). Others were
removed because although the respondents worked in the town they did

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

not reside in the municipality (5). Other questionnaires were discarded Table 1
for incompletion (missing values) (10). The final valid dataset contained Concepts’ operationalization.
of 250 responses, reflecting an accurate completion rate of 93%. Concept Scale proposed by
Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson. (2010) propose as a requirement of
Community attachment (CA) Lee (2013). It is composed of 11 items.
implementing a structural equation model, the use of a sample size be­ Community involvement (CI) Lee (2013). It is composed of 5 items.
tween 200 and 400 participants, in order to be able to replicate the Perceived benefits (PB) Látková and Vogt (2012). It is composed of 12
model in a similar context. Considering the recommendation of Hair, items: positive impacts (Perdue et al., 1990;
Black, Babin, and Anderson (2010), the sample size of 250 response Lankford & Howard, 1994) (one of the items was
divided into 2) = 13 items.
shows to be adequate. Perceived costs (PC) Látková and Vogt (2012). It is composed of 8
items: negative impacts (Base: Perdue, Long and
3.3. Research instrument and scales Allen 1990; Lankford & Howard, 1994)
Economic dependence (ED) Ribeiro et al. (2017), which was based on the
works of Perdue et al. (1990), McGehee and
According to the proposed model, the questionnaire addresses the
Andereck (2004), Lindberg and Johnson (1997),
factors that influence (residents’) support for STD. As such, the research and Wang and Pfister (2008). It is composed of 4
instrument employed was a questionnaire incorporating two sections. items.
The first section integrated information on the objectives of the survey Local government management Assante et al. (2012). It is composed of 3 items.
of tourism (LGMT)
and conditions of participation in the survey (residents over 18 years old
Perceived risk (PR) Joo et al. (2021), which was based on the studies
living in Lamego for more than one year), as well as characterization of of Kim (2010) and Jeong and Cho (2020). It is
the concept of STD. The second section focused on obtaining informa­ composed of 4 items.
tion about the respondents’ perceptions about scale items associated Support for sustainable tourism Lee (2013), which was based on the work of
with the model’s hypotheses. The third section was dedicated to the development (STD) Nicholas et al. (2009). It is composed of 5 items

socio-demographic profile of the respondents (including gender, age, Source: Own elaboration
education, employment status and monthly income).
The scales used to measure the concepts were taken from the relevant - Perceived impacts (benefits and costs): Perceived benefits and costs
literature and slightly adjusted for the context in question. The mea­ were measured by the scales developed by Látková and Vogt (2012),
surement scales were translated and validated, and a pre-test was car­ with 12 and 8 items respectively. One item of the benefits scale was
ried out with a diverse group of 10 residents with varying educational divided into two, therefore, in this study, this scale contains 13 items.
backgrounds, age ranges, and genders. This process enabled the iden­ - The economic dependence variable was measured with the scale
tification and resolution of any potential problems, and to check their proposed by Ribeiro et al. (2017), comprising four items. It is a re­
adaptability to the study population. spondents’ self-perception measure about the association between
Also, in the exploratory phase of the research, several residents key- their work, family’s income, and the tourism industry. The items are
informants (local government authorities, heritage managers, accom­ the following: “My family’s economic future depends on tourism in
modation managers and some other residents), where invited to this town”; “Tourism in this town helps me to pay my bills”; “I would
comment concerning item comprehensibility. Two academic scholars benefit economically from more tourism in this town”; “A part of my
that live in Lamego were also invited to discuss and assess the survey family’s income is linked to tourism”.
instrument. From their feedback the final questionnaire incorporated - Local government management of tourism (LGMT): This variable
minor adjustments primarily aimed at enhancing the clarity of the measures the residents’ perceptions of the government’s ability to
questions. For example, the perceived benefits scale, originally manage tourism efficiently. Assante et al. (2012) argues that all
composed by 12 items (Látková & Vogt, 2012), aggregates, in the pre­ stakeholders can benefit from a government that effectively manages
sent study, 13 items, since it was considered by the key-informants that tourism, and that effective management mitigates adverse effects
one of the items should be divided into two. The original item: “Tourism involves implementing a combination of preventive measures,
helps preserve the cultural identity and restoration of historical build­ regulating development activities, and imposing financial
ings” was, in the present study, divided into: “PB6. To promote the constraints.
restoration of historic buildings” and “PB7. Help preserve cultural
identity”. Assante et al. (2012) developed this scale, with three items (Cron­
All the items were measured using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from bach’s alpha score for this latent variable was 0.77). In the present
1: “Strongly disagree” to 5: “Strongly agree.” The scales were translated study, some adjustments were made regarding the original scale to take
in Romanian and slightly adjusted to reflect the study’s scope. the local governments’ activities rather than the central governments’
The operationalization of the model constructs can be seen in activities (for example: we used “Town Council” instead of “State gov­
Table 1. Next, some clarification about the measurement scales used in ernment”). The items in the present study are the following: “The town
this study will be given. Council does a good job of balancing the needs of residents and tourists”;
“Town Council listens to residents on their concerns about tourism”, and
- Community attachment variable was measured with the scale of Lee “The quality of public services has improved in Lamego due to tourism”.
(2013) with 11 items. “Community attachment was composed of
place dependence (measured by three items), place identity (three - Perceived risk: This variable was measured with a unidimensional, 4-
items), affection attachment (three items), and social bonding (two item scale, based on Kim’s (2010) and Jeong and Cho’s (2020)
items).” (Lee, 2013, p. 3). The scale has an Alpha de Cronbach of studies.
0.93.
- Community involvement: Community involvement represents the The items of the original scale are the following: PR1: “Incoming
extent to which residents are involved in sharing issues about their tourists increase my anxiety/stress related to COVID-19 prevention”,
lives with their communities. The scale (Lee, 2013) measures the PR2: “Incoming tourists increase the risk of COVID-19 infection”, PR3:
means and planning of involving local community (with 3 items), “Incoming tourists increase inconvenience in outdoor activities”, and
and the level of community involvement pertaining to participation PR4: “Incoming tourists make me reduce my outdoor activities”. The
in the management and decision-making processes (with 2 items). In scale’s reliability indices are good, reflecting the internal consistency of
the original scale, in the process of data depuration one of the items this construct (Composite reliability - CR = 0.925, Average variance
was eliminated.

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

extracted - AVE = 0.756). Table 2

In the case of perceived risk we are referring to the negative out­ Profile of the respondents’ (N = 250).
comes that may result from their decision making (individual level). As Variable N %
the study of Chamings (2020) stated, the residents’ resistance and hos­
Gender Female 159 63.6%
tility against tourists during the pandemic indicate their concern about Male 91 36.4%
interactions with tourists. In some cases, residents decided fencing Age (years) Min = 18, Max = 68, Mean = 38.3,
themselves off from tourists. To measure this behavior is the purpose of Standard deviation = 14.9
the items related with the inconvenience/decrease in outdoor activities Education Middle school or 8 3.2%
under
(PR3 and PR4), as proposed in Joo et al. (2021). Secondary school 86 34.4%
University degree 156 62.4%
- Support for STD: The scale developed by Lee (2013) was used to Employment status Employee 119 47.6%
evaluate the extent of a resident’s intention to support sustainable Employee - self- 35 14.0%
employed
tourism development, with five items (Composite reliability = 0.91).
Domestic worker 6 2.4%
The items reflected: the support residents give to community-based Student 80 32.0%
sustainable tourism initiatives; the participation in sustainable Retired 10 4.0%
tourism-related plans, in cultural exchanges, and in promoting her­ Monthly income (in Euros) Up to 500 euros 18 7.2%
itage education and conservation; the cooperation in heritage From 501 to 1000 65 26.0%
euros
tourism planning and development initiatives; and the compliance From 1001 to 1500 56 22.4%
with heritage protection standards. euros
From 1501 to 2000 58 23.2%
The scales used to measure the concepts were taken from the relevant euros
More than 2000 53 21.2%
literature and slightly adjusted for the context in question.
euros
Has a family member involved in the No 190 76.0%
3.4. Data analysis tourism sector Yes 60 24.0%
Number of persons in the household Min = 1, Max = 6, Mean = 3.2,
SPSS - version 26 for Windows and Amos - version 26 for Windows Standard deviation = 1.0
Time in the community (years) Min = 1, Max = 68, Mean = 27.7,
were used to perform the descriptive analysis and structural equation Standard deviation = 18.7
modelling, respectively.
The technique of covariance based Structural Equation Modeling Source: Own elaboration
(CB-SEM) was used to understand the relationship between latent con­
structs (factors), which are assessed by observable measures (in­ The household consists of 3.2 persons on average - 24.0% have a family
dicators). SEM adopts a confirmatory approach rather than an member working in the tourism sector. Of the 250 respondents, 18
exploratory one (Dash & Paul, 2021). Given that the objective is theory (7.2%) belong to households with a monthly net income of up to 500
testing and confirmation (estimate a factor-based model), according to euros, 65 (26.0%) from 501 to 1000 euros, 56 (22.4%) from 1001 to
the authors, it is more appropriate to use the CB-SEM method (through 1500 euros, 58 (23.2%) from 1501 to 2000 euros and 53 (21.2%) with
AMOS), as opposed to Partial Least Square (PLS)-SEM, which seeks to more than 2000 euros.
predict and develop theory.
Our strategy for model development involves adopting an incre­ 4.2. Descriptive and reliability analyses
mental approach. We start by testing an initial model, which undergoes
successive modifications until we arrive at a version that demonstrates Table 3 shows the characterization of the scales used in the proposed
both a reliable estimation of its predictive capabilities and theoretical model.
justification (Chen, 2001). Hence, employing the two-step approach As for the community attachment scale, the answers to the questions
entails first testing the measurement model and then validating the in the scale show a strong connection to the community, with nine of the
structural model. As a first step, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was 11 items having percentages of agreement (percentage of response 4 and
conducted for the measurement model. The assessment of the quality of 5) higher than 50%, a median equal to 4 and a mean greater than 3.5.
the measurement model for each construct was done by analysing the The community involvement scale includes five items and shows mean
convergent and discriminant validity. In the second step, we estimated and median values close to 3.5. In other words, there is moderate
the structural model. The maximum likelihood method was used to involvement in the community on the part of the respondents.
evaluate the measurement and structural models. We analysed several Regarding the economic dependence scale, four questions were
indices to assess the quality of fit of the estimated models: the
chi-squared value (χ2), the degrees of freedom (df) and the ratio χ2/df; Table 3
the comparative fit index (CFI); the root mean square error of approxi­ Characterization of the scales used in the proposed model (N = 250).
mation (RMSEA). Latent Variable (1) Median Mean SD Alpha
Cronbach
4. Presentation and discussion of results
Community attachment (CA) 3.90 3.72 1.02 0.952
Community involvement (CI) 3.30 3.26 1.00 0.827
4.1. Profile of the sample Perceived benefits (PB) 4.39 4.29 0.66 0.934
Perceived costs (PC) 2.75 2.70 1.02 0.886
Table 2 presents the main information that defines the socio- Economic dependence (ED) 2.00 2.36 1.28 0.930
Local government management of 3.00 2.88 0.98 0.849
demographic profile of the residents who answered the questionnaire. tourism (LGMT)
The sample includes 250 residents who have lived in the town of Perceived risk (PR) 3.00 3.02 1.12 0.872
Lamego for at least one year and are between 18 and 68 years old (mean Support for sustainable tourism 3.17 3.18 0.93 0.862
= 38.3, standard deviation = 14.9). On average, they have lived in the development (STD)
municipality of Lamego for 27.7 years (standard deviation = 18.7). The (1) Likert scale responses: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Partly disagree, 3 = Neither
majority are female (63.6%) and have a higher education (62.4%). Most agree nor disagree, 4 = Partly agree, 5 = Strongly agree.
are employees (47.6%), students (32.0%) and self-employed (14.0%). Source: Own elaboration

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

included to assess the degree of “dependence on the tourism industry” of Table 4

the resident respondents. The results show a low dependency on tourism Measurement model standardised factor loadings, Average Variance Extracted
(the average and median values close to 2). The perceived benefits scale (AVE), and Construct Reliability (CR).
includes 13 questions to assess the residents’ opinion on the economic, Items/scales Factor AVE CR
socio-cultural and environmental effects that tourism activity could loadings
bring to their community. The results show a perception of high benefits Community attachment (CA) 0.663 0.951
from tourism activity (median equal or higher than 4 and mean higher CA1. The infrastructure and resources provided (0.223)
than 4). In relation to perceived costs, in general, there is a low by this community are the besta.
CA2. I prefer to live in this community over other 0.772
perception of costs of tourism activity, since all the eight items of the
communities
scale had a percentage of agreement (percentage of response 4 and 5) CA3. I like living in this community more than 0.811
lower than 50%, with a median less than or equal to 3 and a mean less other communities
than 3. CA4. I can identify the way of life of this 0.744
The perceived risk included four items to assess the opinion on the community
CA5. I feel that this community is part of me 0.890
perceived risks regarding the pandemic caused by COVID-19. Both the CA6. Living in this community says a lot about 0.822
median and the mean values show a tendency towards neutral opinions who I am
regarding this variable (Median = 3.00; Mean = 3.02). That is, the re­ CA7. Living in this community means a lot to me 0.927
spondents did not seem to evaluate incoming tourists as a source of risk CA8. I am very attached to this community 0.932
CA9. I feel a strong sense of belonging to the 0.899
which undermines residents’ mental and physical well-being. Finally,
community
support for STD was assessed through the degree of agreement with six CA10. Many of my friends/family prefer this 0.676
items. Moderate support (mean value = 3.18) was found among resi­ community to other communities
dents who answered this questionnaire regarding this dependent CA11. My friends/family would be disappointed 0.602
variable. if I went to live in another community
Community involvement (CI) 0.500 0.824
Cronbach’s α values ranging from 0.827 to 0.952, thus indicating the
CI1. I participate in activities related to 0.568
reliability of all scales used in this study. sustainable tourism
CI2. I support research for the sustainable 0.480
4.3. Results of the measurement model development of this community
CI3. I am involved in planning and managing 0.909
sustainable tourism in this community
Taking into account the literature, we grouped the scale items into CI4. I am involved in decision-making for 0.892
dimensions (constructs). Their factor structure was analysed using sustainable tourism in this community
structural equation modelling. For their validation, the procedures CI5. I encourage residents of this community to 0.568
proposed by Hair et al. (2010) were applied. The maximum likelihood invest in sustainable tourism
Perceived benefits (PB) 0.521 0.934
method was used, assuming correlation between dimensions. PB1. Improve the local economy 0.698
To investigate the normality of the data, the skewness and kurtosis PB2. Encourage the creation of more public 0.710
coefficients were evaluated. The maximum absolute values were 2.2 for infrastructure (e.g., roads, public facilities)
skewness and 4.2 for kurtosis - values smaller than the critical values PB3. Provide incentives for the creation of new 0.698
green areas
suggested by some authors as a threshold for data suitability for SEM
PB4. Provide jobs wanted by residents 0.786
(skewness coefficient <3.0 and kurtosis coefficient <7.0) (Ribeiro, PB5. Encourage the protection and conservation 0.729
Pinto, Silva, & Woosnam, 2018; West et al., 1995). To assess common of heritage resources
method bias, Harman’s one-factor test was conducted by subjecting all PB6. To promote the restoration of historic 0.749
items in the model to unrotated exploratory single factor analysis (Jor­ buildings
PB7. Help preserve cultural identity. 0.769
dan and Troth, 2020). The single factor accounted 13.0% of the variance PB8. Improve the offer of shopping, restaurants, 0.738
among the variables – indicating that common method bias was not a and entertainment areas
concern within the measures. PB9. Improving the quality of life 0.707
As part of the evaluation of the scales, we attempted to assess the PB10. Encourage the creation of more public 0.744
spaces
performance of the original scales. An initial analysis revealed the ex­
PB11. Increase the number of recreational/leisure 0.646
istence of one item with a standardised factor loading that was below the activities for residents
recommended value, which called into question the factorial validity of PB12. Contribute to an increase in income and 0.720
the model: Item 1 of the community attachment scale (“The in­ quality of life
frastructures and resources provided by this community are the best”) PB13. Improving the physical appearance of 0.680
spaces
with a factor weight of 0.223. For this reason, this item was excluded Perceived costs (PC) 0.518 0.893
from the model (Table 4). After excluding this item, the new model PC1. Lead to conflict between residents and 0.485
showed the existence of 3 items with a standardised factor loading below tourists
0.50 (item CE2: 0.480, item PC1: 0.485, item STD1: 0.489), but close PC2. Cause a decrease in employment income in 0.518
the tourism sector
enough to this value not to question factor validity. All remaining items
PC3. Increase the cost of living 0.736
had standardised factor loadings greater than 0.50, which ensures PC4. Cause more pollution 0.747
construct reliability of each construct and confirms that the item spec­ PC5. Cause overcrowding in the community 0.773
ification is correct (Marôco, 2010) (Table 4). Tables 4 and 5 present the PC6. Increase property taxes unfairly 0.862
final confirmatory factor analysis results. PC7. Increase traffic problems 0.763
PC8. Increase crime rates 0.786
To assess convergent validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) Economic dependence 0.771 0.931
was used (Table 4), whose values greater than or equal to 0.50 are an ED1. My family’s economic future depends on 0.870
indicator of appropriate convergent validity (Hair et al., 2010). In terms tourism in this town
of reliability (or internal consistency), all constructs had composite ED2. Tourism in this town helps me to pay my 0.915
bills
reliability values greater than 0.70 (Table 4), a value indicated by
ED3. I would benefit economically from more 0.847
several authors (Hair et al., 2010; Marôco, 2010) as a minimum for the tourism in this town
reliability of a construct. (continued on next page)
If you compare the square root of the VME of each pair of dimensions

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

Table 4 (continued ) support for STD, whose correlation (0.762) was higher than the square
Items/scales Factor AVE CR root of the VME of community involvement (0.707), did not meet this
loadings condition (Table 5).
ED4. A part of my family’s income is linked to 0.879
Following the indices proposed by Hair et al. (2010), the following
tourism values are reported to assess the quality of fit: the value of the chi-square
Local government management of tourism 0.667 0.856 statistic and the respective degrees of freedom, the CFI and the RMSEA.
(LGMT) The chi-square test (X2 = 2051.261; degrees of freedom = 1282; p <
LGMT1. The town Council does a good job of 0.860
0.001) is significant. However, the values of the ratio X2/gl = 1.600, CFI
balancing the needs of residents and tourists
LGMT2. Town Council listens to residents on their 0.892 = 0.920 and RMSEA = 0.049 (95%CI: 0.045–0.053) ensure a good
concerns about tourism quality of model fit according to Marôco (2010) and Hair et al. (2010)
LGMT3. The quality of public services has 0.683 (Table 4). Given these values, the reliability and validity of the in­
improved in Lamego due to tourism struments as well as the overall quality of the fitted model are assured.
Perceived risk (PR) 0.604 0.858
PR1. Tourist arrival increases my anxiety/stress 0.707
related to covid 19 4.4. Structural model results
PR2. Tourist arrival increases the risk of covid 0.681
infection 19 A structural equation model was used to test the proposed model.
PR3. Tourist arrival increases the inconvenience 0.881
The path coefficients (β) and the significance level of each proposed
of activities in the town center
PR4. Tourists’ arrival leads me to reduce my 0.823 relationship are presented in Table 6.
activity in the town center The model showed a good fit with Х2 = 2053.129; degrees of
Support for sustainable tourism development 0.594 0.893 freedom = 1283; p < 0.001; Х2/degrees of freedom = 1.600; CFI =
(Support for STD) 0.920; RMSEA = 0.049 (CI90%: 0.045–0.053).
SSTD1. I support the development of community- 0.489
based sustainable tourism initiatives
The results show that support for STD is positively influenced by
SSTD2. I participate in sustainable tourism- 0.883 community involvement (β = 0.401, p < 0.001), economic dependence
related plans (β = 0.092, p < 0.001), local government management of tourism (β =
SSTD3. I participate in cultural exchanges 0.870 0.050, p = 0.045) and perceived costs (β = 0.086, p = 0.031).
between (local) residents and visitors
The results further show that perceived benefits are positively
SSTD4. I cooperate in heritage tourism planning 0.855
and development initiatives influenced by community attachment (β = 0.203, p < 0.001) and local
SSTD5. I participate in promoting heritage 0.876 government management of tourism (β = 0.107, p = 0.003). Perceived
education and conservation costs are positively influenced by economic dependence (β = 0.101, p =
SSTD6. I comply with heritage protection 0.540 0.021) and perceived risks (β = 0.212, p < 0.001). The other hypothe­
standards to reduce the negative effects of
tourism
sized relationships were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The
Model adjustment: following figure visually represents the results obtained.
Х 2 = 2051.261; Degrees of freedom = 1282; p < 0.001; Х 2/Degrees of freedom = 1.600 The model exhibited strong predictive potential as all of its R2 values
CFI = 0.920; RMSEA = 0.049 (IC90%: 0.045–0.053) surpassed the cutoff threshold of 0.1 (Barros-Contreras, Morales-Serazzi,
AVE - Average Variance Extracted; CR - Construct Reliability. Torres-Toukoumidis, & Palma-Ruiz, 2022). As for R2 estimates, support
a
item excluded from the final model - the factor loading indicated refers to the for STD showed a value of 0.656, meaning that the remaining constructs
initial model before the exclusion of the item. in the structural model accounted for 65.6% of variation in support for
Source: Own elaboration STD. The smallest R2 was 0.173, observed from the construct perceived
tourism costs.
with the correlation coefficients between these dimensions, you can
determine the discriminant validity. Discriminant validity is ensured if 4.5. Discussion of results
the square root values of the VME are higher than the correlations be­
tween the dimensions (Hair et al., 2010). Table 5 shows the correlations In light of the many challenges in implementing STD practices,
and VME values and confirms that almost all dimensions fulfilled these especially in face of the uncertainties (for example, the global pandemic
conditions. Only the correlation between community involvement and caused by COVID-19) that threatened the established tourism

Table 5
Correlations between the scales and the square root of Average Variance Extracted (VME).
Factors Community Community Perceived Perceived Economic Local government Support Sustainable Perceived
Involvement attachment benefits Costs Dependence management of Tourism risk
tourism Development

Community (0.707)
Involvement
Community 0.340 (0.814)
attachment
Perceived benefits 0.261 0.428 (0.722)
Perceived Costs 0.184 0.087 − 0.031 (0.720)
Economic 0.422 0.378 0.248 0.266 (0.878)
Dependence
Local government 0.130 0.032 0.220 0.003 0.113 (0.817)
management of
tourism
Support Sustainable 0.762 0.274 0.241 0.268 0.522 0.209 (0.771)
Tourism
Development
Perceived risk 0.152 0.045 0.007 0.358 0.208 0.077 0.107 (0.777)

The diagonal elements (in parentheses) indicate the square root of the VME. The off-diagonal elements correspond to the correlations between the latent constructs.
Source: Own elaboration

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

Table 6 Nevertheless, the findings did not confirm the relationship between
Standardised and non-standardised coefficients of the structural model. community attachment and perceived costs (H1b) and support for STD
Direct effects Standardised p Hypotheses (H1c). Some authors (Dodds, 2010; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2010; Sir­
coefficient (β) ikaya, Teye & Sönmez, 2002) point to the different perceptions of local
Community attachment - > 0.203 <0.001 H1a: communities in developed or developing countries in relation to the
Perceived benefits Accepted relationships studied here. As we understand it, we can find a paral­
Community attachment - > − 0.014 0.770 H1b: lelism in relation to the regions of a country, as the fact that a region
Perceived costs Rejected belongs to an area with low population density, as is the case in Lamego,
Community attachment - > 0.027 0.313 H1c:
Support for STD Rejected
can lead to different patterns of perception, as the extreme need for
Community Involvement - > 0.065 0.193 H2a: economic development in these regions minimises the view of costs,
Perceived benefits Rejected although they can be perceived. The same result is shown in a study
Community Involvement - > 0.063 0.344 H2b: applied to Mi Su, a small community in Thailand (Hyun, Pattaramook, &
Perceived costs Rejected
Jeonghee, 2016). Likewise, the study of Chen and Chen (2010) found
Community Involvement - > 0.401 <0.001 H2c:
Support for STD Accepted out that the effect of community attachment on perceived costs of
Economic dependence - > 0.025 0.440 H3a: tourism was insignificant. More recently, Kim et al. (2021) confirmed
Perceived benefits Rejected that community attachment influenced residents’ perception of the
Economic dependence - > 0.101 0.021 H3b: positive impacts of tourism development, but not the negative impacts.
Perceived costs Accepted
Economic dependence - > 0.092 <0.001 H3c:
The authors argue that the negative impacts of tourism, for example,
Support for STD Accepted noise, congestion, rent increases, would be common to every resident
Local government management of 0.107 0.003 H4a: irrespective of their level of community attachment.
tourism - > Perceived benefits Accepted Contrary to the expectations, H1c was not confirmed. Although there
Local government management of − 0.036 0.433 H4b:
are several research studies that reclaim a (positive) significant rela­
tourism - > Perceived costs Rejected
Local government management of 0.050 0.045 H4c: tionship between community attachment and the support residents give
tourism - > STD Accepted to STD (Brida et al., 2014; Eslami et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2021; Lee,
Perceived risk - > Perceived − 0.029 0.406 H5a: 2013; Nugroho & Numata, 2022), others also have confirmed that
benefits Rejected community attachment had no effect on resident’s support (Gursoy, Chi,
Perceived risk - > Perceived costs 0.212 H5b:
& Dyer, 2010; Gursoy et al., 2002; Um & Crompton, 1987).
<0.001
Accepted
Perceived risk - > Support for STD − 0.043 0.090 H5c: Secondly, as for the hypotheses that establishes a relationship be­
Rejected tween community involvement and residents’ perceptions of tourism
Perceived benefits - > Support for 0.013 0.775 H6a: impacts (H2a and H2b), the results of the present study indicate that
STD Rejected
they cannot be empirically confirmed. The study by Sutresna, Suyana,
Perceived costs - > Support for 0.086 0.031 H6a:
STD Accepted Saskara, and Wiwin (2019) finds a similar conclusion. Nugroho and
Model fit: Numata (2022) also didn’t find a significant direct effect between
Х 2 = 2053.129; degrees of freedom= 1283; p < 0.001; Х 2/degrees of freedom= 1.600 community involvement and perceived costs, despite having found a
CFI = 0.920; RMSEA = 0.049 (IC90%: 0.045–0.053) direct, significant and positive relationship between community
Source: Own elaboration involvement and perceived benefits. We presume that the rejection of
these two hypothesis in the present study could be related to the fact that
development model in most destinations, many communities in low- the respondents have a moderate level of involvement (mean value =
density territories need to reinvent the ways they operate by systemat­ 3.26; 76.94% of respondents report that they are not involved in plan­
ically take into account the perceptions of one of the key stakeholders’ in ning and management and 79.6% report that they are not involved in
tourism destinations, the residents. Analysing the factors that influence decision-making regarding STD), which may result in a lower under­
residents support for STD remains an important issue for the future standing of the impacts, both positive and negative, and may explain the
community-based tourism development initiatives, particularly the absence of a relationship between community involvement and
factor related to residents perceived risk, thus filling the gap in the perceived benefits and costs.
tourism literature identified by Joo et al. (2021). To fill this gap, this In accordance with was established in the hypothesis H2c, the results
study propose a research model of antecedents of residents support for seem to confirm that community involvement has a positive and directly
STD that includes perceived risk as a predictor variable. influence in the support for STD. It is concluded that the likelihood of
The structural model of this study includes eight constructs and 17 support for STD is higher when residents are more involved in their
paths. Fig. 2 shows the hypotheses and the results of the test conducted communities, i.e. the results seem to indicate that the participation, of
on all the constructs in the model. From the evaluation of the structural the resident community in the planning/management and decision-
model is concerned, several research results can be drawn. First, the making process related to tourism development influences the level of
results indicate a positive and direct effect between community support for STD. The research findings of Lee (2013), Kim et al. (2021)
attachment and the perceived benefits of tourism, confirming H1a. That and Chan, Marzuki, and Mohtar (2021) also point in this direction,
is, residents who are firmly attached to their municipality are more showing a positive but indirect relationship between these two
likely to perceive the impact of tourism positively. This result is constructs.
consistent with the findings of Chen and Chen (2010), Gursoy et al. Third, no significant relationship was found between economic
(2002), Lee (2013), Nunkoo and So (2016) and Rua (2020). Eslami et al. dependence and tourism benefits (H3a). Although this finding contra­
(2019) also have found that attachment to the community had a direct dicts the results from other studies (Chen & Chen, 2010; Ko & Stewart,
and substantial effect on the full spectrum of tourism impacts (eco­ 2002; McDowall & Choi, 2010; Perdue et al., 1990) that demonstrated
nomic, socio-cultural and environmental). More recently, Kim et al. that economic dependence has significant effects on the positive impacts
(2021) and Nugroho and Numata (2022) also finds a direct, positive and of tourism, other studies (Kim et al., 2021) also indicate that the eco­
significant relationship between community attachment and perceived nomic dependence on tourism is not directly related to residents’
benefits. The more attached residents are to the community, the more perception of the positive impacts.
likely they are to perceive the positive impacts of tourism development Butler (1980) outlines a five-phase cycle that resorts and destinations
(Kim et al., 2021). typically undergo: exploration, involvement, development, consolida­
tion, and post-stagnation (including stabilization, decline, or

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

Fig. 2. Standardised coefficients of the structural model.

Source: Own elaboration

rejuvenation). Across these distinct phases, various significant changes tolerate the negative effects of tourism. In this regard, Kim et al. (2021)
take place. These changes encompass the influx and characteristics of also confirmed that economic dependence on tourism influenced resi­
visitors, the development of infrastructure, shifts in marketing and dents’ perception of the negative impacts of tourism development. The
advertising strategies, alterations to the natural and built environment, authors have pointed out that this can be comprehensible in situations
the level of local community involvement in tourism, and the evolution where the revenue generated from tourism fails to meet the expectations
of attitudes towards the tourism sector. These changes accumulate over of the residents. Due to their low income and reliance on tourism for
time and culminate in one of the alternative scenarios during the financial stability, they become more susceptible to the negative effects
post-stagnation phase, depending on the actions taken by the commu­ of tourism.
nity to ameliorate the adverse effects of tourism development. In this On the other hand, the relationship between economic dependence
sense, and taking into account the life cycle of destinations presented by and STD support (H3c) also appears to be positive and significant, that
Butler (1980), we can say that this town is in the stage of involvement is, the results also confirm that respondents with high economic
where the economic benefits associated with economic dependence are dependence tend to develop a favorable support toward STD, which is
desirable but not yet explicitly perceived by the community. consistent with the findings of numerous studies (Kim et al., 2021;
Another possible explanation could be related to the low degree of Látková & Vogt, 2012; Ribeiro et al., 2017; Teng, 2019).
dependence on the tourism industry revealed by the resident re­ Fourth, local government management of tourism showed a direct
spondents (mean score close to 2). Since the residents do not tend to positive effect on perceived benefits (H4a). As mentioned in the litera­
depend on tourism-based employment, it can be assumed that this can ture review, Assante et al. (2012) demonstrated the relationship be­
help to explain why there are not a significant relationship with tween these two concepts and concluded that residents have more
perceived tourism benefits. The studies of Vieira et al. (2016), and Kim positive attitudes towards tourism impacts when they feel that the au­
et al. (2021) also confirm this non-significant relationship. thorities have effective management (Anjos & Kennell, 2019; Nunkoo &
Nevertheless, on the one hand, the relationship between economic So, 2016). Also, the study of Vieira et al. (2016) have indicated that if
dependence and perceived costs (H3b) seems to be supported by the residents perceive local government management of tourism as efficient,
data. This result points out that the higher the economic dependence the they are more aware of the benefits of tourism. The hypothesis that
stronger is also the perception of tourism costs. The relationship be­ connects local government management of tourism and perceived costs
tween personal benefits from tourism activities and perceptions about (H4b) didn’t show statistical significance. On the other hand, the hy­
the negative impacts of tourism may be, in the opinion of Ko and Stewart pothesis directly related to local government management of tourism
(2002), dependent on the educational level of residents. In the present and support for STD (H4c) is also accepted, which is consistent with the
study, the respondents that economically depend on tourism seem to be studies of Assante et al. (2012) and Vieira et al. (2016).
perfectly aware of specific costs of the tourism activities. It should be Fifth, contrary to what was hypothesized, there is no significant
noted that the vast majority (62.4%) of the respondents hold a university relationship between perceived risk and perceived benefits of tourism
degree, which may have contributed to the establishment of this positive (H6a). Also, no significant relationship was found between perceived
relationship. From the results, it seems that more informed local resi­ risk associated with COVID and support for STD (H6c). The latter result
dents may be more critical about tourism phenomena, and tend to not contradicts the findings of the study of Joo et al. (2021), in which a

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I. Vieira et al. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 32 (2024) 100895

relationship between perceived risk and support for STD was evidenced. exchange theory, the proposed model to examined the factors influ­
The authors established and empirically confirmed that residents’ encing residents’ support for STD, in order to understand how the atti­
perceived risk from tourists would have a negative influence on their tudes of this group are formed and managed more successfully. A
support for tourism. In the present study, the fact that we found that the significant portion of the literature emphasizes the critical importance of
perception of risk tends to be, for the respondents, neutral or relatively examining residents’ perceptions as one of the most important stake­
low, may help to explain this non-significance relationships. Lamego holder groups to be considered in tourism planning initiatives (Goebel
residents’ don’t tend to see incoming tourists as a risk source that rises et al., 2020). Based on stakeholder theory, the results of this study
the chance of COVID-19 infection and causes disturbance to outdoor strengthen the role that residents of communities in low-density areas
activities. However, the results suggest a strong positive relationship can play in decision-making and planning STD programs.
between perceived risk and perceived costs (H6b). That is, the higher the Furthermore, the study results theoretically contribute by estab­
perceived risk on the part of residents, the higher is also their perception lishing an empirical relationship between perceived risk and the impacts
of the costs of tourism. This is an important finding since responds to the of tourism (perceived costs), thus filling the literature gap on the need of
call for future research from the study of Joo et al. (2021) that expressed quantitative research to examine the effects of this important variable,
the need to test how perceived risk affects perceived benefits and costs, proposed by Joo et al. (2021). That is, by introducing the risk perception
which in turn, shape support for tourism. There are few studies looking variable in the proposed model, we intended, on the one hand, to bring
at host populations’ perceptions of tourism activities during or after a some innovation to this type of approach, and, on the other, to draw
pandemic (Vinerean et al., 2021). Due to their novelty, these hypotheses attention to the importance of studying risk perception from the resi­
therefore need to be further explored in future studies of residents. dent’s point of view, so that the plans can consider this factor that is
Finally, the findings on the relationships between tourism impacts increasingly relevant, as it became clear with COVID19.
(positive and negative) and support for STD (H5a and H5b) are pre­
sented. The results of the present study seem to indicate the non- 5.2. Managerial and social implications
existence of a relationship between residents’ perception of the posi­
tive impacts of tourism and their support for STD, not confirming the Some implications and practical recommendations can be pointed
H5a. This result was not expected, and contradicts several research out, especially for managers, policy makers and authorities, as under­
discoveries found in the literature (for example, Nugroho & Numata, standing the predictor variables of residents’ support for tourism
2022). It should be noted that perceptions of tourism impacts can vary development is crucial, especially because the success and sustainability
significantly depending on the type of destination and its level of of any development project depends on the active support of local
development (McDowall & Choi, 2010; Kim, Uysal, & Sirgy, 2013). people (Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; UNWTO, 2018). By understanding
Destination development-based models and studies (Butler, 1980; Kim the factors (community, sector and risk-based) that influence perceived
et al., 2013; Perdue et al., 1990) provide insight into the evolution of the impacts and community support for STD, policy makers can, in accor­
destination and the impacts experienced by the community. These dance to Pezeshki et al. (2023), customize their strategies to cater to the
studies highlight that residents’ perceptions mainly focus on tourism specific needs and concerns of local communities, all while simulta­
benefits in the early stages of tourism development. Regarding perceived neously emphasizing the preservation and promotion of cultural
costs and support for STD relationship (H5b), the results seem to suggest heritage.
a positive and direct relationship between perceived costs and support On one hand, it is crucial that decisions about tourism strategies and
for STD. Thus, greater costs perceived by local residents corresponded policies include the creation of programs that promote the connection of
with greater support for STD. Although the standardised coefficient was residents with the community in which they live. The stronger this bond,
very low (β = 0.086, p = 0.031), the positive relationship between the the greater the perception of the positive impacts of tourism. Other
two constructs seems counterintuitive and contradicts the findings of studies also support this direction (e.g. Liu, Chiang, & Ko, 2023). It is
relevant literature (for example, Nugroho & Numata, 2022). The level of also important that policymakers and other stakeholders increase resi­
development of tourism, which is at its beginning, coupled with the dent involvement in sustainable tourism planning processes, as such
increased economic hardship pandemic, may explain this result. involvement has been shown to strongly influence support for STD (as
was the case in the study of Erul & Woosnam, 2022).
5. Conclusions and implications Stakeholders linked to tourism should also be concerned about issues
related to economic dependence, as this variable has proved to be
The major aim of this study was to examine resident support for STD relevant. Although a positive relationship was found between economic
by proposing a model that accounts for several antecedents of that dependence and residents’ support for STD (as shown by the studies of
support. We proposed that community-based factors, sector-based fac­ Kim et al., 2021; Látková & Vogt, 2012; Ribeiro et al., 2017; Teng,
tors and risk factors can predict tourism impacts and residents support 2019), the study also showed that the residents who answered the
for STD. The results allow us to conclude that perceived risk (associated questionnaire are not very dependent on tourism, have a higher edu­
with COVID) significantly affects the perceived costs of tourism, but has cation qualification and have a critical opinion of the costs of tourism
no direct influence on residents’ support for STD. This support is posi­ (since it was confirmed that the higher the economic dependence the
tively affected by community involvement, economic dependence, stronger is also the perception of tourism costs). Respondents may have
LGMT and perceived costs. The results also show that community become more susceptible to the negative effects of tourism (Kim et al.,
involvement and LGMT have a positive impact on perceived benefits. 2021), which may indicate that STD strategies developed to mitigate
these negative impacts need to be much more frequent and focused
5.1. Theoretical contributions oriented.
On the other hand, it is equally useful for the management of tourism
The results of the present study provide important theoretical con­ by public authorities to be effective, as residents’ opinions about the
tributions to the tourism literature, opening up new directions for success of this management will influence their perceptions of tourism
research. benefits and their support for STD. This conclusion is in line with other
In examining predictors of residents’ support for STD, we seek to studies (Coutinho & Nóbrega, 2019; Đurkin Badurina & Soldić Frleta,
contribute theoretically to understanding residents’ perceptions during 2021). In order to develop effective tourism policies, local authorities
pandemic periods, as the topic related to STD has gained greater rele­ should integrate the residents’ opinions. In order to facilitate the sus­
vance in this period, as mentioned by Schönherr et al. (2021) in an area tainability of tourism, it is essential to involve local inhabitants in the
with low population density. Using an approach based on social decisions that influence their daily lives.

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The perception of risk should be increasingly studied as a dependent tourism development changes over time. Regarding the scale, the sug­
variable, as advocated by Joo et al. (2021), as we are increasingly gestion made by Pezeshki et al. (2023), stating that it is relevant to
confronted with external factors that negatively affect or promote STD develop a scale to measure community support for STD in small heritage
in various destinations. For example, the conflict in Ukraine unexpect­ locations, is a path to follow in future investigations.
edly became a contributing factor to the growth of tourism in the region The proposed model considers various predictors of residents’ sup­
where this study was conducted (Douro region), surpassing all expec­ port for STD. One of the most important is perceived risk, which has
tations, as tourists perceived this peripheral European region as a safe been directly examined for its association with residents’ support in the
destination. Consequently, this increased demand put pressure on the few existing studies on this topic. Future research could examine this
area, which was already evident in 2021 (e.g., Marques, Sousa, Vareiro, variable more thoroughly as it becomes more prevalent in today’s and
& Figueira, 2021). Environmentally, water was scarce and drought tomorrow’s world. In this study, the risk factors were associated with
anticipated crops and changed local production (Carvalho, 2022). COVID-19, however, future studies could apply the same model to other
Navigability has led to significant environmental impacts (Marques risk factors and that might provide additional insights into under­
et al., 2021), and drought has changed the landscape and visitation standing residents’ perceptions.
times, but the added value of tourism speaks volumes. This duality
means that if governments and other stakeholders are inadequately CRediT authorship contribution statement
prepared, the impacts of external risks can threaten both the primary
and tertiary sectors. Without these studies and planning based on sus­ Isabel Vieira: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Conceptuali­
tainable development, neither sector will benefit. In this study, the zation, Writing – review & editing. Elisa Alén: Supervision. Didiana
strong positive relationship between perceived risk (associated with Fernandes: Writing – review & editing. Ana Paula Rodrigues: Super­
COVID-19) and perceived costs seems to reinforce the need for tourism vision, Writing – review & editing.
stakeholders to consider risk factors more seriously when creating and
implementing future STD plans. This is especially true for low-density Data availability
destinations, emphasizing the necessity of an integrative management
approach of the impact of these negative factors/events by public au­ Data will be made available on request.
thorities and other tourist stakeholders. More emphasis should be placed
in regards to promotion campaigns in which the safety of destinations is Acknowledgments
clearly evidenced, both for residents and tourists.
This work was financed by CI&DEI – Centre for Studies in Education
5.3. Limitations and future lines of research and Innovation and also supported by national funds, through the FCT –
Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology under the project
Some limitations can be pointed out, one of them being the nature of UIDB/05507/2020. This work was also supported by CETRAD - Centre
the sample (convenience and purposeful sampling techniques) and the for Transdisciplinary Development Studies and also supported by na­
fact that it only refers to the analysis of the perceptions of residents in a tional funds, through the FCT – Portuguese Foundation for Science and
town with low population density (historic town of Lamego - Portugal). Technology under the project UIDB/04011/2020 (https://doi.org/10
Therefore, the results cannot be generalized to other destinations/ter­ .54499/UIDB/04011/2020).
ritories, as other destinations naturally have different characteristics in
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