Module 7 psychology

Lesson 1

📘 Overview & Key Concept of Motivation

Q: What is motivation in psychology?A: It’s the reason behind behavior, including
both conscious and unconscious needs and desires.

🧬 Instinct Theory
Q: What is an instinct?A: A behavior that occurs without prior learning; it's
innate.
Q: Give an example of instinctive behavior.A: A baby sea turtle moving toward the
ocean after hatching.
Q: What did William McDougall believe about instincts?A: He believed all human
behavior was based on unconscious instincts and listed 18 basic ones (e.g.,
curiosity, jealousy).
Q: Why do some psychologists reject instinct theory for humans?A: Because humans
can learn new behaviors, and instincts are supposed to be unlearned.
Q: What do modern psychologists think about instincts?A: Humans may have some
innate tendencies (like fear of snakes) but aren't fully driven by instinct.

⚡ Arousal Theories
Q: What is arousal in the context of motivation?A: A state of alertness or
awareness that influences behavior.
🔁 Drive-Reduction Theory
Q: What is drive-reduction theory?A: The idea that physiological needs (drives)
create arousal, motivating behavior to reduce that arousal.
Q: Who developed drive-reduction theory?A: Clark Hull.
Q: Give an example of drive-reduction.A: Hunger motivates eating to reduce
discomfort.
⚖️ Optimal Arousal Theory
Q: What does optimal arousal theory suggest?A: We are motivated to maintain a level
of arousal that is “just right” for performance.
Q: What happens when arousal is too low or too high?A: Too low = boredom; too high
= stress or anxiety.
Q: Which class would motivate you most, according to this theory?A: One with
reasonable challenge and feedback—not too easy, not too hard.
📈 Yerkes-Dodson Law
Q: What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law state?A: People perform easy tasks best with
high arousal and hard tasks best with low arousal.

🧗 Humanistic Theory – Maslow's Hierarchy

Q: Who created the Hierarchy of Needs?A: Abraham Maslow.
Q: What is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?A: A five-tier pyramid showing that people
are motivated to fulfill needs in order: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and
self-actualization.
Q: What is self-actualization?A: The desire to become your best self—fulfilling
personal potential.
Q: Is Maslow’s hierarchy rigid?A: No, he noted that the order can vary and
behaviors may be driven by multiple needs.

🏆 Achievement Motivation
🎁 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Q: What is intrinsic motivation?A: Motivation driven by internal satisfaction
(e.g., enjoying a task).
Q: What is extrinsic motivation?A: Motivation driven by external rewards (e.g.,
grades, money).
Q: How do rewards affect motivation?A: Adding extrinsic rewards to an intrinsically
motivated task can reduce enjoyment.
Q: Example of intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation using a book:A: Reading The Great
Gatsby for personal interest = intrinsic; reading it for a grade = extrinsic.
🧠 Fixed vs. Growth Mindsets (Carol Dweck)
Q: What is a fixed mindset?A: Belief that abilities and intelligence are static and
unchangeable.
Q: What is a growth mindset?A: Belief that abilities can grow through effort and
learning.
Q: How does mindset affect response to failure?A: Fixed mindset = fear and
avoidance; growth mindset = motivation to try harder.

LESSON 2

Overview
• Two key survival behaviors: eating and sex
• Motivation keeps us alive and helps our species survive.
• We'll look at both biological and cultural reasons behind why we eat
and have sex.

Sexual Motivations
Hypothalamus
• Part of the brain that controls basic drives like hunger, thirst, and
sex.
• In animals, damage to the hypothalamus affects their ability to have
sex.
• It might do the same in humans.
Hormones
• Testosterone: Linked to sexual motivation in men.
• Estrogen: Likely plays a similar role in women.
• Low levels of these hormones → lower sex drive.
Society
• What we find attractive is shaped by culture.
• Ideal body types and beauty standards change over time.
• Media and culture influence what we consider attractive.

Eating Motivations
Hypothalamus
• Lateral hypothalamus: Tells you when you’re hungry.
• Ventromedial hypothalamus: Tells you when you’re full.
• Damage to these parts affects how much you eat.
Hormones
• Eating raises blood sugar → triggers insulin release → makes you feel
less hungry.
• Not eating = blood sugar drops → you feel hungry again.
Society
• Rules and habits from parents shape how we eat later in life.
• Cultural norms decide what’s “normal” to eat and when (like breakfast
foods).

Expand: When Motivations Go Haywire: Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa
• Extreme food restriction + obsession with being thin.
• Often involves body dysmorphia (seeing yourself as overweight when
you're not).
• Signs: food rituals, hiding body shape, weight obsession.
• Health risks: muscle/heart weakness, weak immune system, possible
death.
Bulimia Nervosa
• Binge eating followed by purging (vomiting, laxatives, fasting, etc.).
 • Feelings of shame, loss of control.
• Similar signs as anorexia.
• Health risks: stomach/esophagus damage, pancreatitis.
Binge Eating Disorder
• Binge eating without purging.
• Also includes food rituals, weight concerns, and random eating
patterns.
• Health risks: obesity, heart disease, diabetes, stomach issues.
Causes of Disordered Eating
• Unrealistic body images in media can affect self-perception.
• Influence from family and friends also plays a big role.
• Poor body image can lead to unhealthy eating behaviors

Lesson 3

Overview
• Emotion = short-term physical, mental, and behavioral response.
• Different from:
• Mood: longer-lasting, less intense.
• Affect: general emotional experience (positive/negative).
• Focus: biological bases and classification of emotions.

Neuroscience of Emotion
Brain Structures
• Limbic system: emotion, learning, memory, motivation.
• Amygdala: fear, anger, happiness; stores emotional memories.
• Linked to mood disorders (e.g., depression, bipolar).
• Low activity = linked to antisocial personality disorder.
• Insular cortex: emotions like anger, sadness, love, empathy.
• Basal ganglia: helps process disgust.
Mirror Neurons
• Special brain cells that activate when we do or watch actions.
• Help us feel empathy—sharing others’ emotions.
Autonomic Nervous System
• Controls automatic body functions like heartbeat, digestion, breathing.
• Sympathetic Nervous System (Fight-or-Flight):
• Speeds heart/breathing, tenses muscles, sends blood to muscles.
• Prepares you to respond to danger.
• Parasympathetic Nervous System (Rest-and-Digest):
• Calms you after the threat is gone.
• Both systems are involved in emotional responses like fear and joy.

Classifying Emotions
Universal Emotions
• Paul Ekman’s basic universal emotions:
• Anger, Disgust, Fear, Happiness, Sadness, Surprise.
• Newer research adds: Amusement, Awe, Contentment, Desire,
Embarrassment, Pain, Relief, Sympathy.
• Cultural Differences:
• Individualistic cultures (USA): show more emotion.
• Collectivist cultures (China): show less, but feel the same.
Multidimensional Scaling
• Emotions can be described using two scales:
• Valence: Positive ↔ Negative
• Arousal: High Energy ↔ Low Energy
• Example:
• Happy = Positive, Low Arousal
• Alert = High Arousal, Neutral Valence
Expand: Happiness
What Makes Us Happy?
• High Self-Esteem: feeling good about yourself.
• Boosted by supportive parents, academic success, and friendships.
• Having Goals:
• Progressing toward meaningful goals increases happiness.
• Just working on goals is enough, even without completing them.
• Sleep and Exercise:
• Poor sleep = pain, loneliness, bad thinking.
• Exercise = less depression, better self-image.
Does Money Buy Happiness?
• Some truth: Rich people tend to be happier than poor people.
• But beyond basic needs, more money = less increase in happiness.
Suggestions to Be Happier
• Build self-esteem and healthy relationships.
• Set and plan personal goals.
• Sleep 8 hours per night.
• Exercise 30 minutes per day.
• Small changes = big impact on happiness.

Lesson 4

Overview
• Emotion starts with a stimulus (something that triggers a response).
• Theories of emotion try to explain what happens next—what causes us to
actually feel the emotion.
• Most involve:
• Physiological response: changes in body (e.g., heart rate).
• Appraisal: thoughts about the situation (can be conscious or
unconscious).

Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory
• Order: Stimulus → Body Response → Emotion
• Example: Speech → Sweaty palms & racing heart → Feel fear
• Emotion is a result of body changes.
• No thinking involved.
• Problem: Not enough unique body responses for every emotion.
Cannon-Bard Theory
• Order: Stimulus → Body Response + Emotion (at the same time)
• Example: Speech → Feel fear and get sweaty palms simultaneously.
• Body and emotion are independent.
• More realistic than James-Lange.
• BUT: Some evidence says body/emotion are not totally separate (e.g.,
facial feedback hypothesis—smiling can boost mood).
Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory
• Order: Stimulus → Body Response + Appraisal → Emotion
• Example: Speech → Sweaty palms + “This is scary” → Feel fear
• Emotion = Body Response + Thoughts
• The same body state (like increased heart rate) could mean different
emotions based on how you think about it.
• You have some control over how you feel!
Lazarus's Cognitive-Mediational Theory
• Order: Stimulus → Quick Unconscious Appraisal → Emotion + Body Response
• Example: Speech → Appraisal “This is scary” → Heart races + Feel fear
• Appraisal happens first, even if it’s super fast.
• Like Schachter-Singer, but appraisal is unconscious and comes before
anything else.
Expand: Fear
What Is Fear?
• Fear helps us survive by triggering the fight-or-flight response.
• Caused by autonomic nervous system.
• Heart rate increases, muscles tense, blood shifts to muscles.
• Might scream to alert others.
How Do We Learn Fear?
1. Classical Conditioning: Learn to fear something after pairing it with
pain or danger.
• (Wasp sting → now you fear all wasps)
2. Observational Learning: Learn by seeing someone else in danger.
• (See someone bitten by a dog → now you fear dogs)
3. Biological Predisposition: We’re more likely to fear things that were
dangerous to ancestors (e.g., spiders > fish).
When Fear Becomes a Problem: Phobias
• Phobia = Extreme, irrational fear.
• Common ones: Heights, spiders, snakes.
• Caused the same way as regular fear (learning + biology).
• Treatment:
• Systematic desensitization: Slowly expose person to the fear.
• Virtual reality: Safe simulation of fear situations.