World War II

Contents

1 Main article 1
1.1 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Pre-war events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Course of the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1.6 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.1.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.1.9 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2 Background 44
2.1 Causes of World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.1.1 Ideologies, doctrines, and philosophies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1.2 Interrelations and economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.1.3 Specific developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3 Course of the war 58

3.1 Timeline of events preceding World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.1 1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.2 1919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.3 1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1.4 1921 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.1.5 1922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.1.6 1923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.1.7 1924 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

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ii CONTENTS

3.1.8 1925 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1.9 1926 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1.10 1927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.11 1928 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.12 1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.13 1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.14 1931 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.15 1932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.16 1933 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.17 1934 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.18 1935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1.19 1936 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1.20 1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.1.21 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.1.22 1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1.23 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.1.24 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.25 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 1939 timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.1 September 1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.2 October 1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.3 November 1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.4 December 1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2.5 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3 1940 timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.1 January 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.2 February 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.3 March 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.4 April 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.5 May 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3.6 June 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3.7 July 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3.8 August 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3.9 September 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3.10 October 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3.11 November 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.12 December 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.13 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.4 1941 timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.4.1 January 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
CONTENTS iii

3.4.2 February 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3.4.3 March 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.4.4 April 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4.5 May 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4.6 June 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4.7 July 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4.8 August 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.9 September 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.10 October 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.11 November 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.4.12 December 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.4.14 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.4.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.5 1942 timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.5.1 January 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.5.2 February 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.5.3 March 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.5.4 April 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5.5 May 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.5.6 June 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.5.7 July 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.5.8 August 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.5.9 September 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.5.10 October 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.5.11 November 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.5.12 December 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.5.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5.14 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.6 1943 timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.6.1 January 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.6.2 February 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.6.3 March 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.6.4 April 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.6.5 May 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.6.6 June 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.6.7 July 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.6.8 August 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.6.9 September 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.6.10 October 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
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3.6.11 November 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3.6.12 December 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.6.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.6.14 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.6.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.7 1944 timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.7.1 January 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.7.2 February 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.7.3 March 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.7.4 April 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.7.5 May 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.7.6 June 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.7.7 July 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.7.8 August 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.7.9 September 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.7.10 October 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.7.11 November 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.7.12 December 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.7.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.7.14 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.7.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.8 1945 timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.8.1 January 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.8.2 February 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.8.3 March 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.8.4 April 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.8.5 May 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.8.6 June 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.8.7 July 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.8.8 August 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.8.9 September 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.8.10 October 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.8.11 November 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.8.12 December 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.8.13 March 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.8.14 October 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.8.15 December 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.8.16 February 1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.8.17 October 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.8.18 May 1955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.8.19 1956 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
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3.8.20 December 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

3.8.21 September 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.8.22 March 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.8.23 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.8.24 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.8.25 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.8.26 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

4 Aftermath 142
4.1 Aftermath of World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.1.1 Immediate effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.1.2 Post-war tensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.1.3 Demise of the League of Nations and the founding of the United Nations . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.1.4 Unresolved conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.1.5 Economic aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.1.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.1.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.1.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

5 Impact of the war 158

5.1 World War II casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.1.1 Classification of casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.1.2 Human losses by country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.3 Charts and graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.1.5 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.1.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.2 Consequences of Nazism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.2.1 Jewish people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.2.2 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.2.3 Central Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.2.4 Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.2.5 Yugoslavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.2.6 Western Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.2.7 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.2.8 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.2.9 World politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.2.10 International law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.2.11 Racism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.2.12 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
vi CONTENTS

5.2.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

5.2.14 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.3 Japanese war crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.3.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.3.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.3.3 Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.3.4 War crimes trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.3.5 Post-war events and reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.3.6 List of major crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.3.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.3.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.3.10 Further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.4 Military production during World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.4.1 Historical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.4.2 Production summaries 1939–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.4.3 Production overview: service, power and type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.4.4 Reference data for summary tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.4.5 Propaganda posters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.4.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.4.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.4.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.5 Home front during World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.5.2 Allies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.5.3 Britain and Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
5.5.4 Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.5.5 Famines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.5.6 Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.5.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.5.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.5.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.6 Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.6.1 Requirements for collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.6.2 By country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.6.3 Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.6.4 Collaboration of governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.6.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5.6.6 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.6.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
CONTENTS vii

5.6.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

5.7 Resistance during World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.7.1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
5.7.2 Forms of resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
5.7.3 Resistance operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
5.7.4 Resistance movements during World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.7.5 Notable individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.7.6 Documentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.7.7 Dramatisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.7.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.7.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5.7.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.8 German-occupied Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.8.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.8.2 Occupied countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.8.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.9 Technology during World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.9.1 Between the wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.9.2 Allied cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.9.3 Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.9.4 Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.9.5 Electronics, communications and intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
5.9.6 Rocketry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.9.7 Consumer Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.9.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.9.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 309

6.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
 Chapter 1

Main article

1.1 World War II well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June
1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of
the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war
“The Second World War”and “WWII”redirect here. in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis' mil-
For other uses, see The Second World War (disambigua- itary forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941,
tion) and WWII (disambiguation). Japan attacked the United States and European territo-
ries in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of
World War II (WWII or WW2), also known as the Sec- the Western Pacific.
ond World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the crit-
to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It in- ical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, and Germany was de-
volved the vast majority of the world's nations̶includ- feated in North Africa and then, decisively, at Stalingrad
ing all of the great powers̶eventually forming two op- in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German
posing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasion of Sicily
the most widespread war in history, and directly involved and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Ital-
more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. ian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis
In a state of "total war", the major participants threw lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all
their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabil- fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-
ities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction be- occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all
tween civilian and military resources. Marked by mass of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its al-
deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust (in which ap- lies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered ma-
proximately 11 million people were killed)* [1]* [2] and jor reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and
the strategic bombing of industrial and population cen- Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and
tres (in which approximately one million were killed, and captured key Western Pacific islands.
which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki),* [3] it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Ger-
million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest many by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culmi-
conflict in human history.* [4] nating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops
and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8
The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Al-
Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China lies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender
in 1937,* [5] but the world war is generally said to have under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs
begun on 1 September 1939* [6] with the invasion of on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6
Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of
on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of ad-
late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and ditional atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's decla-
treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of con- ration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria, Japan
tinental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy surrendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended the war in
and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of Au- Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies.
gust 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and
annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, World War II altered the political alignment and social
Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war contin- structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was es-
ued primarily between the European Axis powers and the tablished to foster international co-operation and prevent
coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Com- future conflicts. The victorious great powers̶the United
monwealth, with campaigns including the North Africa States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and
and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, France̶became the permanent *
members of the United
the Blitz bombing campaign, the Balkan Campaign as Nations Security Council. [7] The Soviet Union and the

1
2 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I, such as
stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 France, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Romania, gained ter-
years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great pow- ritory, and new nation-states were created out of the col-
ers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa lapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian
began. Most countries whose industries had been dam- Empires.
aged moved towards economic recovery. Political inte- To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was
gration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The or-
pre-war enmities and to create a common identity.* [8] ganisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict
through collective security, military and naval disarma-
ment, and settling international disputes through peaceful
1.1.1 Chronology
negotiations and arbitration.
See also: Timeline of World War II

The start of the war in Europe is generally held to be

1 September 1939,* [9]* [10] beginning with the German
invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war on
Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of
war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-
Japanese War on 7 July 1937,* [11] or even the Japanese
invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931.* [12]* [13]
Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who
held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and
its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars
merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dat- The League of Nations assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland,
ing. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War 1930
II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October
1935.* [14] The British historian Antony Beevor views Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I,* [18]
the beginning of the Second World War as the Battles its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist
of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of nationalism in several European states. These sentiments
Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September were especially marked in Germany because of the sig-
1939.* [15] nificant territorial, colonial, and financial losses incurred
The exact date of the war's end is also not universally by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany
agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of
the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 its overseas colonies, while German annexation of other
(V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and lim-
September 1945). A peace treaty with Japan was signed its were placed on the size and capability of the country's
in 1951 to formally tie up any loose ends such as com- armed forces.* [19]
pensation to be paid to Allied prisoners of war who had The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revo-
been victims of atrocities.* [16] A treaty regarding Ger- lution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later
many's future allowed the reunification of East and West known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The inter-
Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post- war period saw strife between supporters of the new re-
World War II issues.* [17] public and hardline opponents on both the right and left.
Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territo-
rial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that
1.1.2 Background the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian
entrance into the war were not fulfilled with the peace set-
Main article: Causes of World War II tlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led
by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nation-
alist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that
abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist,
Europe
left-wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive ex-
World War I had radically altered the political Euro- pansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world
pean map, with the defeat of the Central Powers̶includ- power,* promising the creation of a "New Roman Em-
ing Austria-Hungary, Germany and the Ottoman Empire pire". [20]
̶and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow
which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union. the German government in 1923, eventually became the
1.1. WORLD WAR II 3

China* [28] as the first step of what its government saw

as the country's right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Inci-
dent as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and
establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.* [29]
Too weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the League
of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League
of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into
Manchuria. The two nations then fought several bat-
tles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu
Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volun-
teer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggres-
sion in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan.* [30] After
the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist
Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930 forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to
oppose Japan.* [31]

Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democ-

racy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of
the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament
campaign.* [21] It was at this time that political scien- 1.1.3 Pre-war events
tists began to predict that a second Great War might take
place.* [22] Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)
allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy de-
sired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggra- Main article: Second Italo-Abyssinian War
vated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial
was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated
the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament pro-
gramme, and introduced conscription.* [23]
Hoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom,
France and Italy formed the Stresa Front; however, in
June 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent
naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions.
The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of
capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, drafted a treaty
of mutual assistance with France. Before taking ef-
fect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go
through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which
rendered it essentially toothless.* [24] The United States,
concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the
Neutrality Act in August of the same year.* [25] Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the Second
Italo-Abyssinian War
Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by
remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936. He encoun-
tered little opposition from other European powers.* [26] war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936.
In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome– The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Em-
Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed pire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the
the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched
following year. from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea.* [32] The war re-
sulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its
annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East
Asia Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition,
it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a
The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were
unification campaign against regional warlords and nom- member nations, but the League did nothing when the
inally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon em- former clearly violated the League's own Article X.* [33]
broiled in a civil war against its former Chinese com- Germany was the only major European nation to support
munist allies.* [27] In 1931, an increasingly militaristic the invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to
Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.* [34]
4 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

Spanish Civil War (1936–39)

Main article: Spanish Civil War

When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini

Japanese Imperial Army soldiers during the Battle of Shanghai,

1937

In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first

major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou
was taken by Japanese in May.* [41] In June 1938, Chi-
nese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the
The bombing of Guernica in 1937, sparked Europe-wide fears
Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chi-
that the next war would be based on bombing of cities with very
high civilian casualties
nese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was
taken by October.* [42] Japanese military victories did
lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by Gen- not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that
eral Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union supported the Japan had hoped to achieve; instead the Chinese govern-
existing government, the Spanish Republic. Over 30,000 ment* relocated *
inland to Chongqing and continued the
foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, war. [43] [44]
also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and
the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test Soviet-Japanese border conflicts
in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The
bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in
April 1937 heightened widespread concerns that the next
major war would include extensive terror bombing at-
tacks on civilians.* [35]* [36] The Nationalists won the
civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, bargained
with both sides during the Second World War, but never
concluded any major agreements. He did send volunteers
to fight on the Eastern Front under German command but
Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to use
its territory.* [37]

Japanese invasion of China (1937)

Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War

Red Army artillery unit during the Battle of Lake Khasan, 1938
In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese impe-
rial capital of Beijing after instigating the Marco Polo
Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese cam- Main article: Soviet–Japanese border conflicts
paign to invade all of China.* [38] The Soviets quickly
signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo
support, effectively ending China's prior co-operation had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and
with Germany. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed Mongolia. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron,
his best army to defend Shanghai, but, after three months which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was
of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. With the
the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking devastating Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939 and
in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens of ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets,
thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civil- this policy would prove difficult to maintain. Japan and
ians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in
Japanese.* [39]* [40] April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-
1.1. WORLD WAR II 5

ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus south-

ward, eventually leading to its war with the United States
and the Western Allies.* [45]* [46]

European occupations and agreements

Further information: Anschluss, Appeasement, Munich

Agreement, German occupation of Czechoslovakia and
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more

Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, and Ciano pictured

just before signing the Munich Agreement, 29 September 1938
German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop and the Soviet leader
aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Aus- Joseph Stalin, after signing the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, 23 Au-
tria, again provoking little response from other European gust 1939
powers.* [47] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German
claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia
with a predominantly ethnic German population; and tee was extended to Romania and Greece.* [51] Shortly
soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and
Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of
territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which Steel.* [52] Hitler accused Britain and Poland of try-
was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak gov- ing to “encircle”Germany and renounced the Anglo-
ernment, in exchange for a promise of no further ter- German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-
ritorial demands.* [48] Soon afterwards, Germany and Aggression Pact.
Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory
In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed
to Hungary and Poland.* [49] the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact,* [53] a non-aggression
Although all of Germany's stated demands had been treaty with a secret protocol. The parties gave each other
satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious rights to “spheres of influence”(western Poland and
that British interference had prevented him from seiz- Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia,
ing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subse- Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR). It also raised the
quent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish “war- question of continuing Polish independence.* [54] The
mongers”and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that
build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-
supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the re- front war, as it had in World War I, after it defeated
mainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into Poland.
the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a The situation reached a general crisis in late August as
pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic.* [50] Hitler
German troops continued to mobilise against the Pol-
also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania, forcing the con-
ish border. In a private meeting with the Italian foreign
cession of the Klaipėda Region. minister, Count Ciano, Hitler asserted that Poland was
Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further de- a “doubtful neutral”that needed to either yield to his
mands on the Free City of Danzig, Britain and France demands or be “liquidated”to prevent it from draw-
guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when ing off German troops in the future “unavoidable”war
Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guaran- with the Western democracies. He did not believe Britain
6 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

or France would intervene in the conflict.* [55] On 23 Africa (6 September)̶declared war on Germany. How-
August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 Au- ever, initially the alliance provided limited direct military
gust, but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal support to Poland, consisting of a cautious, half-hearted
mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would French probe into the Saarland.* [63] The Western Allies
maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.* [56] also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to
*
In response to British requests for direct negotiations to damage the country's economy and war effort. [64] Ger-
avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which many responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Al-
only served as a pretext to worsen relations.* [57] On 29 lied merchant and warships, which was to later escalate
into the Battle of the Atlantic.
August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary
immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover
of Danzig, and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Cor-
ridor in which the German minority would vote on seces-
sion.* [58] The Poles refused to comply with the German
demands and on the night of 30–31 August in a violent
meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson,
Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims
rejected.* [59]

1.1.4 Course of the war

Further information: Diplomatic history of World War
II German Panzer I tanks near the city of Bydgoszcz, during the
Invasion of Poland, September 1939

War breaks out in Europe (1939–40) On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with
Japan, the Soviets invaded Poland from the east.* [65] The
Main articles: Invasion of Poland, Occupation of Poland Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the
(1939–45), Nazi crimes against the Polish nation, Soviet Germans on 27 September, with final pockets of resis-
invasion of Poland and Soviet repressions of Polish citi- tance surrendering on 6 October. Poland's territory was
zens (1939–46) divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, with
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland un- Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares. Af-
ter the defeat of Poland's armed forces, the Polish resis-
tance established an Underground State and a partisan
Home Army.* [66] About 100,000 Polish military per-
sonnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic coun-
tries; many of these soldiers later fought against the Ger-
mans in other theatres of the war.* [67] Poland's Enigma
codebreakers were also evacuated to France.* [68]
On 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to
Britain and France, but said that the future of Poland
was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the
Soviet Union. Chamberlain rejected this on 12 Octo-
ber, saying “Past experience has shown that no reliance
can be placed upon the promises of the present Ger-
man Government.”* [59] After this rejection Hitler or-
Soldiers of the German Wehrmacht tearing down the border dered an immediate offensive against France,* [69] but
crossing between Poland and the Free City of Danzig, 1 Septem- bad weather forced repeated postponements until the
ber 1939
spring of 1940.* [70]* [71]* [72]
der the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a se- After signing the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship,
ries of sabotage operations against German targets near Cooperation and Demarcation, the Soviet Union forced
the border.* [60] Two days later, on 3 September, after the Baltic countries̶Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania̶to
a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military oper- allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under
ations was ignored, Britain and France, followed by the pacts of“mutual assistance”.* [73]* [74]* [75] Finland re-
fully independent Dominions* [61] of the British Com- jected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in
monwealth* [62]̶Australia (3 September), Canada (10 November 1939.* [76] The resulting Winter War ended in
September), New Zealand (3 September), and South March 1940 with Finnish concessions.* [77] Britain and
1.1. WORLD WAR II 7

campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime

Minister, Neville Chamberlain, with Winston Churchill
on 10 May 1940.* [85]
Germany launched an offensive against France and, ad-
hering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral na-
tions of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on
10 May 1940.* [86] That same day British forces landed in
Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German in-
vasion of the islands.* [87] The U.S. in close co-operation
with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C., agreed to
protect Greenland, laying the political framework for
the formal establishment of bases in April 1941. The
Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg
German and Soviet army officers pictured shaking hands ̶af- tactics in a few days and weeks, respectively.* [88] The
ter Nazi Germany and Soviet Union annexed new territories in
French-fortified Maginot Line and the main body the
Eastern Europe, 1939
Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were cir-
cumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly
France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tanta- wooded Ardennes region,* [89] mistakenly perceived by
mount to its entering the war on the side of the Ger- Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against
mans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the armoured vehicles.* [90]* [91] As a result, the bulk of
USSR's expulsion from the League of Nations.* [75] the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encir-
clement and were beaten. The majority were taken pris-
In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, oner, whilst over 300,000, mostly British and French,
Latvia and Lithuania,* [74] and the disputed Roma- were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early
nian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and June, although abandoning almost all of their equip-
Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapproche- ment.* [92]
ment and economic co-operation* [78]* [79] gradually
stalled,* [80]* [81] and both states began preparations for On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both
war.* [82] France and the United Kingdom.* [93] Paris fell to the
Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed
an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into
Western Europe (1940–41) German and Italian occupation zones,* [94] and an un-
occupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which,
though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Ger-
Dover Essen
Antwerp
many. France kept its fleet but the British feared the Ger-
B e l g i u m
Brussels Cologne
mans would seize it, so on 3 July, the British attacked
Maastricht

Lille G e r m a n y it.* [95]

Liege
Namur

Frankfurt
L u x e m -
F r a n c e
b o u r g

Paris

Strasbourg
N

NW NE

Weak fortifications
W E

Strong fortifications
SW SE

Basel

Map of the French Maginot Line

In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway

to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the
Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining
neutral Norwegian waters.* [83] Denmark capitulated af- View of London after the German Blitz, 29 December 1940
ter a few hours, and despite Allied support, during which
the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recap- The Battle of Britain* [96] began in early July with
tured from the Germans, Norway was conquered within Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.* [97] On 19
two months.* [84] British discontent over the Norwegian July, Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, say-
8 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

ing he had no desire to destroy the British Empire. The fensive policies, including an air offensive, the “early
United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum.* [98] The main elimination”of Italy, raids, support of resistance groups,
German air superiority campaign started in August but and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against
failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command, and a proposed Germany.* [105]
invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September. At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united
The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as Japan, Italy and Germany to formalise the Axis Powers.
night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the
largely failed to disrupt the British war effort.* [97] exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which at-
tacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war
against all three.* [106] The Axis expanded in Novem-
ber 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined
the Tripartite Pact.* [107] Romania would make a major
contribution (as did Hungary) to the Axis war against the
USSR, partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR,
partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to
combat communism.* [108]

Mediterranean (1940–41)

German Luftwaffe, Heinkel He 111 bombers during the Battle of

Britain

Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy

enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, us-
ing U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic.* [99]
The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941
by sinking the German battleship Bismarck.* [100] Per-
haps most importantly, during the Battle of Britain the
Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's
assault, and the German bombing campaign largely ended
Australian troops of the British Commonwealth Forces man a
in May 1941.* [101] front-line trench during the Siege of Tobruk; North African Cam-
Throughout this period, the neutral United States took paign, August 1941
measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In
November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a
amended to allow “cash and carry” purchases by the siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland
Allies.* [102] In 1940, following the German capture of in August, and making an incursion into British-held
Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly Egypt in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy started
increased. In September, the United States further agreed the Greco-Italian War because of Mussolini's jealousy
to a trade of American destroyers for British bases.* [103] of Hitler's success but within days was repulsed and
Still, a large majority of the American public continued pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon oc-
to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict curred.* [109] The United Kingdom responded to Greek
well into 1941.* [104] requests for assistance by sending troops to Crete and pro-
Although Roosevelt had promised to keep the United viding air support to Greece. Hitler decided that when the
States out of the war, he nevertheless took concrete steps weather improved he would take action against Greece to
to prepare for war. In December 1940 he accused Hitler assist the Italians and prevent the British from gaining a
of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as foothold in the Balkans, to strike against the British naval
useless, calling for the US to become an “arsenal for dominance of the Mediterranean, and to secure his hold
democracy”and promoted the passage of Lend-Lease aid on Romanian oil.* [110]
to support the British war effort.* [98] In January 1941 In December 1940, British Commonwealth forces be-
secret high level staff talks with the British began for the gan counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and
purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should Italian East Africa.* [111] The offensive in North Africa
the US enter the war. They decided on a number of of- was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy
1.1. WORLD WAR II 9

had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Axis attack on the USSR (1941)
Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy
also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy Further information: Operation Barbarossa,
putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a Einsatzgruppen, World War II casualties of the So-
carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more viet Union and Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs
warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.* [112] With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable,

Captured German Afrika Korps soldiers, December 1941

The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent European theatre of World War II animation map, 1939-1945 ̶
German forces to Libya in February, and by the end of Red: Western Allies and Soviet Union after 1941; Green: Soviet
March they had launched an offensive which drove back Union before 1941; Blue: Axis Powers
the Commonwealth forces which had been weakened to
support Greece.* [113] In under a month, Commonwealth
forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of
the besieged port of Tobruk.* [114] The Commonwealth
attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in
June, but failed on both occasions.* [115]
By late March 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the
Tripartite Pact, the Germans were in position to inter-
vene in Greece. Plans were changed, however, because
of developments in neighbouring Yugoslavia. The Yu-
goslav government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25
March, only to be overthrown two days later by a British-
encouraged coup. Hitler viewed the new regime as hos-
tile and immediately decided to eliminate it. On 6 April Soviet civilians in Leningrad leaving destroyed houses, after a
Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia and German bombardment of the city; Battle of Leningrad, 10 De-
Greece, making rapid progress and forcing both nations cember 1942
to surrender within the month. The British were driven
from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek is- Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made prepara-
land of Crete by the end of May.* [116] Although the Axis tions. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with
victory was swift, bitter partisan warfare subsequently Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage
broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, of the European War by seizing resource-rich European
which continued until the end of the war. possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the
The Allies did have some successes during this time. In Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941.* [119] By
the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed an contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations
uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the
aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria,* [117] Soviet border.* [120]
then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Hitler believed that Britain's refusal to end the war was
Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occur- based on the hope that the United States and the So-
rences.* [118] viet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner
10 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

or later.* [121] He therefore decided to try to strengthen to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in
Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that, to at- Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not bro-
tack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, ken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of
negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in
would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some Europe had ended.* [139]
interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bul- By early December, freshly mobilised reserves* [140] al-
garia, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered un- lowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis
acceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the di- troops.* [141] This, as well as intelligence data which
rective to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.
established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in
On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the
Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Bar- Japanese Kwantung Army,* [142] allowed the Soviets to
barossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plot- begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 De-
ting against them. They were joined shortly by Fin- cember all along the front and pushed German troops
land and Hungary.* [122] The primary targets of this sur- 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west.* [143]
prise offensive* [123] were the Baltic region, Moscow
and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941
campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the War breaks out in the Pacific (1941)
Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to
eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, extermi-
nate Communism, generate Lebensraum (“living space”
)* [124] by dispossessing the native population* [125] and
guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to de-
feat Germany's remaining rivals.* [126]
Although the Red Army was preparing for strate-
gic counter-offensives before the war,* [127] Barbarossa
forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic
defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant
gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in
both personnel and materiel. By the middle of August,
however, the German Army High Command decided to
suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army
Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to
reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Mitsubishi A6M2“Zero”fighters on the Imperial Japanese Navy
Leningrad.* [128] The Kiev offensive was overwhelm- aircraft carrier Shōkaku, just before the attack on Pearl Harbor
ingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimina-
tion of four Soviet armies, and made further advance into In 1939 the United States had renounced its trade treaty
Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the with Japan and beginning with an aviation gasoline ban
First Battle of Kharkov) possible.* [129] in July 1940 Japan had become subject to increas-
The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and ing economic pressure.* [98] During this time, Japan
the majority of their air forces from France and the cen- launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategi-
tral Mediterranean to the Eastern Front* [130] prompted cally important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late
Britain to reconsider its grand strategy.* [131] In July, September.* [144] Despite several offensives by both
the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military al- sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated
liance against Germany* [132] The British and Soviets by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking sup-
invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's ply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the
oil fields.* [133] In August, the United Kingdom and the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded
United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter.* [134] and occupied northern Indochina.* [145] Afterwards, the
United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts
By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and
against Japan.* [146] Other sanctions soon followed.
the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges
of Leningrad* [135] and Sevastopol continuing.* [136] A In August of that year, Chinese communists launched an
major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted
months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and
the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of material resources for the communists.* [147] Continued
Moscow, where the exhausted troops* [137] were forced antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist
to suspend their offensive.* [138] Large territorial gains forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, ef-
were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed fectively ending their co-operation.* [148] In March, the
Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chi-
1.1. WORLD WAR II 11

nese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shang- powers.* [156] That meant Japan was essentially forced
gao.* [149] In September, Japan attempted to take the city to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or
of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East
forces.* [150] Indies by force;* [157] the Japanese military did not con-
German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to in- sider the former an option, and many officers considered *
crease pressure on European governments in Southeast the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [158]
Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia
some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but nego- to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the
tiations for additional access to their resources ended in Central Pacific; the Japanese would then be free to ex-
failure in June 1941.* [151] In July 1941 Japan sent troops ploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the
to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.* [159]
possessions in the Far East. The United States, United To prevent American intervention while securing the
Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United
move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil em- States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence
bargo.* [152]* [153] in the Philippines from the outset.* [160] On 7 December
Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked
engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their British and American holdings with near-simultaneous
strained relations and end the war in China. During offensives *
against Southeast Asia and the Central Pa-
these negotiations Japan advanced a number of propos- cific. [161] These included an attack on the American
als which were dismissed by the Americans as inade- fleet at Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, landings in Thai-
*
*
quate. [154] At the same time the US, Britain, and the land and Malaya [161] and the battle of Hong Kong.
Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint These attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Aus-
defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese at- tralia and several other states to formally declare war on
tack against any of them.* [155] Roosevelt reinforced the Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved
Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for in- in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries,
dependence in 1946) and warned Japan that the US would maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.* [162]
react to Japanese attacks against any“neighboring coun- Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war
tries”.* [155] on the United States* [163] in solidarity with Japan, cit-
ing as justification the American attacks on German war
vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.* [122]* [164]

Axis advance stalls (1942–43)

USS Arizona during the Japanese surprise air attack on the

American pacific fleet, 7 December 1941

Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch

of the American-British-Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared
for war. On 20 November it presented an interim pro-
posal as its final offer. It called for the end of Ameri-
can aid to China and to supply oil and other resources to
Japan. In exchange they promised not to launch any at- Seated at the Casablanca Conference; US President Franklin D.
tacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw their forces from Roosevelt and British PM Winston Churchill, January 1943
their threatening positions in southern Indochina.* [154]
The American counter-proposal of 26 November re- In January 1942, the Big Four (the United States, Britain,
quired that Japan evacuate all of China without condi- Soviet Union, China) and 22 smaller or exiled govern-
tions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific ments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby
12 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

affirming the Atlantic Charter,* [165] and agreeing to not vision during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by
to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. the Chinese 38th Division.* [172] Japanese forces also
During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropri- achieved naval victories *
in the South China Sea, Java Sea
ate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating and Indian Ocean, [173] and bombed the Allied naval
Germany was the primary objective. The Americans base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only
favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Ger- Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at
*
many through France. The Soviets were also demanding Changsha. [174] These easy victories over unprepared
a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as
well as overextended.* [175]
that military operations should target peripheral areas to
wear out German strength, lead to increasing demoralisa- In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture
tion, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever com-
be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offen- munications and supply lines between the United States
sive against Germany would then be launched primarily and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when
by Allied armour without using large-scale armies.* [166] an Allied task force centered on two American fleet carri-
Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that ers fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of
a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they the Coral Sea.* [176] Japan's next plan, motivated by the
should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure
Africa.* [167] American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diver-
At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies sion, Japan would also* send forces to occupy the Aleu-
reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration tian Islands in Alaska. [177] In early June, Japan put its
by the United Nations, and demanded the unconditional operations into action but the Americans, having broken
surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the
agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediter- plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to
ranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediter- achieve a decisive *
victory at Midway over the Imperial
*
ranean supply routes. [168] Although the British argued Japanese Navy. [178]
for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into
the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British
commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediter-
ranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to in-
vade France in 1944.* [169]

US Marines during the Guadalcanal Campaign, in the Pacific

theatre, 1942

With its capacity for aggressive action greatly dimin-

ished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to
focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by
Map of Japanese military advances, until mid-1942 an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua.* [179]
The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese
Pacific (1942–43) By the end of April 1942, Japan positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily
and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing
*
Rabaul, the
Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, in- main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [180]
flicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Bat-
number of prisoners.* [170] Despite stubborn resistance tle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and
by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from
was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its gov- the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island,
ernment into exile.* [171] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 where they faced Australian and United States troops in
British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Di- the Battle of Buna-Gona.* [181] Guadalcanal soon be-
1.1. WORLD WAR II 13

came a focal point for both sides with heavy commit-

ments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal.
By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on
the island and withdrew their troops.* [182] In Burma,
Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The
first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942,
went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May
1943.* [183] The second was the insertion of irregular
forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by
the end of April, had achieved mixed results.* [184]

An American B-17 bombing raid, by the 8th Air Force, on the

Focke Wulf factory in Germany, 9 October 1943

Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive,

Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all
the gains the Germans and Italians had made.* [193] In
Red Army soldiers on the counterattack, during the Battle of Stal- North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in Jan-
ingrad, February 1943 uary, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala
Line by early February,* [194] followed by a tempo-
Eastern Front (1942–43) Despite considerable losses, rary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for
in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major their upcoming offensives.* [195] Concerns the Japanese
Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the
most territorial gains they had achieved during the pre- British to invade the island in early May 1942.* [196]
vious year.* [185] In May the Germans defeated Soviet An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat
offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkiv,* [186] deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at
and then launched their main summer offensive against El Alamein.* [197] On the Continent, raids of Allied
southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disas-
Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe, while maintaining trous Dieppe Raid,* [198] demonstrated the Western Al-
positions on the northern and central areas of the front. lies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe
The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: without much better preparation, equipment, and opera-
Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and tional security.* [199]
struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B
headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to In August 1942, the Allies succeeded *
in repelling a
*
make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [187] second attack against El Alamein [200] and, at a high
cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to
By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stal- the besieged Malta.* [201] A few months later, the Al-
ingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began lies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dis-
their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an lodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across
encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad* [188] and Libya.* [202] This attack was followed up shortly after by
an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which
latter failed disastrously.* [189] By early February 1943, resulted in the region joining the Allies.* [203] Hitler re-
the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German sponded to the French colony's defection by ordering the
troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender,* [190] occupation of Vichy France;* [203] although Vichy forces
and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its posi- did not resist this violation of the armistice, they man-
tion before the summer offensive. In mid-February, af- aged to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German
ter the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched forces.* [204] The now pincered Axis forces in Africa
another attack on Kharkiv, creating a salient in their front withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies
line around the Russian city of Kursk.* [191] in May 1943.* [205]
In early 1943 the British and Americans began the
Western Europe/Atlantic & Mediterranean (1942– Combined Bomber Offensive, a strategic bombing cam-
43) Exploiting poor American naval command deci- paign against Germany. The goals were to disrupt the
sions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off German war economy, reduce German morale, and "de-
the American Atlantic coast.* [192] By November 1941, house" the civilian population.* [206]
14 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

Allies gain momentum (1943–44) launched on 9 July which, combined with previous Italian
failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini
later that month.* [212] Also, in July 1943 the British
firebombed Hamburg killing over 40,000 people.
On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-
offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German vic-
tory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory
at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,* [213]
giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern
Front.* [214]* [215] The Germans tried to stabilise their
eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan
line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by
the Lower Dnieper Offensives.* [216]
On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the
Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the
Allies.* [217] Germany responded by disarming Italian
US Navy Douglas SBD Dauntless flies patrol over the USS Wash- forces, seizing military control of Italian areas,* [218] and
ington and USS Lexington during the Gilbert and Marshall Is- creating a series of defensive lines.* [219] German spe-
lands campaign, 1943 cial forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon estab-
lished a new client state in German occupied Italy named
After the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated sev- the Italian Social Republic,* [220] causing an Italian civil
eral operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, war. The Western Allies fought through several lines
Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to eliminate Japanese until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-
forces from the Aleutians.* [207] Soon after, the U.S. November.* [221]
with support from Australian and New Zealand forces be-
gan major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing sur-
rounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pa-
cific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.* [208]
By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both
of these objectives, and additionally neutralised the ma-
jor Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In
April, the Allies launched an operation to retake West-
ern New Guinea.* [209]

The Allied leaders of the Asian and Pacific Theater: Gener-

alissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston
Churchill meeting at the Cairo Conference, 25 November 1943

German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May

1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly
Red Army troops following T-34 tanks, in a counter-offensive on
German positions, at the Battle of Kursk, August 1943
effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses
forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval
In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Sovi- campaign.* [222] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roo-
ets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing sevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek
for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran.* [223]
Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. The former conference determined the post-war return of
Within a week, German forces had exhausted them- Japanese territory,* [224] while the latter included agree-
selves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well- ment that the Western Allies would invade Europe in
constructed defences* [210] and, for the first time in the 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on
war, Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.* [225]
tactical or operational success.* [211] This decision was From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of
partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of
1.1. WORLD WAR II 15

Ruins of the Benedictine monastery, during the Battle of Monte

Cassino; Italian Campaign, May 1944 American troops approaching Omaha Beach, during the Invasion
of Normandy on D-Day, 6 June 1944

attrition, while awaiting Allied relief.* [226]* [227]* [228]

In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks
in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to out- the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces,
flank it with landings at Anzio.* [229] By the end of Jan- both led by General Charles de Gaulle, on 25 Au-
uary, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces gust* [241] and the Western Allies continued to push back
from the Leningrad region,* [230] ending the longest and German forces in western Europe during the latter part of
most lethal siege in history. the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany
spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Nether-
The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre- lands failed.* [242] After that, the Western Allies slowly
war Estonian border by the German Army Group North pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Rur river in
aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national inde- a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due
pendence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet opera- to the last major German defensive line.* [243]
tions in the Baltic Sea region.* [231] By late May 1944,
the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in
forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, Belarus ("Operation Bagration") that destroyed the Ger-
which were repulsed by the Axis troops.* [232] The Allied man Army Group Centre almost completely.* [244] Soon
offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of after that another Soviet strategic offensive forced Ger-
allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, man troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland.
Rome was captured.* [233] The Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland
to initiate several uprisings against the German occupa-
The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March tion. However, the largest of these in Warsaw where Ger-
1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an man soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians and a national
operation against British positions in Assam, India,* [234] uprising in Slovakia did not receive Soviet support and
and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal were subsequently suppressed by the Germans.* [245]
and Kohima.* [235] In May 1944, British forces mounted The Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania
a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops
Burma,* [235] and Chinese forces that had invaded north- there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania
ern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the
Myitkyina.* [236] The second Japanese invasion of China Allied side.* [246]
aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure rail-
ways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into
airfields.* [237] By June, the Japanese had conquered the Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German
province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia
in the Hunan province.* [238] to rescue them from being cut off.* [247] By this point, the
Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito,
who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign
Allies close in (1944) against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of
the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying ef-
On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of forts against German forces further south. In northern
Soviet pressure,* [239] the Western Allies invaded north- Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgar-
ern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions ian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the
from Italy, they also attacked southern France.* [240] capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later,
These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-
the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest
16 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

German SS soldiers from the Dirlewanger Brigade, tasked with

suppressing the Warsaw Uprising against Nazi occupation, Au-
gust 1944
Yalta Conference held in February 1945, with Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin
in February 1945.* [248] Unlike impressive Soviet victo-
ries in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet
offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets oc-
cupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice lies remained stalemated at the German defensive line.
on relatively mild conditions,* [249]* [250] although Fin- In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in
land later shifted to the Allied side. Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Ger-
many, and overran East Prussia.* [257] On 4 February,
By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in US, British, and Soviet leaders met for the Yalta Confer-
Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, ence. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Ger-
pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River* [251] many, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war
while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the against Japan.* [258]
Japanese had more successes, having finally captured
Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania,
August.* [252] Soon after, they invaded the province of while Western Allies entered western Germany and
Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies
forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of Novem- crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling
*
ber* [253] and successfully linking up their forces in the German Army Group B, [259] while the Soviets ad-
China and Indochina by mid-December. [254] * vanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies fi-
nally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western
In the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Germany, while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin
Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their in late April. American and Soviet forces joined on Elbe
offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and deci- river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag
sively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philip- was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Ger-
pine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the many.* [260]
Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the
United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy Several changes in leadership occurred during this pe-
bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late riod. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was suc-
October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of ceeded by Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by
*
Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large Italian partisans on 28 April. [261] Two days later, Hitler
victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral
battles in history.* [255] Karl Dönitz.* [262]
German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. Total and
unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May, to be ef-
Axis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45)
fective by the end of 8 May.* [263] German Army Group
*
On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [264]
the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by
to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes to the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced
split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of West- in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April
ern Allied troops and capture their primary supply port 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and
at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement.* [256] By recaptured Manila in March following a battle which re-
January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strate- duced the city to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon,
gic objectives fulfilled.* [256] In Italy, the Western Al- Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the
1.1. WORLD WAR II 17

cities, American submarines cut off Japanese imports,

drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas
forces.* [269]
On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Ger-
many. They confirmed earlier agreements about Ger-
many,* [270] and reiterated the demand for unconditional
surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically
stating that“the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter
destruction”.* [271] During this conference, the United
Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee
replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.* [272]
The Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender
in the Potsdam declaration of 27 July, but the Japanese
government was internally divided on whether to make
peace and did not respond. In early August, the United
States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Like the Japanese cities pre-
viously bombed by American airmen, the US and its al-
lies justified the atomic bombings as military necessity to
The German Reichstag after its capture by the Allies, 3 June 1945
avoid invading the Japanese home islands which would
cost the lives of between 250,000–500,000 Allied troops
end of the war.* [265] On the night of 9–10 March, B-29 and millions of Japanese troops and civilians.* [273] Be-
bombers of the US Army Air Forces struck Tokyo with tween the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the
incendiary bombs, which killed 100,000 people within a Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, and
few hours. Over the next five months, American bombers quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the
firebombed 66 other Japanese cities, causing the destruc- largest Japanese fighting force.* [274]* [275] The Red
tion of untold numbers of buildings and the deaths of be- Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Is-
tween 350,000–500,000 Japanese civilians.* [266] lands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the
surrender documents finally signed aboard the deck of the
American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945,
ending the war.* [276]

1.1.5 Aftermath

Main articles: Aftermath of World War II and

Consequences of Nazism
The Allies established occupation administrations in

Japanese foreign affairs minister Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the

Japanese Instrument of Surrender on board the USS Missouri, 2
September 1945

In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, over-

running the oilfields there. British, American, and Chi-
nese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma
in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon
by 3 May.* [267] Chinese forces started to counterat-
tack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6
April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibi-
ous forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by Ruins of Warsaw in January 1945, after the deliberate destruc-
March, and Okinawa by the end of June.* [268] At the tion of the city by the occupying German forces
same time American bombers were destroying Japanese
18 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

In an effort to maintain peace,* [284] the Allies formed

the United Nations, which officially came into existence
on 24 October 1945,* [285] and adopted the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common stan-
dard for all member nations.* [286] The great powers that
were the victors of the war̶the United States, Soviet
Union, China, Britain, and France̶formed the perma-
nent members of the UN's Security Council.* [7] The five
permanent members remain so to the present, although
there have been two seat changes, between the Republic
of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971,
and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the
Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the So-
viet Union. The alliance between the Western Allies and
the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the
war was over.* [287]
Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent
states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German
Democratic Republic* [288] were created within the bor-
ders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly.
The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and
Soviet spheres of influence.* [289] Most eastern and cen-
tral European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which
led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with
full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authori-
ties. As a result, Poland, Hungary, East Germany,* [290]
Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Albania* [291] became
Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted
a fully independent policy, causing tension with the
Post-war Soviet territorial expansion resulted in Central Euro- USSR.* [292]
pean border changes, the creation of a Communist Bloc and start
of the Cold War
Post-war division of the world was formalised by two
international military alliances, the United States-led
NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact;* [293] the long
period of political tensions and military competition be-
Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral tween them, the Cold War, would be accompanied *
by an
state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter unprecedented arms race and proxy wars. [294]
was divided into western and eastern occupation zones In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and
controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR, accord- administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pa-
ingly. A denazification program in Germany led to the cific, while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril
prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex- Islands.* [295] Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was
Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards divided and occupied by the US in the South and the So-
amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West Ger- viet Union in the North between 1945 and 1948. Sepa-
man society.* [277] rate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th paral-
Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. lel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate govern-
Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most ment*for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean
of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, East Prussia War. [296]
was divided between Poland and the USSR, followed In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the
by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were vic-
provinces, as well as the expulsion of 3 million Ger- torious and established the People's Republic of China
mans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Ger- on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to
many. By the 1950s, every fifth West German was Taiwan in 1949.* [297] In the Middle East, the Arab re-
a refugee from the east. The Soviet Union also took jection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Pales-
over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from tine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation
which 2 million Poles were expelled;* [278] north-east of the Arab-Israeli conflict. While European colo-
Romania,* [279]* [280] parts of eastern Finland,* [281] nial powers attempted to retain some or all of their
and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources
USSR.* [282]* [283]
1.1. WORLD WAR II 19

during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to World War II Deaths
0 12 24

decolonisation.* [298]* [299] Soviet Union

China
Poland

The global economy suffered heavily from the war, al- Indonesia

Allied Forces
India
Yugoslavia
though participating nations were affected differently. French Indochina
France

The US emerged much richer than any other nation; it United Kingdom
United States
Axis Military
13%
Axis Civilians 4%

Lithuania
had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product Czechoslovakia
Greece

per person was much higher than that of any of the other Burma
Latvia
Allied Military
25%

powers and it dominated the world economy.* [300] The Germany

Japan

Axis
Romania Allied Civilians

UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament Hungary

Italy
58%

in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.* [301] Be- Other

0 12 24
Military deaths (millions) Total deaths (millions)
cause of international trade interdependencies this led to Civilian deaths (millions) Total deaths as % of 1939 population

European economic stagnation and delayed European re-

covery for several years.* [302]* [303] World War II deaths

Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform

in Western Germany, and was sped up by the lib- Soviet Union were wounded or killed.* [320] Germany
eralisation of European economic policy that the sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the East-
Marshall Plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly ern Front and during the final battles in Germany.* [321]
caused.* [304]* [305] The post-1948 West German recov-
Of the total number of deaths in World War II, ap-
ery has been called the German economic miracle.* [306]
proximately 85 percent ̶mostly Soviet and Chinese ̶
Italy also experienced an economic boom* [307] and
were on the Allied side and 15 percent were on the
the French economy rebounded.* [308] By contrast, the
Axis side. Many of these deaths were caused by war
United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,* [309]
crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in oc-
and although it received a quarter of the total Mar-
cupied territories. An estimated 11* [322] to 17 mil-
shall Plan assistance, more than any other European
lion* [323] civilians died either as a direct or as an in-
country,* [310] continued relative economic decline for
direct result of Nazi ideological policies, including the
decades.* [311]
systematic genocide of around 6 million Jews during
The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and mate- the Holocaust, along with a further 5 to 6 million eth-
rial losses, also experienced rapid increase in produc- nic Poles and other Slavs (including Ukrainians and
tion in the immediate post-war era.* [312] Japan experi- Belarusians)* [324]̶Roma, homosexuals, and other eth-
enced incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one nic and minority groups.* [323] Hundreds of thousands
of the most powerful economies in the world by the (varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies
1980s.* [313] China returned to its pre-war industrial pro- and Jews, were murdered by the Axis-aligned Croat-
duction by 1952.* [314] ian Ustaše in Yugoslavia,* [325] and retribution-related
killings were committed just after the war ended.

1.1.6 Impact
Casualties and war crimes

Main articles: World War II casualties, War crimes dur-

ing World War II, War crimes in occupied Poland dur-
ing World War II, German war crimes, War crimes of
the Wehrmacht, Italian war crimes, Japanese war crimes,
Allied war crimes during World War II and Soviet war
crimes
Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war
vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most sug-
gest that some 75 million people died in the war, in-
cluding about 20 million military personnel and 40 mil-
lion civilians.* [315]* [316]* [317] Many of the civilians
died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass-
bombings, disease, and starvation.
Chinese civilians being buried alive by soldiers of the Imperial
The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during Japanese Army, during the Nanking Massacre, December 1937
the war,* [318] including 8.7 million military and 19 mil-
lion civilian deaths. The largest portion of military dead In Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more
were 5.7 million ethnic Russians, followed by 1.3 million than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at
ethnic Ukrainians.* [319] A quarter of the people in the 7.5 million* [326]), were killed by the Japanese occu-
20 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

pation forces.* [327] The best-known Japanese atrocity

was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hun-
dred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and mur-
dered.* [328] Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million
casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General
Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and
Shantung.* [329]
Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons.
The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such
weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see
Unit 731)* [330]* [331] and in early conflicts against the
Soviets.* [332] Both the Germans and Japanese tested
such weapons against civilians* [333] and, sometimes on
prisoners of war.* [334]
The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre
of 22,000 Polish officers,* [335] and the imprisonment
or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the
NKVD,* [336] in the Baltic states, and eastern Poland an- SS female camp guards remove prisoners' bodies from lorries and
nexed by the Red Army. carry them to a mass grave, inside the German Bergen-Belsen
The mass-bombing of civilian areas, notably the cities concentration camp, 1945
of Warsaw, Rotterdam and London; including the aerial
targeting of hospitals and fleeing refugees* [337] by the
Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet
German Luftwaffe, along with the bombing of Tokyo,
POWs. Of those, 57 percent died or were killed, a total of
and German cities of Dresden, Hamburg and Cologne
3.6 million.* [344] Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civil-
by the Western Allies may be considered as war crimes.
ians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi
The latter resulted in the destruction of more than 160
collaborators, and some of them were sent to the Gulag
cities and the death of more than 600,000 German civil-
upon being checked by the NKVD.* [345]
ians.* [338] However, no positive or specific customary
international humanitarian law with respect to aerial war-
fare existed before or during World War II.* [339]

Concentration camps, slave labour, and genocide

Further information: Genocide, The Holocaust, Nazi

concentration camps, Extermination camp, Forced
labour under German rule during World War II,
Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany and Nazi hu- Prisoner identity photograph taken by the German SS of a
man experimentation fourteen-year-old Polish girl, deported as forced labour to
The German government led by Adolf Hitler and Auschwitz, December 1942
the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust, the
killing of approximately 6 million Jews, as well as 2.7 Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were
million ethnic Poles,* [340] and 4 million others who used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The
were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the disabled International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the
and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, homosexuals, death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for
Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part American POWs, 37 percent),* [346] seven times that
of a programme of deliberate extermination. About 12 of POWs under the Germans and Italians.* [347] While
million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Nether-
employed in the German war economy as forced labour- lands, and 14,473 from the United States were released
ers.* [341] after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese re-
*
In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet leased was only 56. [348]
gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of oc- According to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million
cupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo
Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia
and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and
to be supporters of the Nazis.* [342] Sixty percent of war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 mil-
Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war.* [343] lion.* [349] The US Library of Congress estimates that
 1.1. WORLD WAR II 21

in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese:

“manual laborers”), were forced to work by the Japanese
military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers
were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia,
and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.* [350]
On 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Or-
der 9066, interning about 100,000 Japanese living on the
West Coast. Canada had a similar program.* [351]* [352]
In addition, 14,000 German and Italian citizens who
had been assessed as being security risks were also in-
terned.* [353]
In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1995 reported civilian victims in
Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were the USSR at German hands totaled 13.7 million dead, 20% of
used as forced labour by the Soviet Union.* [354] In Hun- the 68 million persons in the occupied USSR
gary's case, Hungarians were forced to work for the So-
viet Union until 1955.* [355]
most German advances were thus followed by mass ex-
ecutions.* [359] Although resistance groups formed in
Occupation most occupied territories, they did not significantly ham-
per German operations in either the East* [360] or the
Main articles: German-occupied Europe, Lebensraum, West* [361] until late 1943.
Untermensch, Collaboration with the Axis Powers dur-
ing World War II, Resistance during World War II and In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as be-
Nazi plunder ing part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere,
In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In West- essentially a Japanese hegemony which it*claimed was for
purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [362] Although
Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators
from European domination in some territories, their
excessive brutality turned local public opinion against
them within weeks.* [363] During Japan's initial con-
quest it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3 ) of oil
(~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces,
and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East
Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8×106 t), 76 percent
of its 1940 output rate.* [363]

Home fronts and production

Polish civilians wearing blindfolds photographed just before their
execution by German soldiers in Palmiry forest, 1940 Main articles: Military production during World War II
and Home front during World War II
ern, Northern and Central Europe (France, Norway, Den- In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies
mark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of
Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies
through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks Allies / Axis GDP
(27.8 billion US Dollars) by the end of the war, this fig- 6.00

ure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial 5.00

5.02
products, military equipment, raw materials and other
Allies / Axis GDP

goods.* [356] Thus, the income from occupied nations 4.00

was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected 3.00

from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 per- 2.86

cent of total German income as the war went on.* [357] 2.00
2.38
2.15 2.06
2.31

1.75
1.58
In the East, the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum 1.00

were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet

0.00
scorched earth policies denied resources to the German 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945
*
invaders. [358] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial pol- Year

icy encouraged excessive brutality against what it con-

sidered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; Allied to Axis GDP ratio
22 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

had significant advantages in both population and eco- ing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population cen-
nomics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, tres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).* [372]
France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 percent Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences
larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, such as the Ger-
product than the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if man 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pi-
colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a oneered and, though late introduction meant it had lit-
5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 advantage in tle impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces
GDP.* [364] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly worldwide.* [373]
six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 percent
Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval war-
higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population fare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines.
and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies
Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success
are included.* [364] at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor,
Though the Allies' economic and population advantages and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant
were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg capital ship in place of the battleship.* [374]* [375]* [376]
attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the deci- In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of
sive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius
Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap.* [377] Carri-
one of attrition.* [365] While the Allies' ability to out- ers were also more economical than battleships because
produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies hav- of the relatively low cost of aircraft* [378] and their not
ing more access to natural resources, other factors, such requiring to be as heavily armoured.* [379] Submarines,
as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in which had proved to be an effective weapon during the
the labour force,* [366] Allied strategic bombing,* [367] First World War,* [380] were anticipated by all sides to
and Germany's late shift to a war economy* [368] con- be important in the second. The British focused devel-
tributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany opment on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such
nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on im-
not equipped to do so.* [369] To improve their produc- proving its offensive capability, with designs such as the
tion, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labour- Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics.* [381] Grad-
ers;* [370] Germany used about 12 million people, mostly ually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh
from Eastern Europe,* [341] while Japan used more than light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved vic-
18 million people in Far East Asia.* [349]* [350]
torious.

Advances in technology and warfare

Main article: Technology during World War II

Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters,

B-29 Superfortress strategic bombers on the Boeing assembly line

in Wichita, Kansas, 1944

bombers, and ground-support, and each role was ad-

vanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the ca- A V-2 rocket launched from a fixed site in Peenemünde, 1943
pability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies,
equipment, and personnel);* [371] and of strategic bomb- Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World
1.1. WORLD WAR II 23

War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early ver-
tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry sions of Enigma before the war.* [391] Another aspect
support in the First World War, had evolved into the of military intelligence was the use of deception, which
primary weapon.* [382] In the late 1930s, tank design the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations
was considerably more advanced than it had been during Mincemeat and Bodyguard.* [390]* [392] Other techno-
World War I,* [383] and advances continued throughout logical and engineering feats achieved during, or as a re-
the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. sult of, the war include the world's first programmable
At the start of the war, most commanders thought en- computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles
and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's develop-
emy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifi-
cations.* [384] This idea was challenged by the poor per- ment of nuclear weapons, operations research and the de-
velopment of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under
formance of the relatively light early tank guns against
armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus- the English Channel.* [393]
tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of com-
bined arms, were among the key elements of their 1.1.7 See also
highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and
France.* [382] Many means of destroying tanks, includ- • Air warfare of World War II
ing indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and
self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank • Bibliography of World War II
*
weapons, and other tanks were utilised. [384] Even with • Declarations of war during World War II
large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the back-
bone of all forces,* [385] and throughout the war, most • Home front during World War II
infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.* [386]
• List of World War II battles
• List of World War II conferences
• List of World War II military operations
• Women in World War II
• World War II in popular culture
• List of World War II films

Documentaries

See also List of World War II documentary films

• The World Wars (miniseries) The World Wars is a

three-part, six-hour event miniseries by the History
Nuclear Gadget being raised to the top of the detonation tower, Channel that premiered on Monday, May 26, 2014,
at Alamogordo Bombing Range; Trinity nuclear test, July 1945 (Memorial Day) airing for three consecutive nights.
An extended version of the series with never before
The portable machine gun spread, a notable example be- seen footage was subsequently broadcast on H2 and
ing the German MG34, and various submachine guns in more than 160 countries on June 22, 2014
which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle
settings.* [386] The assault rifle, a late war development • Apocalypse: The Second World War (2009), a six-
incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine part French documentary by Daniel Costelle and Is-
gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for abelle Clarke about World War II
most armed forces.* [387]* [388] • Battlefield, a documentary television series initially
Most major belligerents attempted to solve the prob- issued in 1994–5, that explores many important
lems of complexity and security involved in us- World War II battles
ing large codebooks for cryptography by designing • BBC History of World War II, a television series, ini-
ciphering machines, the most well known being the Ger- tially issued from 1989 to 2005.
man Enigma machine.* [389] Development of SIGINT
(signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the coun- • The World at War (1974), a 26-part Thames Tele-
tering process of decryption. Notable examples were vision series that covers most aspects of World War
the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes* [390] and II from many points of view. It includes interviews
British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma with many key figures including Karl Dönitz, Albert
benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Speer, and Anthony Eden.
24 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

• Band of Brothers (miniseries) (2001) is based on [15] Beevor 2012, p. 10.

Easy Company's (U.S. 101st Airborne Division) ex-
[16] Masaya 1990, p. 4.
periences during the War.
[17] “History of German-American Relations » 1989–1994 –
Reunification » “Two-plus-Four-Treaty": Treaty on the
1.1.8 Notes Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, September 12,
1990”. usa.usembassy.de. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[1] Various other dates have been proposed as the date on
which World War II began or ended. [18] Ingram 2006, pp. 76–8

[2] Upon his death in 1989, Emperor Hirohito was posthu- [19] Kantowicz 1999, p. 149
mously proclaimed Emperor Shōwa. While either use
is considered acceptable, his English name (Hirohito) is [20] Shaw 2000, p. 35.
used here as it is this name by which he was known to
[21] Brody 1999, p. 4.
most of the West during World War II.
[22] Dawood & Mitra 2012.

1.1.9 Citations [23] Zalampas 1989, p. 62.

[1] Fitzgerald 2011, p. 4 [24] Mandelbaum 1988, p. 96; Record 2005, p. 50.

[2] Hedgepeth & Saidel 2010, p. 16 [25] Schmitz 2000, p. 124.

[3] James A. Tyner (March 3, 2009). War, Violence, and [26] Adamthwaite 1992, p. 52.
Population: Making the Body Count. The Guilford Press;
[27] Preston 1998, p. 104.
1 edition. p. 49. ISBN 1-6062-3038-7.

[4] Sommerville 2011, p. 5. [28] Myers & Peattie 1987, p. 458.

[5] Barrett & Shyu 2001, p. 6. [29] Smith & Steadman 2004, p. 28.

[6] Axelrod, Alan (2007) Encyclopedia of World War II, Vol- [30] Coogan 1993: “Although some Chinese troops in the
ume 1. Infobase Publishing. pp. 659. Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped
by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the
[7] The UN Security Council, retrieved 15 May 2012 choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A
few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the
[8] Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Coun- puppet government, but others took up arms against the
cil; José Manuel Durão Barroso, President of the Euro- invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the
pean Commission (10 December 2012). “From War to volunteer armies.”
Peace: A European Tale”. Nobel Lecture by the Euro-
pean Union. Retrieved 4 January 2014. [31] Busky 2002, p. 10.
[9] Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005) A World at Arms: A Global [32] Andrea L. Stanton, Edward Ramsamy, Peter J. Seybolt.
History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa:
Press. pp. 6. An Encyclopedia. p. 308. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
[10] Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World [33] Barker 1971, pp. 131–2.
War II: The War against Germany and Italy. Rowman &
Littlefield Publishing. pp. 7. [34] Kitson 2001, p. 231.

[11] Förster & Gessler 2005, p. 64. [35] Beevor 2006, pp. 258–60.
Tony Judt said that the“communist strategy in Spain turns
[12] Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two out to have been a dry run for the seizure of power in East-
Transaction Publishers pg 7, pg. 30 ern Europe after 1945.”See Judt & Snyder 2012, p. 190.
[13] Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: [36] Budiansky 2004, pp. 209–11.
America at war, 1941-1945 ISBN 978-0394585307
[37] Payne 2008.
[14] Ben-Horin 1943, p. 169; Taylor 1979, p. 124; Yisreelit,
Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. [38] Eastman 1986, pp. 547–51.
191.
For 1941 see Taylor 1961, p. vii; Kellogg, William O [39] Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in His-
(2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron's Educa- tory. 1999, page 223-4
tional Series. p. 236 ISBN 0-7641-1973-7.
[40] Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide. 2008, 298–9.
There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and
World War II are part of the same "European Civil War" [41] Hsu & Chang 1971, pp. 221–230.
or "Second Thirty Years War": Canfora 2006, p. 155;
Prins 2002, p. 11. [42] Eastman 1986, p. 566.
1.1. WORLD WAR II 25

[43] Taylor 2009, pp. 150–2. [69] Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from
Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: “The attack
[44] Sella 1983, pp. 651–87. [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions
are at all possible.”
[45] Goldman, Stuart D. (28 August 2012). “The Forgotten
Soviet-Japanese War of 1939”. The Diplomat. Retrieved [70] Liddell Hart 1977, pp. 39–40
26 June 2015.
[71] Hitler: a Study in Tyranny, A Bullock, Penguin, 1983,
[46] Timothy Neeno. “Nomonhan: The Second Russo- p563-4, 566, 568–9, 574–5
Japanese War”. MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Retrieved
26 June 2015. [72] Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk,
L Deighton, Jonathan Cape, 1993, p186-7. Deighton
[47] Collier & Pedley 2000, p. 144. states that“the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times
[48] Kershaw 2001, pp. 121–2. before it finally took place.”

[49] Kershaw 2001, p. 157. [73] Smith et al. 2002, p. 24

[50] Davies 2008, pp. 143–4. [74] Bilinsky 1999, p. 9.

[51] Lowe & Marzari 2002, p. 330. [75] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 55–6.

[52] Dear & Foot 2001, p. 234. [76] Spring 1986.

[53] Shore 2003, p. 108. [77] Hanhimäki 1997, p. 12.

[54] Dear & Foot 2001, p. 608. [78] Ferguson 2006, pp. 367, 376, 379, 417

[55] Minutes of the conference between the Fuehrer and the [79] Snyder 2010, p. 118ff.
Italian Minister for Foreign Affairs, Count Ciano, in the
presence of the Reich Foreign Minister of Obersalzberg [80] Koch 1983.
on 12 August 1939 in Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression
[81] Roberts 2006, p. 56.
Volume IV Document No. 1871-PS
[82] Roberts 2006, p. 59.
[56] “The German Campaign In Poland (1939)". Retrieved
29 October 2014. [83] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 57–63.
[57] http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162 [84] Commager 2004, p. 9.
[58] http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162 [85] Reynolds 2006, p. 76.
[59] “Major international events of 1939, with explanation”. [86] Evans 2008, pp. 122–3.
ibiblio.org. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
[87] Dear & Foot 2001, p. 436.
[60] Evans 2008, pp. 1–2. The Americans later relieved the British, with marines ar-
[61] Jackson 2006, p. 58. riving in Reykjavik on 7 July 1941 (Schofield 1981, p.
122).
[62] Weinberg 2005, pp. 64–5.
[88] Shirer 1990, pp. 721–3.
[63] Keegan 1997, p. 35.
Cienciala 2010, p. 128, observes that, while it is true that [89] Keegan 1997, pp. 59–60.
Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French
[90] Regan 2004, p. 152.
and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians
of World War II ... know that the British had committed [91] Liddell Hart 1977, p. 48
to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so
except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen. The [92] Keegan 1997, pp. 66–7.
French, who committed to attack Germany in the west,
had no intention of doing so.” [93] Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, p. 207.

[64] Beevor 2012, p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 248–9; [94] Umbreit 1991, p. 311.
Roskill 1954, p. 64.
[95] Brown 2004, p. xxx.
[65] Zaloga 2002, pp. 80, 83.
[96] Keegan 1997, p. 72
[66] Hempel 2005, p. 24.
[97] Murray 1983, The Battle of Britain
[67] Zaloga 2002, pp. 88–9.
[98] “Major international events of 1940, with explanation”.
[68] Budiansky 2001, pp. 120–1. ibiblio.org. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
 26 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

[99] Goldstein 2004, p. 35. [131] Farrell 1993.

Aircraft played a highly important role in defeating the
German U-boats (Schofield 1981, p. 122). [132] Keeble 1990, p. 29.

[100] Steury 1987, p. 209; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009, p. [133] Bueno de Mesquita et al. 2003, p. 425
282.
[134] Beevor 2012, p. 220.
[101] Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 108–9.
[135] Kleinfeld 1983.
[102] Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, pp. 328–30.
[136] Jukes 2001, p. 113.
[103] Maingot 1994, p. 52.
[137] Glantz 2001, p. 26: “By 1 November [the Wehrma-
[104] Cantril 1940, p. 390.
cht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000
[105] Coordination With Britain Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans men), up to 2/3 of its ½-million motor vehicles, and 65
and Operations percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command
(OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-
[106] Bilhartz & Elliott 2007, p. 179. strength divisions.”
[107] Dear & Foot 2001, p. 877. [138] Reinhardt 1992, p. 227.
[108] Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 745–6. [139] Milward 1964.
[109] Clogg 2002, p. 118.
[140] Rotundo 1986.
[110] Evans 2008, pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986, pp. 4–6
[141] Glantz 2001, p. 26.
[111] Jowett 2001, pp. 9–10.
[142] Garthoff 1969.
[112] Jackson 2006, p. 106.
[143] Beevor 1998, pp. 41–2.
[113] Laurier 2001, pp. 7–8. Evans 2008, pp. 213–4, notes that “Zhukov had pushed
the Germans back to the point from which they had
[114] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 263–7.
launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only
[115] Macksey 1997, pp. 61–3. Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of
pushing home the advantage by concentrating his forces
[116] Weinberg 2005, p. 229. in an all-out assault against the retreating Germany Army
Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even
[117] Watson 2003, p. 80. worse.”
[118] Jackson 2006, p. 154.
[144] Jowett & Andrew 2002, p. 14.
[119] Garver 1988, p. 114.
[145] Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, p. 289
[120] Weinberg 2005, p. 195
[146] Morison 2002, p. 60.
[121] Murray 1983, p. 69
[147] Joes 2004, p. 224.
[122] Klooz, Marle; Wiley, Evelyn (1944), “1941”, Events
leading up to World War II: Chronological history of cer- [148] Fairbank & Goldman 2006, p. 320.
tain major international events leading up to and during
World War II with the ostensible reasons advanced for [149] Hsu & Chang 1971, p. 30.
their occurrence ̶1931–1944, 78th Congress, 2d Ses-
sion, Humphrey, Richard A, Washington: United States [150] Hsu & Chang 1971, p. 33.
Government Printing Office, House Document No. 541
[151] Japanese Policy and Strategy, 1931 – July 1941 Strategy
[123] Sella 1978. and Command: The First Two Years

[124] Kershaw 2007, pp. 66–9. [152] Anderson 1975, p. 201.

[125] Steinberg 1995. [153] Evans & Peattie 2012, p. 456.

[126] Hauner 1978. [154] The Decision for War Strategy and Command: The First
Two Years
[127] Roberts 1995.
[155] The Showdown With Japan August–December 1941
[128] Wilt 1981.
Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941–1942
[129] Erickson 2003, pp. 114–37.
[156] THE UNITED STATES REPLIES Investigation of the
[130] Glantz 2001, p. 9. Pearl Harbor attack
 1.1. WORLD WAR II 27

[157] Painter 2012, p. 26:“The United States cut off oil exports [177] Salecker 2001, p. 186.
to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders
to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of [178] Ropp 2000, p. 368.
the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to U.S. pressure.”
[179] Weinberg 2005, p. 339.
Wood 2007, p. 9, listing various military and diplomatic
developments, observes that “the threat to Japan was not [180] Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare:
purely economic.” From Earliest Times to the Present Day. Globe Pequot.
p. 259. ISBN 1-59228-027-7.
[158] Lightbody 2004, p. 125.
[181] Swain 2001, p. 197.
[159] Weinberg 2005, p. 310.
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[187] Davies 2008, p. 100.
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[193] Beevor 2012, pp. 224–8.
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[199] Neillands 2005, p. ??.

[166] The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment
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[167] The Elimination of the Alternatives July–August 1942
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[168] Casablanca̶Beginning of an Era: January 1943 Strategic [203] Ross 1997, p. 38.
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[175] Perez 1998, p. 145. [211] Kershaw 2001, p. 592.

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Chapter 2

Background

2.1 Causes of World War II Among the causes of World War II were Italian fascism
in the 1920s, Japanese militarism and invasions of China
in the 1930s, and especially the political takeover in 1933
of Germany by Hitler and his Nazi Party house and its ag-
gressive foreign policy. The immediate cause was Britain
and France declaring war on Germany after it invaded
Poland in September 1939.
Problems arose in Weimar Germany that experienced
strong currents of revanchism after the Treaty of Ver-
sailles that concluded its defeat in World War I in
1918. Dissatisfactions of treaty provisions included the
demilitarizarion of the Rhineland, the prohibition of uni-
fication with Austria and the loss of German-speaking
territories such as Danzig, Eupen-Malmedy and Upper
Silesia despite Wilson's Fourteen Points, the limitations
on the Reichswehr making it a token military force, the
German battleship Schleswig-Holstein attacks Polish forts at the war-guilt clause, and last but not least the heavy tribute
start of the war, September 1, 1939 that Germany had to pay in the form of war reparations,
and that become an unbearable burden after the Great
Depression. The most serious internal cause in Germany
was the instability of the political system, as large sectors
of politically active Germans rejected the legitimacy of
the Weimar Republic.
After his rise and take-over of power in 1933 to a large
part based on these grievances, Adolf Hitler and the Nazis
heavily promoted them and also ideas of vastly ambi-
tious additional demands based on Nazi ideology such
as uniting all Germans (and further all Germanic peo-
ples) in Europe in a single nation; the acquisition of
“living space”(Lebensraum) for primarily agrarian set-
tlers (Blut und Boden), creating a “pull towards the
East”(Drang nach Osten) where such territories were
to be found and colonized, in a model that the Nazis
explicitly derived from the American Manifest Destiny
Destroyer USS Shaw exploding during the Attack on Pearl Har- in the Far West and its clearing of native inhabitants;
bor, December 7, 1941 the elimination of Bolshevism; and the hegemony of an
"Aryan"/"Nordic" so-called Master Race over the “sub-
humans”(Untermenschen) of inferior races, chief among
Some long-term causes of World War II are found in the
them Slavs and Jews.
conditions preceding World War I and seen as common
for both World Wars. Supporters of this view paraphrase Tensions created by those ideologies and the dissatisfac-
Clausewitz: World War II was a continuation of World tions of those powers with the interwar international or-
War I by the same means. In fact, World Wars had been der steadily increased. Italy laid claim on Ethiopia and
expected before Mussolini and Hitler came to power and conquered it in 1935, Japan created a puppet state in
Japan invaded China.* [1] Manchuria in 1931 and expanded beyond in China from

44
 2.1. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II 45

1937, and Germany systematically flouted the Versailles

treaty, reintroducing conscription in 1935 with the Stresa
Front's failure after having secretly started re-armament,
remilitarizing the Rhineland in 1936, annexing Austria in
March 1938, and the Sudetenland in October 1938.
All those aggressive moves met only feeble and ineffec-
tual policies of appeasement from the League of Nations
and the Entente Cordiale, in retrospect symbolized by the
“peace for our time”speech following the Munich Con-
ference, that had allowed the annexation of the Sude-
ten from interwar Czechoslovakia. When the German
Führer broke the promise he had made at that confer-
ence to respect that country's future territorial integrity
in March 1939 by sending troops into Prague, its capi-
tal, breaking off Slovakia as a German client state, and
absorbing the rest of it as the "Protectorate of Bohemia-
Moravia", Britain and France tried to switch to a policy
of deterrence.
As Nazi attentions turned towards resolving the "Polish
Corridor Question”during the summer of 1939, Britain
and France committed themselves to an alliance with
Poland, threatening Germany with a two-front war. On
their side, the Germans assured themselves of the support
of the USSR by signing a non-aggression pact with them
in August, secretly dividing Eastern Europe into Nazi and “Bolshevik freedom”– Polish propaganda poster with nude car-
Soviet spheres of influence. icature of Leon Trotsky
The stage was then set for the Danzig crisis to become
the immediate trigger of the war in Europe started on
1 September 1939. Following the Fall of France in Communism. However, they feuded among themselves,
June 1940, the Vichy regime signed an armistice, which and such alliances they formed, like the Little Entente,
tempted the Empire of Japan to join the Axis pow- were unstable.* [2]
ers and invade French Indochina to improve their mil-
Both Italian and German fascism were in part a reac-
itary situation in their war with China. This provoked
tion to international communist and socialist uprisings,
the then neutral United States to respond with an em-
in conjunction with nationalist fears of a Slavic empire.
bargo. The Japanese leadership, whose goal was Japanese
A further factor in Germany was the success of Freikorps
domination of the Asia-Pacific, thought they had no op-
(voluntary paramilitary groups of World War I veterans)
tion but to pre-emptively strike at the US Pacific fleet,
in crushing the Bolshevik Bavarian Soviet Republic in
which they did by attacking Pearl Harbor on 7 December
Munich in 1919. Many of these veterans became early
1941. components of the Nazis' SA (“Stormtroopers”), which
would be the party's troops in the street warfare with
the Communist armed militia in the decade before 1933.
2.1.1 Ideologies, doctrines, and philoso- The street violence would help shift moderate opinion to-
phies wards the need for Germany to find an anti-Communist
strongman to restore stability to German life.* [3]* [4]
Anti-communism

Main article: Anti-communism Expansionism

The internationalist-minded, radical Bolsheviks seized
power in Russia in November 1917, with the goal of over- Expansionism is the doctrine of expanding the territo-
throwing capitalism across the world. They supported rial base (or economic influence) of a country, usually
Communist parties in many lands and helped set up sim- by means of military aggression. In Europe, Italy un-
ilar regimes in Hungary and Bavaria, Azerbaijan, Arme- der Benito Mussolini sought to create a New Roman Em-
nia and Georgia. This caused many Europeans to fear that pire based around the Mediterranean. It invaded Albania
a violent Communist revolution would overwhelm their in early 1939, at the start of the war, and later invaded
own countries. The Red expansion was stopped outside Greece. Italy had also invaded Ethiopia as early as 1935.
Warsaw by the Polish army, and by 1920 there was a cor- This provoked angry words and an oil embargo from the
ridor of border states just west of Russia that rejected League of Nations, which failed.
46 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND

Under the Nazi regime, Germany began its own program Racism
of expansion, seeking to restore the“rightful”boundaries
of historic Germany. As a prelude toward these goals the Main articles: Racial policy of Nazi Germany,
Rhineland was remilitarized in March 1936.* [5] Lebensraum and Drang nach Osten
Also, of importance was the idea of a Greater Ger-
many, supporters hoped to unite the German people un- Twentieth-century events marked the culmination of a
der one nation state, which included all territories where millennium-long process of intermingling between Ger-
Germans lived, regardless of whether they happened mans and Slavs. Over the centuries, many Germans
to be a minority in a particular territory. After the had settled in the east (examples being the Volga Ger-
Treaty of Versailles, a unification between Germany and a mans invited to Russia by Catherine the Great, and the
newly formed German-Austria, a successor rump state of Ostsiedlung in medieval times). Such migratory patterns
Austria-Hungary, was prohibited by the Allies despite the created enclaves and blurred ethnic frontiers. The rise of
majority of Austrian Germans supporting such a union. nationalism in the 19th century made race a centerpiece
of political loyalty. The rise of the nation-state had given
way to the politics of identity, including Pan-Germanism
and Pan-Slavism. Furthermore, Social-Darwinist theo-
ries framed the coexistence as a“Teuton vs. Slav”strug-
gle for domination, land and limited resources.* [9] Inte-
grating these ideas into their own world-view, the Nazis
believed that the Germans, the "Aryan race", were the
master race and that the Slavs were inferior.* [10]

2.1.2 Interrelations and economics

Problems with the Treaty of Versailles

Main article: Treaty of Versailles

Japanese march into Zhengyangmen of Beijing after capturing The Treaty of Versailles was neither lenient enough to ap-
the city in July 1937

In Asia, the Empire of Japan harboured expansionist de-

sires towards Manchuria and Republic of China.

Militarism

Main articles: Japanese militarism, Statism in Shōwa

Japan and Militarism

Militarism is the principle or policy of maintaining a large

military establishment, with the view that military effi-
ciency is the supreme ideal of a state.* [6] A highly mili-
taristic and aggressive national ideology prevailed in Ger-
many, Japan and Italy.* [7] This attitude fuelled military
Germany after Versailles ----
advancement and expansion as well while their revolu-
Administered by the League of Nations
tionary motivated background were commanding an in- Annexed or transferred to neighboring countries by the treaty,
crease in propaganda, which led to increased tensions or later via plebiscite and League of Nation action
among the Axis powers and their opponents in the run Weimar Germany
up to the war. In addition to this, the leaders of militaris-
tic countries often feel a need to prove that their armies
are important and formidable, and this was often a con- pease Germany, nor harsh enough to prevent it from be-
tributing factor in the start of conflicts, including the ag- coming the dominant continental power again.* [11] The
gressive foreign policy of Germany (European expansion- treaty placed the blame, or "war guilt" on Germany and
ism), Italy (the Second Italo-Abyssinian War) and Japan Austria-Hungary, and punished them for their“responsi-
(the Second Sino-Japanese War), which in itself is a con- bility”rather than working out an agreement that would
tributing factor to the World War.* [8] assure long-term peace. The treaty provided for harsh
2.1. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II 47

monetary reparations, separated millions of ethnic Ger- War Guilt Clause was the first step towards a satisfying
mans into neighboring countries, territorial dismember- revenge for the victor countries, namely France, against
ment, and caused mass ethnic resettlement. In an effort Germany. France understood that its position in 1918
to pay war reparations to Britain and France, the Weimar was“artificial and transitory”.* [14] Thus, Clemenceau,
Republic printed trillions of marks, causing extremely the French leader at the time, worked to gain French se-
high inflation of the German currency (see Hyperinflation curity via the Treaty of Versailles.* [14]
in the Weimar Republic).
The treaty created bitter resentment towards the victors
of World War I, who had promised the people of Ger-
many that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen
Points would be a guideline for peace; however, the US
played a minor role in World War I and Wilson could
not convince the Allies to agree to adopt his Fourteen
Points. Many Germans felt that the German government
had agreed to an armistice based on this understanding,
while others felt that the German Revolution of 1918–
1919 had been orchestrated by the“November criminals”
who later assumed office in the new Weimar Republic.
The German colonies were taken during the war, and
Italy took the southern half of Tyrol after an armistice
had been agreed upon. The war in the east ended with
“The Big Four”made all the major decisions at the Paris Peace
the defeat and collapse of Russian Empire, and German Conference (from left to right, David Lloyd George of Britain,
troops occupied large parts of Eastern and Central Eu- Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, Georges Clemenceau of
rope (with varying degree of control), establishing var- France, Woodrow Wilson of the U.S.)
ious client states such as a kingdom of Poland and the
United Baltic Duchy. After the destructive and indeci- The two main provisions of the French security agenda
sive battle of Jutland (1916) and the mutiny of its sailors were reparations from Germany in the form of money
in 1917, the Kaiserliche Marine spent most of the war and coal and a detached German Rhineland. The French
in port, only to be turned over to the allies and scuttled government printed excess currency, which created infla-
at surrender by its own officers. The lack of an obvious tion, to compensate for the lack of funds in addition to
military defeat was one of the pillars that held together borrowing money from the United States. Reparations
the Dolchstosslegende (“Stab-in-the-back myth”) and from Germany were necessary to stabilize the French
gave the Nazis another propaganda tool at their disposal. economy.* [15] France also demanded that Germany give
France their coal supply from the Ruhr to compensate for
the destruction of French coalmines during the war. Be-
French security demands cause France feared for its safety as a country, the French
demanded an amount of coal that was a“technical impos-
French security demands, such as reparations, coal pay- sibility”for the Germans to pay back.* [16] France wanted
ments, and a demilitarized Rhineland, took precedent at the German Rhineland demilitarized because that would
the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and shaped the Treaty hinder a German attack. This gave France a physical se-
of Versailles by severely punishing Germany; however, curity barrier between itself and Germany.* [17] The in-
Austria found the treaty to be unjust which encouraged ordinate amount of reparations, coal payments, and the
Hitler's popularity. Ginsberg argues,“France was greatly principle of a demilitarized Rhineland were viewed by
weakened and, in its weakness and fear of a resurgent the Germans to be insulting and unreasonable.
Germany, sought to isolate and punish Germany....French
revenge would come back to haunt France during the
Nazi invasion and occupation twenty years later.”* [12] Germany's reaction to Treaty of Versailles “No
postwar German government believed it could accept
such a burden on future generations and survive ...”.* [15]
Paris Peace Conference (1919) As World War I Paying reparations is a classic punishment of war but in
ended in 1918, France, along with the other victor this instance it was the “extreme immoderation”(His-
countries, were in a desperate situation regarding their tory) that caused German resentment. Germany made
economies, security, and morale. The Paris Peace Con- its last World War I reparation payment on 3 October
ference of 1919 was their chance to punish Germany for 2010,* [18] ninety-two years after the end of World War I.
starting the war. The war “must be someone's fault – Germany also fell behind in their coal payments. They fell
and that's a very natural human reaction”analyzed his- behind because of a passive resistance movement against
torian Margaret MacMillan.* [13] Germany was charged the French.* [19] In response, the French invaded the
with the sole responsibility of starting World War I. The Ruhr, the region filled with German coal, and occupied it.
48 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND

At this point the majority of Germans were enraged with In 1937 Japan invaded Manchuria and China proper. Un-
the French and placed the blame for their humiliation on der the guise of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
the Weimar Republic. Adolf Hitler, a leader of the Nazi Sphere, with slogans as “Asia for the Asians!" Japan
Party, attempted a coup d'état against the republic to es- sought to remove the Western powers' influence in China
tablish a Greater German Reich* [20] known as the Beer and replace it with Japanese domination.* [24]* [25]
Hall Putsch in 1923. Although this failed, Hitler gained The ongoing conflict in China led to a deepening con-
recognition as a national hero amongst the German pop- flict with the U.S., where public opinion was alarmed
ulation. The demilitarized Rhineland and additional cut- by events such as the Nanking Massacre and growing
backs on military infuriated the Germans. Although it is
Japanese power. Lengthy talks were held between the
logical that France would want the Rhineland to be a neu- U.S. and Japan. When Japan moved into the southern
tral zone, the fact that France had the power to make that
part of French Indochina, President Roosevelt chose to
desire happen merely added onto the resentment of the freeze all Japanese assets in the U.S. The intended conse-
Germans against the French. In addition, the Treaty of
quence of this was the halt of oil shipments from the U.S.
Versailles dissolved the German general staff and posses- to Japan, which had supplied 80 percent of Japanese oil
sion of navy ships, aircraft, poison gas, tanks, and heavy
imports. The Netherlands and Britain followed suit. With
artillery was made illegal.* [17] The humiliation of being oil reserves that would last only a year and a half during
bossed around by the victor countries, especially France, peace time (much less during wartime), this ABCD line
and being stripped of their prized military made the Ger- left Japan two choices: comply with the U.S.-led demand
mans resent the Weimar Republic and idolize anyone who to pull out of China, or seize the oilfields in the East Indies
stood up to it.* [21] from the Netherlands. The Japan government deemed it
unacceptable to retreat from China.* [26]
Competition for resources and markets

Problems with the League of Nations

Main article: League of Nations

The League of Nations was an international organiza-

tion founded after World War I to prevent future wars.
The League's methods included disarmament; preventing
war through collective security; settling disputes between
countries through negotiation diplomacy; and improving
World map of colonialism at the end of the Second World War global welfare. The diplomatic philosophy behind the
in 1945 League represented a fundamental shift in thought from
the preceding century. The old philosophy of“concert of
Other than a few coal and iron deposits, and a small oil nations”, growing out of the Congress of Vienna (1815),
field on Sakhalin Island, Japan lacked strategic mineral saw Europe as a shifting map of alliances among nation-
resources. At the start of the 20th century in the Russo- states, creating a balance of power maintained by strong
Japanese War, Japan had succeeded in pushing back the armies and secret agreements. Under the new philoso-
East Asian expansion of the Russian Empire in competi- phy, the League was a government of governments, with
tion for Korea and Manchuria. the role of settling disputes between individual nations in
Japan's goal after 1931 was economic dominance of most an open and legalist forum. The impetus for the founding
of East Asia, often expressed in Pan-Asian terms of“Asia of the League came from U.S. President Wilson, though
for the Asians.”.* [22] Japan was determined to dominate the United States never joined. This lessened the power
the China market, which the U.S. and other European and credibility of the League̶the addition of a burgeon-
powers had been dominating. On October 19, 1939, the ing industrial and military world power would have added
American Ambassador to Japan, Joseph C. Grew, in a more force behind the League's demands and requests.
formal address to the America-Japan Society stated: The League lacked an armed force of its own and so de-
pended on the members to enforce its resolutions, uphold
the new order in East Asia has appeared to in-
economic sanctions that the League ordered, or provide
clude, among other things, depriving Ameri-
an army when needed for the League to use. However,
cans of their long established rights in China,
they were often very reluctant to do so.
and to this the American people are opposed
... American rights and interests in China are After numerous notable successes and some early fail-
being impaired or destroyed by the policies and ures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved inca-
actions of the Japanese authorities in China.” pable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the
1930s. The reliance upon unanimous decisions, the lack
*
[23] of an armed force, and the continued self-interest of its
2.1. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II 49

was driven by domestic political considerations, and the

launch of World War II in 1939 was best understood as a
“barbaric variant of social imperialism”.* [30]
Mason argued that “Nazi Germany was always bent at
some time upon a major war of expansion.”* [31] How-
ever, Mason argued that the timing of a such a war was
determined by domestic political pressures, especially as
relating to a failing economy, and had nothing to do with
what Hitler wanted.* [31] In Mason's view in the period
between 1936–41, it was the state of the German econ-
omy, and not Hitler's 'will' or 'intentions' that was the
most important determinate on German decision-making
on foreign policy.* [32] Mason argued that the Nazi lead-
ers were deeply haunted by the November Revolution of
The official opening of the League of Nations, 15 November 1920 1918, and was most unwilling to see any fall in working
class living standards out of the fear that it might pro-
voke another November Revolution.* [32] According to
leading members meant that this failure was arguably in- Mason, by 1939, the“overheating”of the German econ-
evitable.* [27] omy caused by rearmament, the failure of various rear-
mament plans produced by the shortages of skilled work-
ers, industrial unrest caused by the breakdown of Ger-
The Mason-Overy Debate: “The Flight into War”the- man social policies, and the sharp drop in living standards
ory for the German working class forced Hitler into going to
war at a time and place not of his choosing.* [33] Mason
In the late 1980s the British historian Richard Overy was contended that when faced with the deep socio-economic
involved in a historical dispute with Timothy Mason that crisis the Nazi leadership had decided to embark upon
mostly played out over the pages of the Past and Present a ruthless 'smash and grab' foreign policy of seizing ter-
journal over the reasons for the outbreak of World War II ritory in Eastern Europe which could be pitilessly plun-
in 1939. Mason had contended that a“flight into war”had dered to support living standards in Germany.* [34] Ma-
been imposed on Adolf Hitler by a structural economic son described German foreign policy as driven by an op-
crisis, which confronted Hitler with the choice of making portunistic 'next victim' syndrome after the Anschluss, in
difficult economic decisions or aggression. Overy argued which the “promiscuity of aggressive intentions”was
against Mason's thesis, maintaining that though Germany nurtured by every successful foreign policy move.* [35] In
was faced with economic problems in 1939, the extent of Mason's opinion, the decision to sign the German-Soviet
these problems cannot explain aggression against Poland Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union and to attack
and the reasons for the outbreak of war were due to the Poland and the running of the risk of a war with Britain
choices made by the Nazi leadership. and France were the abandonment by Hitler of his foreign
Mason had argued that the German working-class was policy program outlined in Mein Kampf forced on him by
always opposed to the Nazi dictatorship; that in the his need to stop a collapsing German economy by seizing
over-heated German economy of the late 1930s, Ger- territory abroad to be plundered.* [33]
man workers could force employers to grant higher wages For Overy, the problem with Mason's thesis was that it
by leaving for another firm that would grant the desired rested on the assumption that in a way not shown by
wage increases; that this was a form of political resistance records, information was passed on to Hitler about the
and this resistance forced Adolf Hitler to go to war in Reich's economic problems.* [36] Overy argued that there
1939.* [28] Thus, the outbreak of the Second World War was a difference between economic pressures induced by
was caused by structural economic problems, a “flight the problems of the Four Year Plan and economic mo-
into war”imposed by a domestic crisis.* [28] The key as- tives to seize raw materials, industry and foreign reserves
pects of the crisis were according to Mason, a shaky eco- of neighboring states as a way of accelerating the Four
nomic recovery was threatened by a rearmament program Year Plan.* [37] Overy asserted that the repressive capac-
that was overwhelming the economy and in which the ity of the German state as a way of dealing with domestic
Nazi regime's nationalist bluster limited its options.* [28] unhappiness was somewhat downplayed by Mason.* [36]
In this way, Mason articulated a Primat der Innenpoli- Finally, Overy argued that there is considerable evidence
tik (“primacy of domestic politics”) view of World that the German state felt they could master the economic
War II's origins through the concept of social imperial- problems of rearmament; as one civil servant put it in Jan-
ism.* [29] Mason's Primat der Innenpolitik thesis was in uary 1940“we have already mastered so many difficulties
marked contrast to the Primat der Außenpolitik (“pri- in the past, that here too, if one or other raw material be-
macy of foreign politics) usually used to explain World came extremely scarce, ways and means will always yet
War II.* [28] In Mason's opinion, German foreign policy
50 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND

be found to get out of a fix”.* [38] militarized the Rhineland on March 7, 1936. It moved
German troops into the part of western Germany where,
according to the Versailles Treaty, they were not allowed.
2.1.3 Specific developments France could not act because of political instability at
the time. According to his official Biography, King
Nazi dictatorship Edward VIII, who thought the Versailles provision was
unjust,* [43] ordered the government to stand down.* [44]
Main articles: Nazi Germany and Nazi Party

Hitler and his Nazis took full control of Germany in

1933–34 (Machtergreifung), turning it into a dictatorship
Italian invasion of Ethiopia
with a highly hostile outlook toward the Treaty of Ver-
sailles and Jews.* [39] It solved its unemployment crisis
by heavy military spending.* [40] Main article: Second Italo-Abyssinian War
Hitler's diplomatic strategy was to make seemingly rea-
sonable demands, threatening war if they were not After the Stresa Conference and even as a reaction to the
met.* [41] When opponents tried to appease him, he ac- Anglo-German Naval Agreement, Italian dictator Benito
cepted the gains that were offered, then went to the Mussolini attempted to expand the Italian Empire in
next target. That aggressive strategy worked as Ger- Africa by invading the Ethiopian Empire (also known as
many pulled out of the League of Nations (1933), re- Abyssinia). The League of Nations declared Italy the ag-
jected the Versailles Treaty and began to re-arm (1935) gressor and imposed sanctions on oil sales that proved in-
with the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, won back the effective. Italy annexed Ethiopia in May 7 and merged
Saar (1935), re-militarized the Rhineland (1936), formed Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somaliland into a single colony
an alliance (“axis”) with Mussolini's Italy (1936), sent known as Italian East Africa. On June 30, 1936, Emperor
massive military aid to Franco in the Spanish Civil War Haile Selassie gave a stirring speech before the League
(1936–39), seized Austria (1938), took over Czechoslo- of Nations denouncing Italy's actions and criticizing the
vakia after the British and French appeasement of the world community for standing by. He warned that “It is
Munich Agreement of 1938, formed a peace pact with us today. It will be you tomorrow”. As a result of the
Stalin's Russia in August 1939, and finally invaded Poland League's condemnation of Italy, Mussolini declared the
in September 1939.* [42] country's withdrawal from the organization.* [45]

Re-militarization of the Rhineland

Main article: Remilitarization of the Rhineland Spanish Civil War

In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the spirit
Main article: Spanish Civil War

Between 1936 and 1939, Germany and Italy lent sup-

port to the Nationalists led by general Francisco Franco
in Spain, while the Soviet Union supported the existing
democratically elected government, the Spanish Repub-
lic, led by Manuel Azaña. Both sides experimented with
new weapons and tactics. The League of Nations was
never involved, and the major powers of the League re-
mained neutral and tried (with little success) to stop arms
shipments into Spain. The Nationalists eventually de-
feated the Republicans in 1939.* [46]
Spain negotiated with joining the Axis but remained neu-
tral during World War II, and did business with both sides.
It also sent a volunteer unit to help the Germans against
the USSR. Whilst it was considered in the 1940s and
1950s to be a prelude to World War II and It prefigured
the war to some extent (as it changed it into an antifas-
This coin was minted for Edward VIII. cists contest after 1941), it bore no resemblance to the
war that started in 1939 and had no major role in causing
of the Locarno Pact and the Stresa Front, Germany re- it.* [47]* [48]
2.1. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II 51

Second Sino-Japanese War enthusiastic, and Austria was fully absorbed as part of
Germany. Outside powers did nothing. Italy had little
Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War reason for continued opposition to Germany, and was if
anything drawn in closer to the Nazis.* [50]* [51]
In 1931 Japan took advantage of China's weakness in the
Warlord Era and fabricated the Mukden Incident in 1931 Munich Agreement
to set up the puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria,
with Puyi, who had been the last emperor of China, as its Main articles: Munich Agreement and Appeasement
emperor. In 1937 the Marco Polo Bridge Incident trig-
gered the Second Sino-Japanese War.
The Sudetenland was a predominantly German region in-
The invasion was launched by the bombing of many cities side Czechoslovakia alongside its border with Germany.
such as Shanghai, Nanjing and Guangzhou. The latest, Its more than 3 million ethnic Germans comprised almost
which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth a quarter of the population of Czechoslovakia. In the
widespread protests culminating in a resolution by the Far Treaty of Versailles it was given to the new Czechoslovak
Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. state against the wishes of much of the local population.
The Imperial Japanese Army captured the Chinese cap- The decision to disregard their right to self determination
ital city of Nanjing, and committed war crimes in the was based on French intent to weaken Germany. Much
Nanjing massacre. The war tied down large numbers of of Sudetenland was industrialized.* [52]
Chinese soldiers, so Japan set up three different Chinese
puppet states to enlist some Chinese support.* [49]

Anschluss

Main article: Anschluss

The Anschluss was the 1938 annexation by threat of

Cheering crowds greet the Nazis in Innsbruck

force of Austria into Germany. Historically, the Pan-

Germanism idea of creating a Greater Germany to in-
clude all ethnic Germans into one nation-state was popu-
lar for Germans in both Austria and Germany. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and Hitler at a meet-
ing in Germany on 24 September 1938, where Hitler demanded
One of the Nazi party's points was“We demand the uni- annexation of Czech border areas without delay
fication of all Germans in the Greater Germany on the
basis of the people's right to self-determination.” Czechoslovakia had a modern army of 38 divisions,
The Stresa Front of 1935 between Britain, France and backed by a well-noted armament industry (Škoda) as
Italy had guaranteed the independence of Austria, but af- well as military alliances with France and Soviet Union.
ter the creation of the Rome-Berlin Axis Mussolini was However its defensive strategy against Germany was
much less interested in upholding its independence. based on the mountains of the Sudetenland.
The Austrian government resisted as long as possible, but Hitler pressed for the Sudetenland's incorporation into
had no outside support and finally gave in to Hitler's fiery the Reich, supporting German separatist groups within
demands. No fighting occurred as most Austrians were the Sudeten region. Alleged Czech brutality and perse-
52 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND

cution under Prague helped to stir up nationalist tenden- Italian invasion of Albania
cies, as did the Nazi press. After the Anschluss, all Ger-
man parties (except German Social-Democratic party) Main article: Italian invasion of Albania
merged with the Sudeten German Party (SdP). Paramili-
tary activity and extremist violence peaked during this pe-After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, Benito
riod and the Czechoslovakian government declared mar- Mussolini feared for Italy becoming a second-rate mem-
tial law in parts of the Sudetenland to maintain order. ber of the Axis. Rome delivered Tirana an ultimatum on
This only complicated the situation, especially now that March 25, 1939, demanding that it accede to Italy's oc-
Slovakian nationalism was rising, out of suspicion to- cupation of Albania. King Zog refused to accept money
wards Prague and Nazi encouragement. Citing the need in exchange for countenancing a full Italian takeover and
to protect the Germans in Czechoslovakia, Germany re- colonization of Albania. On April 7, 1939, Italian troops
quested the immediate annexation of the Sudetenland. invaded Albania. Albania was occupied after a 3 days
In the Munich Agreement of September 30, 1938, campaign with minimal resistance offered by the Alba-
British, French and Italian prime ministers appeased nian forces.
Hitler by giving him what he wanted, hoping he would not
want any more. The conferring powers allowed Germany
to move troops into the region and incorporate it into the Soviet–Japanese Border War
Reich“for the sake of peace.”In exchange for this, Hitler
gave his word that Germany would make no further terri- Main article: Battle of Khalkhin Gol
torial claims in Europe.* [53] Czechoslovakia was not al-
lowed to participate in the conference. When the French In 1939, the Japanese attacked west from Manchuria into
and British negotiators informed the Czechoslovak rep- the Mongolian People's Republic, following the earlier
resentatives about the agreement, and that if Czechoslo- Battle of Lake Khasan in 1938. They were decisively
vakia would not accept it, France and Britain would con- beaten by Soviet units under General Georgy Zhukov.
sider Czechoslovakia to be responsible for war, President Following this battle, the Soviet Union and Japan were at
Edvard Beneš capitulated. Germany took the Sudeten- peace until 1945. Japan looked south to expand its em-
land unopposed.* [54] pire, leading to conflict with the United States over the
Philippines and control of shipping lanes to the Dutch
East Indies. The Soviet Union focused on her western
border, but leaving 1 million to 1.5 million troops to guard
the frontier with Japan.
German occupation and Slovak independence Main
articles: Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia and Slovak
Republic (1939–1945) Danzig crisis
In March 1939, breaking the Munich Agreement, Ger-

Third Reich Poland

2
1 5
Slovakia 4
6
3
Hungary

The Polish Corridor and the Free City of Danzig

See also: Free City of Danzig (interwar) and Polish

All territories taken from Czechoslovakia by its neighbours in Oc-
tober 1938 ("Munich Dictate") and March 1939
Corridor

After the final fate of Czechoslovakia proved that the

man troops invaded Prague, and with the Slovaks declar- Führer's word could not be trusted, Britain and France de-
ing independence, the country of Czechoslovakia disap- cided to change tack. They decided any further unilateral
peared. The entire ordeal was the last show of the French German expansion would be met by force. The natural
and British policy of appeasement. next target for the Third Reich's further expansion was
2.1. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II 53

Poland, whose access to the Baltic sea had been carved

out of West Prussia by the Versailles treaty, making East
Prussia an exclave. The main port of the area, Danzig,
had been made a free city-state under Polish influence
guaranteed by the League of Nations, a stark reminder
to German nationalists of the Napoleonic free city estab-
lished after the French emperor's crushing victory over
Prussia in 1807.
After taking power, the Nazi government made efforts to
establish friendly relations with Poland, resulting in the
signing of the ten-year German–Polish Non-Aggression
Pact with the Piłsudski regime in 1934. In 1938, Poland
participated in the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia
by annexing Zaolzie. In 1939, Hitler claimed extra-
territoriality for the Reichsautobahn Berlin-Königsberg
and a change in Danzig's status, in exchange for promises
of territory in Poland's neighbours and a 25-year exten-
sion of the non-aggression pact. Poland refused, fearing The Soviet Union joined Germany's Invasion of Poland.
losing de facto access to the sea, subjugation as a German
satellite state or client state, and future further German
Invasion of Poland Main article: Invasion of Poland
demands.* [55] * [56] In August 1939, Hitler delivered an
(1939)
ultimatum to Poland on Danzig's status.

Between 1919 and 1939 Poland pursued a policy of bal-

Polish alliance with the Entente Main articles: ance between Soviet Union and Nazi Germany seeking
British-Polish Military Alliance and Franco-Polish non-aggression treaties with both* [57] In early 1939 Ger-
alliance (1921) many demanded that Poland join the Anti-Comintern
Pact as a satellite state of Germany.* [58] Poland, fearing
In March 1939, Britain and France guaranteed the in- a loss of independence, refused, and Hitler told his gen-
dependence of Poland. Hitler's claims in the summer erals on 23 May 1939 that the reason for invading Poland
of 1939 on Danzig and the Polish provoked yet another was "Danzig is not the object to which it goes. It is for
*
international crisis. On August 25, Britain signed the us the extension of the living space in the East." [59] To
Polish-British Common Defence Pact. deter Hitler, Britain and France announced that an inva-
sion meant war, and tried to convince the Soviet Union to
join in this deterrence. Moscow played along but found it
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Main articles: Molotov– could gain control of the Baltic states and parts of Poland
Ribbentrop Pact, Soviet invasion of Poland, Occupation by allying with Germany, which it did in August 1939.
of the Baltic States, Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and London's deterrence had failed, but Hitler did not expect
Northern Bukovina and Winter War a wider war. Germany invaded Poland on September 1,
1939 and rejected the British and French demands that it
withdraw resulting in their declaration of war on Septem-
Nominally, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was a non-
ber 3, 1939 in accordance to the defense treaties they
aggression treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union.
signed with Poland and publicly announced.* [60]* [61]
It was signed in Moscow on August 23, 1939, by the So-
viet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and the German
foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. Invasion of the Soviet Union
In 1939, neither Germany nor the Soviet Union were
ready to go to war with each other. The Soviet Union Main articles: Operation Barbarossa and Soviet offensive
had lost territory to Poland in 1920. Although officially plans controversy
labeled a “non-aggression treaty”, the pact included a
secret protocol, in which the independent countries of Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941. Hitler
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Roma- believed that the Soviet Union could be defeated in a fast-
nia were divided into spheres of interest of the parties. paced and relentless assault that capitalized on the Soviet
The secret protocol explicitly assumed “territorial and Union's ill-prepared state, and hoped that success there
political rearrangements” in the areas of these countries. would bring Britain to the negotiation table, ending the
Subsequently all the mentioned countries were invaded, war altogether. Hitler further wanted to preempt an at-
occupied, or forced to cede part of their territory by either tack by the Soviet Union, and in doing so catch the Sovi-
the Soviet Union, Germany, or both. ets off-guard.
54 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND

Attack on Pearl Harbor against Japan, known as the Flying Tigers.* [64] US Pres-
ident Franklin D. Roosevelt accepted dispatching them
For more details on this topic, see Events leading to the to China in early 1941.* [64] However, they only became
attack on Pearl Harbor. operational shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Japan stepped in as a mediator for the French-Thai war in
Usually, the US government and the American public in May 1941, allowing its ally to occupy bordering provinces
general had been supportive of China, condemning the in Cambodia and Laos. In July 1941, as operation Bar-
colonialist policies of the European powers and Japan in barossa had neutralised the Soviet threat, the faction of
that country, and promoting a so-called Open Door Pol- the Japanese military junta supporting the “Southern
icy. Also, many Americans viewed the Japanese as an Strategy”, pushed through the occupation of the rest of
aggressive or inferior race, or both. The Nationalist Gov- French Indochina.
ernment of Chiang Kai-Shek held close relations with The United States reacted by seeking to bring the
the United States, which opposed Japan's invasion of Japanese war effort to a complete halt by imposing a full
China in 1937 that it considered an illegal violation of the embargo on all trade between the United States to Japan
sovereignty of the Republic of China, and offered the Na- on 1 August 1941, demanding that Japan withdraw all
tionalist Government diplomatic, economic, and military troops from both China and Indochina. Japan was de-
assistance during its war against Japan. Diplomatic fric- pendent on the United States for 80 percent of its oil, re-
tion between the US and Japan manifested itself in events sulting in an economic and military crisis for Japan that
like the Panay incident in 1937 and the Allison incident could not continue its war effort with China without ac-
in 1938. cess to petroleum and oil products.* [65]

Japanese troops entering Saigon

Reacting to Japanese pressure on French authorities of Attack on Pearl Harbor, December 1941
French Indochina to stop trade with China, the U.S. be-
gan restricting trade with Japan in July 1940. The cut-
off of all oil shipments in 1941 was decisive, for the On 7 December 1941, without any prior declaration of
U.S., Britain and the Netherlands provided almost all of war,* [66] the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Har-
Japan's oil.* [62] In September 1940, the Japanese in- bor with the aim of destroying the main American battle
vaded Vichy French Indochina and occupied Tonkin in fleet at anchor. At the same time, other Japanese forces
order to prevent China from importing arms and fuel attacked the U.S.-held Philippines and the British Empire
through French Indochina along the Sino-Vietnamese in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong. These attacks led
Railway, from the port of Haiphong through Hanoi to both the USA and the United Kingdom to declare war
Kunming in Yunnan.* [63] This tightening of the block- upon Japan the next day.
ade of China made a continuation of the drawn-out Battle Four days later the U.S was brought into the European
of South Guangxi unnecessary. The agreement also al- war when on December 11, 1941, Nazi Germany and
lowed Japan to station troops in the rest of Indochina, Fascist Italy declared war on the United States. Hitler
though this did not happen immediately. chose to declare that the Tripartite Pact required that Ger-
Taking advantage of the situation, Thailand launched the many follow Japan's declaration of war; although Amer-
Franco-Thai War in October 1940. In November 1940, ican destroyers escorting convoys and German U-boats
American military aviator Claire Lee Chennault upon ob- were already de facto at war in the Battle of the Atlantic.
serving the dire situation in the air war between China This declaration effectively ended isolationist sentiment
and Japan, set out to organize a volunteer squadron of in the U.S. and the United States immediately recipro-
American fighter pilots to fight alongside the Chinese cated, formally entering the war in Europe.* [67]
2.1. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II 55

2.1.4 See also [19] Paxton, Robert O. (2011). Europe in the Twentieth Cen-
tury. United States: Wadsworth. p. 164.
• Areas annexed by Nazi Germany and the pre-war
[20] http://home.zonnet.nl/rene.brouwer/majorbattles.htm.
German territorial claims on them
“Beer Hall Putsch” Check |url= value (help). Holocaust
• Diplomatic history of World War II Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16 November 2011.

• Military globalization [21] Goebbels, Joseph.“The New Year 1939/40”. Retrieved

16 January 2014.
• Neville Chamberlain's European Policy
[22] Eri Hotta, Pan-Asianism and Japan's war 1931-1945
• World War (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007)

[23] Ten Years in Japan, Joseph C. Grew (pg 251–255)

2.1.5 References [24] Antony Best, “Economic appeasement or economic na-
tionalism? A political perspective on the British Empire,
[1] See “World War I and World War II”in World War. Japan, and the rise of Intra‐Asian Trade, 1933–37.”Jour-
[2] Robert Service, Comrades!: A History of World Commu- nal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (2002) 30#2
nism (2010) ch 7 : 77-101.

[3] Bernard Wasserstein, Barbarism and Civilization: A His- [25] Charles A. Fisher, “The Expansion of Japan: A Study in
tory of Europe in our Time (2007) pp 158-64, 173-89 Oriental Geopolitics: Part II. The Greater East Asia Co-
Prosperity Sphere.”Geographical Journal (1950): 179-
[4] Bauer, Yehuda. “Why Did World War II Break Out?". 193. in JSTOR
Yadvashem.org. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
[26] Kaoru Sugihara, “The economic motivations behind
[5] “World War 2 Causes”. History Learning Site. Retrieved Japanese aggression in the late 1930s: Perspectives of
6 March 2014. Freda Utley and Nawa Toichi.”Journal of Contemporary
History (1997) 32#2 pp 259-280 Vol. 32, No. 2 (Apr.,
[6] “the definition of militarism”. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 1997), pp. 259-280 in JSTOR.
2015-05-30.
[27]“History of the League of Nations”. Retrieved 16 January
[7] Bruno Coppieters; N. Fotion (2008). Moral Constraints 2014.
on War: Principles and Cases. Lexington Books. p. 6.
[28] Perry, Matt“Mason, Timothy”pages 780–781 from The
[8] “Japanese history: Militarism and World War II”. www.
Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing edited
japan-guide.com. Retrieved 2015-05-30.
by Kelly Boyd, Volume 2, London: Fitzroy Dearborn Pub-
[9] Andreas Wimmer, Waves of War: Nationalism, State For- lishing, 1999 page 780
mation, and Ethnic Exclusion in the Modern World (2012)
[29] Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge,
[10] Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (2001) 2000 pages 6–7

[11] “The National Archives Learning Curve | The Great War | [30] Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge,
Making peace | Reaction to the Treaty of Versailles | Back- 2000 page 7
ground”. www.nationalarchives.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-
[31] Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge,
05-30.
2000 page 165
[12] Roy H. Ginsberg (2007). Demystifying the European
[32] Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship London : Arnold 2000
Union: The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration. Row-
page 88.
man & Littlefield. p. 32.
[33] Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge,
[13] Winter, Jay (2009). The Legacy of the Great War: Ninety
2000 pages 165–166
Years On. University of Missouri Press. p. 126.

[14] Paxton, Robert O. (2011). Europe in the Twentieth Cen- [34] Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge,
tury. United States: Wadsworth. p. 145. 2000 page 166

[15] Paxton, Robert O. (2011). Europe in the Twentieth Cen- [35] Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge,
tury. United States: Wadsworth. p. 153. 2000 page 151

[16] “History of World War I”. Retrieved 15 November 2011. [36] Mason, Tim & Overy, R.J.“Debate: Germany, 'domestic
crisis' and the war in 1939”from The Origins of The Sec-
[17] Paxton, Robert O. (2011). Europe in the Twentieth Cen- ond World War edited by Patrick Finney, (London: Ed-
tury. United States: Wadsworth. p. 151. ward Arnold, 1997) p 102

[18] Crossland, David. “Germany Set to Make Final World [37] Overy, Richard “Germany, 'Domestic Crisis' and War
War I Reparation Payment”. ABC News. Retrieved 16 in 1939”from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz
November 2011. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999) p 117–118
56 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND

[38] Overy, Richard “Germany, 'Domestic Crisis' and War [60] Halik Kochanski, The Eagle Unbowed: Poland and the
in 1939”from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz Poles in the Second World War (2012) pp 34–93
Blackwell: Oxford, 1999 page 108
[61] Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European Inter-
[39] Richard Evans, The Third Reich in Power (2006) national History, 1933–1939 (2011) pp 690–92, 738-41

[40] Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and [62] Conrad Black (2005). Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Cham-
Breaking of the Nazi Economy (2008) pion of Freedom. PublicAffairs. pp. 645–46.
[41] Jeffrey Record (2007). The Specter of Munich: Reconsid- [63] L'Indochine française pendant la Seconde Guerre mondi-
ering the Lessons of Appeasing Hitler. Potomac Books, ale, Jean-Philippe Liardet
Inc. p. 106.
[64] Guo wu yuan. Xin wen ban gong shi. Col. C.L. Chennault
[42] Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Ger- and Flying Tigers. English translation. State Council In-
many: Starting World War II, 1937–1939 (1980) formation Office of the People's Republic of China. Pp.
16.
[43] Paul W. Doerr (1988). British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939.
Manchester University Press. pp. 189–94. [65] Euan Graham. Japan's sea lane security, 1940–2004: a
[44] King Edward VIII: A Biography by Philip Ziegler ,1991 matter of life and death? (Routledge, 2006) p. 77.

[45] George W. Baer, Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia, and the League [66] Howard W. French (December 9, 1999). “Pearl Harbor
of Nations (Hoover Institution Press, 1976) Truly a Sneak Attack, Papers Show”. The New York
Times.
[46] “Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) - History of Spain | don
Quijote”. donQuijote. Retrieved 2015-05-30. [67] See United States declaration of war upon Italy and United
States declaration of war upon Germany (1941)
[47] Stanley G. Payne (2008). The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet
Union, and Communism. Yale UP. pp. 313–14.

[48] Willard C. Frank Jr, “The Spanish Civil War and the
2.1.6 Further reading
Coming of the Second World War.”International History
Review(1987) 9#3 pp: 368-409. • Bell, P. M. H. The Origins of the Second World War
in Europe (1986). 326 pp.
[49] David M. Gordon,“The China–Japan War, 1931–1945”
Journal of Military History (2006) v 70#1, pp 137–82. • Boyce, Robert, and Joseph A. Maiolo. The Origins
online of World War Two: The Debate Continues (2003)
excerpt and text search
[50] David Faber, Munich, 1938: Appeasement and World War
II (2010) pp 139–68 • Eubank, Keith. The Origins of World War II (2004),
[51] Sister Mary Antonia Wathen, The policy of England and
short survey
France toward the”Anschluss”of 1938 (Catholic Univer-
• Carley, Michael Jabara 1939 : the Alliance that never
sity of America Press, 1954).
was and the coming of World War II, Chicago: I.R.
[52] David Faber, Munich, 1938: Appeasement and World War Dee, 1999 ISBN 1-56663-252-8.
II (2010)
• Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American
[53] Chamberlain's radio broadcast, 27 September 1938 Foreign Policy, 1932–1945 (1995).
[54] Robert A. Cole,“Appeasing Hitler: The Munich Crisis of • Deist, Wilhelm et al., ed. Germany and the Second
1938: A Teaching and Learning Resource,”New England
World War. Vol. 1: The Build-up of German Ag-
Journal of History (2010) 66#2 pp 1–30.
gression. (1991). 799 pp., official German history
[55] The German-Polish Crisis (March 27-May 9, 1939)
• Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste. France and the Nazi
[56] A history of the world from the 20th ... - Google Books. Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932–
Books.google.com. ISBN 978-0-415-28955-9. Retrieved 1939 (2004); translation of his highly influential La
2009-06-16. décadence, 1932-1939 (1979)
[57] Białe plamy-czarne plamy: sprawy trudne w polsko- • Dutton, David Neville Chamberlain, ( Oxford Uni-
rosyjskich - Page 191 Polsko-Rosyjska Grupa do Spraw
versity Press, 2001) ISBN 0-340-70627-9.
Trudnych, Adam Daniel Rotfeld, Anatoliĭ Vasilʹevich
Torkunov - 2010 • Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich in Power (2006)
[58] John Lukacs, The Last European War: September 1939 -
December 1941 p 31
• Feis, Herbert. The Road to Pearl Harbor: The com-
ing of the war between the United States and Japan.
[59] “Bericht über eine Besprechung (Schmundt-Mitschrift)". classic history by senior American official.
2.1. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II 57

• Finney, Patrick. The Origins of the Second World • Young, Robert France and the Origins of the Second
War (1998), 480pp World War, New York : St. Martin's Press, 1996
ISBN 0-312-16185-9.
• Goldstein, Erik & Lukes, Igor (editors) The Mu-
nich crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II, (London:
Frank Cass, 1999) ISBN 0-7146-8056-7. 2.1.7 External links
• Hildebrand, Klaus The Foreign Policy of the Third
Reich, translated by Anthony Fothergill, London, • Why Did World War II Break Out? An online lec-
Batsford 1973. ture by Prof. Yehuda Bauer on the Yad Vashem
website
• Hillgruber, Andreas Germany and the Two World
Wars, translated by William C. Kirby, Cambridge, • France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-
Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1981 ISBN 0- making Natural Resources of the Rhineland Ex-
674-35321-8. plains the long term conflict between Germany and
France over the centuries, which was a contributing
• Lamb, Margaret and Tarling, Nicholas. From Ver- factor to the World Wars.
sailles to Pearl Harbor: The Origins of the Second
World War in Europe and Asia. (2001). 238 pp. • The Way to Pearl Harbor: US vs Japan
• Langer, William L. and S Everett Gleason. The • Czechoslovakia primary sources
Challenge to Isolation: The World Crisis of 1937–
1940 and American Foreign Policy (1952); The Un-
delcared War: 1940–1941: The World Crisis and
American Foreign Policy (1953)
• Mallett, Robert. Mussolini and the Origins of the
Second World War, 1933–1940 (2003) excerpt and
text search
• Overy, Richard and Wheatcroft, Andrew. The Road
to War. (1990). 364 pp.
• Overy, Richard & Mason, Timothy “Debate: Ger-
many,“Domestic Crisis”and War in 1939”pages
200–240 from Past and Present, Number 122,
February 1989.
• Steiner, Zara. The Triumph of the Dark: European
International History, 1933–1939 (Oxford History
of Modern Europe) (2011) 1236pp
• Strang, G. Bruce On The Fiery March: Mussolini
Prepares For War, (Praeger Publishers, 2003) ISBN
0-275-97937-7.
• Thorne, Christopher G. The Issue of War: States,
Societies, and the Coming of the Far Eastern Conflict
of 1941–1945 (1985) sophisticated analysis of each
major power.
• Tohmatsu, Haruo and H. P. Willmott. A Gathering
Darkness: The Coming of War to the Far East and
the Pacific (2004), short overview.
• Watt, Donald Cameron How war came: the imme-
diate origins of the Second World War, 1938–1939,
New York : Pantheon, 1989 ISBN 0-394-57916-X.
• Weinberg, Gerhard.The Foreign Policy of Hitler's
Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933-
36 (v. 1) (1971); The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Ger-
many: Starting World War II, 1937–1939 (vol 2)
(University of Chicago Press, 1980) ISBN 0-226-
88511-9.
Chapter 3

Course of the war

3.1 Timeline of events preceding November 11

World War II
The Armistice with Germany marks the end of
World War I. German troops evacuate occu-
This Timeline of events preceding World War II cov- pied territories and Allied troops subsequently
ers the events of the interwar period (1918-1939) after move in and occupy the German Rhineland.
World War I that affected or led to World War II.
Leaders of Major Participating Countries December 27

• Mussolini Start of the Greater Poland Uprising against

Italy German rule.
1922-1945

• Stalin 3.1.2 1919

USSR
1924-1953 January 4-15
• Hirohito
Japan The Spartacist uprising takes place and is
1926-1975 crushed by the German government, marking
the end of the German Revolution.
• Chiang Kai-shek
China January 18
1928-1949
Opening of the Paris Peace Conference to ne-
• Hitler
gotiate peace treaties between the belligerents
Nazi Germany
of World War I.
1933-1945

• Roosevelt
USA
1933-1945

• Chamberlain
Britain
(1937-1940)

• Édouard Daladier Detail from William Orpen's painting The Signing of Peace in
France the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28th June 1919, showing the
(1938-1940) signing of the peace treaty by the German Minister of Transport
Dr Johannes Bell, opposite to the representatives of the winning
powers.
3.1.1 1918
February
October 29
The Polish–Soviet War begins with border
Start of the German Revolution. clashes between the two states.

58
3.1. TIMELINE OF EVENTS PRECEDING WORLD WAR II 59

March 2 The Paris Peace Conference comes to an end

with the inaugural General Assembly of the
Foundation of the Third International, or League of Nations. Although one of the vic-
Comintern in Moscow. Comintern's stated aim tors of World War I, the United States never
is to create a global Soviet republic. joins the League.

March
March 12

The Austrian Constituent National Assembly

demands Austria's integration to Germany.* [1]

May 15

The Turkish War of Independence begins as

Greek troops land in Smyrna.

June 28

Germany and the Allied powers sign the Treaty

of Versailles after six months of negotiations.
The German armed forces are limited in size
to 100,000 personnel and Germany is ordered
to pay large reparations for war damages. The
United States signed the treaty but did not ratify
it, later making a separate peace treaty with
Germany.

September 10

German Austria signs the Treaty of Saint- Wolfgang Kapp, the leader of the Putsch
Germain. The peace treaty with the Allies
regulates the borders of Austria, forbids union
with Germany and German Austria has to The failed Kapp Putsch takes place against the
change its name to Austria. The United States German government. The German military re-
did not ratify the treaty and later makes a sep- mains passive and the putsch is defeated by a
arate peace treaty with Austria. general strike.
The German Ruhr Uprising, spurred by the
November 27 general strike against he Kapp Putsch, is
crushed by the German military
Bulgaria signs the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine.
The peace treaty with the Allies regulates the June 4
borders of Bulgaria, the Bulgarian army is re-
duced to 20,000 men and Bulgaria is ordered Hungary signs the Treaty of Trianon with the
to pay war reparations. Allied powers. The treaty regulated the status
of an independent Hungarian state and defined
its borders. The United States did not ratify the
3.1.3 1920 treaty and later makes a separate peace treaty
with Hungary.
January 10
August 10
Creation of the Free City of Danzig which was
neither approved by Germany nor Poland. Turkey signs the Treaty of Sèvres with the Al-
lied powers (except the US never declared war
January 21 on Turkey). The treaty partitions the Ottoman
60 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

Empire and the Turkish armed forces are re- October

duced in size. Greece did not accept the bor-
ders as drawn up in the treaty and did not sign The Russian Civil War (ongoing since 7
it. The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the November 1917) ends in Bolshevik victory
course of the Turkish War of Independence with the defeat of the last White forces in
and the parties signed and ratified the super- Siberia.
seding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
October 29
October Fascist leader Benito Mussolini is appointed
prime minister of Italy by king Victor Em-
Żeligowski's Mutiny, a Polish force led by Gen- manuel III after the March on Rome.
eral Lucjan Żeligowski capture Vilnius, offi-
cially without support from the Polish state November 1

The Grand National Assembly of Turkey

3.1.4 1921 abolishes the Ottoman Sultanate.

March
3.1.6 1923
The Polish–Soviet War ends with the Peace of
Riga. January 11

France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr in an ef-

August 25 fort to compel Germany to step up its payments
of war reparations.
The U.S.–German Peace Treaty and the U.S.–
Austrian Peace Treaty are signed, marking the July 24
formal end of the state of war between the
two states and the United States instead of the The Treaty of Lausanne, settling the
Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint- boundaries of modern Turkey, is signed
Germain that were not ratified by the United in Switzerland by Turkey and the Entente
States. powers. It marks the end of the Turkish
War of Independence and replaces the earlier
August 29 Treaty of Sèvres.

August 31
The U.S.–Hungarian Peace Treaty is signed,
marking the formal end of the state of war The Corfu incident: Italy bombards and occu-
between the two states instead of the Treaty pies the Greek island of Corfu seeking to pres-
of Trianon that was not ratified by the United sure Greece to pay reparations for the murder
States. of an Italian general in Greece.

September 27
3.1.5 1922
The Corfu incident ends; Italian troops with-
February 6 draw after the Conference of Ambassadors
rules in favor of Italian demands of reparations
The Washington Naval Conference ends with from Greece.
the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty by
the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, October 29
France, and Italy. The signing parties agree to
limit the size of their naval forces. Turkey officially becomes a Republic following
the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
April 16 November 8

Germany and the Soviet Union sign the Treaty The Beer Hall Putsch takes place, in which
of Rapallo, re-establishing diplomatic rela- Adolf Hitler unsuccessfully leads the Nazis in
tions, renouncing financial claims on each other an attempt to overthrow the German govern-
and pledge future cooperation. ment. It is crushed by police the next day.
3.1. TIMELINE OF EVENTS PRECEDING WORLD WAR II 61

3.1.7 1924 The Dawes Plan is accepted. It ends the Al-

lied occupation of the Ruhr and sets a staggered
payment plan for Germany's payment of war
reparations.

August 18

France begins withdrawing its troops from the

Ruhr in Germany.

3.1.8 1925
July 18

Adolf Hitler's autobiographical manifesto

Mein Kampf is published.

December 1

The Locarno Treaties are signed in London

(they are ratified 14 September 1926). The
treaties settle the borders of western Europe
Lenin and Stalin and normalize relations between Germany and
the Allied powers of western Europe.

January 21
3.1.9 1926
Leader of the Soviet Union Vladimir Lenin
dies, and Joseph Stalin begins purging rivals to January 3
clear the way for his leadership.
Theodoros Pangalos declares himself dictator
of Greece.
February 1

January 31
The United Kingdom extends diplomatic
recognition to the Soviet Union.
British and Belgian troops leave Cologne, Ger-
many.
April 1
April 4
Adolf Hitler is sentenced to 5 years in jail for
his participation in the Beer Hall Putsch (he Greek dictator Theodoros Pangalos is elected
serves only 8 months). president.

April 6 April 24

Fascists win elections in Italy with a 2/3 major- The Treaty of Berlin is signed by Germany and
ity. the Soviet Union, which declares neutrality if
either country is attacked within the next five
years.
June 10
May 25
Italian Fascists kidnap and kill socialist leader
Giacomo Matteotti in Rome. Ukrainian nationalist leader Symon Petliura
is assassinated by Russian Jew Sholom
August 16 Schwartzbard in Paris.
62 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

September 8 August 27

Germany joins the League of Nations. The Kellogg-Briand Pact is signed in Paris by
the major powers of the world. The treaty out-
December 25 laws aggressive warfare.

October 1
Emperor Taishō dies and his son Hirohito be-
comes the Emperor of Japan.
The Soviet Union launches the First Five-
Year Plan, an economic effort to increase
3.1.10 1927 industrialization.

April 12
3.1.12 1929
The Chinese Civil War begins between nation- February 9
alists and communists.
Litvinov's Pact is signed in Moscow by the
May 20 Soviet Union, Poland, Estonia, Romania and
Latvia. The Pact outlaws aggressive warfare
Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom sign the along the lines of the Kellog-Briand Pact.
Treaty of Jeddah.
February 11
June 7
Italy and the Holy See sign the Lateran Treaty,
Peter Voikov, Soviet ambassador to Warsaw, is normalizing relations between the Vatican and
assassinated by a White movement activist. Italy.

November 12 March 28

Japan withdraws troops from China, ending the

Leon Trotsky is expelled from the Soviet Com-
Jinan Incident.
munist Party, leaving Joseph Stalin with undis-
puted control of the Soviet Union.
April 3
December 14
Persia signs Litvinov's Pact.

Iraq gains independence from the United King- June 7

dom.
The Lateran Treaty is ratified, making the
3.1.11 1928 Vatican City a sovereign state.

May 3 July 24

The Kellogg-Briand Pact goes into effect.

The Jinan Incident begins, a limited armed
conflict between the Republic of China and
August 31
Japan.
The Young Plan, which sets the total World
June 4
War I reparations owed by Germany at
US$26,350,000,000 to be paid over a period
Huanggutun Incident: Japanese agents assassi- of 58½ years, is finalized. It replaces the ear-
nate the Chinese warlord Zhang Zuolin. lier Dawes Plan.

August 2 October 29

Italy and Ethiopia sign the Italo-Ethiopian The Great Depression begins with the Wall
Treaty, pledging cooperation and friendship. Street Crash.
3.1. TIMELINE OF EVENTS PRECEDING WORLD WAR II 63

3.1.13 1930 Fighting between China and Japan in

Manchuria ends with Japan in control of
April 22 Manchuria.

The United Kingdom, United States, France, March 1

Italy and Japan sign the London Naval Treaty
regulating submarine warfare and limiting Japan creates the puppet state Manchukuo out
naval shipbuilding. of occupied Manchuria.

June 30 April 10

France withdraws its remaining troops from Paul von Hindenburg is reelected President of
the Rhineland ending the occupation of the Germany, defeating Adolf Hitler in a run-off.
Rhineland.
May 30
3.1.14 1931
Chancellor of Germany Heinrich Brüning re-
September 18 signs. President von Hindenburg asks Franz
von Papen to form a new government.
Mukden Incident: the Japanese stage a false
flag bombing against a Japanese-owned rail- August 30
road in the Chinese region of Manchuria,
blaming Chinese dissidents for the attack. Hermann Göring is elected chairman of the
German Senate.
September 19
November 21
Using the Mukden Incident as a pretext, the
Japanese invade Manchuria. Paul von Hindenburg begins talking to Adolf
Hitler about forming a new government.
3.1.15 1932
December 3
The Soviet famine of 1932–33 begins, caused
in part by the collectivization of agriculture of von Hindenburg names Kurt von Schleicher
the First Five-Year Plan. Chancellor of Germany.

January 7
3.1.16 1933
The Stimson Doctrine is proclaimed by United
January 1
States Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson in
response to Japan invading Manchuria. The
Doctrine holds that the United States govern- Defense of the Great Wall: Japan attacks the
ment will not recognize border changes that are fortified eastern end of the Great Wall of China
made by force. in Rehe Province in Inner Mongolia.

January 28 January 30

January 28 Incident: using a flare-up of anti- Nazi leader Adolf Hitler is appointed
Japanese violence as a pretext, the Japanese at- Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von
tack Shanghai, China. Fighting ends on March Hindenburg.
6, and on May 5 a ceasefire agreement is
signed wherein Shanghai is made a demilita- February 27
rized zone.
Germany's parliament building the Reichstag is
February 27 set on fire.
64 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

February 28 July 14

The Reichstag Fire Decree is passed, nullifying The Nazi party becomes the official party of
many German civil liberties. Germany.

March 4 August 25

Franklin Delano Roosevelt is inaugurated as Haavara Agreement: The agreement was de-
President of the United States. signed to help facilitate the emigration of Ger-
man Jews to Palestine.
March 20
September 12
Germany's first concentration camp, Dachau,
is completed. Leó Szilárd conceives the idea of the nuclear
chain reaction.
March 23
October 17
The Reichstag passes the Enabling Act, making
Adolf Hitler dictator of Germany. Scientist Albert Einstein arrives in the United
States and settles as a refugee from Germany.
March 27
October 19
Japan leaves the League of Nations over the
League of Nations' Lytton Report that found Germany leaves the League of Nations.
that Manchuria belongs to China and that
Manchukuo was not a truly independent state. November 24

April 1 Homeless, alcoholic, and unemployed sent to

Nazi concentration camps.
Germans are told to boycott Jewish shops and
businesses in response to the Jewish boycott of
3.1.17 1934
German goods organized the previous month.
January 26
April 26
Germany and Poland sign the 10 year German-
The Gestapo secret police is established in Ger- Polish Non-Aggression Pact.
many.
February 12-16
May 2
The Austrian Civil War is fought, ending with
Hitler outlaws trade unions. Austrofascist victory.

May 31 March 20

The Tanggu Truce is signed between China and All German police forces come under the com-
Japan, setting the ceasefire conditions between mand of Heinrich Himmler.
the two states after the Japanese occupation of
Manchuria. China accedes to all Japanese de- June 30
mands, creating a large demilitarized zone in-
side Chinese territory.
Night of the Long Knives in Germany. Poten-
tial rivals to Hitler within the Nazi Party, in-
June 21 cluding SA leader Ernst Röhm, and prominent
anti-Nazi conservatives are killed by the SS and
All non-Nazi parties are banned in Germany. the Gestapo.
3.1. TIMELINE OF EVENTS PRECEDING WORLD WAR II 65

July 20 August 31

The SS becomes an organization independent The Neutrality Act of 1935 is passed in the
of the Nazi Party, reporting directly to Adolf United States imposing a general embargo on
Hitler.* [2] trading in arms and war materials with all par-
ties in a war and it also declared that American
July 25 citizens travelling on ships of warring nations
travelled at their own risk.
Austrian Nazis assassinate Engelbert Dollfuss
during the failed July Putsch against the Aus- September 15
trian government.
The Reichstag passes the Nuremberg Laws, in-
August 2 troducing antisemitism in German legislation

Upon the death of President Paul von Hinden-

October 2
burg, Adolf Hitler makes himself Führer of
Germany, becoming Head of State as well as
Chancellor. Italy invades Ethiopia, beginning the Second
Italo–Abyssinian War.
August 8
3.1.19 1936
Members of the Wehrmacht begin swearing a
personal oath of loyalty to Hitler instead of to In 1936, Adolf Hitler demanded to have a private meet-
the German constitution. ing with Arnold J. Toynbee who was visiting Berlin the
same year to address the Nazi Law Society, and Toyn-
September bee accepted.* [4] In the meeting, Hitler emphasized his
limited expansionist aim of building a greater German na-
The Soviet Union joins the League of Nations. tion, and his desire for British understanding and cooper-
ation. Toynbee was convinced of Hitler's sincerity, and
December 5 endorsed Hitler's message in a confidential memorandum
for the British prime minister and foreign secretary.* [5]
The Abyssinia Crisis begins with the Walwal February 6
incident, an armed clash between Italian and
Ethiopian troops on the border of Ethiopia.
Germany hosts the 1936 Winter Olympics in
Garmisch-Partenkirchen.
December 29
March 7
Japan renounces the Washington Naval Treaty
and the London Naval Treaty.
In violation of the Treaty of Versailles,
Germany remilitarizes the Rhineland.
3.1.18 1935
March 25
January 7
The Second London Naval Treaty is signed
The League of Nations approves the results of
by the United Kingdom, United States, and
the Saar plebiscite, which allows Saar to be in-
France. Italy and Japan each declined to sign
corporated into German borders.* [3]
this treaty.
June 18
May 5
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement is signed
by Germany and the United Kingdom. The Italian troops march into the Ethiopian capital,
agreement allows Germany to build a fleet Addis Addeba, marking the end of the Second
that's 35% the tonnage of the British fleet. In Italo–Abyssinian War.
this way, the British hope to limit German
naval re-armament. July 17
66 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

The failed Spanish coup of July 1936 by Na- 3.1.20 1937

tionalist forces marks the beginning of the
Spanish Civil War. July 7

October 18 The Marco Polo Bridge Incident occurs, begin-

ning the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Hermann Göring is made head of the German
Four Year Plan, an effort to make Germany
October 5
self-sufficient and increase armaments.

October U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt gives the

Quarantine Speech outlining a move away from
The Great Purge commences in the Soviet neutrality and towards “quarantining”all ag-
Union with widespread repression of suspected gressors.
opponents of the regime. The purge leads to
the imprisonment and death of many military November 6
officers, weakening the Soviet Armed Forces
ahead of World War II. Italy joins the Anti-Comintern Pact.

August 1 December 8
Germany hosts the 1936 Summer Olympics in
Japan established the puppet state of
Berlin.
Mengjiang in the Inner Mongolia region
November 14 of the Republic of China.* [6]

Suiyuan Campaign begins as Japanese-backed December 11

Mongolian troops attack the Chinese garrison
at Hongort. Italy leaves the League of Nations.

November 15 December 12
The aerial German Condor Legion goes into
The USS Panay incident occurs, where Japan
action for the first time in the Spanish Civil War
attacked the American gunboat Panay while
in support of the Nationalist side.
she was anchored in the Yangtze River.
November 25
3.1.21 1938
The Anti-Comintern Pact is signed by Japan
and Germany. The signing parties agree to go
January 26
to war with the Soviet Union if one of the sig-
natories is attacked by the Soviet Union.
The Allison incident occurs further straining
December 1 relations between Japan and the United States.

Hitler makes it mandatory for all males be- March 6

tween the ages 10-18 to join the Hitler Youth.
Japanese troops reach the Yellow River in
December 12 China.* [7]

The two sides in the Chinese Civil War March 13

temporarily suspend hostilities to fight the
Japanese.
Austria is incorporated by Germany.
December 23
July 6-16
The first 3,000 men of the Italian expeditionary
force (later named Corpo Truppe Volontarie) Évian Conference: The United States and the
lands in Cadiz in support of the Nationalist side United Kingdom refuse to accept any more
in the Spanish Civil War. Jewish refugees.
3.1. TIMELINE OF EVENTS PRECEDING WORLD WAR II 67

July 29 The pro-German Slovak Republic is created

with Jozef Tiso as its first prime minister, pro-
The Soviet–Japanese border conflicts begin voking the dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
with the Battle of Lake Khasan.
March 15
August
Germany occupies the Czech part in violation
Soviet Union wins the Battle of Khasan against of the Munich Agreement. The Czechs do not
Japan. attempt to put up any organized resistance hav-
ing lost their main defensive line with the an-
nexation of the Sudetenland.
September 27
Germany establishes the Protectorate of Bo-
U.S. President Roosevelt sends letter to Ger- hemia and Moravia. The protectorate includes
man Führer Adolf Hitler seeking peace.* [8] those portions of Czechoslovakia not incorpo-
rated into Germany, Poland, Hungary, or the
new Slovak Republic.
September 30
March 20
The Munich Agreement is signed by Ger-
many, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy.
The agreement allows Germany to annex the German Foreign Minister Joachim von
Czechoslovak Sudetenland area in exchange Ribbentrop delivers an oral ultimatum
for peace in an attempt to appease Hitler. to Lithuania, demanding that it cede the
Klaipėda Region (German name Memel) to
Germany.
November 7
March 21
Exiled German Jew Herschel Grynszpan assas-
sinates German consular aide Ernst vom Rath
Adolf Hitler demands the return of the Free
in Paris.* [9]
City of Danzig to Germany.
November 9
March 23

The Kristallnacht pogrom begins in Ger-

German–Romanian Treaty for the Develop-
many; many Jewish shops and synagogues
ment of Economic Relations between the Two
are smashed, looted, burned, and destroyed
Countries is signed.
throughout the country.* [10]
March 31
3.1.22 1939
The United Kingdom and France offer a guar-
January 25 antee of Polish independence.

A uranium atom is split for the first time at April 1

Columbia University in the United States.* [11]
The Spanish Civil War ends in Nationalist
January 27 victory. Spain becomes a dictatorship with
Francisco Franco as the head of the new gov-
Adolf Hitler orders Plan Z, a 5-year naval ex- ernment.
pansion programme intended to provide for a
huge German fleet capable of defeating the April 3
Royal Navy by 1944. The Kriegsmarine is
given the first priority on the allotment of Ger- Adolf Hitler orders the German military to
man economic resources. This is the first and start planning for Fall Weiss, the codename for
only time the Kriegsmarine is given the first pri- the attack on Poland, planned to be launched
ority in the history of the Third Reich. on August 25, 1939.

March 14 April 7-12

68 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

Italy invades Albania with little in the way of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain reaffirms
military resistance. Albania is later made part support for Poland and makes it clear that
of Italy through a personal union of the Italian Britain did not view Free City of Danzig as
and Albanian crown. being an internal German-Polish affair and
would intervene on behalf of Poland if hostili-
April 14 ties broke out between the two countries.

U.S. President Roosevelt sends letter to Ger- August 2

man Chancellor Hitler seeking peace.* [12]
The Einstein-Szilárd letter is sent to Franklin
April 18 D. Roosevelt. Written by Leó Szilárd and
signed by Albert Einstein, it warned of the
The Soviet Union proposes a tripartite alliance danger that Germany might develop atomic
with the United Kingdom and France. It is re- bombs. This letter prompted action by Roo-
jected.* [13] sevelt and eventually resulted in the Manhattan
Project.
April 28
August 23
In a speech before the Reichstag, Adolf Hitler
renounces the Anglo-German Naval Agree- The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact is signed be-
ment and the German–Polish Non-Aggression tween Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union,
Pact with secret provisions for the division of East-
ern Europe - joint occupation of Poland and
May 11 Soviet occupation of the Baltic States, Finland
and Bessarabia. This protocol removes the
threat of Soviet intervention during the Ger-
Soviet–Japanese border conflicts: The Battle
man invasion of Poland.
of Khalkhin Gol begins with Japan and
Manchukuo against the Soviet Union and Mon-
golia. The battle ends in Soviet victory on August 25
September 16, influencing the Japanese to not
seek further conflict with the Soviets, but to In response to a message from Mussolini that
turn towards the Pacific holdings of the Euro- Italy will not honor the Pact of Steel if Ger-
American powers instead. many attacks Poland, Hitler delays the launch
of the invasion by five days to provide more
May 17 time to secure British and French neutrality.

Sweden, Norway, and Finland reject Ger- August 30

many's offer of non-aggression pacts.
German ultimatum to Poland concerning the
May 22 Polish Corridor and the Free City of Danzig

The Pact of Steel, known formally as the“Pact September 1

of Friendship and Alliance between Germany
and Italy”, is signed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Without response to its ultimatum, Germany
Germany. The Pact declares further cooper- invades Poland, start of World War II.
ation between the two powers, but in a secret
supplement the Pact is detailed as a military al-
liance. 3.1.23 See also

June 14 • Causes of World War II

• Timeline of World War I
The Tientsin Incident occurs, in which the
Japanese blockade the British concession in the • Timeline of World War II
North China Treaty Port of Tientsin.
• Events preceding World War II in Europe
July 10 • Events preceding World War II in Asia
3.2. 1939 TIMELINE 69

3.1.24 Notes and references

[1] Kevin Mason, “Building an Unwanted Nation: The

Anglo-American Partnership and Austrian proponents of
a Separate Nationhood, 1918-1934.”

[2] “1934 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.

[3] “1935 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09. The allies and axis powers at the dawn of the German/Soviet
invasion of Poland.
[4] The Avoidable War: Pierr Laval and the Politics of Real-
ity, 1935-1936
3.2.1 September 1939
[5] • William H. McNeill (1989). Arnold J. Toynbee: A
Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19- 1: The Republic of China and the Empire of
506335-X., chapter 8, online from ACLS E-Books Japan are involved in the early stages of the
third year of armed conflict between them dur-
[6] “1937 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09. ing the Second Sino-Japanese War. The war is
in what will be known as the“Second Period”
[7] “1938 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09. , which starts in October 1938 and ends in De-
cember 1941. This conflict will eventually be
[8] “Letter to Adolf Hitler Seeking Peace, September 27, swept up into WWII when Japan joins the Axis
1938”. The American Presidency Project. Retrieved and China the Allies.
2014-03-21.
1: The Invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany
[9] “1938 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09. begins at 4:45 a.m. with the Luftwaffe attack-
ing several targets in Poland. The Luftwaffe
[10] “1938 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09. launches air attacks against Kraków, Łódź, and
Warsaw. Within five minutes of the Luft-
[11] “1939 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09. waffe attacks, Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine
orders the old Battleship Schleswig-Holstein to
[12] “Press Conference, April 15, 1939”. The American open fire on the Polish military transit depot at
Presidency Project. Retrieved 2014-03-21. Westerplatte in the Free City of Danzig on the
Baltic Sea, but the attack is repulsed. By 8:00
[13] Carley, Michael Jabara (1993). “End of the 'Low, Dis- a.m., troops of the German Army (Wehrmacht
honest Decade': Failure of the Anglo–Franco–Soviet Al- Heer), still without a formal declaration of war
liance in 1939”. Europe–Asia Studies 45 (2): 303–341. issued, launch an attack near the Polish town of
doi:10.1080/09668139308412091. Mokra.
1: Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania,
Norway, and Switzerland declare their
3.1.25 External links neutrality.
1: The British government declares general
• French Yellow Book
mobilization of the British Armed Forces and
begins evacuation plans in preparation of Ger-
• Nazi-Soviet relations 1939-1941 man air attacks.

• Nazi-Soviet relations 1939-1941 (complete) 2: The United Kingdom and France issue a
joint ultimatum to Germany, requiring Ger-
• British War Bluebook man troops to evacuate Polish territory; Italian
dictator Benito Mussolini declares the neutral-
ity of his nation; President Douglas Hyde of
the Republic of Ireland declares the neutrality
3.2 1939 timeline of his nation; the Swiss government orders a
general mobilization of its forces.
This is a timeline of events that stretched over the pe- 2: The National Service (Armed Forces) Act
riod of World War II. For events preceding September 1939 is enacted immediately and enforces full
1, 1939, see the timeline of events preceding World War conscription on all males between 18 and 41
II. resident in the UK.
70 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

2: The Free City of Danzig is annexed by Ger- 6: Battle of Barking Creek, a friendly fire inci-
many. Resistors entrenched in the city's Polish dent, results in the first RAF fighter pilot fatal-
Post Office are overwhelmed ities of the War).* [3]
3: At 11:15 a.m. British Standard Time (BST), 6: One of Germany's land forces (Wehrmacht
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain Heer) captures Kraków in the south of Poland;
announces on BBC Radio that the deadline Polish army is in general retreat.
of the final British ultimatum for the with- 7: France begins a token offensive, moving into
drawal of German troops from Poland expired German territory near Saarbrücken.
at 11:00am and that“consequently this nation
is at war with Germany”. Australia, India, 7: The National Registration Act 1939 is
and New Zealand also declare war on Germany passed in Britain introducing identity cards and
within hours of Britain's declaration. allowing the government to control labour.

3: At 12:30pm BST the French Government 8: The British Government announces the re-
delivers a similar final ultimatum; which ex- introduction of the convoy system for mer-
pires at 3:00pm BST.* [1] chant ships and a full-scale blockade on Ger-
man shipping.
3: Within hours of the British declaration of
War, SS Athenia, a British cruise ship en route 9: The French Saar Offensive stalls at the heav-
from Glasgow, Scotland to Montreal, Canada ily mined Warndt Forest having advanced ap-
is torpedoed by the German submarine U-30 proximately 8 miles into lightly defended Ger-
250 miles Northwest of Ireland. 112 passen- man territory.
gers and crew members are killed. The "Battle 10: After passing both Houses of the Cana-
of the Atlantic" begins. dian parliament by unanimous consent and re-
ceiving Royal Assent by the Governor General
3: Bromberg massacre: many ethnic Ger-
of Canada, Lord Tweedsmuir, Canada declares
man civilians are killed in the Polish city of
war on Germany on September 10th.* [4]
Bromberg.
11: Viceroy of India Lord Linlithgow an-
4: At 8:00 a.m. Newfoundland Standard Time
nounces to the two houses of the Indian Legis-
(NST), Dominion of Newfoundland declares
lature (the Council of State and the Legislative
war on Germany.
Assembly) that due to India's participation in
4: In the first British offensive action of the the war, the plans for the Federation of India
War, the Royal Air Force launch a raid on the under the Government of India Act 1935 will
German fleet in the Heligoland Bight. They be indefinitely postponed.
target the German pocket-battleship Admiral
12: General Gamelin orders a halt to the
Scheer anchored off Wilhelmshaven at the
French advance into Germany.
western end of the Kiel Canal. Several aircraft
are lost in the attack and, although the German 15: The Polish Army is ordered to hold out
vessel is hit three times, all of the bombs fail to at the Romanian border until the Allies ar-
explode. rive.* [5]
4: Japan announces its neutrality in the Eu- 16: The German Army complete the encir-
ropean situation. The British Admiralty an- clement of Warsaw.
nounces the beginning of a naval blockade on 16: The French complete their retreat from
Germany, one of a range of measures by which Germany, ending the Saar Offensive.
the British will wage economic warfare on the
17: The Soviet Union invades Poland from the
Axis Powers
east, occupying the territory east of the Curzon
4: The United States launches the Neutrality line as well as Białystok and Eastern Galicia.
Patrol.
17: Aircraft carrier HMS Courageous is torpe-
5: South African Prime Minister Barry Hert- doed and sunk by U-29 on patrol off the coast
zog fails to gain support for a declaration of of Ireland
South African neutrality and is deposed by a
17: The Imperial Japanese Army launches at-
party caucus for Deputy Prime Minister Jan
tacks on the Chinese city of Changsha, when
Smuts.
their forces in northern Jiangxi attacked west-
5: The United States publicly declares neutral- ward toward Henan.
ity.* [2] 18: Polish President Ignacy Mościcki and
6: South Africa, now under Prime Minister Jan Commander-in-Chief Edward Rydz-Śmigły
Smuts, declares war on Germany. leave Poland for Romania, where they are
3.2. 1939 TIMELINE 71

both interned; Russian forces reach Vilnius and 28: The remaining Polish army and militia in
Brest-Litovsk. Polish submarine escapes from the centre of Warsaw capitulate to the Ger-
Tallinn - Estonia's neutrality is questioned by mans.
the Soviet Union and Germany. 28: Soviet troops mass by the Latvian border.
19: The German and Soviet armies link up near Latvian air space violated.
Brest Litovsk. 28: Estonia signs a 10-year Mutual Assistance
19: Soviet Union blockades the harbour of Pact with the Soviet Union, which allows the
Tallinn, the capital of Estonia. Soviets to have 30 000-men military bases in
Estonia. As a gift in return Stalin promises to
19: Soviet Union and its ally Mongolia win the
respect Estonian independence.
Battle of Khalkhin Gol against Japan, ending
the Soviet-Japanese Border Wars. 29: The Japanese Imperial Army reaches the
outskirts of Changsha. However, it is unable
19: The Japanese Imperial Army attacks the
to conquer the city because its supply lines are
Chinese National Revolutionary Army along
cut off by the Chinese National Revolutionary
the Xinqiang River using poison gas during the
Army.
Battle of Changsha.
30: The German pocket-battleship Admiral
20: German submarine U-27 is sunk with Graf Spee sinks its first merchant ship, the
depth charges from the British destroyers HMS British freighter Clement while off the coast of
Fortune and HMS Forester. Pernambuco, Brazil.
21: Romanian Prime Minister Armand Că- 30: French forces on the French-German bor-
linescu is assassinated by the Iron Guard, an der fall back to the Maginot Line in anticipa-
ultra-nationalistic group in Romania. tion of a German invasion.* [6]
23: The Imperial Japanese Army drive the Chi-
nese National Revolutionary Army out of the
Sinchiang river area, and the 6th and 13th Di- 3.2.2 October 1939
visions cross the river under artillery cover and
advances further south along the Miluo River 2: Latvian representatives negotiate with Stalin
during the Battle of Changsha. and Molotov. Soviets threaten an occupation
by force if they do not get military bases in
24: Soviet air force violates Estonian airspace. Latvia.
The Estonians negotiate with Molotov in
Moscow. Molotov warns the Estonians that if 2: Declaration of Panama is approved by
the Soviet Union doesnʼt get military bases in American Republics. Belligerent activities
Estonia, it will be forced to use “more radical should not take place within waters adjacent to
actions”. the American continent. A neutrality zone of
some 300 miles in breadth is to be patrolled by
25: German home front measures begin with the U.S. Navy.
food rationing.
3: British forces move to the Belgian border,
25: Soviet air activity in Estonia. Soviet troops anticipating a German invasion of the West.
along the Estonian border include 600 tanks
3: Lithuanians meet Stalin and Molotov in
and 600 aircraft and 160 000 men.
Moscow. Stalin offers Lithuania the city of
26: Following a massive artillery bombard- Vilnius (in Poland) in return for allowing So-
ment, the Germans launch a major infantry as- viet military bases in Lithuania. The Lithuani-
sault on the centre of Warsaw. ans are reluctant.
26: Russian bombers seen in the Tallinn sky. 5: Latvia signs a 10-year Mutual Assistance
27: In the first offensive operations by the Pact with the Soviet Union, which allows the
German Army in Western Europe, guns on Soviets to have 25,000 men in military bases
the Siegfried Line open up on villages behind in Latvia. Stalin promises to respect Latvian
French Maginot line. independence.

28: German-Soviet Boundary and Friendship 6: Chinese army reportedly defeats the
Treaty is signed by Molotov and Ribbentrop. Japanese at the Battle of Changsha.
The secret protocol specifies the details of par- 6: Polish resistance in the Polish September
tition of Poland originally defined in Molotov- Campaign comes to an end. Hitler speaks be-
Ribbentrop Pact (August 23, 1939) and adds fore the Reichstag, declaring a desire for a
Lithuania to the Soviet Union sphere of inter- conference with Britain and France to restore
est. peace.
72 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

7: Lithuanians again meet the Soviets in 30: The British government releases a report
Moscow. The Soviets demand military bases. on concentration camps being built in Europe
for Jews and anti-Nazis.* [8]
9: Germany issues orders (Case Yellow) to
prepare for the invasion of Belgium, France, 31: As Germany plans for an attack on
Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. France, German Lieutenant-General Erich
von Manstein proposes that Germany attack
10: The last of Poland's military surrenders to
through the Ardennes rather than through Bel-
the Germans.
gium - the expected attack route.
10: The leaders of the German navy suggest to
Hitler they need to occupy Norway.
10: British Prime Minister Chamberlain de- 3.2.3 November 1939
clines Hitler's offer of peace.
1: Parts of Poland, including the Danzig Cor-
10: Lithuania signs a 15-year Mutual Assis- ridor, are annexed by Germany. Soviet Union
tance Pact with the Soviet Union, which al- annexes the eastern parts of occupied Poland
lows the Soviets to have 20,000 men in mili- to Ukraine and Belorussia.
tary bases in Lithuania. In a secret protocol,
Vilnius is made Lithuanian territory. 3: Finland and Soviet Union again negotiate
new borders. Finns mistrust Stalin's aims and
11: An estimated 158,000 British troops are refuse to give up territory breaking their defen-
now in France. sive line.
12: Adolf Eichmann begins deporting Jews 4: The U.S. Neutrality Act is passed: the
from Austria and Czechoslovakia into Poland. French and British may buy arms, but on a
12: French Premier Édouard Daladier declines strictly cash basis. American isolationists find
Hitler's offer of peace. the act an “outrage.”

12: Finland's representatives meet Stalin and 4: A German physicist working at Siemens
Molotov in Moscow. Soviet Union demands AG sends an anonymous letter to the British
Finland give up a military base near Helsinki Embassy in Oslo offering England a report on
and exchange some Soviet and Finnish territo- present and future German weapons technolo-
ries to protect Leningrad against Great Britain gies.
or the eventual future threat of Germany. 8: Hitler escapes a bomb blast in a Munich
14: The British battleship HMS Royal Oak is beerhall, where he was speaking on the an-
sunk in Scapa Flow harbour by U-47, under the niversary of the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923.
command of Günther Prien. British bombers coincidentally bomb Munich.

14: Finns meet Stalin again. Stalin tells that 13: Negotiations between Finland and Soviet
“an accident”might happen between Finnish Union break down. Finns suspect that Ger-
and Soviet troops, if the negotiations last too mans and Russians have agreed to include Fin-
long. land in the Soviet sphere of influence.

16: First air attack on Great Britain, aimed at 14: The Polish government-in-exile moves to
ships in the Firth of Forth, Scotland.* [7] London.

18: First Soviet forces enter Estonia. During 16: The first British civilian casualty occurs
the Umsiedlung, 12,600 Baltic Germans leave when a German bomber kills James Isbister in
Estonia. an air raid on Orkney in Scotland.* [9]

19: Portions of Poland are formally inducted 17: The IRA is blamed for bombs set off in
into Germany; the first Jewish ghetto is estab- London.
lished at Lublin 20: The Luftwaffe and German U-boats begin
20: The "Phoney War": French troops settle in mining the Thames estuary.
the Maginot line's dormitories and tunnels; the 23: Polish Jews are ordered to wear Star of
British build new fortifications along the“gap” David armbands.
between the Maginot line and the Channel.
24: Japan announces the capture of Nanning in
20: Pope Pius XII's first encyclical condemns southern China.
racism and dictatorships.
26: The Soviets stage the shelling of Mainila,
27: Belgium announces that it is neutral in the Soviet artillery shells a field near the Finnish
present conflict. border, accusing Finns of killing Soviet troops.
3.3. 1940 TIMELINE 73

29: The USSR breaks off diplomatic relations [2] “1939 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
with Finland.
[3] “The Battle of Barking Creek”. North Weald Airfield
30: The Soviet Union attacks Finland in what Museum. Retrieved 2010-05-26.
would become known as the Winter War.
[4] “Canada declares war on Germany”. CBC. Retrieved
2010-06-04.
3.2.4 December 1939
[5] “1939 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
1: Russia continues its war against Finland;
[6] “1939 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
Helsinki is bombed. In the first two weeks of
the month, the Finns retreat to the Mannerheim [7] “First German air raid on UK”. World War II Today.
line, an outmoded defensive line just inside the Retrieved 2012-06-06.
southern border with Russia.
[8] “Chronology of the Holocaust (1939)". Jewish Virtual
2: British conscription is increased to cover Library. Retrieved 2010-05-25.
men from 19 to 41.
[9] “World War II Timeline”. HowStuffWorks. Retrieved
5: The Russian invaders start heavy attacks on
2010-05-26.
the Mannerheim line.
7: Italy again declares its neutrality. Norway, [10] “LEAGUE OF NATIONS' EXPULSION OF THE
Sweden, and Denmark also proclaim their neu- U.S.S.R.”. League of Nations. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
trality in the Russo-Finnish quarrel.
[11] “1939 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
11: The Russians meet with several tactical de-
feats by the Finnish army.
12: The destroyer HMS Duchess sinks after a 3.3 1940 timeline
collision with the battleship HMS Barham off
the coast of Scotland with the loss of 124 men.
This is a timeline of events that stretched over the pe-
13: The Battle of the River Plate off riod of World War II.
Montevideo, Uruguay. A British naval
squadron attacks the Admiral Graf Spee
14: The Graf Spee retreats, badly damaged, 3.3.1 January 1940
into Montevideo harbor.
1: 10,000 Japanese troops launched a counter-
14: The USSR is expelled from the League of attack in eastern Shanxi Province in China
Nations in response to the Soviet invasion of in an attempt to relieve the nearly-surrounded
Finland on November 30.* [10] Japanese 36th Division.* [1]
15: Soviet Army assaults Taipale, Finland dur-
2: The Soviet offensive in Finland is halted
ing the Battle of Taipale.* [11]
by several Finnish victories; numerous Soviet
17: The Graf Spee is forced by International tanks are destroyed.
Law to leave Montevideo harbor; it is scut-
7: Rationing of basic foodstuffs is established
tled just outside the harbor. Its captain, Hans
in the UK.* [2]
Langsdorff, is interned.
A major Finnish victory at Suomussalmi is
18: The first Canadian troops arrive in Europe. reported; one whole Soviet division is elimi-
18: Germany defeats Britain in the Battle of nated, and again numbers of military vehicles
the Heligoland Bight are captured.
20: Captain Hans Langsdorff commits suicide. 7: General Semyon Timoshenko takes com-
27: The first Indian troops arrive in France. mand of Soviet Army forces in Finland.* [1]
28: Meat rationing begins in Britain. 10: Mechelen Incident: a German plane, car-
29: As the year ends, the Finns continue to rying plans for Fall Gelb, crashes in neutral
have successes in fighting the invaders, along Belgium.
the way capturing many men and vehicles. 16: Captured documents reveal Hitler's plans
for the invasion of Scandinavia and a postpone-
ment of the invasion of France and the Low
3.2.5 Notes and references Countries until the Spring, when the weather is
more compatible for an invasion.
[1] “DOCUMENTS RELEVANT TO FRANCE'S RE-
SPONSE TO GERMANY'S INVASION OF POLAND” 17: The Soviets are driven back in Finland and
. ibiblio. Retrieved 2010-06-04. retaliate with heavy air attacks.
74 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

20: German submarine U-44 torpedoes and 17: The Finns continue retreat from the
sinks Greek steamer Ekatontarchos Dracoulis Mannerheim line.
off Portugal at 0415 hours, killing 6. U-44 had Manstein presents to Hitler his plans for invad-
been hunting for Ekatontarchos Dracoulis for ing France via the Ardennes forest.
the past 6 hours.* [1] 21: General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst is
21: A U-boat sinks British destroyer HMS Ex- placed in command of the upcoming German
mouth and its crew of 135 are all lost. invasion of Norway.
24: Reinhard Heydrich is appointed by Göring
for the solution to the “Jewish Question.” 3.3.3 March 1940
27: Germany makes final plans for the invasion
of Denmark and Norway 1: Adolf Hitler directs his generals in planning
the invasion of Denmark and Norway.
3: Soviets begin attacks on Viipuri, Finland's
3.3.2 February 1940 second largest city.
5: Finland tells the Soviets they will agree to
their terms for ending the war. The next day
they send emissaries to Moscow to negotiate a
peace treaty.
11: Meat rationing begins in Britain.* [2]
12: In Moscow, Finland signs a peace treaty
with the Soviet Union after 105 days of con-
flict. The Finns are forced to give up significant
territory in exchange for peace.
16: German air raid on Scapa Flow causes first
British civilian casualties.
18: Hitler and Mussolini meet at the Brenner
pass on the Austrian border;* [2] Benito Mus-
Finnish ski troops in Northern Finland January 12, 1940. solini agrees with Hitler that Italy will enter the
war “at an opportune moment”.
21: Paul Reynaud becomes Prime Minister
1: The Japanese Diet announces a record high of France following Daladier's resignation the
budget with over half its expenditures being previous day.
military.
28: Britain and France make a formal agree-
5: Britain and France decide to intervene in ment that neither country will seek a separate
Norway to cut off the iron ore trade in antici- peace with Germany.
pation of an expected German occupation and
29: The Soviets want new territories. Molo-
ostensibly to open a route to assist Finland. The
tov speaks to the Supreme Soviet, about “an
operation is scheduled to start about March 20.
unsettled dispute”, the question of Romanian
9: Erich von Manstein is placed in command of Bessarabia.
German XXXVIII (38) Armour Corps, remov-
30: Japan establishes a puppet regime at
ing him from planning the French invasion.
Nanking, China, under Wang Jingwei.
10: USSR agrees to supply grain and raw ma-
30: Britain undertakes secret reconnaissance
terials to Germany in a new trade treaty.
flights to photograph the targeted areas inside
14: British government calls for volunteers to the Soviet Union in preparation for Operation
fight in Finland. Pike, utilising high-altitude, high-speed stereo-
15: The Soviet army captures Summa, an scopic photography pioneered by Sidney Cot-
important defence point in Finland, thereby ton.
breaking through the Mannerheim Line.
Hitler orders unrestricted submarine warfare.
3.3.4 April 1940
16: British destroyer HMS Cossack forcibly
removes 303 British POWs from the German April: 22,000 Polish officers, policemen, and
transport Altmark in neutral Norwegian terri- others are massacred by the Soviet NKVD in
torial waters, sparking the Altmark Incident. the Katyn massacre.
3.3. 1940 TIMELINE 75

3: The Ministerial Defence Committee, with

the First Lord of the Admiralty (Winston
Churchill) as its chair, replaces Lord Chat-
field's ministerial position of Minister for Co-
ordination of Defence.
9: Germans land in several Norwegian ports
and take Oslo; the Norwegian Campaign lasts
two months. The British begin their Norwegian
Campaign. Denmark surrenders.
10: Germans set up a Norwegian government
under Vidkun Quisling, former minister of de-
fence.
11: First Battle of Narvik. British destroyers
and aircraft successfully make a surprise attack
The German Blitzkrieg offensive of mid-May, 1940.
against a larger German naval force. A second
attack on April 13 will also be a British success.
12: British troops occupy the Danish Faroe Is-
lands.
14: British and French troops begin landing at
Namsos, north of Trondheim in Norway.
15: British troops land at Harstad, near Narvik,
Norway.
16: More British landings in Norway, notably
north and south of Trondheim; the struggle for
Trondheim continues until the 22nd.
27: British troops begin pull-out from central
Norway, north and south of Trondheim.
Map of the British invasion of Iceland in mid-May 1940.

3.3.5 May 1940

Neville Chamberlain. The United Kingdom
invades Iceland.
Belgium declares a state of emergency.
Churchill is called on to form a wartime
coalition government.* [2]
The massive German offensive against the
Western front: The invasion of Luxembourg,
Belgium, the Netherlands, and France begins.
In a bold stroke, German paratroops capture
the Belgian fort Eben Emael.
The state of the allies and axis powers in May 1940.
10: The Battle for The Hague becomes the
first failed paratrooper attack in history as the
1: Allies begin evacuating Norwegian ports; Dutch quickly defeat the invaders.
the efforts will continue until June. 11: Luxembourg is occupied.
5: Norwegian government in exile established Churchill offers the former Kaiser Wilhelm II,
in London.* [2] who is now living in the Netherlands, asylum in
the United Kingdom; he declines.
8: Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain barely
survives Norway Debate vote in the House of 12: The Belgians blow up all the bridges over
Commons. the Meuse River to halt the German advance.
9: Conscription in Britain extended to age 36. 12: Battle of Hannut begins in Belgium.
10: Germany invades Belgium, France, 13: Dutch government-in-exile established in
Luxembourg and the Netherlands; Winston London.
Churchill becomes Prime Minister of the General Heinz Guderian's Panzer corps breaks
United Kingdom upon the resignation of through at Sedan, France.
76 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands flees to 25: The Allied forces, British and French alike,
asylum in the United Kingdom. retreat to Dunkirk.* [2] Hitler orders a halt to
Churchill's "blood, toil, tears, and sweat" the advance of Germans toward the Allied
speech in Commons. beachhead and allows Hermann Göring to use
13: The Dutch lose the Battle of the Grebbe- the Luftwaffe to attack. British R.A.F. defends
berg to the Germans. the beachhead.
Sporadic Luftwaffe bombings in England.
14: The creation of the Local Defence Volun- Boulogne-sur-Mer surrenders to the Germans.
teers (the Home Guard) is announced by the
new Secretary of State for War Anthony Eden. 25: Soviet Union is preparing a total takeover
It is mostly composed of the elderly and re- in the Baltic States organizing and staging con-
tired. flicts between the Baltic States and the USSR.
Rotterdam is carpet-bombed by the Luftwaffe, Soviet government accuses Lithuania of kid-
causing many civilian deaths and tremendous napping Soviet soldiers.
damage. The Netherlands decide to surrender 25-28: 86 Belgian civilians are murdered by
with the exception of Zealand. German forces in the village of Vinkt
Churchill asks President Roosevelt and Canada
26: The Patrol vessel A4 arrives in Plymouth,
for aid in these dark days. Outlines of the new
evacuating the final 40 tonnes of national gold
British coalition, which includes Labour, Lib-
reserves out of Belgium.
eral, and Conservative members, is made pub-
lic. 26: Calais surrenders to the Germans.
14: The Dutch defeat the Germans at the Battle Operation Dynamo, the Allied evacuation of
of the Afsluitdijk. 340,000 troops from Dunkirk, begins. The
move will last until June 3 under ferocious
14: The Rotterdam Blitz successfully brings an bombardment by the Luftwaffe.
end to the Battle of Rotterdam.
28: Belgium surrenders to the Germans; King
15: The capitulation of the Dutch army is
Leopold III of Belgium surrenders and is in-
signed.* [2]
terned.
German forces cross over the Meuse River.* [2]
30: Crucial British Cabinet meeting: Churchill
16: Churchill visits Paris and hears that the
wins a vote on continuing the war, in spite
French war is as good as over
of vigorous arguments by Lord Halifax and
16: The Belgian government leaves Belgium Chamberlain.
for Bordeaux in France, as the Belgian army
retreats. It later moves to London.* [3] 31: The Japanese heavily bomb Nationalist
capital Chungking, on the upper Yangtse.
17: Germans enter Brussels and also take
Antwerp.
Paul Reynaud forms new French government, 3.3.6 June 1940
including 84-year-old Marshal Pétain, the
French hero of World War I. 3: Last day of Operation Dynamo. 224,686
18: Maxime Weygand replaces Maurice British and 121,445 French and Belgian troops
Gamelin as commander of the French armed have been evacuated.
forces Germans bomb Paris.
Antwerp captured.* [2] 7: German battleships Gneisenau and
18: Germans win the Battle of Zeeland. Scharnhorst sink the aircraft carrier HMS
19: Amiens in France is besieged by German Glorious and two destroyers off Norway; the
troops; Rommel's forces surround Arras; other British ships have had no air cover.
German forces reach Noyelles on the Channel. 9: Red Army provokes conflicts on the Latvian
19: The British complete their invasion of border.
Iceland. 10: Italy declares war on France and the United
20: General Guderian's Panzer groups take Kingdom. Norway surrenders. King Haakon
Abbeville, threatening Allied forces in the area. and his government had evacuated to Britain
three days previously.
23: Oswald Mosley, leader of the pre-war
British fascists, is jailed; he and his wife will 11: French government decamps to Tours.
spend the duration in prison. 12: More than 10,000 British soldiers of the
24: The British make a final decision to cease 51st (Highland) Division are captured at Saint-
operations in Norway. Valéry-en-Caux.
3.3. 1940 TIMELINE 77

13: Paris occupied by German troops; 22: Franco-German armistice signed.

French government moves again, this time to 24: Franco-Italian armistice signed.
Bordeaux.* [2]
25: France officially surrenders to Germany at
14: Elements of the French Navy (Marine 01:35.
Nationale) based in Toulon carried out offen- Last major evacuation of Operation Ariel;
sive operations against Italian targets along the 191,870 allied soldiers, airmen and some civil-
Ligurian coast. ians had escaped from France.
A total military blockade on the Baltic States
by the Soviet Baltic Fleet. Soviet troops along 26: The Soviet Union send an ultimatum de-
the Baltic borders are ready to organise com- manding Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina
munist coups in the Baltic States. Soviet from Romania.
bombers shoot down a Finnish passenger air- 27: Romanians propose negotiations. Molotov
plane Kaleva flying from Tallinn to Helsinki replies that the demands are land concessions
and carrying three diplomatic pouches from or war. New ultimatum from the Soviets to the
the U.S. legations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki. Romanians.
15: Eight-hour ultimatum to surrender is given 28: General De Gaulle recognised by British as
to Lithuania by the Soviets. President Smetona leader of Free French.
escapes from the country so the takeover is not Marshal Italo Balbo, Commander-in-Chief of
possible to do in a formally legal way. Soviet Italian North Africa, is accidentally killed in a
troops enter Lithuania and attack Latvian bor- "friendly fire incident" by Italian anti-aircraft
der guards. fire at Tobruk, Libya.
Start of the evacuation of British troops from
ports western in France in Operation Ariel. 28: The Red Army occupies Romanian
Bessarabia and the northern part of Bukovina.
16: Philippe Pétain becomes premier of
France upon the resignation of Reynaud's gov- 28: The Luftwaffe bombs the demilitarised
ernment. British Channel Islands, they had not been in-
The French sloop La Curieuse forced the Italian formed of the demilitarization. In Guernsey,
submarine Provano to surface and then sank it 33 are killed and 67 injured, in Jersey, 9 are
by ramming. killed and many are injured.
Soviet Union gives eight-hour ultimatum to 28: Axis and Allied convoys clash south-west
Latvia and Estonia to surrender. of Crete.
17: Sinking of liner RMS Lancastria off St 30: Germany invades the Channel Islands.
Nazaire while being used as a British troop-
ship̶at least 3,000 are killed in Britain's worst
maritime disaster. 3.3.7 July 1940
Soviet troops enter Latvia and Estonia.
1: Channel Islands occupation is completed by
18: General De Gaulle forms the Comité
German forces.
français de la Libération nationale, a French
: French government moves to Vichy.
government in exile; Estonia, Latvia and
: Marshal Rodolfo Graziani is named as
Lithuania are occupied by the Soviet Union.
Balbo's replacement in North Africa.
20: The French seek an armistice with the Ital- : The Italian Royal Air Force starts bombing
ians* [4] the British Mandate of Palestine.
21: Franco-German armistice negotiations be- 2: Hitler orders preparation of plans for in-
gin at Compiègne. vasion of Britain, code-named Operation Sea
Elements of two Italian armies cross into Lion.
France during Italian invasion of France.
2: Alderney surrenders to the Germans.
21: The French battleship Lorraine opened fire
on the Italian port of Bardia in Italian North 2: Brighton beach is closed to the public and
Africa. During some of the last actions of the mines, barbed wire and other defences are put
French against the Italians, French naval air- into place.
craft attacked Taranto and Livorno in mainland 3: Cardiff is bombed by the Luftwaffe for the
Italy. first time.
21: Soviet-led coups in the Baltic States. In 3: The British attack and destroy the French
the only military resistance in Tallinn, 2 die on navy, fearing that it would fall into German
Estonian side and about 10 on the Soviet side. hands.
78 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

4: The destruction of the French Fleet at Mers- 22: The Havana Conference meets; the na-
el-Kébir, Algeria by the Royal Navy; Vichy tions of the Western hemisphere meet to dis-
French government breaks off diplomatic re- cuss neutrality and economic cooperation.
lations with Britain in protest. At Alexandria Fumimaro Konoye is named the Prime Minis-
the French agree to demilitarise the battleship ter of Japan.
Lorraine and several smaller ships. 23: The British "Home Guard" is officially es-
The Duke of Windsor (tainted by suspicion tablished, drawing on elderly men and those
of pro-Nazism) is named governor of the considered unable to serve in the regular armed
Bahamas, putting him some distance from con- forces.
troversy.
25: All women and children are ordered to
4: Sark surrenders to the Germans. The Ger- evacuate Gibraltar.
mans now control all of the British Channel Is-
lands. 26: The United States of America activates the
General Headquarters (GHQ), United States
4: The German News Bureau released ex- Army, which is designed to facilitate mobiliza-
cerpts of the documents captured during the tion by supervising the organization and train-
fall of France relating to Operation Pike, an ing of the army field forces within the conti-
Anglo-French plan to bomb Soviet oil fields. nental United States, which is code named the
The compromised operation was subsequently Zone of the Interior.
aborted.
30: The President of Estonia, Konstantin Päts,
5: Two Belgian politicians, Camille Huysmans is arrested and deported to Russia by the Sovi-
and Marcel-Henri Jaspar, form an unofficial ets.
government in exile in London, afraid that the
official Belgian government, still in France,
will surrender to the Germans. 3.3.8 August 1940
9: A fairly indecisive naval skirmish happens
off the coast of Italy. No lives are lost. August: The so-called Spéngelskrich (“War of
Pin-badges”) begins in occupied Luxembourg
10: The Battle of Britain begins with Luftwaffe as civilians wear patriotic lapel badges promi-
raids on channel shipping. nently, in defiance of Nazi attempts to “Ger-
President Roosevelt asks Congress for huge in- manize”the territory.
creases in military preparations.
1: Hitler sets 15 September as the date for
11: RAF raids on enemy emplacements in the Operation Sea Lion, the invasion of Britain.
Netherlands and on German munitions facto- : Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov reaf-
ries. firms Molotov-Ribbentrop pact in the Soviet
12: Luftwaffe attacks on Wales, Scotland and Supreme while verbally attacking both Britain
Northern Ireland. and the USA. He also asserts that the bound-
aries of Soviet Union are moved to the shores
14: Soviets organize rigged elections in the of the Baltic Sea.
Baltic States. The parliaments will be in the : The Italian Royal Navy establishes its
control of the Soviets. BETASOM submarine base in Bordeaux and
16: Adolf Hitler submits to his military the di- joins the "Battle of the Atlantic.”
rective for the invasion of the United Kingdom, 1-4: Operation Hurry, the first of the Malta
Operation Sea Lion. Convoys, is accomplished.
18: In response to Mers-el-Kébir, the 2: General Charles de Gaulle sentenced to
Vichy French Air Force bombs British-held death in absentia by a French military court.
Gibraltar. : The USSR annexes Bessarabia and Northern
19: General Johan Laidoner of Estonia is de- Bukovina.
ported to Siberia. 3: The USSR formally annexes Lithuania.
19: Allied ships clash with two Italian light 4: Italian forces under General Guglielmo Nasi
cruisers, sinking one in the Battle of Cape invade and occupy British Somaliland during
Spada. the East African Campaign.
21: Czechoslovak government in exile arrives 5: Failure to achieve air superiority and bad
in London. weather in the Channel results in a postpone-
In the Baltic States Soviet controlled parlia- ment of the invasion of Great Britain.
ments request membership of USSR. : The USSR formally annexes Latvia.
3.3. 1940 TIMELINE 79

6: The USSR formally annexes Estonia. 24: German aircraft mistakenly bomb a church
11-15: Battle of Tug Argan fought in British in Cripplegate, accidentally dictating the future
Somaliland during the Italian invasion. To shape of the Battle of Britain.
avoid encirclement, the British withdraw. 25: Churchill orders the bombing of Berlin in
retaliation for the previous night's bombing of
13: This is "Adler Tag" or "Eagle Day".
Cripplegate.
Hermann Göring starts a two-week assault on
British airfields in preparation for invasion. 26: Both London and Berlin are bombed,
(For some German historians, this is the be- Berlin for the first time.
ginning of the "Battle of Britain.”) 30: The bombing of England continues; Lon-
14: British scientist Sir Henry Tizard leaves for don is now bombed in retaliation for the
the United States on the Tizard Mission, giving bombing of Berlin; thus, the beginning of“the
over to the Americans a number of top secret London Blitz.”
British technologies including the magnetron, : Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini dictated
the secret device at the heart of radar. Radar is the so-called Second Vienna Award which
already proving itself in the defence of Britain. forced Romania to hand over the Northern
Transylvania (including the entire Maramureş
15: RAF victories over the Luftwaffe continue, and part of Crişana) to Hungary.
in a wide-ranging fight along the East coast.
31: Luftwaffe attacks on British airfields con-
British fighter aircraft production begins to ac-
tinue, as well as on London. Attacks on Radar
celerate.
installations prove ineffective.
: Sinking of the Greek cruiser Elli by an Italian
submarine on 15 August 1940 at the harbour of 31: Two Royal Navy destroyers are sunk off
Tinos. the Dutch coast in the so-called "Texel Disas-
ter"
16: The Battle of Britain continues; Germans
are hampered by poor aircraft range and British
extensive use of RADAR. 3.3.9 September 1940
: A first draft of the Destroyers for Bases
Agreement by the US and Britain is made pub- 1: Germany's Jews are ordered to wear yellow
lic. stars for identification.
17: Hitler declares a blockade of the British 2: The Destroyers for Bases Agreement is
Isles. completed. Britain obtains 50 destroyers in ex-
change for giving the United States land grants
18: Heavy fighting in the Battle of Britain; Ger-
in various British possessions for the establish-
mans suffering severe losses on bomber forma-
ment of US naval and air bases, on ninety-nine-
tions. Göring declares cowardice among his
year rent-free leases on bases in the Bahamas,
fighter pilots and orders them to closely guard
Antigua, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Jamaica, and
the bombers, further restricting their capabili-
British Guiana.
ties.
3: Hitler postpones the invasion of Britain,
19: Italian forces take Berbera, the capital of as the Luftwaffe fails to break the British de-
British Somaliland and the British defenders fenses. However, fears of the forthcoming in-
flee to Aden. The fall of Berbera completes vasion continue to haunt Britain.
the invasion of the British colony. By the end
of the month, the Italians control British So- 6: King Carol abdicates the Romanian throne
maliland and several towns and forts along the in favour of his son Michael while control of
border with the Sudan and Kenya including the government is taken by Marshal Antonescu.
Kassala, Gallabat, and Moyale. 7: In one of the major misjudgements of the
war, the Luftwaffe shifts its focus to London,
20: Italy announces a blockade of British ports
away from the RAF airfields. Success may be
in the Mediterranean area.
measured only in the estimated 2,000 civilian
: Churchill's speech "Never was so much owed
dead. Other British cities are hit.
by so many to so few" speech delivered to the
House of Commons 9: During the Western Desert Campaign, Ital-
ian colonial forces in Libya under General
20:Chinese Communists launch the Hundred Mario Berti launch the invasion of Egypt. The
Regiments Offensive against the Japanese in first objective is to advance from defensive po-
North China. sitions within Libya to the border with Egypt.
22: Germans are now shelling Dover and the : Tel Aviv in the British Mandate of Palestine is
nearby coastal area with long-range artillery. bombed by Italian aircraft causing 137 deaths.
80 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

10: Operation Sea Lion is now set for 24 28: Vidkun Quisling becomes head of state in
September. Norway.
: The Italian Air Corps is formed to fight in the
Battle of Britain.
3.3.10 October 1940
13: After re-taking Fort Capuzzo just inside
Libya, Italian colonial forces cross the border 1-31: The United States Of America separates
and advance into Egypt. The Italians take the the Corps Areas established in 1921 to per-
small port of Sollum, but the only resistance to form the administrative tasks of the various re-
the invasion is a light British screening force gions of the US from the four Field Armies
which withdraws as the Italians advance. that had been established in 1932.
14: Operation Sea Lion is postponed until 27 1: Chinese Nationalist and Chinese Commu-
September, the last day of the month with suit- nists fight each other in southern China. Mean-
able tides for the invasion. while Japanese forces have a setback at Chang-
15: Massive German bombing flights on En- sha.
glish cities; most are driven off. The RAF be- 2: The bombing of London continues through-
gins to claim victory in the Battle of Britain. out the month.
16: Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 3: Warsaw's Jews are directed to move into the
introduces the first peacetime conscription Warsaw ghetto.
(this time for men between 21 and 35) in
4: Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini meet at
United States history.
the Brenner Pass to discuss the prospects in the
The Italian invasion of Egypt comes to a halt
war.
when approximately five Italian divisions set up
defensively in a series of armed camps after ad- 7: Germany invades Romania to block the So-
vancing about 95 km to Sidi Barrani. The Ital- viet Army and get access to valuable oil fields.
ians never approach the main British positions 9: Neville Chamberlain resigns from the House
at Mersa Matruh. of Commons for health reasons; Winston
17: Decoded messages now reveal that Hitler Churchill is elected head of the Conservative
has postponed Operation Sea Lion until further Party.
notice. 12: Any German invasion of Britain is post-
18: Radio Belgique, a French and Dutch lan- poned until Spring 1941 at the earliest.
guage radio service of the BBC, begins broad- 12: The Royal Navy clash with and defeat sev-
casting to occupied Belgium from its base in eral Italian ships which attacked them after a
London.* [5] convoy mission to Malta.
22: Heavy convoy losses to U-boats in the At- 13: British civilians are still being killed
lantic. by German bombs though the attacks have
The Japanese occupy French Indochina; local dropped off significantly.
French administrators become only figurehead 14: Balham station disaster. German bomb
authorities. pierces 32 feet underground killing 66 peo-
23: Free French and British forces attempt a ple.* [6]
landing at Dakar, French West Africa; Vichy 15: Clarence Addison Dykstra becomes Direc-
French naval forces open fire sporadically for tor of Selective Service in the United States.
two days, and the expedition is called back.
15: Mussolini and his closest advisers decide
24: Berlin suffers a large bombing raid by the to invade Greece.
RAF.
16: Draft registration begins in the United
: In response to Dakar, the Vichy French Air
States.
Force bombs Gibraltar for the first time since
18 July. 19: The Italians bomb Bahrain.
25: Vichy French aircraft return to Gibraltar 20: Italian aircraft bomb Cairo, Egypt and
for a second day of bombings. American-operated oil refineries in the British
: Japanese 5th Division march into Hanoi, Protectorate of Bahrain.
North Vietnam. 21: Liverpool is bombed for the 200th time.
27: The Tripartite Pact is signed in Berlin by 23: Adolf Hitler meets with Franco at
Germany, Italy, and Japan, promising mutual Hendaye, near the Spanish-French border; lit-
aid. An informal name, “Axis”, emerges. tle is accomplished, and least of all Hitler's
3.3. 1940 TIMELINE 81

hope to convince Franco to enter the war on studied by Japanese military already preparing
the Axis side. for an attack on Pearl Harbor.
24: After meeting with Franco, Hitler was go- 12: Molotov meets Hitler and Ribbentrop in
ing to Montoire where he met with Philippe Berlin. New World order is under discussion.
Pétain took place signifying the start of or- Molotov expresses Soviet interest in Finland,
ganised French collaboration with the Nazi Bulgaria, Romania, Dardanelles and Bosporus,
regime. but Hitler talks along broad lines about world-
wide spheres of influence between Russia, Ger-
24: The Italian Air Corps sees its first action
many, Italy and Japan.
during the Battle of Britain.
12: In the Battle of Gabon, British forces finish
25: Berlin and Hamburg are bombed heavily.
wresting central Africa from the Vichy French.
28: At about 03:00 am the Italian ambassador
13: Molotov meets Hitler again asking accep-
to Greece issues ultimatum to Greece and
tance to liquidate Finland. Hitler now resists
Greek Prime Minister Metaxas replies: “So
every attempt to expand Soviet influence in Eu-
it is war”. The Italian Royal Army launches
rope. He sees Britain as defeated and offers In-
attacks into Greece from Italian-held Albania
dia to the Soviet Union.
and begins the Greco-Italian War. Hitler is an-
: The Battle of Pindus ends in a Greek victory.
gered at the initiative of his ally.
14: A heavy night raid on Coventry. Coventry
29: Very heavy convoy losses during this pe- Cathedral is destroyed and the medieval centre
riod as numbers of U-boats increase. of the city is levelled.
29: The first number drawings for US Selective : The Greek counter-offensive against the Ital-
Service Act draftees. ians begins.
30: President Roosevelt, in the middle of an 15: The Soviet Union is invited to join Tripar-
election campaign, promises not to send “our tite Pact and to share in the spoils of British
boys”to war. Empire. Warsaw's Jewish ghetto is cordoned
off from the rest of the city.
31: The Warsaw District government moves all
Jews living in Warsaw to the ghettos. 16: Churchill orders some British troops in
North Africa to be sent to Greece, despite
concerns by his military leaders that they are
3.3.11 November 1940 needed in the current campaign against the Ital-
ians in North Africa.
1: Turkey declared neutrality in the Italo- 19: The Greeks continue to advance, and evict
Greek war.* [1] Italian troops from Greek soil. 20: Hungary
2: The Italian advance into Greece continues.
Vovousa is captured and Italian aircraft bomb Greco-Italian War YUGOSLAVIA
1940-1941 Elbasan

Salonika. X
Pogradec
X 29 November '40
ALBANIA X X

5: President Roosevelt wins a third term. The (in personal union with Axis Italy) X
Tomor Mt. X
X 3rd
X
X Korytza X
British see the event as promising of more help Berati

X
X
X
(Korce)
22 November '40

X
from the US. Valona
X
X 2nd
5th Kastoria
(Vlore) Trebeshina Mt. X
X Klisura
5: The HMS Jervis Bay, a merchant cruiser, is
(Kelcyre)
X Erseka
17 November '40
10 January '41
Permeti
X X 3 December '40

X
sunk on convoy duty, but much of the convoy X

Himara X
X
Argyrokastro 8 December '40
Pindus Mts
Ionian Sea 22 December '40

escapes. The loss becomes a media event.

(Gjirokaster)
X Konitsa
Delvino
Santi Quaranta 8 December '40 X
(Sarande)
5 December '40 1st GREECE
7: It becomes clear that Ireland will refuse to Metsovo

Ioannina
allow the United Kingdom to use its ports as Corfu
The Greek counter-offensive
Igoumenitsa
naval bases. Major Movements of the Greek
forces (Nov. 3 1940 - Apr. 7 1941)
Failed Italian Spring Offensive
(March, 9-16, 1941)
Stages the of Greek advance
Pre-War borders
Nov. 3 1940 front
Major Battles Dec. 9 1940 front
Hellenic Army Corps Jan. 1 1941 front

8: The Battle of Elaia-Kalamas ends and the X Divisions Hq. (Dec. 1940)
Blue Greek/Black Italian Apr. 11 1941 front

Italians end their futile offensive in Greece.

The Greek counter-offensive
9: Neville Chamberlain dies.
11: British naval forces launch attack against signs the Tripartite Pact.
Italian navy at Taranto. Swordfish bombers 21: The Belgian government, in exile in
from HMS Illustrious damage three battle- Britain, declares war on Italy.
ships, two cruisers and multiple auxiliary craft.
The event secures British supply lines in the 22: Fall of Korytsa to the Greeks.
Mediterranean. The British success will be 23: Romania signs the Tripartite Pact.
82 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

24: The Slovak Republic signs the Tripartite 12: In North Africa, over 39,000 Italians lost
Pact. or captured in Egypt.
25: The Soviet Union gives her terms to join 16: The first RAF night raid--on Mannheim,
the Tripartite Pact including substantial new Germany.
territorial gains for Russia. : In North Africa, the British are in command
29: A massive overnight bombing raid on at Sollum in Egypt and take Fort Capuzzo in
Liverpool. Libya.
30: A large bombing raid on Southampton in 18: Hitler issues directive to begin planning for
southern England; the city is hit again the next Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of
night, followed by Bristol on 2 December, and the Soviet Union.
Birmingham on the 3rd.
22-24: Bombing raids on Manchester.
28: The Greco-Italian War continues to go
3.3.12 December 1940 badly for the Italians and the Greeks hold
roughly one-quarter of Albania.
: Italy requests military assistance from Ger-
many against the Greeks.
29: Large German air-raids on London; St
Paul's Cathedral is damaged.

3.3.13 Notes and references

The state of the allies and axis powers in December 1940, show- • Powaski, Ronald E. (2003). Lightning War:
ing great axis expansion in Europe and Northern Africa. Blitzkrieg in the West, 1940. John Wiley. ISBN 978-
0-471-39431-0.

1-8: Greek forces continue to drive the Italian • Powaski, Ronald E. (2008). Lightning War:
armies back, capturing the cities of Pogradec, Blitzkrieg in the West, 1940. Book Sales, Inc. ISBN
Sarandë, and Gjirokastër. 978-0-7858-2097-0.
1: Bombing raids are exchanged throughout
the month between Germany and Britain. First [1] “1940 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
German bombs, then Britain's.
Joseph P. Kennedy, the US Ambassador to the [2] Keegan, John (1994). The Times Atlas of the Second
United Kingdom is asked to resign by President World War. London: The Times. pp. 16–17.
Roosevelt after he gives a newspaper interview
[3] Gotovitch, José; Aron, Paul, eds. (2008). Dictionnaire de
expressing the view that “Democracy is fin-
la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique. Brussels: André
ished in England”. Versaille éd. p. 408. ISBN 978-2-87495-001-8.
5: The RAF bombs Düsseldorf and Turin.
[4] Piekalkiewicz, Janusz. Sea War: 1939-1945. Blandford
6-9: British and Indian troops of the Western
Press, London - New York, 1987, pg. 83, ISBN 0-7137-
Desert Force launch Operation Compass, an
1665-7
offensive against Italian forces in Egypt. The
Italians have seven infantry divisions and the [5] Gotovitch, José; Aron, Paul, eds. (2008). Dictionnaire de
Maletti Group in fortified defensive positions. la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique. Brussels: André
Initial attacks are launched against the five Ital- Versaille éd. p. 372. ISBN 978-2-87495-001-8.
ian camps around and south of Sidi Barrani.
The camps are overrun, Italian General Pietro [6] http://ww2today.com/
Maletti is killed, and the Maletti Group, the 14th-october-1940-disaster-at-balham-tube-station
1st Libyan Division, the 2nd Libyan Division,
and the 4th Blackshirt Division are all but de-
stroyed. The remaining Italian units in Egypt 3.3.14 External links
are forced to withdraw towards Libya.
8: Francisco Franco rules out Spanish entry • Documents of World War II
into the war; the immediate result is that Hitler
is forced to cancel an attack on Gibraltar. • World War II Timeline
3.4. 1941 TIMELINE 83

3.4 1941 timeline • 13: Heavy Luftwaffe night raid on Plymouth.

This is a timeline of events that stretched over the period • 14: First use of "V for Victory" by Victor de
of World War II from 1941, marked also by the beginning Laveleye on the BBC's Belgian service, Radio Bel-
of Operation Barbarossa on the Eastern Front. gique* [2]

• 15: The rivalry between Chinese Nationalists and

3.4.1 January 1941 Chinese Communists becomes more evident; large
numbers of the latter are forced to give up their
• 1: Accounting of the previous night's bombing of arms, reluctantly of course.
London reveals that the Old Bailey, the Guildhall,
and eight churches by Christopher Wren were de- • 16: British forces start the first attacks of their East
stroyed or badly damaged. African counter-offensive, on Italian-held Ethiopia,
: RAF bombs aircraft factories in Bremen, Ger- from Kenya
many. : German bombers pound Valletta, Malta, and the
HMS Illustrious is hit again.
• 2: German bombers, perhaps off course, bomb Irish
Free State for the second night in a row. • 17: The Battle of Ko Chang ended in a decisive vic-
tory for the Vichy French naval forces during the
• 2–4: Bardia is bombed by British bombers and bom- Franco-Thai War.
barded by naval vessels off shore. : Molotov meets German Ambassador Schulenburg
• 3: RAF bombers attacked Bremen and the Kiel in Moscow. The Soviets are surprised that they have
Canal in Germany. The Kiel Canal Bridge suffered not received any answer from Germany to their offer
a direct hit and collapsed on Finnish ships Yrsa.* [1] to join the Axis (November 26, 1940). Schulenburg
replies that it has to be first discussed with Italy and
• 5: Operation Compass: Australian troops of XIII Japan.
Corps (the re-designated Western Desert Force)
capture Italian-held Bardia and 45,000 Italian pris- • 18: Air raids on Malta are increasing in focus and
oners are taken. intensity.
: Tobruk, the next target, is 70 miles away.
• 19: The 4th and 5th Indian Divisions continue the
British counter-offensive in East Africa, attacking
The leader of Wallonia's fascist party, Léon
Italian-held Eritrea from the Sudan.
Degrelle, gives a speech in the German-
: Hitler and Mussolini meet at Berchtesgaden; Hitler
occupied city of Liège announcing the support
agrees to provide aid in North Africa.
of the Rexist Party for German Nazism
• 21: Operation Compass: British and Australian
• 6: The Greeks advance towards Klisura Pass. troops of XIII Corps complete capture of Italian-
held Tobruk.
• 7: British and Commonwealth offensive in North
: There are reports that Romanian Fascist ("Iron
Africa nears Tobruk; the airport is taken.
Guards") are executing Jews in Bucharest.
• 10: Lend-Lease introduced into the U.S. Congress
: German–Soviet Border and Commercial Agree- • 23: HMS Illustrious, heavily damaged, leaves Malta
ment is signed. for repairs in Alexandria.
: German aircraft damage aircraft carrier HMS Il- : Charles Lindbergh testifies before the U.S.
lustrious, which is heading for Malta. German Luft- Congress and recommends that the United States ne-
waffe, it is now clear, has command of air over the gotiate a neutrality pact with Adolf Hitler
Mediterranean. The attack is also the opening of
Malta's agony over the next months. • 24: British forces in Kenya continue the East
: Greek forces in Albania take the strategically im- African counter-offensive, attacking Italian Soma-
portant Klissoura pass. liland

• 11: In London, 57 people are killed and 69 injured • 29: Death of the Greek dictator, Ioannis Metaxas.
when a German bomb lands outside the Bank of
England, demolishing the Underground station be- • 30: British forces in North Africa take Derna; 100
low and leaving a 120-foot crater. miles west of Tobruk.

• 12: Operation Compass: British and Australian • 31: Indian 4th Division flanked and then captured
troops of XIII Corps prepare for the assault on Agordat, Eritrea, Italian East Africa. 1,000 Italian
Italian-held Tobruk. troops and 43 field guns were captured.* [1]
84 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

3.4.2 February 1941 • 25: The British submarine“Upright”sinks the Ital-

ian cruiser“Armando Diaz”in one of the numerous
• 1: Admiral Husband Kimmel is appointed the Com- sea battles in the North African campaign.
mander of the US Navy in the Pacific. : Mogadishu, the capital of Italian Somaliland, is
captured by British forces during the East African
• 3: Lieutenant-General Erwin Rommel is appointed
Campaign.
head of “German Army troops in Africa.”This
unit is later to be officially designated as the "Afrika • 28: RAF planes bomb Asmara, Eritrea.
Korps.”
: Germany forcibly restores Pierre Laval to office in
Vichy. 3.4.3 March 1941
• 7: Operation Compass: After several days of des-
perate fighting, a flying column of XIII Corps called
Combe Force cuts off the retreating Italian 10th
Army during the Battle of Beda Fomm. The Ital-
ians are unable to break through the small blocking
force and the British accept the surrender of roughly
130,000 Italians in and to the south of Benghazi.
• 8: US House of Representatives passes the Lend-
Lease bill. The state of the Allies and Axis powers in March 1941.
• 9: Mussolini is informed that German reinforce-
ments are on the way to North Africa.
: British forces reach El Agheila, Cyrenaica.
: British battleships shell Genoa and British aircraft
attack Livorno.
: Churchill again pleads with the US: “give us the
tools.”
• 10: Malta's critical period: now through March, it is
under heavy daily attack.
• 11: Elements of the Afrika Korps start to arrive in
Tripoli, Tripolitania.
: British forces enter Italian Somaliland.
• 14: Rommel arrives in Tripoli.
: Afrika Korps starts to move eastward towards the
advance British positions at El Agheila. The British U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Lend-Lease bill to
in North Africa have been weakened by the transfer give aid to Britain and China (1941)
of some troops to Greece.
• 15: Deportation of Austrian Jews to ghettos in • 1: Hitler gives orders for the expansion of Auschwitz
Poland begins. prison camp, to be run by Commandant Rudolf
Höss.
• 19: The start of the“three nights Blitz”of Swansea,
South Wales. Over these three nights of intensive • 4: British commandos carry out attack on oil facili-
bombing, Swansea town centre is almost completely ties at Narvik in Norway.
obliterated. : British military force in Libya is thinned down
as some men are sent to assist the Greeks in their
• 20: German and British troops confront each other emerging battle with approaching German troops.
for the first time in North Africa̶at El Agheila in : Prince Regent Paul of Yugoslavia agrees to join
western Libya. the Axis pact.
• 21: German forces move through Bulgaria toward • 7: First British troops land in Greece, at Piraeus.
the Greek front.
• 8: Another bombing of London, notable because
• 24: German U-boat offensive in the Atlantic is now Buckingham Palace is hit.
increasingly successful.
: Admiral Darlan is appointed the head of the Vichy • 9: The Italian Spring Offensive in the Albanian front
government in France. begins.
3.4. 1941 TIMELINE 85

• 10: British and Italian troops meet in a brief conflict 3.4.4 April 1941
in Eritrea.
: Portsmouth suffers heavy casualties after another
night of heavy bombing by the Luftwaffe.
• 11: United States President Franklin Delano Roo-
sevelt signs the Lend Lease Act (now passed by the
full Congress) allowing Britain, China, and other al-
lied nations to purchase military equipment and to
defer payment until after the war.
• 12: German Panzer tanks arrive in North Africa
providing heavy armour for the first major German The state of the Allies and Axis powers in April 1941.
offensive.
• 13: The Luftwaffe strikes with a large force at Glas-
• 1: British retreat after the losses at El Agheila,
gow and the shipping industry along the River Clyde.
Libya. Rommel is surprised, then decides to con-
• 17: Huge convoy losses in mid-Atlantic this week. tinue his offensive.
: The United States of America converts its Corps : During this month the heavy bombing of British
Areas to Defense Commands, with the term Corps cities continues, and convoy losses continue heavy.
reassigned as an intermediate field command of a : In Iraq, pro-German Rashid Ali and other mem-
Field Army. bers of the "Golden Square" stage a military coup
d'état and overthrow the regime of the pro-British
• 19: Worst bombing of London so far this year, with
Regent 'Abd al-Ilah. Rashid Ali names himself
heavy damage from incendiary bombs; Plymouth
Chief of a “National Defence Government.”
and Bristol are bombed again.
• 20: The Italian Spring Offensive is called off, after • 2: After taking Agedabia, Rommel decides to take
heavy losses and virtually no progress. all of Libya and moves his troops toward Benghazi.
All of Cyrenaic (Libya) seems ready for the taking.
• 21: The Yugoslav cabinet resigns in protest against
Prince Paul's pact with the Nazis. Street demonstra- • 3: A pro-Axis government is installed in Iraq.
tion occur, expressive of a deep dislike for Germany. : Bristol, England, suffers another heavy air attack.
: British troops take Asmara, the capital of Eritrea,
• 24: Rommel attacks and reoccupies El Agheila,
from the Italian armies.
Libya in his first offensive. The British retreat and
: Rommel takes Benghazi, Libya; Tobruk will re-
within three weeks are driven back to Egypt.
main a threat for the next seven months.
• 25: Italian MTMs of the Decima MAS sink the
heavy cruiser HMS York (90), a large tanker (the • 4: Rommel is now about 200 miles east of El
Norwegian Pericles), another tanker and a cargo Agheila, heading for Tobruk and Egypt.
ship in Suda Bay, Crete. : An Atlantic convoy suffers almost 50% losses to
U-boat campaign.
• 27: Crown Prince Peter becomes Peter II of Yu-
goslavia and takes control of Yugoslavia after an • 6: Forces of Germany, Hungary, and Italy, mov-
army coup overthrows the pro-German government ing through Romania and Hungary, initiate the in-
of the Prince Regent. vasions of Yugoslavia and Greece.
: Japanese spy Takeo Yoshikawa arrives in : The Italian Army is driven out from Addis Ababa,
Honolulu, Hawaii and begins to study the United Ethiopia.
States fleet at Pearl Harbor. : The northern wing of Rommel's forces take Derna,
: Hitler orders his military leaders to plan for the on the Libyan coast. The southern wing moves to-
invasion of Yugoslavia. One result of this decision ward Mechili, and takes it on the 8th.
will be a critical time delay in the invasion of Soviet
Union. • 7: The Luftwaffe begins a two-day assault on Bel-
: British forces advancing from the Sudan win the grade, Yugoslavia; Hitler is infuriated by the Yu-
decisive Battle of Keren in Eritrea. goslav resistance.
: Battle of Cape Matapan: the British navy meets an
Italian fleet off southern Greece. The battle contin- • 8: The Germans take Salonika, Greece.
ues until the 29th.
• 10: Greenland is occupied by the United States.
• 31: The Afrika Korps continues the German of- With the approval of a “free Denmark”, the US
fensive in North Africa; Mersa Brega, north of El will build naval and air bases as counters to the U-
Agheila, is taken. boat war.
86 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

: While still being invaded, the Kingdom of Yu- closed; other Wren churches are heavily damaged
goslavia is split up by Germany and Italy. The or destroyed.
Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država
Hrvatska, NDH) is established under Ante Pavelić • 21: With their retreat cut off by the German ad-
and his Ustaša. vance, 223,000 Greek soldiers of the Greek army
: Germans encircle the port of Tobruk, Libya, open- in Albania surrender.
ing the siege; some of Rommel's forces move east to • 22: The British, both military and civilian, begin to
take Fort Capuzzo and Sollum, on the border with evacuate Greece.
Egypt.
: The destroyer USS Niblack attacks a German U- • 23: Greek government is evacuated to Crete, which
boat that had just sunk a Dutch freighter. The Churchill is determined to defend.
Niblack was picking up survivors of the freighter • 24: British and Australian forces evacuate from
when it detected the U-boat preparing to attack. The Greece to Crete and Egypt.
Niblack attacked with depth charges and drove off : Plymouth suffers the third night of heavy bombing
the U-boat. by the Luftwaffe.
• 11: Though still a“neutral”nation, the United States • 25: Rommel wins an important victory at Halfaya
begins sea patrols in the North Atlantic. Pass, close to the Egyptian border.
: Heavy Luftwaffe raids on Coventry and Birming- : Axis forces defeat commonwealth forces at
ham, England. Thermopylae after Australian general George Vasey
staunchly claims that they will not be beaten.
• 12: Belgrade, Yugoslavia, surrenders.
: The Germans defeat commonwealth forces at the • 26: Rommel attacks the Gazala defence line and
Battle of Vevi. crosses into Egypt; Tobruk continues to hold how-
ever.
• 13: Malta is bombed again; it continues to be a
thorn in the side of German supply movements in • 27: Athens is occupied by German troops. Greece
the Mediterranean. surrenders.
: Japan and the Soviet Union sign a neutrality pact. : Hurricane fighter planes are delivered as important
: In Iraq, a small contingent of British reinforce- reinforcements for besieged Malta.
ments are air-lifted to RAF Shaibah.
• 30: Rommel is ordered to cease attacks on Tobruk
• 14: Rommel attacks Tobruk, but is forced to turn after another failure.
back. Other attacks, also failures, occur on the 16th : In Iraq, Iraqi armed forces occupy the plateau to
and 30th. the south of the RAF Habbaniya air base and inform
: LSSAH captures the strategic Kleisoura Pass and the base commander that all flying should cease im-
begins cutting the line of retreat for the Greek army mediately.
in Albania

• 15: British destroyers intercept an Afrika Korps 3.4.5 May 1941

convoy and sink all five transports and the three cov-
ering Italian destroyers.

• 16: A heavy Luftwaffe raid on Belfast, Northern Ire-

land.
: Germans continue the invasion southward into Yu-
goslavia; they cut off the Greek army in Albania,
which had had notable success against the Italians in
January.

• 17: Yugoslavia surrenders. A government in exile is

formed in London. King Peter escapes to Greece.

• 18: Greek Prime Minister Alexandros Koryzis com-

mits suicide; the British plan the major evacuation
of Greece. German paratroopers land in Crete
: In Iraq, in accordance with the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty,
British forces from India start to land at Basra.
• 1: Seven nights of bombing of Liverpool by the
• 19: London suffers one of the heaviest air raids in Luftwaffe begins, resulting in widespread destruc-
the war; St. Paul's is mildly damaged but remains tion.
3.4. 1941 TIMELINE 87

• 2: British forces at RAF Habbaniya launch pre- issues an uprising call promising a struggle against
emptive air strikes against Iraqi forces besieging the occupiers and the restoration of the Yugoslavian
them and the Anglo-Iraqi War begins. Monarchy. At this point, Josip Broz Tito and the
Yugoslav Partisans are aligned with the Soviet Union
• 3: Belfast, Northern Ireland, experiences another which is still friendly with Germany.
heavy bombing by the Luftwaffe. : The bulk of the German "Flyer Command Iraq"
: British forces in Ethiopia begin the investment of (Fliegerführer Irak) arrives in Mosul to support the
Amba Alagi where Italian forces under the Duke of Iraqi government of Rashid Ali.
Aosta have taken up defensive positions.
• 14: The RAF is authorized to act against German
• 5: Five years from the day he was forced to flee,
aircraft in Syria and on Vichy French airfields.
Emperor Haile Selassie enters Addis Ababa, his
capital, in triumph. • 15: First Civilian Public Service camp opens for
conscientious objectors in the United States.
• 6: With much of the Iraqi air force destroyed and
facing regular bombardment themselves, the Iraqi • 16: Rommel defeats a counter-attack,“Brevity”, at
ground forces besieging RAF Habbaniya withdraw. Halfaya Pass. The two sides trade alternating control
: The Luftwaffe arranges to send a small force to of Fort Capuzzo and Halfaya Pass.
Iraq.
• 17: British forces in the Habbaniya area advance on
• 7: Between Habbaniya and Fallujah, two Iraqi Iraqi-held Fallujah and, in five days fighting, push
columns are caught in the open and attacked by the Iraqis out.
roughly forty British aircraft; the Iraqis suffer heavy
casualties. • 18: The Duke of Aosta, Viceroy of Italian East
Africa, surrenders his forces at Amba Alagi.
• 8: Heavy convoy losses in the Atlantic continue;
however, one U-boat (U-110) is captured by the • 20: German paratroopers land on Crete; the battle
British navy and another copy of the“Enigma”ma- for Crete will continue for seven days.
chine is discovered and saved. It will help to turn the : The German military mission to Iraq, Special Staff
fortunes in the Atlantic battle. F (Sonderstab F), is created to support of“The Arab
: Bombing of Nottingham by the Luftwaffe. Freedom Movement in the Middle East. Sonderstab
F is to include Fliegerführer Irak and other elements
• 9: A Japanese brokered peace treaty signed in Tokyo already in Iraq.
ends the French-Thai War.
• 21: The US merchantman SS Robin Moor is sunk by
• 10: Rudolf Hess is captured in Scotland after bail-
German submarine U-69. The incident startles the
ing out of his plane; his self-appointed mission was
nation, and President Roosevelt shortly announces
to make peace with the United Kingdom.
an “unlimited national emergency.”
: The United Kingdom's House of Commons is
: The Italian Viceroy in Ethiopia surrenders. Rem-
damaged by the Luftwaffe in an air raid. Other tar-
nants of Italian troops keep on fighting.
gets are Hull, Liverpool, Belfast, and the shipbuild-
ing area of the River Clyde in Scotland. This is close • 22: Iraqi forces unsuccessfully counter-attack the
to the end of the Blitz, as Germany shifts its focus British forces in Fallujah and are rebuffed.
toward Soviet Union and the East.
• 23: German dictator Adolf Hitler issues "Fuhrer Di-
The "Strike of the 100,000" begins in Liège rective No. 30" in support of “The Arab Freedom
in Belgium on the anniversary of the German Movement in the Middle East”, his “natural ally
invasion of 1940. It soon spreads across the against England.”
whole province until nearly 70,000 workers are • 24: British battlecruiser HMS Hood is sunk by a
on strike.* [2] powerful salvo from German battleship Bismarck in
the North Atlantic.
• 12: The RAF bombs several German cities, includ- : The Greek government leaves Crete for Cairo.
ing Hamburg, Emden, and Berlin.
: The Soviet Union recognizes Rashid Ali's “Na- • 26: In the North Atlantic, Royal Navy Fairey Sword-
tional Defence Government”in Iraq. fish aircraft from the carrier HMS Ark Royal fatally
cripple the Bismarck in torpedo attack.
• 13: Yugoslav Army Colonel Draža Mihailović sum-
mons up the "Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland" • 27: The German battleship Bismarck is sunk in the
which mostly consists of Serbs, but also includes North Atlantic by the Royal Navy, after evasive tac-
Slovenes, Bosnians, and Croats. Mihailović trecks tics, and a damaged steering system which forced it
from Bosnia into central Serbia, Ravna Gora, and into an endless series of circular movements.
88 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

: The British forces from the Habbaniya area begin • 14: All German and Italian assets in the United
an advance on Baghdad and, within four days, ap- States are frozen.
proach the city from the west and from the north. : 10,100 people from Estonia, 15,000 from Latvia
: Twelve Italian aircraft arrive at Mosul to join and 34,000 (or 35,000, starting a day earlier* [4])
Fliegerführer Irak. from Lithuania are deported to Siberia by the So-
viet Union.
• 28: British and Commonwealth forces begin to
evacuate Crete. • 15: British Operation Battleaxe attempts and fails to
: By this date, it is clear that operation “Brevity” relieve the Siege of Tobruk. The British are heavily
has failed. defeated at Halfaya Pass nicknamed“Hell-fire pass”
• 29: Members of the German military mission flee .
Iraq.
• 16: All German and Italian consulates in the United
• 30: Rashid Ali and his supporters flee Iraq. States are ordered closed and their staffs to leave the
country by July 10.
• 31: Heavy Luftwaffe bombing on neutral Ireland's
capital; numerous civilian casualties. • 22: Germany invades the Soviet Union with
: The Mayor of Baghdad surrenders the city to Operation Barbarossa, a three-pronged operation
British forces and ends the Anglo-Iraqi War. aimed at Leningrad, Moscow, and the southern
oil fields of the Caucasus, ending the Molotov–
Ribbentrop Pact. Romania invades south-western
3.4.6 June 1941 border areas of the Soviet Union in Europe on the
side of Germany.
• 1: Commonwealth forces complete the withdrawal
: British general in Libya/Egypt Wavell is replaced
from Crete.
by General Auchinleck.
: Rationing of clothes begins in the United King-
: June Uprising against the Soviet Union in
dom.
Lithuania.
• 2: Tuskegee Airmen begin with the formation of the
99th Fighter Squadron. • 23: In the late evening, Hitler first arrives at his
headquarters at Rastenburg, East Prussia, code-
• 4: Kaiser William II, former German Emperor, dies named "Wolf's Lair" (Wolfsschanze). Between this
in the Netherlands. date and November 20, 1944, Hitler will have spent
800 days at Wolf's Lair.
• 5: The Ecuadorian–Peruvian War conflict begins in : German troops massacre 42 at Ablinga
South America.

• 6: More British fighter planes are delivered to Malta; • 24: German forces enter Vilnius. Lithuanian militia
Luftwaffe attacks go on. men go on shooting spree, killing dozens of Jews
on the streets, with civilian spectators cheering them
• 8: Vichy French-controlled Syria and Lebanon are on. The Germans kidnap 60 Jewish“Hostages”and
invaded by Australian, British, Free French, and In- 30 Poles. Only 6 return.* [4]
dian forces.
• 26: Hungary and Slovakia declare war on the Soviet
• 9: Finland initiates mobilisation, preparations Union.
against possible attack of Soviet aggressor. : The Soviet Union bombs Helsinki. Finland pro-
: The British and Australians cross the Litani River, nounces a state of war between Finland and Soviet
beating back Vichy French forces. During this bat- Union. Continuation war is started.
tle, Moshe Dayan, leading an Australian unit, loses
his eye. He becomes famous when his story is pub- • 28: Italian-occupied Albania declares war on the So-
lished a day later.* [3] viet Union.
• 10: Assab, the last Italian-held port in East Africa, : Huge German encirclement of 300,000 Red Army
falls. troops near Minsk and Białystok.

• 13: The Australians continue to fight through the • 29: Finnish and German troops begin Operation
Vichy French defenses and advance towards Beirut, Arctic Fox against the Soviet Union
winning the Battle of Jezzine. : Nuremberg Laws imposed on Jews of Lithuania
: Soviets begin deporting Lithuanians to Siberia. and Vilnius in particular.* [4]
Deportations continue for five days and total 35,000
Lithuanians, among them 7000 Jews.* [4] • 31: Ecuadorian–Peruvian War ends.
3.4. 1941 TIMELINE 89

parts; especially important will be Croatia, with a

pro-Axis government.
: The German armies isolate Leningrad from the
rest of Soviet Union.
: Britain and the USSR sign a mutual defence agree-
ment, promising not to sign any form of separate
peace agreement with Germany.

• 9: Vitebsk (Belarus) is captured; this opens the

The state of the Allies and Axis powers in July 1941.
battle of Smolensk, an important communications
centre, considered by the German high command to
3.4.7 July 1941 be “the gateway to Moscow.”

• 10: Guderian's Panzers take Minsk; the Germans

• 1: General Auchinleck takes over from General advance farther into the Ukraine.
Wavell in North Africa. : Units of the Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia
: The British win the Battle of Palmyra against the begin to arrive. A legion from the Independent State
French in the middle east. of Croatia is part of the Italian corps.
: All American men over 21 are required to register
for the draft. • 12: The Vichy French surrender in Syria.
: German troops occupy Latvia's capital, Riga, on : Assistance Pact signed between the United King-
the way to Leningrad. dom and the USSR.
• 2: Ponary massacre killings begin, with the shoot- • 13: Montenegro starts an uprising against the Axis
ing of Soviet POWs captured during Operation Bar- Powers shortly after the Royalists in Serbia begin
barossa, which began two weeks earlier, and with theirs. Questionable Communist plans instigate par-
the deportation of hundreds of Jews from Vilnius allel uprising and civil war.
to Soviet dug fuel tank pits near the Ponariai sub-
urb of Vilnius, where they are shot or buried alive. • 15: The Red Army starts a counter-attack against
Reports by survivors are accepted as hallucinations. the Wehrmacht near Leningrad.
The mass deportations and shooting of Jews contin- : Argentia naval air base is set up in Newfoundland;
ued until 1943. it will prove an important transfer station for the Al-
: Hungarian troops take over Stanisławów and other lies for some years.
towns in what is now the Ukraine.* [5]
• 16: German Panzers under Guderian reach
• 3: Stalin announces a “scorched earth policy”. Smolensk, increasing the risk to Moscow.
: The United States of America elevates its Gen-
• 17: Luftwaffe air attacks on Malta continue.
eral Headquarters, United States Army in order to
command and plan for military operations within the • 19: The "V-sign", displayed most notably by
Zone of the Interior. Churchill, is unofficially adopted as the Allied sig-
: Italian General Pietro Gazzera surrenders the rem- nal, along with the motif of Beethoven's Fifth Sym-
nants of his forces in the Jimma area. phony.
: British troops employ brave and risky flanking tac-
tics to win the Battle of Deir ez-Zor. • 20: Heinrich Himmler visits Soviet POWs near
Minsk and Lublin and decides to build the concen-
• 4: Mass murder of Polish scientists and writers, tration camp near Lublin known as Majdanek con-
committed by German troops in captured Polish city centration camp.* [6]
of Lwów.
: Vilna Ghetto first Judenrat established.* [4] • 21: The Luftwaffe strikes heavily at Moscow.

• 5: British Government rules out possibility of nego- • 26: In response to the Japanese occupation of
tiated peace with Nazi Germany. French Indochina, US President Franklin D. Roo-
: British torpedo planes sink an Italian destroyer at sevelt orders the seizure of all Japanese assets in the
Tobruk; on the 20th, two more are sunk. United States.
: German troops reach the Dnieper River. : Germans order a Judenrat established in
Stanisławów, Galicia. It is headed by Israel
• 7: British and Canadian troops in Iceland are re- Seibald.* [5]
placed by Americans.
• 28: Japanese troops occupy southern French In-
• 8: Yugoslavia, a country formed by the Versailles dochina. The Vichy French colonial government is
treaty, is dissolved by the Axis into its component allowed by the Japanese to continue to administer
90 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

Vietnam. French repression continues. The Vichy • 18: Adolf Hitler orders a temporary halt to Nazi
French also agree to the occupation by the Japanese Germany's systematic euthanasia of mentally ill and
of bases in Indochina. handicapped due to protests. However, graduates
: The Germans push against Smolensk, and in the of the Action T4 operation were then transferred to
meantime solidify their presence in the Baltic states; concentration camps, where they continued in their
native Jewish populations of the Baltic states are be- trade.
ing exterminated.
• 20: German 250th Infantry Division, nicknamed
• 31: Under instructions from Adolf Hitler, Nazi of- “Blue Division”and consisted of Spanish volunteers,
ficial Hermann Göring, orders SS general Reinhard was formed and began to move to Poland.* [1]
Heydrich to“submit to me as soon as possible a gen-
• 22: German forces close in on Leningrad; the citi-
eral plan of the administrative material and financial
zens continue improvising fortifications.
measures necessary for carrying out the desired final
solution of the Jewish question.” • 25: British and Soviet troops invade Iran to save
: The Japanese naval ministry accuses the United the Abadan oilfields and the important railways and
States of intruding into their territorial waters at routes to Soviet Union for the supply of war mate-
Sukumo Bay, and then fleeing. No evidence is of- rial.
fered to prove this allegation.
: Lewis B. Hershey succeeds Clarence Dykstra as • 27: German U-boat U-570, being forced to surface
Director of the Selective Service System in the off Iceland is captured by the British Royal Navy and
United States. is later put into combat service as HMS Graph.
• 28: German forces with the help of Estonian volun-
teers take Tallinn from Soviets.
3.4.8 August 1941
• 30: The Shetland bus, a clandestine special oper-
• 1: The US announces an oil embargo against “ag- ations group that made a permanent link between
gressors.” Shetland, Scotland and German-occupied Norway,
: Japanese occupy Saigon, Vietnam. begins operations.
: The Germans declare Galicia as the fifth district of
the Generalgouvernement.* [5] • 31: The first signs appear that a Leningrad “siege”
is beginning.
• 2: All civilian radios in Norway confiscated by the : "The Great Provokation" in Vilnius – German
German occupation.* [1] forces stage an attack on their soldiers by Jews, lead-
: SS Commander Hans Krueger (alternative ing to a 'retaliation' mass arrest of the residents of
spelling, Hans Krüger) orders the registration of old Jewish quarter, to be murdered at Ponary, three
hundreds of Jewish and Polish intelligentsia in days later.* [4]
Stanisławów, who are subsequently tortured and
murdered. This is the first implementation of the
“one bullet one Jew”method in Galicia.* [5] 3.4.9 September 1941
• 5: German armies trap Red Army forces in • 1: With the assistance of Finnish armies in the
Smolensk pocket and take 300,000 soldiers; Orel is North, Leningrad is now completely cut off.
taken. : A pro-German Government of National Salvation
formed in the Territory of the Military Commander
• 6: Germans take Smolensk.
in Serbia under Milan Nedić.
: American and British governments warn Japan not
: All Jews under German rule must wear the yellow
to invade Thailand.
star of David badge with Jew clearly written in it,
• 9: Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill are forbidden to live with or marry non-Jews, and
meet at NS Argentia, Newfoundland. The Atlantic are forbidden to leave their towns without written
Charter is created, signed, and released to the world consent, in accordance with the Nuremberg Laws
press. of 1935. The decree, signed by Heydrich, is to take
effect on September 19.* [7]
• 11: Malta is relieved by a convoy.
: Chungking, the nominal capital of Nationalist • 3: Murder of all 3,700 residents of the old Jew-
China located far up the Yangtze River, suffers sev- ish quarter in Vilnius begins at the Ponary death
eral days of heavy bombing. site along with 10 members of the Judenrat. First
written testimony of occurrences at Ponary by sur-
• 12: Hitler, against the advice of his generals, shifts vivor* [4]
some forces from the Moscow front to Leningrad : Vilna Ghetto Jews required to hand over any gold
and the Crimean offensives. or silver.* [4]
3.4. 1941 TIMELINE 91

• 4: The USS Greer becomes the first United States 3.4.10 October 1941
warship fired upon by a German U-boat in the war,
even though the United States is a neutral power. • 1: Majdanek concentration camp (German:
Tension heightens between the two nations as a re- Konzentrationslager Lublin) and later to become
sult. The U.S. is now committed to convoy duties extermination camp is opened.* [6]
between the Western Hemisphere and Europe. : Vilna Ghetto Yom Kippur Aktions (German
annihilation operations) begin. In four separate
• 5: Germany occupies Estonia. incidents 3,900 Jews are kidnapped, shot and killed
at the Ponary massacre death site, continued with
• 6: 6,000 Jews shot at Ponary, a day after the order
an additional 2,000 Jews kidnapped and killed
to form the Vilna Ghetto was issued.
there, in the next two days.* [4]
• 7: Berlin is heavily hit by RAF bombers.
• 2: Operation Typhoon – German“Central”forces
• 8: Siege of Leningrad begins – a reasonable date to begin an all-out offensive against Moscow. Leading
start measuring“the 900 days.”German forces be- the defense of the capital is General Georgi Zhukov,
gin a siege against the Soviet Union's second-largest already a Hero of Soviet Union for his command in
city, Leningrad; Stalin orders the Volga Deutsche the conflict against the Japanese in the Russian Far
deported to Siberia. East and at Leningrad.

• 10: German armies now have Kiev completely sur- • 3: Mahatma Gandhi urges his followers to begin a
rounded. passive resistance against British rule in India.

• 11: Franklin D. Roosevelt orders the United States • 7: Heavy RAF night bombings of Berlin, the Ruhr,
Navy to shoot on sight if any ship or convoy is threat- and Cologne, but with heavy losses.
ened.
• 8: In their invasion of the southern Soviet Union,
• 15: “Self-government”of Estonia, headed by Germany reaches the Sea of Azov with the capture
Hjalmar Mäe, is appointed by German military ad- of Mariupol. However, there are signs that the in-
ministration. vasion is beginning to bog down as rainy weather
:“Moving Aktion”in Vilna Ghetto. Of 3,500 Jews creates muddy roads for both tanks and men.
“moved”between ghetto sections, on 550 arrive.
The remaining 2,950 Jews are shot at the Ponary • 10: German armies encircle about 660,000 Red
massacre death site. Army troops near Vyasma (east of Smolensk); some
make a glowing prediction of the end of the war.
• 16: Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran is forced to resign in
favour of his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran • 12: HMS Ark Royal delivers a squadron of Hurri-
under pressure from the United Kingdom and the cane fighter planes to Malta.
Soviet Union. : Bloody Sunday massacre at Stanisławów, 8,000–
12,000 Jews were rounded up and shot into pits by
• 19: German capture of Kiev is now formal. The SIPO (Ukrainian police) together with German uni-
Red Army forces have suffered many casualties in formed SS men. Dr. Tenenbaum of the Judenrat
defending this chief city in the Soviet Ukraine. heroically refuses the offer of exemption and is shot
along with the others.* [5]
• 26: The U.S. Naval Command orders an all-out war
on Axis shipping in American waters. • 13: Germans attempt another drive toward Moscow
as the once muddy ground hardens.
• 27: The first "Liberty Ship", the SS Patrick Henry is
launched. Liberty Ships will prove to be major parts • 14: Temperatures fall further on the Moscow front;
of the Allied supply system. heavy snows follow and immobilize German tanks.
• 27: The National Liberation Front (EAM) is • 15: The Germans drive on Moscow.
founded in Greece.
• 16: Soviet Union government begins move eastward
• 28: German SS troops kill over 30,000 Jews at Babi to Samara, a city on the Volga, but Joseph Stalin re-
Yar on the outskirts of Kiev, Soviet Ukraine, in re- mains in Moscow. The citizens of Moscow franti-
sponse to sabotage efforts which the Germans at- cally build tank traps and other fortifications for the
tributed to local Jews. coming siege.
: The Drama Uprising against the Bulgarian : Vilna Ghetto Aktion. 3,000 Jews killed.* [4]
occupation in northern Greece begins. It is swiftly
put down, with about 3,000 people executed as • 17: The destroyer USS Kearney is torpedoed and
reprisals. damaged by U-568 near Iceland, killing eleven
92 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

sailors. They are the first American military casu- • 30: Franklin Delano Roosevelt approves US$1 bil-
alties of the war. lion in Lend-Lease aid to the Soviet Union.
: The government of Japanese prime minister Prince
Fumimaro Konoye collapses, leaving little hope for • 31: The destroyer USS Reuben James is torpedoed
peace in the Pacific. by Erich Topp's U-552 near Iceland, killing more
than 100 United States Navy sailors. It is the first
• 18: Red Army troop reinforcements arrive in loss of an American “neutral warship.”
Moscow from Siberia; Stalin is assured that the
Japanese will not attack the USSR from the East.
: General Hideki Tōjō becomes the 40th Prime Min- 3.4.11 November 1941
ister of Japan.
• 1: President Franklin D. Roosevelt announces that
• 19: An official “state of siege”is announced in the U.S. Coast Guard will now be under the direc-
Moscow; the city is placed under martial law. tion of the U.S. Navy, a transition of authority usu-
ally reserved only for wartime.
• 19: German occupied Luxembourg declared
"Judenrein" (“Cleansed of Jews”) • 2: Political conflict in Yugoslavia as leftists under
Tito (Josip Broz) are in competition with the more
• 20: Lt. Col. Fritz Hotz, the German commander in conservative Serbs under Draža Mihailović.
Nantes, is killed by Resistance; 50 hostages are shot
in reprisal. The incident will become a model for • 3: Germans take Kursk.
future occupation policies. : Vilna Ghetto Gelbschein III Aktion. 1,200 Jews
killed.* [4]
• 21: New Zealand troops land in Egypt and take over
Fort Capuzzo. • 6: Soviet leader Joseph Stalin addresses the Soviet
: Negotiations in Washington between the US and Union for only the second time during his three-
Japan seem headed toward failure. decade rule (the first time was earlier that year on
July 2). He states that even though 350,000 troops
• 22: Odessa massacre begins and continues for two were killed in German attacks so far, that the Ger-
days. 25,000 to 34,000 Jews are lead in a long pro- mans have lost 4.5 million soldiers (a gross exagger-
cession and are shot and killed in an antitank ditch, ation) and that Soviet victory was near.
or burnt alive after crowded into four buildings.
: The massacre began after, that day, a delayed • 7: Heavy RAF night bombings of Berlin, the Ruhr,
bomb planted by the Soviets kills 67 people at the and Cologne, but with heavy losses.
Romanian headquarters, including the Romanian • 9: Force K the light cruisers HMS Penelope and
commander General Glogojeanu. HMS Aurora and destroyers HMS Lively and HMS
: 35,000 Jews are expelled to the Slobodka Ghetto Lance sank 7 merchant ships, a tanker, and 1
and are left in freezing conditions for 10 days. Many destroyer during the Battle of the Duisburg Convoy.
perish in the cold.
• 12: Battle of Moscow – Temperatures around
• 24: In Ukraine, the important mining and industrial Moscow drop to minus 12 °C and the Soviet Union
centre of Kharkov falls to the German Army Group launches ski troops for the first time against the
South forces. freezing German forces near the city.
: Vilna Ghetto Gelbschein I Aktion. 5,500 Jews in- : The HMS Ark Royal delivers a squadron of Hur-
cluding 140 old or paralyzed people killed.* [4] ricane fighter planes to Malta.
• 27: German Army Group South forces reach • 13: Germans start a new offensive against Moscow
Sevastopol in the Crimea, but the tanks of the as the muddy ground freezes again.
“Northern”forces are slowed or stopped entirely by : The aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal is torpedoed
mud. by the German submarine U-81 and sinks the fol-
lowing day.
• 28: Bolekhiv first aktion massacre – 1,000 of the
leading Jews rounded up by list, tortured, and on the • 15: The Germans drive on Moscow.
following day 800 of the surviving Jews, were shot
or buried alive at a nearby forest. The re-discovered • 17: Joseph Grew, the United States ambassador
atrocities and testimony in 1996 lead to Patrick Des- to Japan, cables the State Department that Japan
bois research on the German method of “One Bul- had plans to launch an attack against Pearl Harbor,
let, One Jew”extermination in 1941 and 1942. Hawaii (his cable was ignored).
: Ernst Udet, head of the Luftwaffe's Production and
• 29: Vilna Ghetto II liquidated. 2,500 Jews Development, commits suicide over his perceived
killed.* [4] inability to properly perform his mission.
3.4. 1941 TIMELINE 93

• 18: Operation Crusader: British Commonwealth

and other Allied troops cross into Libya and at least
temporarily relieve the Siege of Tobruk.
• 19: Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney and the
German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran sink each other
off the coast of Western Australia. All 648 crewmen
are lost on HMAS Sydney.
• 22: Rostov-on-Don, an important hub on the south-
ern front, is taken by the Germans.
: Britain issues an ultimatum to Finland to end war
with the Soviet Union or face war with the Allies.
: Rommel starts a counteroffensive, retaking Sidi
Rezegh (south of Tobruk) which the Allies had
taken a few days earlier. British tank losses are
USS Arizona burned for two days after being hit by a Japanese
heavy.
bomb. Parts of the ship were salvaged, but the wreck remains at
• 23: Rommel's attack continues around Sidi Rezegh; the bottom of Pearl Harbor to this day and is a major memorial.
Allied losses continue to rise.
: the United States reaches an agreement with the
Dutch government in exile whereby the Americans
occupy Suriname to protect the bauxite mines there.
• 24: The United States grants Lend-Lease to the Free
French.
: Rommel begins a surprising 15-mile foray into
Egypt; he meets no opposition.
• 25: U-331 sinks the British battleship HMS Barham
while covering Mediterranean convoys.
• 26: A Japanese attack fleet of 33 warships and aux-
iliary craft, including six aircraft carriers, sails from
northern Japan for the Hawaiian Islands.
: The Hull note ultimatum is delivered to Japan by FDR delivers his Infamy Speech to Congress.
the United States.
: After his brief dash into Egypt, Rommel retreats
to Bardia for refuelling; it is during this brief with- • 1: Malta marks its 1,000th bombing raid.
: Fiorello H. La Guardia publishes Administrative
drawal that Tobruk is temporarily relieved when the
8th Army meets with the besieged. Order 9 creating the Civil Air Patrol for U.S Coastal
Patrol and naming its national commander Major
• 28: Battle of Moscow – German Panzers are on General John F. Curry.
the outskirts of Moscow, near the Moscow-Volga : Approximately 20,000 Stanislawow Jews ordered
Canal. into the Ghetto area, and non-Jews ordered out.* [5]
: The last Italian armed forces in East Africa surren- : SS officer Karl Jaeger reports“Lithuania clean of
der at Gondar. Jews”with some exceptions.* [4]

• 2: Prime Minister Tojo rejects“peace feelers”from

3.4.12 December 1941 the US.
: A German combat engineer patrol reaches the
town of Khimki while scouting for a hole in the Rus-
sian defense perimeter around Moscow. It is the
closest advance the Germans make to the Russian
capital.

• 3: Conscription in the United Kingdom now in-

cludes all men between 18 and 50. Women will not
be neglected since they will serve in fire brigades and
in women's auxiliary groups.
The state of the Allies and Axis powers in December 1941.
• 3: General strike begins among native mine-workers
94 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

in the Belgian Congo • 12: Japanese landings on the southern Philippine Is-
lands̶Samar, Jolo, Mindanao.
• 3: Vilna Ghetto 'Criminal Aktion' begins, continued : The United States and the United Kingdom declare
the next day. 157 Jews are killed at Ponary* [4] war on Romania and Bulgaria after they had de-
clared war on both the United States and the United
• 4: The temperature on the Moscow front falls to −31
Kingdom; India declares war on Japan.
°F (−37 °C).* [8] German attacks are failing.
: US seizes French ship Normandie.
• 4: Japanese naval and army forces continue to move • 13: Hungary declares war on the United States
toward Pearl Harbor and South-east Asia. and the United Kingdom, the United States and the
United Kingdom reciprocate and declare war on
• 5: Germans call off the attack on Moscow, now
Hungary.
11 miles away; the USSR counter-attacks during a
: Japanese under General Yamashita continue their
heavy blizzard.
push into Malaya. Under General Homma the
• 6: The United Kingdom declares war on Finland. Japanese forces are firmly established in the north-
: Vilna Ghetto Gestapo Workers Aktion – 800 Jews ern Philippines. Hong Kong is threatened.
and 10 Poles shot at the Ponary massacre death site.
• 14: The British cruiser HMS Galatea is sunk by U-
Temperatures are minus 23 degrees Celsius.* [4]
557 off Alexandria, beginning a series of naval de-
• 7: (December 8, Asian time zones) Japan launches feats for the Allies.
an attack on Pearl Harbor, declares war on the • 15: Italian "human torpedoes" sink two British
United States and the United Kingdom and invades battleships, the HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS
Thailand and British Malaya and launches aerial at- Valiant in Alexandria harbour.
tacks against Guam, Hong Kong, the Philippines, : Common Wealth troops push Rommel back at the
Shanghai, Singapore and Wake Island. Canada de- Gazala line.
clares war on Japan. Australia declares war on : Vilna Ghetto 'Gestapo block' Aktion. 300 Jews
Japan. shot at the Ponary massacre site.
: German “Night and Fog decree”dictating the
elimination of anti-Nazis in Western Europe. • 16: Rommel orders a withdrawal all the way to El
Agheila, where he had begun in March. He awaits
• 8: The United States, the United Kingdom, the reinforcements of men and tanks.
Netherlands and New Zealand declare war on Japan. : Japan invades Borneo.
: Japanese forces take the Gilbert Islands (which : The German offensive around Moscow is now at a
include Tarawa). Clark Field in the Philippines is complete halt.
bombed, and many American aircraft are destroyed
on the ground. • 17: Battle of Sevastopol begins.
: Japanese troops attack Thailand in the Battle of
• 18: Japanese troops land on Hong Kong Island.
Prachuab Khirikhan
• 19: Hitler becomes Supreme Commander-in-Chief
• 9: China officially declares war on Japan, although of the German Army
a de facto state of war has existed between the two : HMS Neptune, leading Force K, strikes a minefield
countries since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of and sinks with one survivor and a loss of 766 crew.
July 7, 1937. China also declares war on Germany
and Italy. Australia officially declares war on Japan. • 20: The battle for Wake Island continues with sev-
eral Japanese ships sunk or damaged.
• 9: Striking miners of the Union Minière at : Stanisławów Ghetto officially closed from the out-
Elizabethville in the Belgian Congo are fired on by side and sealed with walls.* [5]
Belgian colonial forces during negotiations, killing : Vilna Ghetto 400 Jews killed by Lithuanian mili-
an estimated 70 people. tias inside the ghetto.
• 10: British battlecruiser HMS Repulse and battle- • 21: The suffering of besieged Leningrad continues;
ship HMS Prince of Wales are sunk in a Japanese it is estimated that about 3,000 are dying each day
air attack in the South China Sea. of starvation and various diseases.
: The inmates at Bogdanovka concentration camp
• 11: Germany and Italy declare war on the United are massacred to quell an outbreak of Typhus.
States. The United States reciprocates and declares Roughly 40,000 die.
war on Germany and Italy.
: US forces repel a Japanese landing attempt at • 22: The Japanese land at Lingayan Gulf, on the
Wake Island. northern part of Luzon in the Philippines.
: Japanese invade Burma. : Start of the Arcadia Conference in Washington,
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 95

the first official meeting of British and American po- 3.4.15 External links
litical and military leaders.
• Timeline of World War II
• 23: A second Japanese landing attempt on Wake Is-
land is successful, and the American garrison sur- • Documents of World War II
renders after hours of fighting. • World War II Timeline
: General MacArthur declares Manila an “Open
City.”
: Japanese forces land on Sarawak (Borneo).
3.5 1942 timeline
• 24: In the Philippines, American forces retreat into
Bataan Peninsula. This is a timeline of events that stretched over the period
: Japanese bomb Rangoon. of World War II from 1942.
: All Jewish Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe are
required to gather all fur coats or other furs from
the Jews.* [9] 3.5.1 January 1942

• 25: Hong Kong surrenders to Japan. 1: Twenty-six Allied countries signed the
: Allied forces retake Benghazi. Declaration by United Nations during the
: Red Army and Navy amphibious forces land at Arcadia Conference.* [1]
Kerch, in the Crimea; their occupation will last 2: Manila is captured by Japanese forces. They
through April. also take Cavite naval base, and the Ameri-
can and Filipino troops continue the retreat into
• 27: British and Norwegian Commandos raid the Bataan.* [1]
Norwegian port of Vågsøy, causing Hitler to rein- 5: The beginning of a major Red Army offen-
force the garrison and defences. sive under General Zhukov.
• 28: Japanese paratroopers land on Sumatra. 6: The British advance continues to El Agheila,
on the western edge of Libya.
In his State of the Union speech,
3.4.13 See also President Roosevelt promises more
aid to Britain, including planes and
• Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War troops.
II
7: The Soviet Winter counter-offensive comes
to a halt, after having pushed the exhausted and
3.4.14 Notes and references freezing German Army back 62–155 mi from
Moscow. 'Operation Barbarossa' had failed.
[1] “1941 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09. Siege of the Bataan Peninsula be-
gins.
[2] Gotovitch, José; Aron, Paul, eds. (2008). Dictionnaire de
la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique. Brussels: André Heavy air attacks on Malta; it is
Versaille éd. p. 372. ISBN 978-2-87495-001-8. estimated that the bomb tonnage
dropped on the island is twice that
[3] How Dayan lost his eye (Hebrew, Artificial Eye website) dropped on London.

[4] Vilna Ghetto Chronology 8: Japanese troops penetrated the outer lines of
defense at Kuala Lumpur, Malaya.* [1]
[5] “Stanislwow”(Washington Holocaust Memorial Museum 9: Japanese advances in Borneo meet with little
website) opposition.
[6] Majdanek camp 10: Japan declares war on the Netherlands.* [1]
11: Japanese troops capture Kuala Lumpur,
[7] Reinhard Heydrich decree (German) Malaya.
[8] “World War 2 Timelines 1939-1945 - Eastern Europe Japan invades the Dutch East In-
1941 - Worldwar-2.net”. Worldwar-2.net. Retrieved dies.
2011-12-06.
13: The Red Army takes Kirov and Medya, as
[9] Adam Cherniakov's diary its counter-offensive continues.
96 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

The German U-boat offensive 3.5.2 February 1942

comes closer to the US shores
starting the Second Happy Time. 1: Vidkun Quisling becomes the Nazi-aligned
Minister-President of Norway
15: German authorities begin to deport Jews
from the Lodz ghettos to the Chelmno Concen- Rommel's forces reach El Gazala,
tration Camp.* [1] Libya, near the border with Egypt;
19: Japanese forces take large numbers of during a “Winter lull”he will re-
British troops prisoner, north of Singapore. main there.

20: Nazis at the Wannsee conference in Berlin 2: General Joseph (“Vinegar Joe”) Stilwell
decide that the "final solution to the Jewish is named Chief of Staff to Chiang Kai-Shek
problem" is relocation, and later extermina- and Commander-in-Chief of the Allied forces
tion. in China.

Japanese bomb Singapore as their 3: Japanese air power conducts airstrikes

troops approach the city. against Java, especially the naval base at
Surabaya.
21: Rommel's Afrika Korps begins a surprise
counter-offensive at El Agheila; his troops, Port Moresby, New Guinea is
with new reinforcements and tanks, capture bombed by the Japanese, increas-
Agedabia, then push north to Beda Fomm. ing the threat to Australia posed by
: At the Vilna Ghetto the Fareynikte Partizaner Japan.
Organizatsye a Jewish partisan organisation is 7: Americans continue their defence of Bataan
established, including Aba Kovner against General Homma's troops.
23: The Battle of Rabaul, on New Britain be- 9: British troops are now in full retreat into Sin-
gins. gapore for a final defence.
24: American troops land in Samoa, as part of
a strategy to stop the Japanese advance in the Top United States military leaders
Pacific. hold their first formal meeting to
discuss American military strategy
25: Thailand declares war on the United States in the war.
and United Kingdom
10: The cruise liner SS Normandie catches fire
Japanese troops invade the and capsizes in New York harbour. Although
Solomon Islands. the cause is probably a welder's torch, various
26: The first American forces arrive in Europe conspiracies are imagined in the media.
landing in Northern Ireland. 11: The "Channel Dash" - The German
27: The British withdraw all troops back into battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, with
Singapore. the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen, rush out of
Brest through the English Channel to northern
28: Brazil breaks off relations with the Axis ports, including Wilhelmshaven, Germany; the
powers. British naval units fail to sink any of them.
29: Rommel's Afrika Korps recaptures Beng-
13: The battle for Bataan continues.
hazi, Libya in his drive east. For the next few
months, the two sides will rest and rearm. 15: Singapore surrenders to Japanese forces;
this is arguably the most devastating loss in
30: Hitler speaks at the Berlin Sportpalast and
British military history.
threatens the Jews of the world with annihila-
tion; he also blames the failure of the offensive 16: Being discussed in high American gov-
in Soviet Union on the weather. ernment circles are plans for the internment
of Japanese-Americans living generally in the
31: The Japanese take the port of Moulamein,
western US.
Burma; they now threaten Rangoon as well as
Singapore. The Japanese commit the Banka Is-
land Massacre in which they open
On the Eastern front, the Germans
fire on Australian military nurses,
are in retreat at several points.
killing 21.
The last organised Allied forces
leave Malaya, ending the 54-day 17: Orders are given for Rangoon to be evacu-
battle. ated as Japanese forces approach.
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 97

19: Japanese aircraft attack Darwin, in Aus- 6: Malta receives more fighters for its on-going
tralia's Northern Territory. defence.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt 8: The Japanese land at Lae and Salamaua, on
signs Executive Order 9066 allow- Huon Bay, New Guinea, beginning their move
ing the United States military to toward Port Moresby, New Guinea, and then
define areas as exclusionary zones. Australia.
These zones affect the Japanese on 9: Japanese troops entered Rangoon, Burma,
the West Coast, and Germans and which was abandoned by the British two days
Italians primarily on the East Coast. earlier.* [1] It appears that the Japanese are in
A military conscription law is control of Java, Burma, and New Guinea.
passed in Canada.
The Secretary of War reorganizes
20: Japanese troops cross the important the General Headquarters (GHQ),
Salween River in Burma. United States Army into three ma-
jor commands - Army Ground
Japanese invade Bali and Timor by Forces, Army Air Forces, and
a combined use of paratroops and Services of Supply, the later of
amphibious troops. which is later redesignated Army
21: The American Air Corps is now firmly es- Service Forces. At the same time,
tablished at bases in the UK. the four Defense commands and all
Theaters Of Operations (TOPNS)
22: President Franklin Delano Roosevelt or-
are subordinated to the War De-
ders General Douglas MacArthur to evacuate
partment General Staff.
the Philippines as American defence of the na-
tion collapses. 11: The Japanese land on Mindanao, the south-
25: The internment of Japanese-American cit- ernmost island in the Philippines.
izens in the Western United States begins as 12: American troops begin to land in Nouméa,
fears of invasion increase. New Caledonia; it will become an impor-
tant staging base for the eventual invasion of
Princess Elizabeth registers for war
Guadalcanal.
service
13: RAF launches an air raid against Essen,
26: Vivian Bullwinkel, the only survivor of the Germany.
Banka Island Massacre, is captured and impris-
14: Japanese land troops in the Solomon Is-
oned by the Japanese.
lands, underscoring Australia's dangerous situ-
27: Battle of the Java Sea - Under a Dutch Rear ation, especially if, as it is soon made clear, an
Admiral Karl Doorman, the combined forces airfield is built on Guadalcanal.
lose 2 Light Cruisers and 3 Destroyers.
The Japanese are now threaten-
The USS Langley is attacked by 9 ing American forces around Manila
Japanese Betty bombers in the Java Bay; the retreat to Corregidor be-
Sea, damaged and later scuttled to gins.
prevent capture.
17: U.S. General Douglas MacArthur arrives
28: Japanese land forces invade Java. in Australia, after leaving his headquarters in
the Philippines.
3.5.3 March 1942 The United Kingdom institutes ra-
tioning of electricity, coal, and gas;
1: A Red Army offensive in the Crimea begins; the clothing ration is decreased as
in the north, the siege of Leningrad continues. well.
3: Japanese aircraft make a surprising raid on
20: Operation Outward begins, a program to
the airfield and harbour at Broome, Western
attack Germany by means of free-flying bal-
Australia.
loons.
5: The Japanese capture Batavia, the capital of
the Dutch East Indies.* [1] 22: A fractured convoy reaches Malta, after
heavy losses to the Luftwaffe and an Italian sea
New conscription laws in the force. Continued heavy bombing attacks on
United Kingdom include women the island with slight opposition from overtaxed
and men up to the age of 45. RAF air forces.
98 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

25: RAF sends bomber raids against targets in 3: Japanese forces begin an all-out assault on
France and Germany. United States and Filipino troops in Bataan.
26: Jews in Berlin must now clearly identify Sustained Japanese air attacks on
their houses. Mandalay in Burma.
28: The RAF sends a raid against Lübeck, de- 4: Germans plan“Baedeker raids”on touristy
stroying over 30% of the city, and 80% of the or historic British sites, in revenge for the
medieval centre. Hitler is outraged. Lübeck bombing.
British commandos launch 5: On Bataan, the Japanese overwhelm Mt.
Operation Chariot, a raid on Samat, a strong point on Allied defensive line.
the port at Saint Nazaire, France. The Japanese Navy attacks
HMS Campbeltown, filled with Colombo in Ceylon. Royal Navy
explosives on a time-delay fuse, heavy cruisers HMS Cornwall
rams the dock gates and com- and HMS Dorsetshire are sunk
mandos destroy other parts of the southwest of the island.
naval service area. The port is
Adolf Hitler issues Directive No.
completely destroyed and does not
41, outlining his plans for the com-
resume service till 1947; however,
ing summer offensive in Russia.
around two-thirds of the raiding
The main offensive is directed to
forces are lost.
seize the Russian oil fields in the
Caucasus; a secondary thrust is to
capture Stalingrad and protect the
3.5.4 April 1942 flank of the main advance.
1: The Eastern Sea Frontier, desperately short 6: Japanese naval forces put troops ashore
on suitable escort vessels after the Destroyers on Manus Island in the Bismarck Archipelago
for Bases Agreement, institutes an interim ar- (some sources give a date of 8 April for these
rangement known as the “Bucket Brigaid,” landings).
wherein vessels outside of protected harbors 8: Heavy RAF bombing of Hamburg.
are placed in anchorages protected by netting
after dark, and move only under whatever es- American forces are strained for
cort is available during the day. As word of one last offensive on Bataan.
this and similar measures reaches Dönitz, he With the withdrawal of the HMS
does not wait to test their effectiveness, but in- Penelope from Malta, Force K in
stead shifts his U-boats to the area controlled Malta comes to a close.
by the Gulf Sea Frontier, where American
9: The Japanese Navy launches an air raid on
anti-submarine measures are not as effective.
Trincomalee in Ceylon; Royal Navy aircraft
As a result, in May more ships will be sunk
carrier HMS Hermes and Royal Australian
in the Gulf, many of them off the Passes of
Navy destroyer HMAS Vampire are sunk off
the Mississippi, than off of the entire Eastern
the country's east coast.
Seaboard.
Bataan falls to the Japanese. The
The Pacific War Council meets for "Bataan Death March" begins, as
the first time in Washington. In- the captives are taken off to deten-
tended to allow the smaller powers tion camps in the north. Corregi-
involved in fighting the Japanese to dor, in the middle of Manila Bay,
have some input into US decisions, remains a final point of resistance.
its purpose is soon outstripped by
events, notably the collapse of the 10: Japanese land on Cebu Island, a large mid-
ABDA Command. dle island of the Philippines.
12: Japanese forces capture Migyaungye in
2: Over 24,000 sick and starving troops Burma.
(American and Filipino) are now trapped on
the Bataan Peninsula. 13: Anton Schmid an Austrian soldier of the
Wehrmacht is put to death, after witnessing the
Japanese make landings on New Ponary Massacre and saving Jews.
Guinea, most importantly at 14: Winston Churchill, concerned that the sit-
Hollandia. uation in Malta will cause the Axis forces in
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 99

North Africa to be better supplied than British 23: Beginning of so-called Baedeker Raids by
forces, sends a telegram to Sir Stafford Cripps the Luftwaffe on English provincial towns like
in Cairo, asking him to pressure General Exeter, Bath, Norwich, and York; attacks con-
Auchinleck to take offensive action before this tinue sporadically until June 6.
can occur. 24: Heavy bombing of Rostock, Germany by
RAF.
USS Roper becomes the first Amer-
ican ship to sink a U-boat. 26: Hitler assumes a kind of supreme authority
over Germany.
15: Malta is awarded the George Cross by King 27: Rostock is bombed for fourth night in a
George VI for “heroism and devotion”. row.
Soldiers of the I Burma Corps be- A national plebiscite is held
gin to destroy the infrastructure of in Canada on the issue of
the Yenangyaung oil fields to pre- conscription. French Canadi-
vent the advancing Japanese from ans are main, though not the only,
capturing them intact. objectors to the draft.

17: French General Henri Giraud, who was 28: The bulk of the British assault troops de-
captured in 1940, escapes from a castle prison part Durban in South Africa for Madagascar;
at Konigstein by lowering himself down the the slower ships, carrying transport and heavy
castle wall and jumping on board a moving weapons, have departed in great secrecy some
train, which takes him to the French border. days earlier.
18: Doolittle Raid on Nagoya, Tokyo and 29: The "Baedeker raids" continue, focused on
Yokohama. Jimmy Doolittle's B-25's take off Norwich and York.
from the USS Hornet. The raids are a great Japanese cut Burma Road with the
boost of morale for Americans whose diet has capture of Lashio in Burma.
been mostly bad news.
Adolf Hitler summons Benito Mus-
The Eastern Sea Frontier, the solini and Galeazzo Ciano to a sum-
United States Navy operational mit conference at Salzburg. Like
command in charge of the East most Hitlerian conferences, this
Coast of the United States, some- one is actually a thinly-disguised
what belatedly forces a black- attempt to harangue the invitees
out along the East Coast. This into compliance with the Fuehrer's
deprives U-boat commanders of will; in this case, the Italians are to
background illumination, but pro- commit more troops to the Eastern
vides only a very little relief from Front. Hitler is successful, and
U-boat attack; as the nights grow Mussolini agrees to send an addi-
shorter more U-boat attacks are oc- tional seven divisions, as well as
curring in daylight hours. the two already promised. These
unfortunate troops will be formed
20: General Dobbie, Governor-General and into the Eighth Italian Army and at-
Commander-in-Chief of Malta, sends a mes- tached to von Bock's (later von We-
sage to Winston Churchill saying“it is obvious ichs') Army Group B.
that the very worst may happen if we cannot re-
plenish our vital needs, especially flour and am-
munition, and that very soon....”Churchill con- 3.5.5 May 1942
cludes from this and other “disturbing news”
1: Rommel readies for a new offensive during
that Dobbie is not capable enough for such an
the early part of this month.
important job, and decides to replace him with
Lord Gort. Troops of the Japanese Fifteenth
Army under General Shojiro Iida
USS Wasp delivers 47 Spitfire Mk. take Mandalay and Monywa, se-
V fighters of No. 603 Squadron curing the western terminus of the
RAF to Malta; the planes are de- Burma Road.
stroyed, mostly on the ground, by
intense Axis air raids before they 2: In response to American intelligence inter-
can affect the course of battle. cepts, which warn of the impending Japanese
100 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

landings, the Australian garrison is evacuated After a pep talk, General Stilwell
from Tulagi. and his party of 114 set out from
3: In the initial move of the Japanese strategic Indaw on foot, with only 11 Jeeps
plan to capture Port Moresby, Japanese forces to carry their supplies and any inca-
under Admiral Kiyohide Shima make unop- pacitated, to reach the Indian bor-
posed landings on Tulagi, opening the Battle der. He sends a last radio message
of the Coral Sea. which ends, “Catastrophe quite
possible.”The radio is then de-
American General Joseph Stilwell stroyed.
decides that nothing more can be
accomplished in Burma, and that 7: Vichy forces surrender Diego Suarez, the
the time has come to evacuate. most important port in Madagascar, to British
forces involved in Operation Ironclad. How-
4: US Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher's
ever, the Vichy forces are able to withdraw in
Task Force 17 makes the first carrier strike of
good order.
the Battle of the Coral Sea, attacking Japanese
naval targets near Tulagi.
In the Coral Sea, Japanese search
Howell and his party of 114, mostly planes spot refueling ship USS
Americans, begin their trek to the Neosho and destroyer USS Sims,
Indian border and safety. To reach which have retired from Fletcher's
India, Stilwell will not only have to Task Force 17 into what should
stay ahead of the Japanese, but beat have been safer waters to refuel
the coming monsoon. Sims. They are mistaken for an air-
craft carrier and a cruiser. Japanese
5: Heavy Japanese artillery attack on Corregi-
Admiral Takagi, believing he has at
dor.
last found the location of Fletcher's
British forces begin "Operation main force, orders a full out attack
Ironclad": the invasion of by carriers Shokaku and Zuikaku
Madagascar to keep the Vichy and sinks both ships. This dis-
French territory from falling to a traction helps prevent the Japanese
possible Japanese invasion. from finding the real location of
The city of Exeter is bombed by Fletcher's carriers. Meanwhile,
the Luftwaffe, another "Baedeker Fletcher has a similar false alarm,
Raid". the spotting of two cruisers and
two destroyers being mistakenly
In the Coral Sea, both Japanese and
encrypted as “two carriers and
American carrier aircraft spend this
four cruisers.”By chance, though,
day and the following one searching
planes from USS Lexington and
for each others ships, with no suc-
USS Yorktown stumble across light
cess, even though at one point the
carrier Shoho while pursuing the
opposing carrier groups are sepa-
false lead and sink her, leading to
rated by less than a hundred miles
the first use in the American Navy
of ocean.
of the signal, “Scratch one flat-
General Stilwell abandons his top.”Admiral Inoue is so alarmed
trucks, which constantly become by the loss of Shoho he halts the
stuck and so are actually impeding Port Moresby invasion group north
progress rather than aiding it. He of the Louisiades until the Ameri-
retains his Jeeps, which do better. can carriers can be found and de-
Late in the day his party arrives at stroyed.
Indaw.
In Burma, General Stilwell must
6: On Corregidor, Lt. General Jonathan abandon his Jeeps. From here on
M. Wainwright surrenders the last U.S. forces all in the party will have to march.
in the Philippines to Lt. General Masaharu The fifty-nine-year-old General de-
Homma. About 12,000 are made prisoners. cides a cadence of one hundred five
Homma will soon face criticism from his supe- beats per minute will best match the
riors over the amount of time it has taken him disparate abilities of his party, and
to reduce the Philippines, and be forced into they march fifty minutes and rest
retirement (1943). ten each hour.
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 101

8: In the Coral Sea, each side finally lo- Churchill, growing ever more frus-
cates the others main carrier groups, consist- trated with General Auchinleck's
ing of Japanese carriers Shokaku and Zuikaku, inactivity, finally sends him a tele-
and American carriers Lexington and York- gram with a clear order; attack
town. Several attacks follow. Only Zuikaku es- in time to cover for the Har-
capes unscathed; Shokaku has her flight deck poon/Vigorous convoys to Malta
bent, requiring two months' repairs; Lexington during the dark of the moon in early
is sunk and Yorktown damaged. Fletcher re- June. This places Auchinleck in the
tires; this action closes the Battle. While ar- position of complying or resigning.
guably a stalemate or even tactical victory for Auchinleck does not immediately
the Japanese, who have sunk the most tonnage reply, leaving Churchill, CIGS, and
and the only large carrier, the Battle of the the War Cabinet in a state of sus-
Coral Sea is usually seen as a strategic victory pense.
for the United States, as Admiral Inoue cancels
the Port Moresby operation, the first signifi- 12: German submarine U-553, commanded by
cant failure of a Japanese strategic operation in Kapitänleutnant Karl Thurmann, sinks British
the Pacific Theatre. In addition, Yorktown will freighter Nicoya near the mouth of the St.
be repaired in time to make important contri- Lawrence River, signalling the opening of the
butions at Midway (although she will not sur- Battle of St. Lawrence.
vive), whereas neither the damaged Shokaku
Second Battle of Kharkov - In
nor Zuikaku (which, although not directly at-
the eastern Ukraine, Soviet forces
tacked, has suffered unsustainable losses in air-
of Marshal Timoshenko's South-
craft), will be able to refit in time for Midway,
west Theatre of Operations, includ-
giving the Japanese only four operable carriers
ing Gorodnyanski's 6th Army and
available for that battle.
Kharitonov's 9th Army, initiate a
The Germans take the Kerch penin- major offensive to capture Kharkov
sula in the eastern Crimea. from the Germans. 9th Army is
to attack first, with a primary ob-
9: On the night of 8/9 May 1942, gunners of
jective of Krasnograd, and a sec-
the Ceylon Garrison Artillery on Horsburgh
ondary one of Poltava; 6th Army
Island in the Cocos Islands rebelled. Their
is to follow immediately. After
mutiny was crushed and three of them were
9th Army has captured Krasnograd,
executed, the only British Commonwealth sol-
6th Army is to swing north and link
diers to be executed for mutiny during the Sec-
up with 28th Army and 57th Army,
ond World War.
the latter two formations having
USS Wasp and HMS Eagle deliver a second meanwhile cut the railway between
contingent of Spitfires to Malta in Operation Belgorad and Kharkov.
Bowery. A few days later, a grateful Churchill
will signal Wasp“Who says a Wasp can't sting 13: General Stilwell and his party cross the
twice?" These aircraft, employed more aggres- Chindwin River. They are now almost cer-
sively than those previously delivered, turn the tainly safe from the Japanese, but still depen-
tide in the skies over Malta during the next few dent on their own supplies in a very remote area
days, and the Axis is forced to abandon day- and racing to beat the monsoon.
light bombing. This is a major turning point in 14: In response to the Soviet offensive in
the Siege, and thus in the North African Cam- the Kharkov area, Hitler orders elements of
paign, although the approaches to the island re- Richthofen's Fliegerkorps VIII north to do
main subject to deadly and accurate Axis air ground support missions. As a result, by the
attack, preventing efficient re-supply of the is- end of the day 14 May, the Germans have es-
land. tablished a tentative but increasing air superior-
In Burma, General Stilwell and his ity over the Kharkov sector. In addition, on this
party begin crossing the Uyu River. day Hitler orders General Kleist, whose com-
Only four small rafts are available, mand is in positions opposite and to the south
and the crossing takes the better of the Soviets' left flank, to quickly prepare and
part of two days. launch a strong armoured counter-offensive.

10: Unaware that the tide is turning even as In Burma, General Stilwell and his
he speaks, Kesselring informs Hitler that Malta party begin ascending the Naga
has been neutralized. Hills. They are met at Kawlum by a
102 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

relief expedition headed by British Auchinleck, and he has not yet re-
colonial administrator Tim Sharpe. ceived a reply. He sends a terse
“Food, doctor, ponies, and every- follow-up: “It is necessary for me
thing,”notes a grateful Stilwell in to have some account of your gen-
his diary. eral intentions in light of our recent
telegrams.”Again there is no im-
15: In the United States, a bill creating the mediate reply.
Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) is
signed into law. 18: The Red Army is in a major retreat at
Kerch, after large numbers surrender.
General Stilwell crosses the border
into India. In the salient north of Kharkov, the
Soviet offensive has bogged down.
16: United States 1st Armored Division arrives In the southern salient, Kleist has
in Northern Ireland. launched his counter-offensive. It
is immediately successful and by
17: In the salient north of Kharkov, Russian
the end of the first day the lead-
28th and 57th Armies are having trouble mak-
ing elements have reached the con-
ing progress against General Paulus's (German)
fluence of the Oksol and Donetz
6th Army.
rivers, greatly narrowing the base
For once, Adolf Hitler has not of the salient. In the process the
hobbled his local commander with Germans traverse and disrupt so
a strict “no retreat”order, and many lines of communication that
Paulus is free to conduct an ef- Kharitonov's 9th Army begins to
ficient delaying action. In addi- lose cohesion as a fighting force,
tion, Paulus' troops are largely up and becomes useless as a screen to
to strength and fully equipped as protect Gorodnyanski's 6th Army
a result of preparations for the up- which, because of its northward
coming drive to Stalingrad. In progress, is badly disposed to repel
the south salient, Kharitonov's 9th the German attacks coming from
Army has routed the Romanian the south.
(3rd and/or 4th Army; accounts The Assam Rifles give General
differ) troops in his path and cap- Stilwell's party a formal salute in
tured Krasnograd, and is proceed- honor of their arrival at Ukhrul, but
ing to Poltava; Gorodnyanski's 6th can offer no motorized transport;
Army has made its planned turn to the nearest road passable by trucks
the north to link up with 28th and is still a day's march away, and there
57th Armies. 9th Army's impe- are no Jeeps yet in this part of India.
tus has stretched Kharitonov's ar-
19: At Kharkov, Kleist's counter-offensive
moured units out along a seventy-
continues to prosper; and now Paulus launches
mile track, diluting their strength;
a second counter-attack from the north, de-
and attempts to cover his left flank
signed to link up with Kleist's and encircle as
by driving the Germans back from
many Soviet troops as possible. The Stavka,
it have been unsuccessful. The Rus-
gradually becoming aware of the extent of the
sians take only a few prisoners along
danger, orders Gorodnyanski's 6th Army to
this flank, but Timoshenko is dis-
halt their advance. But by now Timoshenko is
mayed by the variety of units, es-
planning to extricate what forces he can before
pecially armoured units, this hand-
the two German spearheads link up.
ful of men represent (this is because
Kleist is concentrating troops in this General Stilwell and his party at last
area in preparation for his counter- reach the truck roadhead at Litan;
offensive). Timoshenko loses con- by this time the monsoon rains have
fidence and has his Political Offi- started.
cer Nikita Khrushchev ring up the General Auchinleck at last replies
Stavka and ask for permission to to Churchill's somewhat urgent
halt while he secures his left flank; telegram of the 10th, saying he will
Stavka refuses. have an attack ready by the sailing
It has been a week since Churchill of the Harpoon/Vigorous convoys
sent his ultimatum to General for Malta.
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 103

20: The Japanese conquest of Burma is com- Rommel begins a Spring offen-
plete; it is called a“military catastrophe”. Co- sive at the Gazala line (west of
incidentally, on this same day General Stilwell Tobruk). It opens with “Rom-
arrives in Imphal and dismisses his evacuation mel's Moonlight Ride,”a dramatic
party. All 114 have arrived, although some mechanized dash around 1st Free
have to be hospitalized due to exhaustion; one French Brigade Group positions
of whom, Major Frank Merrill, later comman- at Bir Hakeim on the British
der of Merrill's Marauders, is diagnosed to left (desertward) flank, conducted
have had a mild heart attack en route. by moonlight during the night of
26/27 May. In the process Rom-
At Kharkov, as Kleist's and Paulus' mel disperses 3rd Indian Motor-
forward elements draw ever closer ized Brigade, some six hundred of
together, Timoshenko sends his whom are taken prisoner and then
subordinate General Kostenko into released in the desert, and who will
the salient to organize a fighting make their way to Bir Hakeim. The
retreat, or, failing that, maximize offensive lasts well into June and
what can be saved. ends with a total victory for Rom-
Molotov arrives in London, and mel.
high-level discussions begin the
next day. 27: Reinhard Heydrich, head of Reich Secu-
rity, is fatally hurt in Prague during Operation
21: Invasion of Malta postponed indefinitely. Anthropoid by Czechoslovak soldiers; he will
die on June 4 from his wounds.
In discussions with Winston
Churchill and Anthony Eden, British use American Sherman
Molotov continues to press Soviet tanks in attempts to stop Rommel's
demands for territorial acquisitions attacks on the Gazala line.
made during the run-up to war,
The USS Yorktown, damaged at the
including the Baltic states, Eastern
Coral Sea, limps into Pearl Har-
Poland, and Bessarabia. Churchill
bor; it is ordered to get repaired and
cannot or will not agree to these
ready as fast as possible for the im-
demands, and the talks become
pending battle.
deadlocked.

22: Mexico declares war on the Axis. In Occupied Belgium, wearing of the "Yellow badge" be-
23: Kleist's and Paulus' tanks meet up at comes compulsory for Jews.
Balakleya, southeast of Kharkov, encircling
most of the Soviets' 6th and 9th Armies. 29: The Jews in France are ordered to wear the
yellow Star of David.
At the high-level Soviet/United
Kingdom talks in London, Anthony Japanese forces have large suc-
Eden suggests abandoning attempts cesses south of Shanghai.
to reach territorial understandings,
Rommel turns his troops to Bir
and instead conclude a twenty-
Hachim on the south edge of the
years' alliance. Molotov, whose
Gazala line; once it is taken, he can
diplomatic position is weakening
move north and destroy the Allied
rapidly as the Soviet military sit-
emplacements in the line.
uation deteriorates at Kerch and
Kharkov, expresses interest. 30: “The Thousand Bomber Raid” on
25: In preparation for the next battle, the Cologne, revealing new area bombing tech-
Japanese naval strategists send diversionary niques.
forces to the Aleutians.
The USS Yorktown leaves Pearl af-
26: The Anglo-Soviet Treaty: their foreign ter hasty repairs and moves to join
secretaries agree that no peace will be signed the USS Enterprise for the next ex-
by one without the approval of the other. (An pected battle.
important treaty since Himmler and others will
attempt to separate the two nations at the end 31: Huge German successes around Kharkov,
of the war.) with envelopment of several Red Army armies.
104 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

Japanese midget subs enter Sydney To further secure his supply lines,
harbour and sink one support ship; Rommel launches an attack on
fears of invasion grow. 150th Brigade of British 50th In-
fantry Division, whose position he
So effective has been the use of the Spitfires has surrounded. Since he is attack-
delivered to Malta in Operation Bowery earlier ing from the east against a position
in the month, that Kesselring has only eighty- designed to defend against attacks
three serviceable aircraft left, as opposed to from the west, and since there is
more than four hundred at the peak of Axis air scant hope of relief, there is little
strength earlier in the spring. 150th Brigade can do and they are
soon overwhelmed.
Rommel's offensive has stalled out
2: Further heavy bombing of industrial sites in
well short of Tobruk, due to re-
Germany, centred mainly on Essen.
sistance by British 1st Armoured
Division and 7th Armoured Divi- 3: The British coal industry is nationalised.
sion, partially equipped with the Japan launches air raids against
new American Sherman tanks. He Alaska in the Battle of Dutch Har-
is also confronted by a long sup- bor, beginning the Aleutian Islands
ply line, which must reach around Campaign
and is under constant threat from
The Battle of Midway opens with
the 1st Free French Brigade Group
ineffective attacks by land-based
position at Bir Hakeim. He orders
American B-17s on the approach-
two lanes cut through the British
ing Japanese fleet. Admiral
minefields which run from Gazala
Nagumo, in charge of the Japanese
to Bir Hakeim, on either side of for-
carrier force (Hiryu, Soryu, Akagi,
tified positions held by the 150th
and Kaga) is unable to locate
Brigade of British 50th Infantry Di-
any American aircraft carriers
vision. He then gathers the bulk
and decides to attack Midway's
of his forces near the outlets of
land-based air defences the first
these two lanes, completing the
thing the next morning, which in
process on the 31st. These tactics
any event is one of his planned
serve the triple purpose of shorten-
tasks.
ing his supply line, encircling 150th
Brigade, and allowing him to use 4: In the Battle of Midway, the day opens with
the British minefields as part of Admiral Nagumo's attack on the air defences
his defences. The area of concen- of the island.
tration, promptly nicknamed “the
A good deal of damage is done and
Cauldron”by British Command,
many aircraft destroyed on both
will be the focus of the battle for the
sides, but in the end the island's
next few days.
airbase is still functional. Nagumo
plans a second attack on the island,
and begins refueling and rearm-
3.5.6 June 1942 ing his planes. Meanwhile, attacks
are launched from all three Amer-
ican aircraft carriers in the area.
Planes from Hornet, Yorktown, and
Enterprise all find the targets, al-
though most of the planes from
Hornet follow an incorrect head-
ing and miss this attack. Torpedo
Squadron 8 from Hornet breaks and
follows the correct heading. The
Devastators of “Torp 8”are all
The state of the allies and axis powers in June 1942. shot down without doing any dam-
age; there is only one survivor,
George H. Gay, Jr. of Waco,
1: First reports in the West that gas is being Texas, who watches the battle un-
used to kill the Jews sent to “the East”. fold from the water. The torpedo
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 105

attack fails, but draws the Japanese run and command and control of the British
Combat Air Patrol down to low al- forces becomes problematic; as a result, sev-
titude, and they are unable to ef- eral brigades are stranded in the Cauldron when
fectively repel the dive bombers the British retirement begins. In addition, the
from Yorktown and Enterprise when British suffer further heavy tank losses.
they arrive. The bombs find the
Japanese flight decks crowded with United States declares war on Bul-
fueling lines and explosive ord- garia, Hungary, and Romania.
nance, and Akagi, Kaga, and So-
7: Japanese forces invade Attu and Kiska. This
ryu are all soon reduced to blaz-
is the first invasion of American soil in 128
ing hulks, Akagi by only one
years. Japanese occupation of Attu and Kiska
bomb dropped by Lt. Commander
begins.
Richard Halsey Best; only Hiryu
escapes with no hits. Admiral The Battle of Midway comes to
Nagumo shifts his flag from Ak- a close; the USS Yorktown sinks;
agi to another ship, cruiser Nagara, four Japanese carriers and one
and orders attacks on the Ameri- cruiser are sunk. The battle is
can carriers, one by group of Aichi viewed as a turning point in the Pa-
D3A dive bombers and a second by cific war.
Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers.
The Greek People's Liberation
The Japanese planes find Yorktown
Army makes its first appearance
(thinking Yorktown already sunk,
at Domnista, where Aris Velouch-
the second attack group assume it
iotis proclaims the start of armed
must be Enterprise) and damage it
resistance against the Axis.
so badly that Yorktown must be
abandoned. Admiral Fetcher shifts 8: Malta receives a squadron of Spitfires.
his flag to cruiser Astoria and cedes
operational command to Admiral A Japanese submarine fires several
Spruance. The attacks on Yorktown shells into a residential area in Syd-
give away Hiryu's continued opera- ney but with little effect.
tions, though, and it is promptly at-
tacked and will sink the next day, 9: Nazis burn the Czech village of Lidice as
Admiral Yamaguchi choosing to go reprisal for the killing of Reinhard Heydrich.
down with it. Ironically, Hiryu and All male adults and children are killed, and all
the other three destroyed Japanese females are taken off to concentration camps.
carriers had participated in the at-
At Bir Hakeim, Rommel renews
tack on Pearl Harbor.
his attacks on the 1st Free French
Reinhard Heydrich dies in Prague Brigade's“box.”Although the Free
from medical complications that French continue to hold out, their
had arisen from injuries suffered perimeter, never the largest, is dan-
from an attempted assassination by gerously reduced in size, and their
Czechoslovak patriots one week position becomes untenable. Gen-
earlier (Operation Anthropoid) eral Ritchie orders 1st Free French
Brigade to withdraw the following
5: At Gazala, British forces of the Eighth Army day.
commanded by General Ritchie launch a ma-
jor counter-attack against Rommel's forces in 10: Rommel pushes the Free French forces out
the Cauldron. The attack fails, partly because of Bir Hakeim, a fortress south-west of To-
Rommel has already recovered his critical lo- bruk. Although the 1st Free French brigade is
gistics situation and has established an excel- largely surrounded, their commander, General
lent defensive position, but also in large part Koenig, is able to find and fight his way through
due to German anti-tank tactics; 32nd Army gaps in Rommel's widely dispersed forces.
Tank Brigade, for example, loses 50 of 70 11: Two convoys set out for Malta, one
tanks. By early afternoon Rommel is clearly in from Gibraltar (code named 'Harpoon') and
control of the situation and attacks the British the other from Alexandria (code named
position known as “Knightsbridge”with the 'Vigorous'), with desperately needed supplies
Ariete and 21st Panzer divisions. Several of food, fuel, and ammunition. The hope is
British tactical headquarters positions are over- that the Axis will concentrate their attacks on
106 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

whichever convoy they find first, allowing the question in any case of giving up
other one to get through. Tobruk.'
12: Heavy fighting in Sevastopol with serious The convoy 'Vigorous', en route
losses of life on both sides. to Malta, sights a large Italian
naval squadron headed toward it.
At Gazala, the British are forced out 'Harpoon' comes under attack for
of the defensive position known as the first time; 'Vigorous' has been
'Knightsbridge;' it is only approxi- under air attack almost since leav-
mately fifteen miles from the To- ing port.
bruk perimeter (some sources give
a date of 13 June for this; the with- 15: General Auchinleck sends Churchill a re-
drawal may have been in operation ply to the latter's telegram of the 14th, saying in
on both calendar days). part, "...I have no intention whatever of giving
up Tobruk.”
13: The United States opens its Office of
16: Two convoys moving toward Malta suf-
War Information, a centre for production of
fer heavy losses; German air forces continue
propaganda.
to bomb the island itself. Operation Harpoon
'Black Saturday' for the 8th Army arrives in Malta, but only two of the six sup-
at the Battle of Gazala; during the ply ships survive; one of them has lost part of
course of the day Rommel does its cargo due to mine damage. The sinking of
great damage to the British armour. the tanker Kentucky means that there will be
At the end of the day not only precious little aviation fuel added to the dwin-
have unsustainably large amounts dling RAF stocks on Malta. Late in the day,
of British armour been destroyed, Operation Vigorous is cancelled; the convoy
but both 50th Division and 1st diverts back to Alexandria.
South African Division, who have
Churchill, about to leave for Amer-
largely retained their forward po-
ica, takes the unusual step of send-
sitions along the Gazala Line, are
ing a letter to HRM George VI, ad-
threatened with envelopment. The
vising him to make Anthony Eden
position of 50th Division is espe-
Prime Minister should Churchill
cially grave since Rommel's armour
not survive the journey.
now ranges freely between them
and safety. 17: Tobruk is now surrounded.
14: At the Gazala Line, the British position has 18: Manhattan Project is started, the beginning
become untenable, and General Auchinleck of a scientific approach to nuclear weapons.
authorizes General Ritchie to make a concerted Winston Churchill arrives in Wash-
withdrawal from forward positions along the ington for meetings with Roosevelt.
line.
The siege of Tobruk intensifies;
1st South African Division is able some defending forces are pulled
to withdraw along the coastal road, back to Egypt.
but the road cannot accommodate
21: Afrika Korps recaptures Tobruk, with
all the troops at once, and this
35,000 men captured; the road to Egypt is now
route is in any event is under threat
open as the British retreat deep into Egypt. To-
of being cut by Rommel's forces;
bruk's loss is a grievous blow to British morale.
so troops including 50th Division
German land forces have been assisted by Luft-
must first breakout to the south-
waffe attacks.
west, through the area occupied by
Italian X Corps, and then turn east 25: General Dwight D. Eisenhower arrives in
to rejoin 8th Army. This somewhat London ready to assume the post of Comman-
daring operation is concluded suc- der of American forces in Europe.
cessfully. The RAF forces avail- Another massive “Thousand
able, although outnumbered, make Bomber”raid, this time on
a valiant effort to cover the retreat. Bremen; the raiders suffer grievous
Churchill sends Auchinleck a tele- losses.
gram beginning, 'To what position
does Ritchie want to withdraw the 26: The Germans drive toward Rostov-on-
Gazala troops? Presume there is no Don.
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 107

27: Convoy PQ17 sets sail from Iceland; only Moresby in the south-eastern part of the island,
11 of 37 ships will survive. close to Australia; a small Australian force be-
28: Case Blue, the German plan to capture gins rearguard action on the Kokoda Track.
Stalingrad and the Soviet Union oil fields in the 22: The systematic deportation of Jews from
Caucasus, begins. Generally, forces are shifted the Warsaw Ghetto begins.
to the South. : Treblinka II,“a model”extermination camp,
is opened in Poland.
Mersa Matruh, Egypt, about 140
miles from Alexandria, falls to 24: Germans take Rostov-on-the-Don; the Red
Rommel. Army is in a general retreat along the Don
River.
30: United States deploys II Corps to the Eu- 26: A second attack by the British under
ropean Theater. Auchinleck fails against Rommel. First Battle
of El Alamein may be said to be over.
3.5.7 July 1942 27: Heavy RAF incendiary attack on Ham-
burg.
1: First Battle of El Alamein begins as Rommel 29: The Japanese take Kokoda, halfway along
begins first assault on British defences. the Owen Stanley pass to Port Moresby.
Sevastopol falls to the Germans; the 30: Continuing stalemate at El Alamein be-
end of Red Army resistance in the tween Rommel and Auchinleck.
Crimea.
2: Churchill survives a censure motion in the 3.5.8 August 1942
House of Commons.
3: Guadalcanal is now firmly in the hands of 1: The Germans continue their successful ad-
the Japanese. vance toward Stalingrad.
4: First air missions by American Air Force in 3: A convoy to Malta is decimated by the Luft-
Europe. waffe and U-boats.
11: Rommel's forces are now stalemated be- 5: The U.S. planning team for Operation
fore El Alamein, largely because of a lack of Torch, which includes George S. Patton;
ammunition. Jimmy Doolittle; Kent Lambert; and Hoyt S.
Vandenberg, meets in Washington, D.C. to
12: It now becomes clear that Stalingrad is the join the combined planning team from Lon-
largest challenge to the invaders. don, England.
A balloon from Operation Outward : Henrik Hersch Goldschmidt aka Janusz Kor-
knocks out a power station near czak and almost 200 children of his orphanage,
Leipzig. along with his staff, are led to the Treblinka II
death camp, and killed there that day, probably
15: The only action around El Alamein is light with gas.* [2]
skirmishing. 7: Operation Watchtower begins the
16: Vel' d'Hiv Roundup: On order from the Guadalcanal Campaign as American forces
Vichy France government headed by Pierre invade Gavutu, Guadalcanal, Tulagi and
Laval, French police officers mass arrest Tanambogo in the Solomon Islands.
13,152 Jews and hold them at the Winter Velo- 8: Six of the eight German would-be saboteurs
drome before deportation to Auschwitz. involved in Operation Pastorius are executed in
18: The Germans test fly the Messerschmitt Washington, D.C.
Me-262 V3 third prototype using only its jet
engines for the first time. The naval Battle of Savo Island,
near Guadalcanal; the Americans
19: Battle of the Atlantic: German Grand lose three cruisers, the Australians
Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the last U-boats one.
to withdraw from their United States Atlantic
coast positions in response to an increasingly 9: Numerous riots in favour of independence
effective American convoy system. in India; Mahatma Gandhi is arrested.
20: After landing in the Buna-Gona area, 10: Rommel begins an attack around El
the Japanese in New Guinea move across the Alamein, but by September he is back to his
Owen Stanley mountain range aiming at Port original lines.
108 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

11: The HMS Eagle, a carrier on convoy duty Australian base near the eastern tip of New
to Malta, is torpedoed and sinks with heavy loss Guinea.
of life. 27: Marshal Georgii Zhukov is appointed to
12: At a conference in Moscow, Churchill in- the command of the Stalingrad defence; the
forms Stalin that there will not be a “second Luftwaffe is now delivering heavy strikes on the
front”in 1942. city.
28: Incendiary bombs dropped by a Japanese
American forces establish bases in
seaplane cause a forest fire in Oregon.
the New Hebrides islands.
Fighting increases as the Germans 30: The Battle of Alam Halfa, Egypt, a few
approach Stalingrad. miles south of El Alamein begins. This will
be Rommel's last attempt to break through the
13: General Bernard Montgomery appointed British lines; RAF air superiority plays a large
commander of British Eighth Army in North role.
Africa; Churchill is anxious to see more offen- Luxembourg is formally annexed to the Ger-
sive action on the part of the British. man Reich.
Disastrous end to the Malta convoy, 31: Start of the 1942 Luxembourgish general
but one tanker and four merchant strike against conscription
ships get through.

15: Malta is supplied via Operation Pedestal. 3.5.9 September 1942

17: First US Army Air Forces B-17 heavy
1: US Navy Construction Battalion personnel,
bomber raid in Europe, targeting the Sotteville
Seabees, began to arrive at Guadalcanal.* [1]
railroad yards at Rouen, France.
3: The Battle of Stalingrad proper may be said
18: Japanese reinforce New Guinea; Aus-
to have begun on this date, with German troops
tralians land troops at Port Moresby. Mean-
in the suburbs; even civilian men and boys are
while, American planes have destroyed
conscripted by the Red Army to assist in the
Japanese air power at Wewak, New Guinea.
defence.
19: Operation Jubilee, a raid by British and
4: Irish Republican Army riots occur in Belfast
Canadian forces on Dieppe, France, ends in
during the night.
disaster; they come under heavy gunfire and
eventually most are killed or captured by the Manhattan Engineering District is
German defenders. formally created, full-effort pro-
20: Henderson Field on Guadalcanal receives duction of the atomic bomb is be-
its first American fighter planes. gun.
Chief of State of Vichy France
21: Japanese counter-attack at Henderson
Philippe Pétain and Prime Minis-
Field; in another foray at the Tenaru (or Ilu)
ter Pierre Laval create what will be-
River, many Japanese are killed in a banzai
come the Service du travail obliga-
charge.
toire (STO)
22: Brazil declares war on the Axis countries,
partly in response to numerous riots by a pop- 5: Australian and U.S. forces defeat Japanese
ulace angry at the sinking of Brazilian ships. forces at Milne Bay, Papua, the first outright
: Stanislau “reprisal”aktion. - After many defeat for Japanese land forces in the Pacific
repeated organized killings, the current head War. Their evacuation and the failure to estab-
of the Judenrat, Goldstein is publicly hanged lish an airbase eases the threat to Australia.
along with 20 of the Jewish police. Jewish 6: The Black Sea port of Novorossiysk is taken
girls are raped before being shot at the Gestapo by the Germans.
headquarters, and 1,000 Jews are shot and
9: A Japanese plane drops more incendiaries
killed.* [3]
on Oregon, but with little effect.
23: Massive German air raid on Stalingrad. 10: RAF blasts Düsseldorf with large incendi-
24: The naval battle of the Eastern Solomons; ary bombing.
the USS Enterprise is badly damaged and the 12: RMS Laconia, carrying civilians, Allied
Japanese lose one light carrier, the Ryujo. soldiers and Italian POWs, is torpedoed off the
26: Battle of Milne Bay begins: Japanese coast of West Africa and sinks.
forces land and launch a full-scale assault on : SS commander Brandt orders 3,000-4,000
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 109

Stanislau Jews deported to the Belzec death 3.5.10 October 1942

camp on Rosh Hashana, the Jewish New
Year holiday, and they were killed there that
day.* [3]
12-14: American troops push back the
Japanese in the Battle of Edson's Ridge
13: The Battle for Stalingrad continues; it is
now totally surrounded by the Germans. On
the Soviet Union side General Vasily Chuikov
is put in charge of the defence.
14: The Japanese retreat again from Henderson
Field, Guadalcanal.
The Japanese are now within
30 miles of Port Moresby, New
Guinea, on the Kokoda trail.
Dead Japanese soldiers at the Matanikau River, Guadalcanal
Continued convoy losses in the At-
lantic.
15: Americans send troops to Port Moresby as 3: First successful launch of A4-rocket at
reinforcements for the Australian defenders. Peenemünde, Germany. The rocket flies 147
kilometres wide and reaches a height of 84.5
Light carrier USS Wasp is sunk by kilometres and is therefore the first man-made
a Japanese submarine off Guadal- object reaching space.
canal.
4: British Commandos raid Sark, a Channel Is-
18: Battle of the “grain silo”in Stalingrad; land, capturing one German soldier.
the Germans are beaten back. The Red Army 6: By mutual arrangement, the Allies agree on
begins ferrying troops across the Volga at night. a strategy whereby Americans will bomb in the
19: Allied attack on Jalo, Libya is repulsed by daytime and the RAF at night.
Germans.* [1] 7: Third Battle of the Matanikau
20: RAF bombs Munich and Saarbrücken.
11: Battle of Cape Esperance.
The Greek Panhellenic Union of
On the Northwest coast of
Fighting Youths blows up the of-
Guadalcanal, United States Navy
fices of the pro-Nazi National-
ships intercept and defeat a
Socialist Patriotic Organisation in
Japanese fleet on their way to
central Athens, thwarting attempts
reinforce troops on the island.
to raise a Greek volunteer legion for
With the help of radar they sink
the Eastern Front.
one cruiser and several Japanese
23: General Rommel leaves North Africa for destroyers.
medical treatment in Germany.
12: The Red Army methods of ferrying troops
23-27: In the Third Battle of Matanikau across the Volga and into Stalingrad directly
River, Guadalcanal, Japanese naval bombard- seems to be a success, as the German advance
ment and landing forces nearly destroy Hender- comes to a halt.
son field in an attempt to take it, but the land
forces are soon driven back. The US 100th Infantry Battalion, a
24: United States of America deploys the I force of over 1,400 predominantly
Corps to the Pacific Theater. Nisei became active.
28: The Japanese continue their retreat back 13: Heavy bombardment of Henderson Field,
down the Kokoda Track in New Guinea. Guadalcanal by the Japanese navy.
30: The Eagle Squadron (American volunteers 14: A German U-boat sinks the ferry SS Cari-
in the RAF) are officially transferred to the US bou, killing 137.
Army Air Force.
18: Hitler issues Commando Order, ordering
Hitler speaks to the nation and all captured commandos to be executed imme-
boasts that Stalingrad will be taken. diately.
110 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

Admiral William“Bull”Halsey is 31: The British make a critical breakthrough

given command of the South Pa- with tanks west of El Alamein; Rommel's mine
cific naval forces. fields fail to stop the Allied armour.
21: Heavy RAF activity over El Alamein.
22: Conscription age in Britain reduced to 18. 3.5.11 November 1942
American General Mark Clark se-
cretly lands in Algeria to confer
with Vichy officials and Resistance
groups in preparation for impend-
ing Allied invasion.
23: Second Battle of El Alamein begins with
massive Allied bombardment of German po-
sitions. Then Australian forces, mainly, be-
gin advance while offshore British naval forces
support the right flank (n.b. the ongoing con- The state of the allies and axis powers in November 1942.
current victories being prepared at Guadal-
canal and Stalingrad).
1: Operation Supercharge, the Allied breakout
23: Battle for Henderson Field
at El Alamein, begins.
24: US Navy Task Force 34, consisting of
aircraft carriers, a variety of support ships, The Americans begin the
including Troop Ships and other vessels, set Matanikau Offensive against
sail from Hampton Roads, Virginia with Pat- the Japanese
ton's forces for Operation Torch, the landing
in North Africa. The other two task forces of 3: Second Battle of El Alamein ends - German
Operation Torch, the first American-led force forces under Erwin Rommel are forced to re-
to fight in the European and African theatres of treat during the night.
war, depart Britain for Morocco.
American victory over the Japanese
Crisis at El Alamein: British tanks in the Koli Point action
survive German 88mm fire; Mont-
gomery orders the advance to con- 6: Carlson's Patrol begins
tinue despite losses. 8: Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of
25: Rommel hurriedly returns from his sickbed Vichy-controlled Morocco and Algeria, be-
in Germany to take charge of the African bat- gins;
tle. (His replacement, General Stumme, had
French resistance coup in Algiers,
died of a heart attack).
consisting of about 400 fighters
The Japanese continue their attacks neutralise the Vichyist XIXth Army
on the Marines west of Henderson Corps and the Vichyist generals
field. (Juin, Darlan, etc.), contributing
significantly to the immediate suc-
26: The naval Battle of Santa Cruz. The cess of the operation.
Japanese lose many aircraft and have two air-
The United States Combat Com-
craft carriers severely damaged. The USS Hor-
mand“B”of the 1st Armored Di-
net is sunk and the USS Enterprise is damaged.
vision lands east and west of Oran
29: The Japanese continue to send troops as as part of Operation Torch.
reinforcements into Guadalcanal.
10: In violation of a 1940 armistice, Germany
In the United Kingdom, leading invades Vichy France; they are responding to
clergymen and political figures hold the fact that French Admiral François Darlan
a public meeting to register out- has signed an armistice with the Allies in North
rage over Nazi Germany's persecu- Africa.
tion of Jews.
United States 1st Armored Divi- Oran, Algeria falls to US troops;
sion moves from Northern Ireland 17 French ships are sunk at Oran,
to England. causing a rift between the French
3.5. 1942 TIMELINE 111

and the Allies. There are more Al- American army moves to shove
lied landings near the Tunisian bor- Japanese off the extreme western
der. end of Guadalcanal.
Montgomery begins a major British
22: Battle of Stalingrad: The situation for
offensive beginning at Sollum on
the German attackers of Stalingrad seems des-
the Libya/Egypt border. The
perate during the Soviet counter-attack; Gen-
British reach Bardia on the 11th,
eral Friedrich Paulus sends Adolf Hitler a tele-
Tobruk on the 12th, and Benghazi
gram saying that the German 6th Army is sur-
on the 18th.
rounded.
Lieutenant General Montgomery is
knighted and made a full General. Red Army troops complete the
Churchill speaks: “This is not the encirclement of the Germans at
end. It is not even the beginning of Kalach, west of Stalingrad.
the end. But it is, perhaps, the end
23:“Der Kessel"-- the Cauldron, a description
of the beginning.”
of the heavy fighting at Stalingrad; Hitler or-
11: Convoys reach Malta from Alexandria; an ders General Paulus not to retreat, at any cost.
official announcement proclaims that the island 25: The encirclement of Stalingrad continues
is “relieved of its siege”. to stabilise. Hitler reiterates his demand of
12: Battle of Guadalcanal - A climactic Paulus not to surrender.
naval battle near Guadalcanal starts between
Japanese and American naval forces. Notably, Operation Harling: a team of
the USS Juneau is sunk with much of its crew, British SOE agents, together with
including the five Sullivan brothers. over 200 Greek guerrillas from
both ELAS and EDES groups,
The Red Army makes an attempt to blow up the Gorgopotamos railway
relieve Stalingrad at Kotelnikov. bridge, in one of the war's biggest
sabotage acts.
13: British Eighth Army recaptures Tobruk.
26: Hostilities erupt between the American
Battle of Guadalcanal: aviators
and Australian soldiers in Brisbane. Fighting
from the USS Enterprise sink the
breaks out which results in multiple fatalities,
Japanese battleship Hiei.
it is dubbed the Battle of Brisbane
14: The USS Washington sinks the Japanese 27: At Toulon, the French navy scuttles its
battleship Kirishima. ships (most notably the Dunkerque and Stras-
15: The naval battle of Guadalcanal ends. Al- bourg) and submarines to keep them out of
though the United States Navy suffers heavy German hands; the French have declined an-
losses, it still retains control of the sea around other option – to join the Allied fleets in North
Guadalcanal. African waters.
29: The Allied offensive in Tunisia meets with
The British move westward in
only minimum success.
Tunisia .
British Eighth Army recaptures 30: The naval Battle of Tassafaronga (off
Derna. Guadalcanal); this is a night action in which
Japanese naval forces sink one American
17: Japanese send reinforcements into New cruiser and damage three others.
Guinea; Americans are stymied at Buna.
18: Heavy British RAF raid on Berlin with few
losses. 3.5.12 December 1942
19: At Stalingrad the Soviet Union forces un- 1: Gasoline rationing begins in the United
der General Georgy Zhukov launch Operation States.
Uranus aimed at encircling the Germans in the
city and thus turning the tide of battle in the The US cruiser Northampton is
USSR's favor. sunk as Japanese destroyers at-
20: The Allies take Benghazi, Libya; the tempt to come down “the Slot”to
Afrika Corps continues the retreat westward. Guadalcanal.
21: The Red Army attempt at encirclement of 2: Heavy fighting in Tunisia, as German forces
Stalingrad continues with obvious success. are pushed into the final North African corner.
112 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

The remainder of the United States

1st Armored Division arrived at
North Africa for Operation Husky.

24: French Admiral Darlan, the former Vichy

leader who had switched over to the Allies fol-
lowing the Torch landings, is assassinated in
Algiers.
The state of the allies and axis powers in December 1942, show-
ing allied progress in Northern Africa. The United States reorganizes its
Combat Arms Regiments with their
Organic Battalions into Separate
Below the bleachers of Stagg Field Groups and Battalions
at the University of Chicago, a team
led by Enrico Fermi initiate the first 25: American bombers hit Rabaul.
nuclear chain reaction. A coded
26: Heavy fighting continues on Guadalcanal,
message,“The Italian navigator has
now focused on Mount Austen in the west.
landed in the new world”is sent to
President Roosevelt. 28: The governor of pro-Vichy French So-
maliland surrenders invading British and Free
4: The first US bombing of mainland Italy -- French forces.
Naples.
31: In the Battle of the Barents Sea, the British
Carlson's patrol ends. win a strategic victory, leading Hitler to largely
abandon the use of surface raiders in favor of
6: RAF bombs Eindhoven, the Netherlands. U boats.
7: On the anniversary of the Pearl Har-
bor attack, the USS New Jersey, America's As the year draws to a close, things
largest battleship is launched (commissioned look much brighter for the Allies
five months later). than they did a few months ago:
Rommel is trapped in Tunisia, the
British commandos conduct Germans are encircled at Stalin-
Operation Frankton a raid on grad, and the Japanese appear ready
shipping in Bordeaux harbour. to abandon Guadalcanal.
9: The Marines turn over Guadalcanal to the
American army.
12: Rommel abandons El Agheila and retreats
3.5.13 See also
to Tripoli; the final stand will be at the Mareth
line in southern Tunisia. • Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War
II
In a large operation named
"Operation Winter Storm", the
Germans attempt to break through 3.5.14 Notes and references
to forces trapped in Stalingrad.
[1] “1942 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
13: The Luftwaffe flies in meagre supplies to
the beleaguered Stalingrad troops. [2] Epilogue Korczak communication website
15: American and Australian troops finally
push Japanese out of Buna, New Guinea. [3] Stanislawow (Washington Holocaust Memorial Museum
website)
Allies clash with Japanese troops in
the Battle of the Gifu
22: The Germans begin a retreat from the Cau- 3.5.15 External links
casus.
• Timeline of WWII
The battle for“Longstop Hill”be-
gins; a key position outside Tunis, • Documents of World War II
the Germans eventually take it and
hold it until April. • World War II Timeline
3.6. 1943 TIMELINE 113

3.6 1943 timeline

This is a timeline of events that occurred during
World War II in 1943.

3.6.1 January 1943

1: German 1st Panzer Division withdraws from
the Terek River area in southern Russia to pre-
vent encirclement.* [1]
2: Americans and Australians recapture Buna,
New Guinea.* [1]
Field Marshal Paulus and his staff surrender in Stalingrad
7: Japanese land more troops at Lae, New
Guinea.
23: British capture Tripoli, Libya.* [1]
9: United States Western Task Force redesig-
: Japanese continue their fight in western
nated I Armored Corps.
Guadalcanal; they now seem to have given up
10: Soviet troops launch an all-out offensive completely on the New Guinea campaign.
attack on Stalingrad; they also renew attacks in
24: The Casablanca Conference ends; Allies
the north (Leningrad) and in the Caucasus.
insist on unconditional surrender from Ger-
14: The Casablanca Conference of Allied lead- many.* [1]
ers begins. Winston Churchill and Franklin : German forces in Stalingrad are in the last
D. Roosevelt discuss the eventual invasion of phases of collapse.
mainland Europe, the impending invasion of 25: United States XIV Corps arrives in Pacific
Sicily and Italy, and the wisdom of the prin- Theater.
ciple of “unconditional surrender”.
26: Soviet troops retake Voronezh.* [1]
15: The British start an offensive aimed at tak-
ing far-off Tripoli, Libya. 27: 50 bombers mount the first all American
air raid against Germany. Wilhelmshaven, the
16: Iraq declares war on the Axis powers.* [1] large naval base, is the primary target.
: The Royal Air Force begins a two-night
bombing of Berlin. 28: A new conscription law in Germany: men
between 16 and 65 and women between 17 and
18: The Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto rise up for 50 are open to mobilization.* [1]
the first time, starting the Warsaw Ghetto Up- : George Zhukov awarded the first Order of Su-
rising. vorov 1st Class.
: Besieged defenders of Leningrad link up with
relieving forces. 29: The naval battle of Rennell Island, near
Guadalcanal, begins. The Japanese beat the
19: General Georgy Zhukov is promoted to Americans and the USS Chicago is lost.
Marshal as the Stalingrad struggle grinds to a : Another two-day bombing of Berlin by the
close. RAF.
20: USS Silversides attacks a Japanese convoy 30: The last Japanese have cleared out of
286 miles from Truk, Caroline Islands en route Guadalcanal by a brilliant evacuation plan un-
to the Solomon Islands, sinking transport Meiu detected by the Americans.
Maru and damaging Surabaya Maru.* [1]
31: Friedrich Paulus (Generalfeldmarschall
21: Last airfield at Stalingrad is taken by Red in command of the German 6th Army) and
forces, ensuring that the Luftwaffe will be his staff surrender to Soviet troops in Stalin-
unable to supply German troops any further; grad.* [2]* [3]
Hitler still demands that Friedrich Paulus con-
tinue the fight.
: Red Army armies have more victories in the 3.6.2 February 1943
Caucasus.
2: In the Soviet Union, the Battle of Stalingrad
comes to an end with the official surrender of
22: Allies liberate Sanananda, New the German 6th Army. The German public is
Guinea.* [1] informed of this disaster, marking the first time
114 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

Pass begins: inexperienced American troops

are soon forced to retreat.
14: Rostov-on-Don is liberated by the Red
Army;
16: Soviet Union reconquers Kharkov, but is
later driven out in the Third Battle of Kharkov.
: Prime Minister of Vichy France Pierre Laval
and Minister of Justice Joseph Barthélemy for-
mally create the Service du travail obligatoire
(STO)
18: In a speech at the Berlin Sportpalast Ger-
man propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels de-
clares a "Total War" against the Allies; the
Nazis arrest the members of the White Rose
movement, an anti-Nazi youth group.
: Chindits under Wingate cut the railway line
between Mandalay and Myitkyina.
21: Americans take the Russell Islands, part of
the Solomons chain.
22: Hans and Sophie Scholl of the White Rose
movement are executed.
25: Japanese POWs refuse to work at
General Dwight D. Eisenhower Featherston prisoner of war camp, this esca-
lates into a deadly clash between the inmates
and the guards
the Nazi government has acknowledged a fail-
ure in the war effort. 26: Rommel retreats northward from the
: Rommel retreats farther into Tunisia, estab- Mareth Line in Tunisia.
lishing his troops at the Mareth Line. Within 28: Operation Gunnerside: six Norwegians led
two days, Allied troops move into Tunisia for by Joachim Rønneberg successfully attack the
the first time. heavy water plant Vemork.
5: The Allies now have all of Libya under con-
trol.
: Essen is bombed, marking the beginning of a 3.6.3 March 1943
four-month attack on the Ruhr industrial area.
7: In the United States, it is announced that
shoe rationing will go into effect in two days.
8: The Chindits (a “long range penetration
group”) under British General Orde Wingate
begin an incursion into Burma.
: Nuremberg is heavily bombed.
: United States' VI Corps arrives in North
Africa.
9: Guadalcanal is finally secured; it is the first
major achievement of the American offensive
in the Pacific war.
: Munich and Vienna are heavily bombed,
along with Berlin.
Battle of Bismarck Sea
11: U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower is se-
lected to command the Allied armies in Eu-
rope. 1: Battle of the Bismarck Sea. U.S. and Aus-
13: Rommel launches a counter-attack against tralian naval forces, over the course of three
the Americans in western Tunisia; he takes Sidi days, sink eight Japanese troop transports near
Bouzid and Gafsa. The Battle of the Kasserine New Guinea.
3.6. 1943 TIMELINE 115

: Heinz Guderian becomes the Inspector- the Germans.

General of the Armoured Troops for the Ger- : Stalin for the ninth time demands a“Second
man Army. Front,”accusing his allies of treachery.
2: Wingate's Chindits continue their localised 17: Devastating convoy losses in the Atlantic
strikes in Burma. due to increased U-boat activity; the middle of
5: German advances around Kharkov threaten the Atlantic is apparently not sufficiently cov-
earlier Red Army gains. ered by planes or ships.
: Continued RAF bombing of the Ruhr valley, 18: General George S. Patton leads his tanks
particularly Essen. of II Corps into Gafsa, Tunisia.
6: Battle of Medenine, Tunisia. It is Rommel's 20: Montgomery's forces begin a breakthrough
last battle in Africa as he is forced to retreat. in Tunisia, striking at the Mareth line.
8: Continuing German counter-attacks around 23: American tanks defeat the Germans at El
Kharkov. Guettar, Tunisia.
9: Members of the Calcutta Light Horse carry 24-25: Seventy-six Allied PoWs escape from
out a covert attack against a German mer- Stalag Luft III in Sagan. This becomes known
chantship, which had been transmitting Allied as the “Great Escape”. Seventy-three were
positions to U-boats from the Mormugao Har- later recaptured; of these 50 were executed, 23
bour in Portugal's neutral territory of Goa. were sent back to prison camps and three es-
10: The USAAF 14th Air Force is formed in caped to freedom.
China, under General Claire Lee Chennault, 26: The British break through the Mareth line
former head of the "Flying Tigers.” in southern Tunisia, threatening the whole Ger-
: The US House of Representatives votes to ex- man army. The Germans move north.
tend the Lend-Lease plan. : Battle of the Komandorski Islands. In the
11: The Germans enter Kharkov and the fierce Aleutian Islands United States Navy forces in-
struggle with the Red Army continues. tercept Japanese attempting to reinforce a gar-
rison at Kiska. Poor leadership on both sides
leads to a stalemate of sorts, and the Japanese
withdraw without achieving their goal.

3.6.4 April 1943

1: Allies continue to squeeze the Germans into
the corner of Tunisia.
3: Racial tensions between American marines
and New Zealand troops of Māori origin result
in the Battle of Manners Street, a small-scale
riot in which no lives were lost
4: The only large-scale escape of Allied
prisoners-of-war from the Japanese in the Pa-
cific takes place when ten American POWs and
Greek People's Liberation Army or ELAS
two Filipino convicts break out of the Davao
Penal Colony on the island of Mindanao in
12 Greece Karditsa it's the first city in Europe the southern Philippines. The escaped POWs
to be liberated from Nazi occupation, the cam- were the first to break the news of the infamous
paign fought by the Greek People's Liberation Bataan Death March and other atrocities com-
Army ELAS. mitted by the Japanese to the world.* [4]

13: German forces liquidate the Jewish ghetto 7: Hitler and Mussolini come together at
in Kraków. Salzburg, mostly for the purpose of propping
up Mussolini's fading morale.* [1]* [3]* [5]
14: Germans recapture Kharkov. : Allied forces–the Americans from the West,
16: The first reports of the Katyn massacre in the British from the East–link up near Gafsa in
Poland seep to the West; reports say that more Tunisia.
than 22,000 prisoners of war were killed by the : Bolivia declares war on Germany, Japan, and
NKVD, who eventually blame the massacre on Italy.* [1]
116 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

10: The British 8th Army enters Sfax,

Tunisia.* [1]* [3]
13: Radio Berlin announces the discovery by
Wehrmacht of mass graves of Poles purport-
edly killed by Soviets in the Katyn massacre.
15: Finland officially rejects Soviet terms for
peace.* [3]
: Heavy RAF raid on Stuttgart.
18: Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, chief archi-
tect of Japanese naval strategy, is killed when
his plane is shot down by American P38's
over Bougainville. He was on an inspection
tour.* [1] Photo from Jürgen Stroop's report to Heinrich Himmler from May
: The “Palm Sunday massacre”: large num- 1943 and one of the best-known pictures of World War II.
bers of German troop-transport aircraft are The original German caption reads:“Forcibly pulled out of dug-
shot down before reaching Tunisia, where they outs”. The boy in the picture might be Tsvi Nussbaum, who
were to pick up the isolated German troops. survived the Holocaust.* [6]
19-30: The Bermuda Conference takes place
in Hamilton, Bermuda. U.K. and U.S. leaders 12: The Trident Conference begins in
discuss the plight of the European Jews.* [1] Washington, D.C. with Franklin D. Roosevelt
19: The Warsaw Ghetto uprising: On the Eve and Winston Churchill taking part. The dis-
of Passover, Jews resist German attempts to cussions are mostly on future strategy.* [1]* [3]
deport the Jewish community.* [1]* [3] 13: Remaining German Afrika Korps and Ital-
19: In occupied Belgium, partisans attack the ian troops in North Africa surrender to Allied
a railway convoy transporting Belgian Jews forces. The Allies take over 250,000 prison-
to Auschwitz. It is the largest attack on a ers.* [1]* [3]
Holocaust train of the war and 236 Jews es- 15: The French form a “Resistance Move-
cape. ment.”
26: The British finally take“Longstop Hill”in 16: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends. The
Tunisia, a key position on the breakout road to ghetto has been destroyed, with about 14,000
Tunis. Jews killed and about another 40,000 sent to
28: Allies attempt to close the mid-Atlantic the death camp at Treblinka.* [1]* [3]* [7]
gap in the war against the U-boats with long- : The Dambuster Raids are carried out by RAF
range bombers. 617 Squadron on two German dams, Mohne
and Eder. The Ruhr war industries lose elec-
30: Operation Mincemeat: Lt. Jewell's crew
trical power.* [1]* [3]
releases Martin's body near the Spanish coast.
Later, the body washes up on the Spanish coast 17: The Germans launch their fifth ma-
and is discovered by a local fisherman. jor offensive against Tito's partisans in
Yugoslavia.* [1]* [3]
19: Winston Churchill addresses a joint session
3.6.5 May 1943 of the U.S. Congress. He praises the partner-
ship of the two Allies.* [3]
1: Allies close in on the cornered Germans in
the Tunis area. 22: Allies bomb Sicily and Sardinia, both pos-
sible landing sites.
2: Japanese aircraft again bomb Darwin, Aus-
tralia. 24: Admiral Karl Dönitz orders the majority of
U-boats to withdraw from the Atlantic because
7: Tunis captured by British First Army. of heavy losses to new Allied anti-sub tactics.
Meanwhile the Americans take Bizerte. By the end of the month, 43 U-boats are lost,
9: The Japanese begin a three-day massacre compared to 34 Allied ships sunk. This is re-
of civilians; about 30,000 Chinese are killed in ferred to as "Black May".* [1]* [3]
the Changjiao massacre.* [1] : Josef Mengele becomes Chief Medical Offi-
11: American troops invade Attu Island in the cer in Auschwitz.* [1]
Aleutian Islands in an attempt to expel occupy- 29: RAF bombs Wuppertal, causing heavy
ing Japanese forces.* [1]* [3] civilian losses.
3.6. 1943 TIMELINE 117

30: Attu Island is again under American con- 4: Exiled Polish leader General Władysław
trol.* [3] Sikorski dies in an air crash in Gibral-
31: American B-17's bomb Naples. tar.* [1]* [3]
5: Operation Citadel (the Battle of Kursk) be-
gins.* [3]* [8]
3.6.6 June 1943 : Conclusion of the National Bands Agreement
in occupied Greece, which is to coordinate the
4: General Henri Giraud becomes actions of the Resistance movement in Greece.
Commander-in-Chief of the Free French
6: U.S. and Japanese ships fight the Battle of
forces.* [3]
Kula Gulf in the Solomons.* [1]* [3]
8: Japanese forces begin to evacuate Kiska Is-
7: Walter Dornberger briefs the V-2 rocket to
land in the Aleutians, their last foothold in the
Hitler, who approves the project for top prior-
Western hemisphere. The event is almost to the
ity.* [1]
year of their landing.* [3]
10: Operation Husky (the Allied invasion of
11: British 1st Division takes the Italian island
Sicily) begins.* [1]* [3]
of Pantelleria, between Tunisia and Sicily, cap-
turing 11,000 Italian troops.* [3] 11: Ukrainian Insurgent Army massacres Poles
at Dominopol.
12: The Italian island of Lampedusa, between
Tunisia and Sicily, surrenders to the Allies.* [3] 12:/:13: The Japanese win a tactical victory at
* the Battle of Kolombangara.* [1]* [3]
13: Heavy US aircraft losses over Kiel. [3]
12: The Battle of Prokhorovka begins;* [1]* [3]
17: Allies bomb Sicily and the Italian main-
the largest tank battle in human history and part
land, as signs increase of a forthcoming inva-
of the Battle of Kursk, it is the pivotal battle of
sion.
Operation Citadel.
21: Operation Cartwheel opens with landings
by the United States 4th Marine Raider Bat- 13: Hitler calls off the Kursk offensive, but the
talion at Segi Point on New Georgia in the Soviets continue the battle.* [1]* [3]
Solomon Islands, beginning the New Georgia 19: The Allies bomb Rome for the first
Campaign. It will not be secured until Au- time.* [1]
gust.* [1]* [3] 21: The Operation Bellicose targeting of
23: American troops land in the Trobriand Is- Friedrichshafen Würzburg radars is the first
lands, close to New Guinea. The American bombing of a V-2 rocket facility.
strategy of driving up the Southwest Pacific by 22: U.S. forces under Patton capture Palermo,
"Island Hopping" continues. Sicily.* [1]* [3]
24: Continuing attacks against the Ruhr indus- 24: Hamburg, Germany, is heavily bombed
trial valley. One result is the evacuation of in Operation Gomorrah,* [1]* [3] which at the
large numbers of German civilians from the time is the heaviest assault in the history of avi-
area. ation.
30: American troops land on Rendova Is-
25: Mussolini is arrested and relieved of his
land, New Georgia, another part of Operation
offices after a meeting with Italian King Victor
Cartwheel.* [1]* [3]
Emmanuel III, who chooses Marshal Pietro
Badoglio to form a new government.* [1]* [3]
3.6.7 July 1943
3.6.8 August 1943
1: Operation Tidal Wave: Oil refineries at
Ploiești, Romania, are bombed by U.S. IX
Bomber Command.* [1]* [3]
: Japan declares independence for the State of
Burma under Ba Maw.* [3]
2: 2,897 Romani are gassed when their camp
at Auschwitz is liquidated.* [1]
The state of the allies and axis powers in July 1943. : John F. Kennedy's PT-109 is rammed in two
and sunk off the Solomon Islands.* [1]* [3]
118 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

3: The first of two "George S. Patton slapping when the British XXIII Corps lands at Reggio
incidents" occurs in Sicily.* [1]* [3] Calabria.* [1]* [3]
5: Swedish government announces it will no : Nazi Germany begins the evacuation of civil-
longer allow German troops and war material ians from Berlin.
to transit Swedish railways.* [3] 4: Soviet Union declares war on Bulgaria.
: Russians recapture Orel* [3] and : The 503rd Parachute Regiment under Amer-
Belgorod.* [1]* [3] ican General Douglas MacArthur lands and oc-
6/7: The U.S. wins the Battle of Vella Gulf off cupies Nadzab, just west of the port city of
Kolombangara in the Solomons.* [1]* [3] Lae in northeastern New Guinea. Lae falls into
Australian hands and Australian troops take
6: German troops start pouring in to take over
Salamaua.* [1]* [3]
Italy's defences.* [3]
8: Eisenhower publicly announces the
11: German and Italian forces begin to evacu-
surrender of Italy to the Allies. The Germans
ate Sicily.* [3]
enact Operation Achse, the disarmament of
15: The Land Battle of Vella Lavella island in Italian armed forces.* [1]* [3]
the Solomons begins.* [1]* [3] :The USAAF bombs the German General
: US and Canadian troops invade Kiska Is- Headquarters for the Mediterranean zone at
land in the Aleutians, not knowing the Japanese Frascati.
have already evacuated.* [1]* [3]* [9]
9: The Allies land at Salerno, Italy; meanwhile
16: Polish Jews begin a resistance with scant the British troops take Taranto in the heel of
weaponry in Białystok.* [1] The leaders com- the Italian“boot”.* [1]* [3] Allied strategy aims
mit suicide when they run out of ammo. at a “drive”up the “boot”.
: U.S. troops enter Messina, Sicily.* [1]* [3] : Iran declares war on Germany.* [3]
17: All of Sicily now controlled by the Al- 10: German troops occupy Rome.* [1]* [3] The
lies.* [3] Italian fleet meanwhile surrenders at Malta and
: Heavy loss of Allied bombers in the other Mediterranean ports.
Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission.* [1]* [3]
: Operation Crossbow begins with Operation 11: British troops enter Bari in southeastern
Hydra when the RAF bombs the Peenemünde Italy.* [1]* [3]
V-2 rocket facility.* [1]* [3] 12: Mussolini is rescued from a mountaintop
17/18: Portugal, referencing the Anglo- captivity by German SS troops led by Otto Sko-
Portuguese Treaty of 1373, allows the Allies rzeny.* [3] Mussolini is then set up by Hitler,
to use the Azores Islands for air and naval who remains loyal to his old friend, as the head
bases.* [1]* [3] of the puppet "Italian Social Republic.”
19: Roosevelt and Churchill signed the 13: The Salerno beachhead is in jeopardy, as
Quebec Agreement during the Quebec Confer- German counterattacks increase.
ence.* [10] 14: German troops commence the Holocaust
23: Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev liber- of Viannos in Crete that will continue for two
ates Kharkov, Ukraine.* [1]* [3] The Battle of more days.
Kursk has become the first successful major 15: Chiang Kai-shek asks that General Stilwell,
Soviet summer offensive of the war. American military advisor/commander, be re-
29: During the Occupation of Denmark by called for suggesting an alliance with the Com-
Nazi Germany, martial law replaced the Dan- munists.* [3]
ish government.* [1]* [3]
16: British forces land on various Italian-held
31: The Northwest African Air Forces con- Greek islands in the Aegean Sea, beginning the
ducts an air raid against the Italian city of Pisa. Dodecanese Campaign.
: British and American troops link up near the
Salerno beachhead.* [3]
3.6.9 September 1943
19: German troops evacuate Sardinia.* [1]* [3]
1: 22,750,000 British men and women are ei- 21: The battle of the Solomons can now be
ther in the services or Civil Defence or doing considered at an unofficial end.
essential war work, according to the U.K. Min- : The Massacre of the Acqui Division begins:
istry of labour.* [3] After resisting for a week, the Italian Acqui di-
3: A secret Italian Armistice is signed and Italy vision on the Greek island of Cephallonia sur-
drops out of the war. Mainland Italy is invaded renders to the Germans. During the next days,
3.6. 1943 TIMELINE 119

over 4,500 Italians are executed, and further campaign is suspended until the bombers can
3,000 lost during transport at sea. be escorted by P-51 fighters.
22: Australian forces land at Finschhafen, a Members of the Sobibor extermination camp
small port in New Guinea.* [3] The Japanese underground, led by Polish-Jewish prisoner
continue the battle well into October. Leon Feldhendler and Soviet-Jewish POW
: British midget submarines attack the German Alexander Pechersky, succeeded in covertly
battleship Tirpitz, at anchor in a Norwegian killing eleven German SS officers and a num-
fjord, crippling her for six months.* [1]* [3] ber of camp guards. Although their plan was to
25: The Red Army retakes Smolensk.* [1]* [3] kill all the SS and walk out of the main gate of
the camp, the killings were discovered and the
26: Germans assault the island of Leros, be- inmates ran for their lives under fire. About
ginning the Battle of Leros. 300 out of the 600 prisoners in the camp es-
27: The Germans take over the island of Corfu caped into the forests.
from the Italians, the previous occupiers.* [3] 18: The Third Moscow Conference convened.
: Sheng Shicai has Mao Zedong's brother Mao
19: The German War Office contracts the
Zemin and Chen Tanqiu, a founder of the
Mittelwerk to produce 12,000 V-2 rockets.
Communist Party of China, executed.* [11]
22/23: An air raid on Kassel causes a seven day
28: The people of Naples, sensing the ap-
firestorm.
proach of the Allies, rise up against the Ger-
man occupiers.* [3] 25: The Red Army takes Dnipropetrovsk.
30: With the Gestapo starting to round up Dan- 28: Cruiser HMS Charybdis sunk, and de-
ish Jews, certain Danes are secretly sending stroyer HMS Limbourne damaged, by German
their Jewish countrymen to Sweden by means torpedo boats off the North coast of Brittany
of dangerous boat crossings.* [1]* [3] with large loss of life. Bodies of 21 sailors and
marines washed up on the Island of Guernsey.
Buried with full military honours by the Ger-
3.6.10 October 1943 man Occupation authorities, allowing around
5,000 Islanders to attend and lay some 900
Unknown: Ruzagayura famine starts (until De- wreaths.
cember 1944) in the Belgian African colony of 29: Troops replace striking London dockwork-
Ruanda-Urundi ers.
1: Neapolitans complete their uprising and free 31: Heavy rains in Italy slow the Allied advance
Naples from German military occupation. south of Rome.
3: Churchill appoints Lord Louis Mountbatten
the commander of South East Asia Command.
3.6.11 November 1943
3: The Germans conquer the island of Kos.
4: Corsica is liberated by Free French forces. 1: In Operation Goodtime, United States
Marines land on Bougainville in the Solomon
5: The Allies cross Italy's Volturno Line.
Islands. The fighting on this island will con-
6: The Naval Battle of Vella Lavella completes tinue to the end of the war.
the second phase of Operation Cartwheel.
2: In the early morning hours, American and
7: 98 American civilian prisoners were exe- Japanese ships fight the inconclusive Battle of
cuted on Wake Island. Empress Augusta Bay off Bougainville, but the
9: United States VII Corps arrives in European Japanese are unable to land reinforcements.
Theater. 2: British troops, in Italy, reach the Garigliano
10: Chiang Kai-shek takes the oath of of- River.
fice as chairman of Nationalist Government 5: The Italians bomb the Vatican in a failed
(China).* [12] attempt to knock out the Vatican radio.
12: Operation Cartwheel begins a bombing 6: The Red Army liberates the city of Kiev.
campaign against Rabaul. This is an anniversary of the Russian Revolu-
13: Italy declares war on Germany. tion in 1917.

14: 229 of 292 B-17s reached the target in 9: Allies take Castiglione, Italy.
the Second Raid on Schweinfurt. Losses are 9: General De Gaulle becomes President of the
so heavy that the long range daylight bombing French Committee of National Liberation.
120 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

9: Members of the Belgian Resistance publish the Gilbert Islands and take heavy fire from
a fake issue of the collaborationist newspaper Japanese shore guns. The American public is
Le Soir, mocking the German strategic situa- shocked by the heavy losses of life.
tion.
20: British troops under Montgomery continue
11: American air power continues to hit their slow advances on the eastern side of Italy.
Rabaul.
12: Germans overrun British forces on the Do- 22: The Cairo Conference: US President
decanese islands, off Turkey. Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minis-
ter Winston Churchill, and ROC leader Chiang
14: Heavy bombers hit Tarawa, in the Gilbert Kai-Shek meet in Cairo, Egypt, to discuss ways
Islands in the Pacific. to defeat Japan.
15: Allied Expeditionary Force for the invasion
of Europe is officially formed. 23: Heavy damage from Allied bombing of
Berlin. Notably, the Deutsche Opernhaus
15: German SS leader Heinrich Himmler or- on Bismarckstraße in the Berlin district of
ders that Gypsies and “part-Gypsies”are to Charlottenburg is destroyed.
be put “on the same level as Jews and placed
in concentration camps.” 24: Heavy bombing of Berlin continues.
16: Anti-German resistance in Italy increases; 25: Americans and Japanese fight the naval
there are explosions in Milan. Battle of Cape St. George between Buka and
16: The Battle of Leros ends with the surrender New Ireland. Admiral Arleigh Burke's de-
of the British and Italian forces to the Germans. stroyers distinguish themselves.
16: 160 American bombers strike a hydro- 25: Rangoon is bombed by American heavy
electric power facility and heavy water factory bombers.
in German-controlled Vemork, Norway
26: The Red Army offensive in the Ukraine
continues.
27: The Cairo Conference (“Sextant”) ends;
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-shek
complete the Cairo Declaration, which deals
with the overall strategic plan against Japan.
27: Huge civilian losses in Berlin as heavy
bombing raids continue.
28: The Tehran Conference . US President
Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill and Soviet Leader Joseph
Stalin meet in Tehran to discuss war strat-
egy; (on November 30 they establish an agree-
ment concerning a planned June 1944 inva-
The Tehran conference (28 November 1943): Left to right: sion of Europe codenamed Operation Over-
General Secretary of the Communist Party Joseph Stalin, lord). Stalin at last has the promise he has been
President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States, and Prime waiting for.
Minister Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom.
29: Second session of AVNOJ, the Anti-fascist
council of national liberation of Yugoslavia, is
16: Japanese submarine sinks surfaced subma- held in Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina, deter-
rine USS Corvina near Truk mining the post-war order of the country.
18: 440 Royal Air Force planes bomb Berlin
causing only light damage and killing 131. The 30: In Malaya, Japanese introduce the GOV-
RAF lose nine aircraft and 53 aviators. ERNMENT NOTIFICATION No. 41 to en-
courage families to grow their own food crops
19: Prisoners of the Janowska concentration and vegetables. Families who are successful
camp stage a mass escape/uprising when they will be awarded prizes while family who fail
are ordered to cover up evidence of a mass- to comply this notification or leave their vacant
murder. Most are rounded up and killed lands unplanted will be punished. This notifi-
20: Battle of Tarawa begins - United States cation was written by Itami Masakichi (Penang
Marines land on Tarawa and Makin atolls in Shu Chokan) on 25 November 2603/1943
3.7. 1944 TIMELINE 121

3.6.13 See also

• Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War

II

3.6.14 Notes and references

The state of the allies and axis powers in December 1943. [1] “1943 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2013-01-07.

[2] “Sunday, January 31, 1943”. onwar.com. Retrieved

3.6.12 December 1943 2013-01-07.

2: The Germans conduct a highly success- [3] “Chronology of World War Two”. andrew.etherington.
ful Air Raid on Bari, Italy. One of the Ger- Retrieved 2013-01-07.
man bombs hits an allied cargo ship carry-
[4] Lukacs, John D. Escape from Davao. Penguin Books,
ing mustard gas, releasing the chemical which
2010.
killed 83 allied soldiers. Over 1000 other sol-
diers died in the raid. [5] “Wednesday, April 7, 1943”. onwar.com. Retrieved
3: Edward R. Murrow delivers his classic“Or- 2013-03-16.
chestrated Hell”broadcast over CBS Radio de-
scribing a Royal Air Force nighttime bombing [6] Richard Raskin. A Child at Gunpoint. A Case Study in
raid on Berlin. the Life of a Photo. Aarhus University Press, 2004.

4: Bolivia declares war on all Axis powers. [7] “Sunday, May 16, 1943”. onwar.com. Retrieved 2013-
: In Yugoslavia, resistance leader Marshal Josip 02-17.
Broz Tito proclaims a provisional democratic
Yugoslav government in-exile. [8] “Monday, July 5, 1943”. onwar.com. Retrieved 2013-
06-05.
12: Rommel is appointed head of “Fortress
Europa”, chief planner against the expected [9] “Sunday, August 15, 1943”. onwar.com. Retrieved
Allied offensive. 2013-08-17.
13: German soldiers carry out the Massacre of
[10] “Avalon Project - The Quebec Conference - Agreement
Kalavryta in southern Greece. Relating to Atomic Energy”. yale.edu. Retrieved 2013-
: United States VIII Corps arrives in European 07-18.
Theater.
14: United States XV Corps arrives in Euro- [11] Li, Dr. Zhi-Sui (1994). The Private Life of Chairman
Mao. Random House. p. 659.
pean Theater.
16: Kalinin is retaken in a large Red Army of- [12] “Kuomintang News Network”. Kuomintang.
fensive.
24: US General Dwight D. Eisenhower be-
comes the Supreme Allied Commander in Eu-
3.6.15 External links
rope.
• Timeline For World War 2
26: German battleship Scharnhorst is sunk
off North Cape (in the Arctic) by an array of • Timeline of WWII
British cruisers and destroyer torpedoes.
26: American Marines land on Cape Glouces- • Documents of World War II
ter, New Britain.
• World War II Timeline
27: General Eisenhower is officially named
head of Overlord, the invasion of Normandy.
28: In Burma, Chinese troops have some suc- 3.7 1944 timeline
cess against the Japanese.
29: Control of the Andaman Islands is handed This is a timeline of events that occurred during 1944
over to Azad Hind by the Japanese in World War II.
122 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

3.7.1 January 1944 Islands.

4: The 1st Ukrainian Front of the Red Army

enters Poland. 3.7.2 February 1944
9: British forces take Maungdaw, Burma, a
critical port for Allied supplies. 1: U.S. Marines mop up on Roi and Namur in
the northern part of the Kwajalein atoll in the
12: The SS United Victory, the first Victory Marshall Islands.
ship, is launched; this class of transport will
prove to be crucial in hauling men and supplies 2: The Narva front near the east border of Esto-
across the oceans.* [1] nia is formed between the Soviet and German
: Count Ciano, the Italian Foreign Minister and forces.
Mussolini's son-in-law, is executed by Mus- : Germans defeat American troops in the Battle
solini's revived Fascist government sympathis- of Cisterna near Anzio.* [2]
ers. 3: American planes bomb Eniwetok in the
17: The first Battle of Monte Cassino begins Marshalls, later to be a major B-29 base.
when the British X Corps attacks along the 4: Kwajalein, the world's largest atoll and a ma-
Garigliano river at the western end of the Ger- jor Japanese naval base, is secured.
man Gustav Line.* [2]* [3]* [4]
5: The American Navy bombards the Kuril
19: Red Army troops push westward toward Islands, northernmost in the Japanese home-
the Baltic countries. lands.
: British Operation Outward accidentally
7: In a radio interview, the last Estonian Prime
claims lives in Sweden by causing a train crash
Minister Jüri Uluots, as acting Head of State,
by knocking out lighting
supports mobilisation.
20: The Royal Air Force drops 2,300 tons of
8: The plan for the invasion of France,
bombs on Berlin.
Operation Overlord, is confirmed.
: The U.S. Army 36th Infantry Division, in
Italy, attempts to cross the Gari River but suf- 10: Winston Churchill urges Harold Alexan-
fers heavy losses. der to order the Anzio generals to show more
aggression.* [2]
22: Allies begin Operation Shingle, the landing
at Anzio, Italy, commanded by American Ma- 11: German forces sent to relieve the Kor-
jor General John P. Lucas.* [2]* [3]* [5] The Al- sun pocket in Ukraine are now only 10 miles
lies hope to break the stalemate in south Italy, away.* [2]
but they are unable to break out of the beach- 14: The Russian 374th Rifle Regiment forms a
head and the line holds until late May. bridgehead on the western shore of Lake Pei-
23: The British destroyer HMS Janus is sunk pus. The Mereküla Landing Operation of the
off Anzio.* [2] special unit of the Soviet Baltic Sea Fleet in
24: The Allied forces have a major setback on the rear of the Germans at the Narva front at
the Gari River. Mereküla is resisted.
: The underground organisation, the National
28: The Russian Army completes encirclement Committee of the Republic of Estonia, is
of two German Army corps at the Korsun formed in Tallinn.
pocket, south of Kiev. Two-thirds of the Ger- : Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary
mans escape in the breakout next month with Force (SHAEF) headquarters are established
the loss of most heavy equipment. in Britain by U.S. General Dwight D. Eisen-
30: United States troops invade Majuro, Mar- hower
shall Islands. : An anti-Japanese revolt on Java occurs.
: Japanese kill 44 suspected spies in the 15: The second Battle of Monte Cassino
Homfreyganj massacre begins with the destruction of the historic
: The Brazzaville Conference begins in French Benedictine monastery on Monte Cassino by
Equatorial Africa. During the conference Allied bombing. The Allies believed the
(which lasts until 8 February), the French grounds were used as an observation post by
Committee of National Liberation (CFLN) the Germans.* [2]* [3]* [6]
agrees to major reforms to the French colonial : The Soviet bridgehead on the west coast of
empire. Lake Peipus is annihilated.
31: American forces land on Kwajalein Atoll : Soviet Leningrad Front initiates the Narva
and other islands in the Japanese-held Marshall Offensive, February 15–28.* [7]
3.7. 1944 TIMELINE 123

16: Germans launch a major counter-attack 6: Wingate's Chindits make several successful
at Anzio, threatening the American beach- forays in Burma.
head.* [2] : The Soviet Air Force bombs Narva, the city
: Germans, with Panzer forces leading, fail to is destroyed. The Leningrad Front initiates the
break out of the Korsun pocket. Narva Offensive, March 6–24* [7]
: Diplomats from the USSR and Finland meet : The Allies receive intelligence that the
to sign an armistice. Japanese may be about to attack on Western
Australia, causing them to greatly bolster de-
17: American Marines land on Eniwetok.
fenses there. When no attack comes, they re-
18: The light cruiser HMS Penelope is torpe- turn to their regular stations on the 20th
doed and sunk off the coast of Anzio with a
7: Japanese begin an invasion attempt on India,
loss of 415 crew.* [3]
starting a four-month battle around Imphal.
: American naval air raid takes place on the
Truk islands, a major Japanese naval base, but 8: American forces are attacked by Japanese
they will be one of the bypassed fortresses of troops on Hill 700 in the Bougainville; the bat-
the Japanese outer defence ring. tle that will last five days.
: A Red Army offensive on a wide front west of
19: Leipzig, Germany is bombed for two the Dnieper in the Ukraine forces the Germans
straight nights. This marks the beginning of into a major retreat.
a "Big Week" bombing campaign against Ger-
man industrial cities by Allied bombers. 9: The Soviet Long Range Aviation carries out
an air raid on Tallinn, Estonia. The military
20: A colonial military garrison in Luluabourg objects are almost untouched. Approx. 800
in the Belgian Congo mutinies, killing three. civilians die and 20,000 people are left without
22: John Lucas is replaced with major general a shelter.* [9]
Lucian Truscott at Anzio.* [2] 12: The creation of the Political Committee of
23: US Navy planes attack the Mariana Islands National Liberation in Greece.
of Saipan, Guam and Tinian. 13: On Bougainville, Japanese troops end their
failed assault on American forces at Hill 700.
26: The“Big Week”bombing campaign comes
to a successful conclusion; the American P-51 15: The third Battle of Monte Cassino begins.
Mustang fighter with its long range proves in- The small town of Cassino is destroyed by Al-
valuable in protecting American bombers over lied bombers.* [2]* [3]* [10]
Germany. : Americans take Manus Island in the Admi-
: Red Air Force continues to bomb Helsinki, ralty chain.
as Finland continues peace talks. : The National Council of the French Resis-
tance approves the Resistance programme.
27: USS Cod sinks a Japanese merchant ship
by torpedo.* [2] 16: United States XI Corps arrives in Pacific
Theater.
28: The Admiralty Islands are invaded by U.S.
forces, marked by the Battle of Los Negros and 17: Heavy bombing of Vienna, Austria.
Operation Brewer. The struggle for this im- 18: The Red Army approach Romanian bor-
portant fleet anchorage will continue until May. der.
Rabaul is now completely isolated. 19: German forces occupy Hungary in
: Belgian industrialist Alexandre Galopin is Operation Margarethe.* [2]* [3]
assassinated in occupied Belgium by Flemish : Yugoslav partisans attack Trieste, on the bor-
paramilitaries. der of Italy and Slovenia.
20: Red Army advances in the Ukraine con-
tinue with great success.
3.7.3 March 1944
21: Finland rejects Soviet peace terms.
1: The keels of USS Tarawa and USS 22: Japanese forces cross the Indian border all
Kearsarge are laid down. along the Imphal front.
: Anti-fascist strikes occur in northern Italy. : Frankfurt is bombed with heavy civilian
: Leningrad Front initiate the Narva Offensive, losses.
March 1–4
24: The Fosse Ardeatine massacre in Rome,
3: German forces around Anzio, having failed Italy. 335 Italians are killed, including 75 Jews
to drive the Allies from the beachhead, go over and over 200 members various groups in the
to a defensive posture.* [2]* [8] Italian Resistance; this is a German response
124 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

to a bomb blast that killed German troops. 27: The Slapton Sands tragedy: American sol-
: Orde Wingate is killed in a plane crash. diers are killed in a training exercise in prepa-
: Heavy bombings of German cities at various ration for D-Day at Slapton in Devon.
strategic locations last for 24 hours. 30: Vast preparations for D-Day are going on
25: Soviet air force bombs the city of Tartu, all over southern England.
Estonia.* [11] : American navy air raids continue in the Car-
26: On Narva front, Strachwitz Offensive de- olina Islands, including Truk.
stroys part of the Soviet bridgehead.* [12]
28: Japanese troops are in retreat in Burma. 3.7.5 May 1944
30: RAF suffers grievous losses in a huge air
raid on Nuremberg. 6: Heavy Allied bombings of the Continent in
preparation for D-Day.
8: D-Day for Operation Overlord set for June
3.7.4 April 1944 5.
9: Sevastopol in the Crimea is retaken by So-
3: Allied bombers hit Budapest in Hungary,
viet forces.* [2]
now occupied by the Germans, and Bucharest
in Romania, ahead of the advancing Red 11: The fourth battle of Monte Cassino begins
Army. led by general Anders of the 2nd Polish Corps
.* [2]* [3]* [13]
4: General Charles de Gaulle takes command
of all Free French forces. 12: Large numbers of Chinese troops invade
northern Burma.
5: US Air Force bombs Ploesti oil fields in Ro-
mania, with heavy losses. 13: The entirety of Crimea is under Soviet
control. Many thousands of German and Ro-
6: The Japanese drive on the Plain of Imphal, manian soldiers have been captured, but many
supposedly halted, proves strong enough to sur- thousands have been evacuated* [2]* [3]* [14]
round British forces at Imphal and Kohima, in : The bridgehead over the Gari River is rein-
India. forced.
8: The Red Army attacks in an attempt to re- 18: The Battle of Monte Cassino ends in Al-
take all of the Crimea, the Germans retreat lied victory. Polish troops of the 2nd Polish
westward to Sevastopol. Corps led by general Władysław Anders cap-
10: Soviet forces enter Odessa, ture Monte Cassino. German troops in west
Ukraine.* [2]* [3] Italy have withdrawn to the Hitler Line.* [2]* [3]
11: Soviet forces take Kerch, beginning the re- : Allied troops take airfields at Myitkyina,
conquest of Crimea.* [2]* [3] Burma, an important air base; the struggle over
the city itself will continue for nearly three
15: Heavy air raids on Ploesti oil fields (Roma- months.
nia) by both the RAF and the US Air Force. : The last Japanese resistance in the Admiralty
16: Soviet forces take Yalta; most of Crimea is Islands, off New Guinea comes to an end.
now liberated.* [2]* [3] 21: Increased Allied bombing of targets in
17: Japanese launch Operation Ichi-Go with France in preparation for D-Day.
over 600,000 men in central China. The ob- 23: Allies start a new breakout from
jective is to conquer areas where American Anzio.* [2]* [3]
bombers are located.* [3] The first phase is the
25: Allies at Anzio link up with Allies from
Battle of Central Henan.
south Italy. Though Harold Alexander wishes
21: The Badoglio government in Italy falls and to trap the German Tenth Army, American
he is quickly asked to form another. Fifth Army commander Mark W. Clark orders
: An Allied air raid on Paris kills a large num- Truscott to turn north toward Rome. The Ger-
ber of civilians. mans in Italy form a new defensive position on
22: Operations Reckless and Persecution: US the Caesar C line.
troops land at Hollandia and Aitape in north-
ern New Guinea to cut off Japanese forces in *
[2]* [3]* [15]
Wewak.* [2]* [3]
24: British troops force open the road from 27: Operation Hurricane starts. Americans
Imphal to Kohima in India. land on Biak, Dutch New Guinea, a key
3.7. 1944 TIMELINE 125

Japanese air base; stubborn Japanese resistance

until August.
31: The Japanese retreat from Imphal (India)
with heavy losses; their invasion of India is
over.

3.7.6 June 1944

2: The provisional French government is estab-
lished.
: The U.S. begins Operation Frantic with a
bombing of Debrecen, Hungary.* [2]* [3]
3: There are daily bombings of the Cherbourg
peninsula and the Normandy area.
6 June 1944: A Navy LCVP disembarks troops at Omaha Beach.
4: Allies enter Rome, one day after the Ger-
mans declared it an open city. German troops
fall back to the Trasimene Line.* [2]* [3] V-1 attacks will continue through June.
: Operation Overlord is postponed 24 hours due : The U.S. Naval bombardment of Saipan be-
to high seas. gins. In response, Admiral Toyoda Soemu,
5: Operation Overlord commences when more commander-in-chief of the Imperial Japanese
than 1,000 British bombers drop 5,000 tons Navy, orders his fleet to attack U.S. Navy
of bombs on German gun batteries on the forces around Saipan.
Normandy coast in preparation for D-Day. 15: U.S. Marine and Army forces invade the
And the first Allied troops land in Normandy; island of Saipan. U.S. submarines sight the
paratroopers are scattered from Caen south- Japanese fleet en-route.
ward.
: In the Pacific, the U.S. fleet transporting the 17: Free French troops land on Elba.
expeditionary forces for the invasion of Saipan 18: Elba is declared liberated.
in the Mariana Islands leaves Pearl Harbor. : Allies capture Assisi, Italy.
6: D-Day begins with the landing of 155,000 19-20: The Battle of the Philippine Sea, nick-
Allied troops on the beaches of Normandy named the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot by
in France. The Allied soldiers quickly break Americans, takes place. The United States
through the Atlantic Wall and push inland in Fifth Fleet wins a decisive naval battle over the
the largest amphibious military operation in Imperial Japanese Navy near the Mariana Is-
history. lands. Over 200 Japanese planes are shot down
7: Bayeux is liberated by British troops. while the Americans only lose 29 to enemy ac-
9: No agreement having been reached on their tion.* [2]* [3]* [16]* [17]
mutual borders, Joseph Stalin launches an of- 19: A severe Channel storm destroys one of the
fensive against Finland with the intent of de- Allies' Mulberry harbours in Normandy.
feating Finland before pushing for Berlin. : The Red Army prepares for “Operation
Bagration,”a huge offensive in Byelorussia
(White Russia).
10: At Oradour-sur-Glane (a town near Limo-
ges), France, 642 men, women, and children 20: The British take Perugia, Italy.
are killed in a German response to local Resis- : The Siege of Imphal is lifted after three
tance activities. months.
: In the Distomo massacre in Greece, 218 civil- 21: Allied offensive in Burma.
ians are killed.
22: V-1's continue to hit England, especially
12: American aircraft carriers commence air London, sometimes with horrifying losses.
strikes on the Marianas, including Saipan, : Operation Bagration: General attack by
preparing for invasion. Soviet forces to clear the German forces from
13: Germany launches a V1 Flying Bomb at- Belarus This results in the destruction of the
tack on England, in Hitler's view a kind of re- German Army Group Centre, possibly the
venge for the invasion. He believes in Ger- greatest defeat of the Wehrmacht during World
many's victory with this“secret weapon.”The War II.
126 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

: In the Burma Campaign, the Battle of Ko- 17: Field Marshal Rommel is badly wounded
hima ends with a British victory. when his car is strafed from the air in France.
23: The National Committee of the Republic 18: General Hideki Tojo resigns as chief min-
of Estonia makes a declaration“to the Estonian ister of the Japanese government as the de-
People.”The declaration was made public to feats of the Japanese military forces continue
the world press in Stockholm in July 1944 and to mount. Emperor Hirohito asks General
in Tallinn on 1 August 1944. Kuniaki Koiso to form a new government.
25: The Battle of Tali-Ihantala between : St. Lo, France is taken, and the Allied break-
Finnish and Soviet troops begins. Largest bat- out from hedgerow country in Normandy be-
tle ever to be fought in the Nordic countries. gins.
26: Cherbourg is liberated by American 19: American forces take Leghorn (Livorno),
troops. Italy far up the Italian boot.
20: The July 20 Plot is carried out by Col.
Claus von Stauffenberg in a failed attempt to
3.7.7 July 1944 assassinate Hitler. Hitler was visiting head-
quarters at Rastenburg, East Prussia. Reprisals
1: The Leningrad diarist Tanya Savicheva dies follow against the plotters and their families,
of starvation at the age of 14. Her diary of and even include Rommel.
her family's death during the siege becomes fa-
mous. 21: US Marines land on Guam.
2: V-1's continue to have devastating effects 22: Hitler gives permission to retreat from the
in South-East England in terms of material de- Narva River to the Tannenberg defence line in
struction and losses of life. the Sinimäed hills 20 km West from Narva.
3: Minsk in Belarus is liberated by Soviet 23: The Poles rise up against the Germans in
forces. the Lwow Uprising
: The Allies find themselves in the “battle of 24: Marines land on Tinian Island, last of the
the hedgerows”, as they are stymied by the Marianas (after Saipan and Guam); Tinian will
agricultural hedges in Western France which eventually be a B-29 base, and the base from
intelligence had not properly evaluated. which the atomic bombers departed.
: Siena, Italy falls to Algerian troops of the : Operation Cobra is now in full swing: the
French forces. breakout at St. Lo in Normandy with Amer-
6: Largest Banzai charge of the war: 4,300 ican troops taking Coutances.
Japanese troops are slaughtered on Saipan. : At the start of the Soviet Narva Offensive,
July 24–30, the Soviet 8th Army is beaten by
7: Soviet troops enter Vilnius, Lithuania. the Estonian 45th Regiment and East Prus-
9: After heavy resistance Caen, France is lib- sian 44th Regiment. The army detachment
erated by the British troops on the left flank of “Narwa”begins to retreat to the Tannenberg
the Allied advance. line.* [11]
: Saipan is declared secure, the Japanese hav- : Majdanek Concentration Camp is liberated
ing lost over 30,000 troops; in the last stages by Soviet forces, the first among many. The
numerous civilians commit suicide with the en- Soviet Union is now in control of several large
couragement of Japanese military. cities in Poland, including Lublin.
10: Japanese are still resisting on New Guinea. : US bombers mistakenly bomb American
: Tokyo is bombed for the first time since the troops near St. Lo, France.
Doolittle raid of April, 1942.
11: President Roosevelt announces that he will 26: The first aerial victory for a jet fighter oc-
run for an unprecedented fourth term as U.S. curs, with an Me 262 of the Luftwaffe's Ekdo
President. 262 damaging a de Havilland Mosquito recon-
naissance aircraft of the Royal Air Force's No.
12: Hitler rejects General Field Marshal 540 Squadron RAF.
Walther Modelʼs proposal to withdraw the : The Leningrad Front's Narva Offensive cap-
German forces from Estonia and Northern tures the town.* [11]
Latvia and retreat to the Daugava River.
27 July to 10 August: Battles on the Tannen-
13: The Soviets take Vilnius, Lithuania. berg Line. At the start of the battles there are
: The Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive begins. 25 Estonian and 24 Dutch, Danish and Flem-
16: First troops of the Brazilian Expeditionary ish infantry battalions on the German side at the
Force (FEB) arrive in Italy Narva Front. The artillery forces, and the tank,
3.7. 1944 TIMELINE 127

engineer and other special units are composed Philippines and turns down Admiral Chester
mainly of Germans. The attack by the Soviet W. Nimitz's plan to invade Taiwan.* [2]
Armed Forces is stopped, tens of thousands of 10: Guam is liberated by American troops; all
men are killed in both sides. of the Marianas are now in American hands.
28: The Red Army take Brest-Litovsk, the site They will be turned into a major air and naval
of the Russo-German peace treaty in World centre against the Japanese homeland.
War I. 14: The failure of the Allies to close the Falaise
: The first operational use of the Me 163B pocket in France proves advantageous to the
Komet rocket fighter occurs by units of JG 400 Germans fleeing to the east who escape the pin-
in defense of the Leuna synthetic fuel facilities, cer movement of the Allies.
the Third Reich's largest synthetic fuels com- : A clash between Italian POWs and American
plex. servicemen ends in the Fort Lawton Riot
29: A decisive day in the Battle of Narva, al- 15: Operation Dragoon begins, marked by am-
lowing the German army detachment“Narwa” phibious Allied landings in southern France.
, including Estonian conscript formations to : The Allies reach the“Gothic Line”, the last
delay the Soviet Baltic Offensive for another German strategic position in North Italy.
one and a half months.* [11]
18: Following the assassination of a collabora-
tionist politician in Belgium by the resistance,
3.7.8 August 1944 20 civilians are massacred in Courcelles by
paramilitaries in retaliation.
1: The Second Warsaw Uprising, this time by : The Red Army reaches the East Prussian bor-
the Polish Home Army, begins: the Polish peo- der.
ple rise up, expecting aid from the approaching 19: The French Resistance begins an uprising
Soviet Union armies, but it never comes. in Paris, partly inspired by the Allied approach
: The Red Army isolates the Baltic States from to the Seine River.
East Prussia by taking Kaunas. : In a radio broadcast, Jüri Uluots, the act-
: The Americans complete the capture of the ing Head of State of Estonia, calls the Es-
island of Tinian. tonian conscripts to hold the Soviet Armed
3: Myitkyina, in northern Burma, falls to the Forces back until a peace treaty with Germany
Allies (the Americans and Chinese under Stil- is signed.
well), after a vigorous defence by the Japanese.
4: Florence is liberated by the Allies, particu-
larly British and South African troops. Before
exiting, the Germans under General Albert
Kesselring destroy some historic bridges and
historically valuable buildings.
: Rennes, France, is liberated by American
forces.
5: The Cowra breakout: Japanese POWs es-
cape from an Australian prison near Cowra,
New South Wales. Two guards are killed and
posthumously awarded the George Cross (See:
)
6: Germans round up young men in Krakow to
stop the potential Kraków Uprising.
: Ukrainian insurgents kill 42 Polish civilians Polish Boy Scouts played an important role in the Warsaw Up-
rising
in the Baligród massacre.
7: First trials of the bomb conspirators against
Hitler begin in a court presided over by notori- 20: The Red Army relaunches its offensive into
ous Judge Roland Freisler. Romania.
8: Plotters in the bomb plot against Hitler are 21: The Dumbarton Oaks Conference begins,
hanged and their bodies hung on meat hooks. setting up the basic structure of the United Na-
Reprisals against their families continue. tions.
9: President Roosevelt chooses general Gen- 22: The Japanese are now in total retreat from
eral Douglas MacArthur's plan to invade the India.
128 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

23: Romania breaks with the Axis, surrenders 9: The first V-2 rocket lands on London.
to the Soviet Union, and joins the Allies. : Charles de Gaulle forms the Provisional Gov-
24: 168 Allied airmen arrive at Buchenwald ernment of the French Republic in France
concentration camp. : The Fatherland Front of Bulgaria overthrows
the national government and declares war on
25: Paris is liberated; De Gaulle and Germany.* [2]
Free French parade triumphantly down the
Champs-Élysées. The German military dis- 10: Luxembourg is liberated by U.S. First
obeys Hitler's orders to burn the city. Mean- Army.
while the southern Allied forces move up from : Two Allied forces meet at Dijon, cutting
the Riviera, take Grenoble and Avignon. France in half.
: First Allied troops enter Germany, entering
28: The Germans surrender at Toulon and Aachen, a city on the border.
Marseilles, in southern France. : Dutch railway workers go on strike. The Ger-
: Patton's tanks cross the Marne. man response results in the Dutch famine of
29: The anti-German Slovak National Uprising 1944.
starts in Slovakia. 11: United States XXI Corps arrives in Euro-
30: The Allies enter Rouen, in northwestern pean Theater.
France. 12: The Second Quebec Conference (code-
31: American forces turn over the government named “Octagon”) begins: Roosevelt and
of France to Free French troops. Churchill discuss military cooperation in the
: The Soviet army enters Bucharest. Pacific and the future of Germany.* [19]
13: American troops reach the Siegfried Line,
the west wall of Germany's defence system.
3.7.9 September 1944
1: Canadian troops capture Dieppe, France.
2: Allied troops enter Belgium.
3: Brussels is liberated by the British Second
Army.
: Lyon is liberated by French and American
troops.
4: A cease fire takes effect between Finland and
the USSR.* [2]* [3]* [18]
: Operation Outward ends.
5: Antwerp is liberated by British 11th Ar-
moured Division and local resistance.
: The uprising in Warsaw continues; Red Army
forces are available for relief and reinforce-
ment, but are apparently unable to move with-
out Stalin's order. Waves of paratroops land in the Netherlands during Operation
: United States III Corps arrives in European Market Garden in September 1944.
Theater.
: The Belgian, Dutch and Luxembourgish gov- 14: Soviet Baltic Offensive commences.
ernments in exile sign the London Customs
Convention, laying the foundations for the 15: American Marines land on Peleliu in the
Benelux economic union. Palau Islands; a bloody battle of attrition con-
tinues for two and a half months.
6: The “blackout”is diminished to a “dim-
out”as threat of invasion and further bombing 16: The Red Army enters Sofia, Bulgaria.
seems an unlikely possibility. 17: Operation Market Garden, the attempted
: Ghent and Liège are liberated by British liberation of Arnhem and turning of the Ger-
troops. man flank begins.
8: Ostend is liberated by Canadian troops. : British and commonwealth forces enter neu-
: Soviet troops enter Bulgaria.* [3] tral San Marino and engage German forces in
: The Belgian government in exile returns to a small-scale conflict which ends Sept. 20.
Belgium from London where it has spent the 18: Brest, France, an important Channel port,
war. falls to the Allies.
3.7. 1944 TIMELINE 129

: Jüri Uluots proclaims the Government of Es- the USSR.* [2]* [3]
tonia headed by Deputy Prime Minister Otto : Soviet troops enter Yugoslavia.
Tief.* [20]
2: Germans finally succeed in putting down the
19: The Moscow Armistice is signed between Warsaw Uprising by the Polish Home Army.
the Soviet Union and Finland, bringing the The Soviet armies never moved to assist the
Continuation War to a close.* [3] Polish.
: Nancy liberated by U.S. First Army : American troops are now in a full-scale attack
20: The Government of Estonia seizes the gov- on the German “West Wall”.
ernment buildings of Toompea from the Ger- : Allied forces land on Crete.
man forces and appeals to the Soviet Union for 5: Canadian troops cross the border into the
the independence of Estonia.* [20] Netherlands.
: United States XVI Corps arrives in European : The Red Army enters Hungary and also
Theater. launch an offensive to capture Riga, Latvia.
21: British forces take Rimini, Italy. 6: Soviet and Czechoslovak troops enter north-
: The Second Dumbarton Oaks Conference be- eastern Slovakia.
gins: it will set guidelines for the United Na- : The Battle of Debrecen begins as German
tions. and Soviet forces advance against each other
: In Belgium, Charles of Flanders is sworn in in eastern Hungary.
as Prince-Regent while a decision is delayed
about whether King Leopold III can ever return 9: The Moscow Conference (1944) begins:
to his functions after being accused of collab- Churchill and Stalin discuss spheres of influ-
oration.* [21] ence in the postwar Balkans.
: San Marino declares war on the Axis 10: The Red Army reach the Niemen River in
: The Government of Estonia prints a few Prussia and continue the battle around Riga.
hundred copies of the Riigi Teataja (State : The Allied combined forces take Corinth,
Gazette) and is forced to flee under Soviet pres- Greece.
sure.* [22]
12: Athens is liberated by the EAM.
22: The Red Army takes Tallinn, the first : US Navy carriers attack Formosa (Taiwan).
Baltic harbour outside the minefields of the : United States XXIII Corps Arrives in the Eu-
Gulf of Finland. ropean Theater.
: The Germans surrender at Boulogne.
14: British troops enter Athens.
23: Americans take Ulithi atoll in the Caroline : Field Marshal Rommel, under suspicion as
Islands; it is a massive atoll that will later be- one of the“bomb plotters”voluntarily commits
come an important naval base. suicide to save his family. He is later buried
24: The Red Army is well into Poland at this with full military honors.
time.
15: Hungarian regent Miklós Horthy is over-
25: British troops pull out of Arnhem with thrown by the Germans, who replace him with
the failure of Operation Market Garden. Over Ferenc Szálasi.* [2]* [3]
6,000 paratroopers are captured. Hopes of an : Allied bombardment of Aachen continues,
early end to the war are abandoned. the first major battle on German soil.
: United States IX Corps arrives in Pacific The-
ater. 16: The Red Army and Yugoslav partisans un-
der the command of Josip Broz Tito liberate
26: There are signs of civil war in Greece as Belgrade. The Red Army forces are also in
the Communist-controlled National Liberation East Prussia.
Front and the British-backed government seem
irreconcilable. 18: Hitler orders a call-up of all men from 16
to 60 for Home Guard duties.
30: The German garrison in Calais surrenders
to Canadian troops. At one time, Hitler thought 20: The Battle of Leyte: U.S. forces land
it would be the focus of the cross-Channel in- on Leyte, Philippines. MacArthur lands and
vasion. states: “I have returned”.* [2]* [3]* [23]
21: Aachen is occupied by U.S. First Army; it
is the first major German city to be captured.
3.7.10 October 1944
23-26: The Battle of Leyte Gulf: The United
1: A Hungarian delegation arrives in States Third Fleet and the United States Sev-
Moscow to negotiate an armistice with enth Fleet win a decisive naval battle over the
130 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

Imperial Japanese Navy in the Philippine Is- goes to Berlin, where he will soon establish
lands.* [3] himself at the bunker.
23: The Allies recognise General de Gaulle 23: Metz, France is taken, and Strasbourg, in
as the head of a provisional government of eastern France, is liberated by French troops.
France. 24: The first B-29 originating from Tinian, in
: B-29's are now using Tinian Island, in the the Marianas, raid Tokyo.
Marianas, as a base for the systematic bomb- : The USS Intrepid is hit by kamikazes for the
ing of Japan. Soviet forces in cooperation with third time; other American ships are heavily
Tito's Partizan forces, liberated Novi Sad in damaged.
Yugoslavia.
25: Japanese take Nanning in south China, as
25: Romania is fully liberated by Red Army the war in that theatre continues.
and Romanian troops.
26: The war in Italy is at a stalemate, partly
27: The Battle of Hürtgen Forest is developing. because of heavy rains.
It will continue through October and Novem- Heinrich Himmler orders the crematoriums
ber and have its last spasms in December. and gas chambers of Auschwitz II-Birkenau
dismantled and blown up.
3.7.11 November 1944 28: Antwerp is now a major supply port for the
onward moving Allies.
1: British forces occupy Salonika, Greece, and 30: Kunming, China, an important air base, is
distribute food in Athens, which is experienc- threatened by Japanese attacks.
ing famine. : United States XXII Corps Arrives in Euro-
: "Operation Infatuate", an Allied attempt to pean Theater.
free the approaches to Antwerp begins; am- : The Thiaroye Massacre begins in French
phibious landings take place on Walcheren Is- West Africa
land.
2: Canadian troops take Zeebrugge in Belgium;
Belgium is now entirely liberated. 3.7.12 December 1944
4: Remaining Axis forces withdraw from the 3:The British army and the police shot un-
Greek mainland. German occupation forces armed protestors in Athens, the crowd carried
will remain in several Greek islands until ca- Greek, American, British and Soviet flags, and
pitulation. chanted: “Viva Churchill, Viva Roosevelt,
British Gen. John Dill dies in Washington, Viva Stalinʼ"
D.C., and is buried in Arlington National 3: The Dekemvriana (“December events”)
Cemetery, the only foreigner to be so honored begin in the Greek capital, Athens, between
at the time. members of the leftist National Liberation
5: US planes bomb Singapore. Front and government forces, backed by the
: Zionist terrorists assassinate the British gov- British. The clashes are limited to Athens how-
ernment representative in the Middle East. ever, and the rest of the country remains rela-
tively tranquil.
6: Franklin Delano Roosevelt wins a fourth : The British Home Guard is stood down.
term as U.S. president.
: The aircraft carrier USS Lexington is heavily 5: The Allies are now in control of Ravenna,
damaged by kamikaze attacks. Italy.
8: The softening up bombardment of Iwo Jima
9: General Patton's troops and tanks cross the
begins.
Moselle River and threaten Metz.
14: Japanese defenders in Palawan in the
10: V-2 rockets continue to hit Britain, at the
Philippines kill over 100 American POW's in
rate of about eight a day.
the Palawan Massacre.* [2]* [3]
12: After numerous bombings while anchored : Units of Air Group 80 from USS Ticonderoga
in a fjord at Tromso, Norway, the German bat- flew seven strikes against Japanese positions in
tleship Tirpitz is sunk. northern Luzon in the Philippine.* [2]
17: The Germans give up Tirana, Albania 15: Americans and Filipinos land troops at
which is liberated by local partisans. Mindoro island in the Philippines.* [2]* [3]
20: Hitler leaves his wartime headquarters at 16: The Battle of the Bulge begins as German
Rastenberg, East Prussia, never to return; he forces attempt a breakthrough in the Ardennes
3.7. 1944 TIMELINE 131

region. The main object of Hitler's plan is the [4] “Monday, January 17, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved
retaking of Antwerp. 2014-02-20.
17: The Malmedy massacre: SS troops execute [5] “Saturday, January 22, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved
86 American prisoners in the Ardennes offen- 2014-02-19.
sive. The SS troops are led by SS commander
Joachim Peiper. [6] “Tuesday, February 15, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved
: Typhoon Cobra hits the Third Fleet of Admi- 2014-02-20.
ral Halsey; three destroyers capsize and almost [7] David M. Glantz (2001). The Soviet-German War 1941-
800 lives are lost. 1945: Myths and Realities (PDF). Glemson, South Car-
18: Bastogne, an important crossroads, is sur- olina: Strom Thurmond Institute of Government and Pub-
rounded. lic Affairs, Clemson University.

20: General Anthony McAuliffe's famous mes- [8] “Friday, March 3, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved 2014-
sage of “Nuts”is sent to German officers at 02-19.
Bastogne demanding surrender.
[9] Estonian State Commission on Examination of Policies
22: The battle for Bastogne is at its height, with of Repression (2005). The White Book: Losses inflicted
Americans running low on ammunition. on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes. 1940–1991
23: The skies clear over the Ardennes, per- (PDF). Estonian Encyclopedia Publishers.
mitting Allied aircraft to begin their attacks on [10] “Wednesday, March 15, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved
the German offensive, the one factor that Hitler 2014-02-20.
feared in his planning.
[11] Toomas Hiio (2006). Combat in Estonia in 1944. In:
24: The American counter-attack at the Toomas Hiio, Meelis Maripuu, Indrek Paavle (Eds.). Es-
“Bulge”begins. tonia 1940–1945: Reports of the Estonian International
: The Belgian transport ship SS Leopoldville is Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Hu-
sunk off the coast of France. More than 800 manity. Tallinn.
lives, predominantly those of American ser-
vicemen, are lost. [12] Werner Haupt (1997). Army group North: the Wehrma-
: Manchester is attacked by V1 flying bombs cht in Russia, 1941-1945. Atglen, Philadelphia: Schiffer
Books.
26: The siege of Bastogne is broken, and with
it the Ardennes offensive proves a failure. [13] “Thursday, May 11, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved 2014-
: Racial tensions within the US military boil 02-20.
over into the Agana race riot on Guam
[14] “Saturday, May 13, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved 2014-
28: Churchill and his Foreign Secretary 03-27.
Anthony Eden are in Athens in an attempt to
reconcile the warring factions. [15] “Thursday, May 25, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved 2014-
02-19.
29: Soviet troops begin the Siege of Bu-
dapest.* [2]* [3] [16] “The Marianas Turkey Shoot”. andrew.etherington. Re-
trieved 2014-03-05.
31: The Soviet-backed Hungarian Provi-
sional Government declares war on Ger- [17] “Monday, June 19, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved 2014-
many.* [2]* [3] 03-05.

[18] “Monday, September 4, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved

3.7.13 See also 2014-03-24.

[19] “BBC - WW2 People's War - Timeline”. bbc.co.uk.

• Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War
Retrieved 2014-09-11.
II
[20] By Royal Institute of International Affairs. Information
Dept. Published 1945
3.7.14 Notes and references
[21] D.D. (27 September 1944). “Le Prince Charles est
[1] Bowerman, Thomas R.“Record Breakers”. World War II nommé Regent de la Belgique”. Le Soir Illustré.
U.S. Navy Armed Guard and World War II U.S. Merchant
Marine. Project Liberty Ship. Retrieved 5 March 2016. [22] Chronology of Events in 1939–1945 Estonia 1940–1945.
Reports of the Estonian International Commission for the
[2] “1944 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2014-02-19. Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity

[3] “Chronology of World War Two”. andrew.etherington. [23] “Friday, October 20, 1944”. onwar.com. Retrieved
Retrieved 2014-02-19. 2014-03-05.
132 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

3.7.15 External links 12: The East Prussian Offensive, a major Red
Army offensive in East Prussia, begins on Jan-
• Timeline of WWII uary 13th.
13: 1st Byelorussian Front launched its win-
• Documents of World War II ter offensive towards Pillkallen, East Prussia,
meeting heavy resistance from the German 3rd
• World War II Timeline
Panzer Army.* [1]
14: British forces clear the Roer Triangle dur-
ing Operation Blackcock; it is an area noted for
3.8 1945 timeline its industrial dams.
15: Hitler is now firmly ensconced in the
This is a timeline of the events that stretched over the bunker in Berlin with his companion Eva
period of World War II from January 1945 to its con- Braun.
clusion. : The British commander in Athens, General
Ronald Scobie, accepts a request for a cease-
fire from the Greek People's Liberation Army.
3.8.1 January 1945 This marks the end of the Dekemvriana, result-
ing in clear defeat for the Greek Left.
1: The Germans begin a surprise offensive
(Operation Nordwind) in northern Alsace. 16: The U.S. First and Third Armies link up
: Unternehmen Bodenplatte is launched by the following the Battle of the Bulge.
Luftwaffe against western Allied air bases in 17: Warsaw is entered by Red Army
Belgium and Holland by elements of ten dif- troops.* [1]* [2] A government favourable to the
ferent Jagdgeschwadern (fighter wings), as its Communists is installed.
last major air offensive of the war in the West. : It is announced officially that the Battle of the
: American troops kill dozens of German Bulge is at an end.
POWs at Chenogne 19: Hitler orders that any retreats of divisions
2: 46 American B-29 bombers based near or larger units must be approved by him.
Calcutta, India attacked a railroad bridge near 20: The Red Army advances into East Prussia.
Bangkok, Thailand and other targets in the Germans renew the retreat.
area.* [1] : Franklin D. Roosevelt is sworn in for a fourth
: The Japanese increasingly use kamikaze tac- term as U.S. President; Harry Truman is sworn
tics against the US naval forces nearby. in as Vice President.
3: The Allies take the offensive east of the 25: The American navy bombards Iwo Jima in
Bulge but they fail to close the pincers (which preparation for an invasion.
might have surrounded large numbers of Ger- : The Allies officially win the Battle of the
mans) with Patton's tanks. Bulge.
4: US navy air attacks on Formosa (Taiwan) 27: Auschwitz concentration camp is entered
by Soviet troops.* [1]* [2]
5: The German offensive Nordwind crosses the
border into Alsace. 28: The Red Army completes the occupation
: Japanese retreat across the Irrawaddy River in of Lithuania.
Burma with General Slim's troops in pursuit. 31: The Red Army crosses the Oder River into
6: American B-29's bomb Tokyo again. Germany and are now less than 50 miles from
Berlin.
7: Germans, as part of the plan to retake : A second invasion on Luzon by Americans
Strasbourg, break out of the "Colmar Pocket", lands on the west coast.
a bridgehead on the Rhine, and head east. : The whole Burma Road is now opened as the
8: The battle of Strasbourg is underway, with Ledo Road linkage with India is complete.
Americans in defence of their recent acquisi-
tion.
3.8.2 February 1945
9: Americans land on Luzon.* [1]* [2] There are
more kamikaze attacks on the American navy. 1: Ecuador declares war on Germany and
11: The first convoy moves on the Ledo (or Japan.
“Stilwell”) road in northern Burma, linking In- 2: Naval docks at Singapore are destroyed by
dia and China. B-29 attacks.
3.8. 1945 TIMELINE 133

3: The Battle of Manila (1945) begins: Forces : The allies attempted to destroy V-2s and
of the U.S. and Philippines enter Manila. The launching equipment near The Hague by a
Manila massacre takes place during the fight- large-scale bombardment, but due to naviga-
ing. tional errors the Bezuidenhout quarter was de-
: Heavy bombing of Berlin. stroyed, killing 511 Dutch civilians.
4: The Yalta Conference of Roosevelt, 4: Finland declares war on Germany, back-
Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin be- dated to September 15, 1944.
gins;* [1]* [2] the main subject of their discus- 6: Germans launch an offensive against Soviet
sions is postwar spheres of influence. forces in Hungary.
: Belgium is now cleared of all German forces.
7: The Battle of Remagen: When German
8: Paraguay declares war on Germany and troops fail to dynamite the Ludendorff Bridge
Japan. over the Rhine, the U.S. First Army captures
9: The Colmar Pocket, the last German the bridge and begins crossing the river. The
foothold west of the Rhine, is eliminated by the Army also takes Cologne, Germany.* [1]* [3]
French 1st Army. : Germans begin to evacuate Danzig.
12: Peru declares war on Germany and Japan. 9: The US firebombs a number of cities in
13: The Battle of Budapest ends with Soviet Japan, including Tokyo, with heavy civilian ca-
victory, after a long defence by the Germans. sualties.
: Amid rumours of a possible American in-
13/14: The bombing of Dresden takes place; vasion, Japanese overthrow the Vichy French
it is firebombed by Allied air forces and large Jean Decoux Government which had been op-
parts of the historic city are destroyed. erating independently as the colonial govern-
14: The 1945 Bombing of Prague: American ment of Vietnam: they proclaim an“indepen-
planes bomb the wrong city. dent”Empire of Vietnam, with Emperor Bảo
15: Venezuela declares war on Germany and Đại as nominal ruler. Premier Trần Trọng Kim
Japan. forms the first Vietnamese government.
16: American paratroopers and Philippine 10: Japanese Fugo Attacks damage the Man-
Commonwealth troops land on Corregidor Is- hattan Project slightly but cause no lasting ef-
land, in Manila Bay. Once the scene of the last fects
American resistance in early 1942, it is now the 11: Nagoya, Japan is firebombed by hundreds
scene of Japanese resistance. of B-29's.
: American naval vessels bombard Tokyo and 15: V-2 rockets continue to hit England and
Yokohama. Belgium.
19: U.S. Marines invade Iwo Jima. 16: The German offensive in Hungary ends
23: U.S. Marines raise the American flag on with another Soviet victory.
Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima. : Iwo Jima is finally secured after a month's
24: Massive bombing of Germany by approxi- fighting;the battle is the only time that the num-
mately 9,000 bombers. ber of American casualties is larger than the
: Egypt declares war on the Axis. Japanese's. Sporadic fighting will continue as
isolated Japanese fighters emerge from caves
25: US incendiary raids on Japan. and tunnels.
: Turkey declares war on Germany and Japan.
: After ten days of fighting, American and Fil- 18: Red Army approaches Danzig (postwar
ipino troops recapture Corregidor. Gdańsk).
26: Syria declares war on Germany and Japan. 19: Heavy bombing of important naval bases
in Japan, Kobe and Kure.
28: A Philippine government is established. : Deutsch Schutzen massacre occurs, in which
: U.S. and Filipino forces invade Palawan, an 60 Jews are killed.
island of the Philippines.
20: German General Gotthard Heinrici re-
places Heinrich Himmler as commander of
3.8.3 March 1945 Army Group Vistula, the army group directly
opposing the Soviet advance towards Berlin.
3: Manila is fully liberated.* [1]* [2] : Mandalay liberated by Indian 19th Infantry
: Battle of Meiktila, Burma comes to an end Division.
with General Slim's troops overwhelming the : Tokyo is firebombed again.
Japanese; the road to Rangoon is now cleared. : Patton's troops capture Mainz, Germany.
134 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

21: British air raid on a Gestapo headquarters : A heavy bombing at Kiel by the RAF destroys
in Copenhagen, Denmark, in support of the the last two major German warships.
Danish resistance movement takes place. : Pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer is executed at
22-23: US and British forces cross the Rhine Flossenburg prison.
at Oppenheim. 10: Buchenwald concentration camp is liber-
23: By this time it is clear that Germany is un- ated by American forces.
der attack from all sides. 11: Japanese kamikaze attacks on American
24: Montgomery's troops cross the Rhine at naval ships continue at Okinawa; the carrier
Wesel. Enterprise and the battleship Missouri are hit.
: Spain breaks off diplomatic relations with
27: The Western Allies slow their advance and Japan.
allow the Red Army to take Berlin.
12: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies
28: Argentina declares war on Germany, the
suddenly. Harry S. Truman becomes president
last Western hemisphere country to do so; its
of the United States.
policies for sheltering escaping Nazis are also
coming under scrutiny. Argentina had not de- 13: The Vienna Offensive ends with a Soviet
clared war before due to British wishes that victory.
Argentine shipping be neutral (and therefore 14: Large-scale firebombing of Tokyo.
Argentine foodstuffs would reach Britain un-
harmed), this, however, went against the plan 15: Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is lib-
of the USA, who applied much political pres- erated by the British Army.
sure on Argentina. 16: The Battle of the Seelow Heights and the
29: The Red Army enters Austria. Other Allies Battle of the Oder-Neisse begin as the Soviets
take Frankfurt; the Germans are in a general continue to advance towards the city of Berlin.
retreat all over the centre of the country. 18: Ernie Pyle, famed war correspondent for
30: Red Army forces capture Danzig. the GIs, is killed by a sniper on Ie Shima, a
small island near Okinawa.
31: General Eisenhower broadcasts a demand
for the Germans to surrender. 19: Switzerland closes its borders with Ger-
many (and the former Austria).
: Allies continue their sweep toward the Po
3.8.4 April 1945 Valley.
: The Soviet advance towards the city of Berlin
1: U.S. troops start Operation Iceberg, which continues and soon reaches the suburbs.
is the Battle of Okinawa. It would have been a
leaping off base for a mainland invasion.
: Americans retake Legaspi, Albay in the
Philippines.
2: Soviets launch the Vienna Offensive against
German forces in and around the Austrian cap-
ital city.
: German armies are surrounded in the Ruhr
region.
4: Bratislava, the capital of the Slovak Repub-
lic, is overrun by advancing Soviet forces. The
remaining members of Prime Minister Jozef
Tiso's pro-German government flee to Austria.
: The Ohrdruf death camp is liberated by the
Allies. Happy 2nd Lt. William Robertson and Lt. Alexander Sylvashko,
6: The Spring 1945 offensive in Italy begins in Red Army, shown in front of sign“East Meets West”symbolizing
the historic meeting of the Red Army and American armies, near
northern Italy.
Torgau, Germany on Elbe Day.
7: The Japanese battleship Yamato is sunk in
the North of Okinawa as the Japanese make
their last major naval operation. 20: Hitler celebrates his 56th birthday in the
9: The Battle of Königsberg ends in a Soviet bunker in Berlin; reports are that he is in an
victory. unhealthy state, nervous, and depressed.
3.8. 1945 TIMELINE 135

21: Soviet forces under Georgiy Zhukov's (1st 27: The encirclement of German forces in
Belorussian Front), Konstantin Rokossovskiy's Berlin is completed by the 1st Belorussian
(2nd Belorussian Front) and Ivan Konev's (1st Front and the 1st Ukrainian Front.
Ukrainian Front) launch assaults on the Ger- 28: Head of State for the Italian Social Repub-
man forces in and around the city of Berlin in lic, Benito Mussolini, heavily disguised, is cap-
the opening stages of the Battle of Berlin. tured in northern Italy while trying to escape.
: Hitler orders SS-General Felix Steiner to Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci, are
attack the 1st Belorussian Front and destroy shot and hanged in Milan the next day. Other
it. The ragtag units of "Army Detachment members of his puppet government are also ex-
Steiner" are not fully manned. ecuted by Italian partisans and their bodies put
22: Hitler is informed late in the day that, with on display in Milan.
the approval of Gotthard Heinrici, Steiner's at- 29: Dachau concentration camp is liberated by
tack was never launched. Instead, Steiner's the U.S. 7th Army.
forces were authorised to retreat. In response, : All forces in Italy officially surrender and a
Hitler launches a furious tirade against the per- ceasefire is declared.
ceived treachery and incompetence of his mil- : Allied air forces commence Operations
itary commanders in front of Wilhelm Keitel, Manna and Chowhound, providing food aid to
Hans Krebs, Alfred Jodl, Wilhelm Burgdorf the Netherlands under a truce made with occu-
and Martin Bormann. Hitler's tirade culmi- pying German forces.
nates in an oath to stay in Berlin to head up : Hitler marries his companion Eva Braun.
the defence of the city. Hitler orders Gen-
eral Walther Wenck to attack towards Berlin 30: Hitler and his wife commit suicide, he by
with the Twelfth Army, link up with the Ninth a combination of poison and a gunshot. Be-
Army of General Theodor Busse, and relieve fore he dies, he dictates his last will and testa-
the city. Wenck launched an attack, but it will ment. In it Joseph Goebbels is appointed Reich
come to nothing. Chancellor and Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz is
appointed Reich President.
23: Hermann Göring sends a radiogram to
Hitler's bunker, asking to be declared Hitler's
successor. He proclaims that if he gets no re- 3.8.5 May 1945
sponse by 10 PM, he will assume Hitler is inca-
pacitated and assume leadership of the Reich. 1: German General Hans Krebs negotiates the
Furious, Hitler strips him of all his offices and surrender of the city of Berlin with Soviet Gen-
expels him from the Nazi Party. eral Vasily Chuikov. Chuikov, as comman-
: Albert Speer makes one last visit to Hitler, in- der of the Soviet 8th Guards Army, commands
forming him that he (Speer) ignored the Nero the Soviet forces in central Berlin. Krebs is
Decree for scorched earth. not authorized by Reich Chancellor Goebbels
24: Himmler, ignoring the orders of Hitler, to agree to an unconditional surrender, so his
makes a secret surrender offer to the Allies, negotiations with Chuikov end with no agree-
(led by Count Folke Bernadotte, head of the ment.
Red Cross), provided that the Red Army is not : Goebbels and his wife kill their children and
involved. The offer is rejected; when Hitler commit suicide.
hears of the betrayal on the 28th, he orders : Yugoslavian Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito
Himmler shot. and his troops capture Trieste, Italy. New
: Forces of the 1st Belorussian Front and the Zealand troops play a supporting role.
1st Ukrainian Front link up in the initial encir- : The war in Italy is over but some German
clement of Berlin. troops are still not accounted for.
: Allies encircle the last German armies near : Australian troops land on Tarakan island off
Bologna, and the Italian war in effect comes to the coast of Borneo
an end. 2: Soviet forces capture the Reichstag building
25: Elbe Day: First contact between Soviet and and install the Soviet flag.
American troops at the river Elbe, near Torgau : The Battle of Berlin ends when German
in Germany. General Helmuth Weidling, commander of the
26: Hitler summons Field Marshal Robert Rit- Berlin Defence Area, (and no longer bound by
ter von Greim from Munich to Berlin to take Goebbels commands), unconditionally surren-
over command of the Luftwaffe from Göring. ders the city of Berlin to Soviet General Vasily
While flying into Berlin, von Greim is seriously Chuikov.
wounded by Soviet anti-aircraft fire. 3: Rangoon is liberated.
136 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

: The German cruiser Admiral Hipper is scut- : In accordance with orders Dönitz, Colonel-
tled, having been hit heavily by the RAF in General Carl Hilpert unconditionally surren-
April. ders his troops in the Courland Pocket.
: Éamon de Valera, Taoiseach (prime minis- : Germany surrenders again unconditionally
ter) of Ireland, offers regrets for Hitler's death to the Soviet Union army but this time in a
to German officialdom. ceremony hosted by the Soviet Union. In ac-
4: Karl Dönitz orders all U-boats to cease op- cordance with orders from Dönitz, General
erations. Wilhelm Keitel signs for Germany.
: German troops in Denmark, Northern : The remaining members of the Prime Min-
Germany and The Netherlands surrender to ister Jozef Tiso's pro-German Slovak Repub-
Montgomery. lic capitulates to the American General Walton
: Neuengamme concentration camp is liber- Walker's XX Corps in Kremsmünster, Austria.
ated. : The Prague uprising ends with negotiated sur-
render with Czech resistance which allowed the
5: Formal negotiations for Germany's surren- Germans in Prague to leave the city.
der begin at Reims, France. : In order to disarm the Japanese in Vietnam,
: Czech resistance fighters begin the Prague up- the Allies divide the country in half at the 16th
rising and the Soviets begin the Prague Offen- parallel. Chinese Nationalists will move in and
sive. disarm the Japanese north of the parallel while
: German troops in the Netherlands officially the British will move in and do the same in the
surrender; Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands south. During the conference, representatives
accepts the surrender. from France request the return of all French
: Mauthausen concentration camp is liberated. pre-war colonies in Indochina. Their request is
: Kamikazes have major successes off Oki- granted.
nawa.
: Japanese Fire balloons claim their first and 9: The Soviet Union officially pronounces May
only lives̶a Sunday school group in Bly, Ore- 9 as Victory Day.
gon. : The Red Army enters Prague.
: The German garrison in the Channel Islands
6: German soldiers open fire on a crowd cele-
agree to unconditional surrender.
brating the liberation in Amsterdam.
: German troops on Bornholm surrender to So-
: This date marks the last fighting for American
viet troops.
troops in Europe.
11: The Soviets capture Prague, the last major
city to be liberated, though the war is over.
Eisenhower stops Patton from participating in
the liberation.
: German Army Group Centre in
Czechoslovakia surrenders.
: War in New Guinea continues, with
Australians attacking Wewak.
14: Nagoya, Japan, is heavily bombed.
: Fighting in the southern Philippines contin-
ues.
14–15: The Battle of Poljana, the last major
battle of World War II in Europe, is fought.
The front page of The Montreal Daily Star announcing the Ger-
20: Georgian Uprising of Texel ends, conclud-
man surrender. May 7, 1945
ing hostilities in Europe.
23: British forces capture and arrest the mem-
7: Germany surrenders unconditionally to the bers of what was left of the Flensburg gov-
Allies at the Western Allied Headquarters in ernment. This was the German government
Rheims, France at 2:41 a.m. In accordance formed by Reich President Karl Dönitz after
with orders from Reich President Karl Dönitz, the suicides of both Adolf Hitler and Joseph
General Alfred Jodl signs for Germany. Goebbels.
: Hermann Göring, for a while in the hands of : Heavy bombing of Yokohama, an important
the SS, surrenders to the Americans. port and naval base.
8: Victory in Europe Day: The ceasefire takes : Heinrich Himmler, head of the notorious SS,
effect at one minute past midnight. dies of suicide via cyanide pill.
3.8. 1945 TIMELINE 137

29: Fighting breaks out in Syria and Lebanon, (later replaced by Clement Attlee), Soviet
as nationalists demand freedom from French Communist Party General Secretary Joseph
control. Stalin and U.S. President Harry S. Truman.
The Allied leaders agree to insist upon the
unconditional surrender of Japan.
3.8.6 June 1945 22: America and Japan engage in a small
bloodless skirmish in the Battle of Tokyo Bay.
2: Air Group 87 aircraft from USS Ticon-
The Japanese take slight losses
deroga strike airfields on Kyushu, Japan, in an
attempt to stop special attack aircraft from tak- 24: Truman hints at the Potsdam Conference
ing off.* [1] that the United States has nuclear weapons.
: British and Americans commence the
5: The Allies agree to divide Germany
Bombing of Kure
into four areas of control (American, British,
French and Soviet). 26: The Labour Party win the United King-
: The U.S. fleet under William Halsey, Jr., suf- dom general election by a landslide. The new
fers widespread damage from a huge Pacific United Kingdom Prime Minister Clement At-
typhoon. tlee replaces Churchill at the negotiating table
at Potsdam. The Potsdam Declaration is is-
10: Australian troops land in Brunei.
sued.
13: The Australians capture Brunei
28: The Japanese battleships Haruna and Ise
15: Osaka, Japan, is heavily bombed. are sunk by aircraft from US Task Force 38
16: The Japanese are in a general retreat in cen- while in shallow anchorage at Kure Naval Base.
tral China. 30: The USS Indianapolis is sunk shortly after
17: Japanese Admiral Ota Minoru committed midnight by a Japanese submarine after hav-
ritual suicide for failing to defend Okinawa, ing delivered atomic bomb material to Tinian.
Japan.* [1] Because of poor communications, the ship's
whereabouts are unknown for some time and
19: The United Kingdom begins
many of its men drown or are attacked by
demobilization.
sharks in the next four days.
20: Schiermonnikoog, a Dutch island, is the
31: U.S. conducts air attacks on the cities of
last part of Europe freed by Allied troops.
Kobe and Nagoya in Japan.
21: The defeat of the Japanese on Okinawa is
now complete.
26: The United Nations Charter is signed in 3.8.8 August 1945
San Francisco.
1: Ukrainian insurgents attack the police sta-
27: The first oil pump is restored at Tarakan tion in Baligrod, Poland. Polish soldiers defend
Island.* [4] the station, driving off the attackers, who torch
several houses as they retreat

3.8.7 July 1945 2: End of the Potsdam Conference: Issues such

as the expulsion of Germans from the eastern
1: Australian troops land at Balikpapan, Bor- quarter of Germany and elsewhere in eastern
neo in the Western Allies' last major land op- Europe are mandated in the Potsdam Agree-
eration of the war. ment.
5: General Douglas MacArthur announces that 6: The B-29 bomber Enola Gay drops the first
the Philippines have been liberated. atomic bomb "Little Boy" on Hiroshima.
6: Norway declares war on Japan. 8: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan; the
Soviet invasion of Manchuria begins about an
10: US Navy aircraft participate in attacks on hour later which includes landings on the Kuril
Tokyo for the first time. Islands. The Japanese have been evacuating in
14: Italy declares war on Japan. anticipation of this.
16: The U.S. conducts the Trinity test at 9: The B-29 bomber Bockscar drops the sec-
Alamogordo, New Mexico, the first test of a ond atomic bomb "Fat Man" on Nagasaki.
nuclear weapon. 14: Japanese military personnel and right-
17: The Potsdam Conference begins un- wingers attempt to overthrow their government
der British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and prevent the inevitable surrender.
138 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

: The last day of United States Force combat

actions. All units are frozen in place.

The Fat Man mushroom cloud resulting from the nuclear explo-
sion over Nagasaki rises 18 km (60,000 ft) into the air from the
hypocentre.

22: Japanese armies surrender to the Red

Army in Manchuria.
Eritrean newspaper of August 15th 1945 titles: “War is over”
27: Japanese armies in Burma surrender at
Rangoon ceremonies.
15: Emperor Hirohito issues a radio broadcast 30: Royal Navy force under Rear-Admiral
announcing the Surrender of Japan; though the Cecil Harcourt liberates Hong Kong.
surrender seems to be “unconditional”, the
Emperor's status is still open for discussion. 31: General MacArthur takes over command
: Victory over Japan Day celebrations take of the Japanese government in Tokyo.
place World-wide.
16: Emperor Hirohito issues an Imperial Re- 3.8.9 September 1945
script ordering Japanese forces to cease fire.
2: The Japanese Instrument of Surrender is
signed on the deck of the USS Missouri in
17: Indonesia declares independence from
Tokyo Bay.
Japan.
: The commander of the Imperial Japanese
: General Order No. 1 for the surrender of
Army General Tomoyuki Yamashita surren-
Japan is approved by President Truman.
ders to Filipino and American troops at
19: At a spontaneous non-communist meeting Kiangan, Ifugao in Northern Philippines.
in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh and the Viet Minh as- : Ho Chi Minh issues his Proclamation of Inde-
sume a leading role in the movement to wrest pendence, drawing heavily upon the American
power from the French. With the Japanese Declaration of Independence from a copy pro-
still in control of Indochina in the interim, Bảo vided by the Office of Strategic Services. Ho
Đại goes along because he thought that the declares himself president of the Democratic
Viet Minh were still working with the Ameri- Republic of Vietnam and pursues American
can OSS and could guarantee independence for recognition but is repeatedly ignored by Presi-
Vietnam. Later, Ho Chi Minh's guerrillas oc- dent Truman.
cupy Hanoi and proclaim a provisional govern-
5: Singapore is officially liberated by British
ment.
and Indian troops.
: Hostilities between Chinese Nationalists and
Chinese Communists break into the open. 6: The US Initial Post-Surrender Policy for
3.8. 1945 TIMELINE 139

Japan, which governs US policy in the occu- 3.8.11 November 1945

pation of Japan, is approved by Truman.
29: The prohibition against marriage between
9: The Japanese troops in China formally GIs and Austrian women was rescinded on
surrender, end of the Second Sino-Japanese November 29. Later it would be rescinded
War.* [5] for German women too. Black soldiers serv-
ing in the army were not allowed to marry
13: British forces under Major-General
white women, (in the case that they remained
Douglas Gracey's 20th Indian Division, some
in the army) so they were restricted until 1948
26,000 men in all, arrive in Saigon to disarm
when the prohibition against interracial mar-
and accept the surrender of the Japanese
riages was removed.
Occupation Forces in Vietnam south of the
16th parallel. 180,000 Chinese Nationalist
soldiers, mainly poor peasants, arrive in Hanoi 3.8.12 December 1945
to disarm and accept surrender north of the
line. After looting Vietnamese villages during 28: The US Coast Guard was transferred under
their entire march down from China, they then the US Treasury Department.* [1]
proceed to loot Hanoi.
31: The British Home Guard is disbanded.
16: The Japanese garrison in Hong Kong offi- The US prohibition against food shipments to
cially signs the instrument of surrender. Germany is rescinded.* [6] "CARE Package
shipments to individuals remained prohibited
22: The British rearm 1,400 French sol- until 5 June 1946”.* [7]
diers from Japanese internment camps around
Saigon. In Saigon, on the night of 24 septem-
ber, a mob composed of Viet-Minh miliants 3.8.13 March 1946
and sympathizers attacks french colonial ad-
ministration and kills around 150 european ?: Hồ Chí Minh accepts an Allied compro-
civilians. An estimated 20,000 French civilians mise for temporary return of 15,000 French
live in Saigon. troops to rid the North of anti-Communists.
British/Indian troops depart Vietnam and Na-
29: US General Robert Milchrist Cannon ac- tionalist Chinese troops flee to Taiwan, looting
cepts the surrender of arms from Japanese as they depart, leaving the war in Vietnam to
Navy and Army soldiers on the islands of continue with the conflict between the French
Miyako and Ishigaki at Sakishima Gunto. and the Viet Minh. As World War II ends,
starvation kills over 2 million Vietnamese.

3.8.10 October 1945

3.8.14 October 1946
1: In southern Vietnam, a purely bilateral 15: Two hours before his scheduled execution,
British/French agreement recognizes French Hermann Göring committed suicide.* [8]
administration of the southern zone. In
northern Vietnam, Chinese troops go on a
“rampage”. Hồ's Việt Minh are hopelessly ill- 3.8.15 December 1946
equipped to deal with it.
31: U.S. President Harry S. Truman declares,
The non fraternization directive for U.S. troops “Although a state of war still exists, it is at this
against German civilians was rescinded. Previ- time possible to declare, and I find it to be in the
ously even speaking to a German could lead to public interest to declare, that hostilities have
court martial, except for “small children”, terminated. Now, therefore, I, Harry S. Tru-
these had been exempt in June 1945. man, President of the United States of Amer-
ica, do hereby proclaim the cessation of hostil-
25: General Rikichi Andō, governor-general ities of World War II, effective twelve o'clock
of Taiwan and commander-in-chief of all noon, December 31, 1946.”
Japanese forces on the island, turns over Tai-
wan to General Chen Yi of the Kuomintang
(KMT) military. Chen Yi proclaims that day 3.8.16 February 1947
to be "Taiwan Retrocession Day" and orga-
nizes the island into Taiwan Province under the 10: U.S. Signs Peace treaties with Italy, Bul-
Republic of China. garia, Finland, Hungary, and Romania.
140 CHAPTER 3. COURSE OF THE WAR

3.8.17 October 1951

19: End of state of war with Germany was
granted by the U.S. Congress, after a request by
president Truman on 9 July. In the Petersberg
Agreement of November 22, 1949 it was noted
that the West German government wanted an
end to the state of war, but the request could
not be granted. The U.S. state of war with Ger-
many was being maintained for legal reasons,
and though it was softened somewhat it was not
suspended since“the U.S. wants to retain a le-
gal basis for keeping a U.S. force in Western
Germany”. The mother of a prisoner thanks Konrad Adenauer upon his re-
turn from Moscow, September 14, 1955. Adenauer has suc-
ceeded in concluding negotiations about the release to Germany,
3.8.18 May 1955 by the end of the year, of 15,000 German civilians and prisoners
of war.

Indonesian Air Force on Morotai, and surren-

ders to a search patrol.* [9]

3.8.21 September 1990

12: The United States, USSR, United King-
dom, and France, together with the govern-
ments of East and West Germany, sign the
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect
to Germany, the final treaty ending the war,
paving the way for German reunification. The
The Oder-Neisse Line (click to enlarge). Four Powers renounce all rights they formerly
held in Germany, including those regarding the
5: End of occupation of West Germany. West city of Berlin.
Berlin remained as a special territory. The
Eastern quarter of Germany remained annexed
3.8.22 March 1991
by the Allies, but Germany would not legally
accept this as a fact until in 1970 when West 15: The Treaty on the Final Settlement with
Germany signed treaties with the Soviet Union Respect to Germany goes into effect. The
(Treaty of Moscow) and Poland (Treaty of nominal military occupation of Germany by
Warsaw) recognizing the Oder-Neisse line be- the Four Powers--the last vestige of the World
tween Germany and Poland. War II Allies--ends, and German sovereignty is
restored.
3.8.19 1956
3.8.23 See also
Last major repatriation of German Prisoners of War and
German civilians who were used as forced labor by the • Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War
Allies after the war, in accordance with the agreement II
made at the Yalta conference. Most Prisoners of War
held by the U.S., France, and the U.K. had been released
by 1949. 3.8.24 Notes and references
[1] “1945 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
3.8.20 December 1974
[2] “Chronology of World War Two”. andrew.etherington.
Retrieved 2015-01-19.
18: The last known Japanese holdout, Pri-
vate Teruo Nakamura, a Taiwan-born soldier [3] “ConflictTimeLine”. onwar.com. Retrieved 2015-03-
(Amis: Attun Palalin) is discovered by the 09.
3.8. 1945 TIMELINE 141

[4] Stanley (1997) Page 175.

[5] Act of Surrender, 9 September 1945 (page visited on 3

September 2015).

[6] The U.S. Army In The Occupation of Germany 1944–

1946 by Earl F. Ziemke Footnotes to chapter 23, Fur-
ther referenced to: (1) Memo, European Section Theater
Group, OPD, for L & LD, sub: Establishment of Civilian
Director of Relief, 8 Dec 45, in OPD, ABC 336 (sec. IV)
(cases 155– ).

[7] The U.S. Army In The Occupation of Germany 1944–

1946 by Earl F. Ziemke Footnotes to chapter 23, Fur-
ther referenced to: (2) OMGUS, Control Office, Hist Br,
History of U.S. Military Government in Germany, Public
Welfare, 9 Jul 46, in OMGUS 21-3/5.

[8] “1946 Timeline”. WW2DB. Retrieved 2011-02-09.

[9] “The Last Last Soldier?", Time, January 13, 1975

3.8.25 Bibliography
• Stanley, Peter (1997). Tarakan. An Australian
Tragedy. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86448-
278-8.

3.8.26 External links

• Timeline of WWII World History Database
• Timeline of WWII

• Documents of World War II

• World War II Timeline
Chapter 4

Aftermath

4.1 Aftermath of World War II time. Also related to this was Israel gaining independence
from its previous status as part of Mandatory Palestine in
the years immediately following the war. Independence
The aftermath of World War II was the beginning of for the nations of Sub-Saharan Africa came more slowly.
a new era. It was defined by the decline of the old great
powers and the rise of two superpowers: the Soviet Union The aftermath of World War II also saw the rise of the
(USSR) and the United States of America (USA), cre- People's Republic of China, as the Chinese Communists
ating a bipolar world. Allied during World War II, the emerged victorious from the Chinese Civil War in 1949.
US and the USSR became competitors on the world stage
and engaged in what became known as the Cold War, so 4.1.1 Immediate effects
called because it never boiled over into open war between
the two powers but was focused on espionage, political
subversion and proxy wars. Western Europe and Japan
were rebuilt through the American Marshall Plan whereas
Eastern Europe fell in the Soviet sphere of influence and
rejected the plan. Europe was divided into a US-led
Western Bloc and a Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Internation-
ally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with
some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through
the Non-Aligned Movement. The Cold War also saw a
nuclear arms race between the two superpowers; part of
the reason that the Cold War never became a “hot”war
was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nu-
clear deterrents against each other, leading to a mutually
assured destruction standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created the
United Nations, a new global organization for inter-
national cooperation and diplomacy. Members of the Warsaw: Aftermath of war.
United Nations agreed to outlaw wars of aggression in an
attempt to avoid a third world war. The devastated great At the end of the war, millions of people were homeless,
powers of Western Europe formed the European Coal the European economy had collapsed, and much of the
and Steel Community, which later evolved into the Eu- European industrial infrastructure had been destroyed.
ropean Common Market and ultimately into the current The Soviet Union, too, had been heavily affected. In re-
European Union. This effort primarily began as an at- sponse, in 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall
tempt to avoid another war between Germany and France devised the “European Recovery Program”, which be-
by economic cooperation and integration, and a common came known as the Marshall Plan. Under the plan, dur-
market for important natural resources. ing 1948-1952 the United States government allocated
US$13 billion (US$138 billion in 2015 dollars) for the
The end of the war also increased the rate of reconstruction of Western Europe.
decolonization from the great powers with indepen-
dence being granted India (from the United Kingdom),
Indonesia (from the Netherlands), the Philippines (from United Kingdom
the US) and a number of Arab nations, primarily from
specific rights which had been granted to great powers By the end of the war, the economy of the United King-
from League of Nations Mandates in the post World War dom was exhausted. More than a quarter of its national
I-era but often having existed de facto well before this wealth had been spent. Until the introduction in 1941 of

142
4.1. AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR II 143

Lend-Lease aid from the US, the UK had been spend- German industry; famine and disease; conditions in So-
ing its assets to purchase American equipment including viet camps; and service in German or German-controlled
aircraft and ships - over £437 million on aircraft alone. military units fighting the Soviet Union.* [5] The popula-
Lend-lease came just before its reserves were exhausted. tion would not return to its pre-war level for 30 years.* [6]
Britain put 55% of its total labor force into war produc- Soviet ex-POWs and civilians repatriated from abroad
tion. were suspected of having been Nazi collaborators, and
In spring 1945, the Labour Party withdrew from the 226,127 of them were sent to forced labour camps after
wartime coalition government, forcing a general election. scrutiny by Soviet intelligence, NKVD. Many ex-POWs
Following a landslide victory, Labour held more than and young civilians were also conscripted to serve in the
60% of the seats in the House of Commons and formed a Red Army. Others worked in labour battalions to rebuild
new government on 26 July 1945 under Clement Attlee. infrastructure destroyed during the war.* [7]* [8]
Britain's war debt was described by some in the Ameri- The economy had been devastated. Roughly a quarter of
can administration as a“millstone round the neck of the the Soviet Union's capital resources were destroyed, and
British economy”. Although there were suggestions for industrial and agricultural output in 1945 fell far short
an international conference to tackle the issue, in August of pre-war levels. To help rebuild the country, the So-
1945 the U.S. announced unexpectedly that the Lend- viet government obtained limited credits from Britain and
Lease programme was to end immediately. Sweden; it refused assistance offered by the United States
The abrupt withdrawal of American Lend Lease support under the Marshall Plan. Instead, the Soviet Union com-
to Britain on 2 September 1945 dealt a severe blow to the pelled Soviet-occupied Eastern Europe to supply machin-
plans of the new government. It was only with the com- ery and raw materials. Germany and former Nazi satel-
pletion of the Anglo-American loan by the United States lites made reparations to the Soviet Union. The recon-
struction programme emphasised heavy industry to the
to Great Britain on 15 July 1946 that some measure of
economic stability was restored. However, the loan was detriment of agriculture and consumer goods. By 1953,
steel production was twice its 1940 level, but the produc-
made primarily to support British overseas expenditure
in the immediate post-war years and not to implement tion of many consumer goods and foodstuffs was lower
than it had been in the late 1920s.* [9]
the Labour government's policies for domestic welfare re-
forms and the nationalisation of key industries. Although The immediate post-war period in Europe was domi-
the loan was agreed on reasonable terms, its conditions in- nated by the Soviet Union annexing, or converting into
cluded what proved to be damaging fiscal conditions for Soviet Socialist Republics,* [10]* [11]* [12] all the coun-
Sterling. From 1946-1948, the UK introduced bread ra- tries captured by the Red Army driving the German in-
tioning which it never did during the war.* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4] vaders out of central and eastern Europe. New Soviet
satellite states rose in Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary,* [13]
Czechoslovakia,* [14] Romania,* [15]* [16] Albania,* [17]
Soviet Union and East Germany; the last of these was created from the
Soviet zone of occupation in Germany.* [18] Yugoslavia
emerged as an independent Communist state allied but
not aligned with the Soviet Union, owing to the inde-
pendent nature of the military victory of the Partisans of
Josip Broz Tito during World War II in Yugoslavia. The
Allies established the Far Eastern Commission and Allied
Council for Japan to administer their occupation of that
country while the establishment Allied Control Council,
administered occupied Germany. In accordance with the
Potsdam Conference agreements, the Soviet Union oc-
cupied and subsequently annexed the strategic island of
Sakhalin.

Ruins in Stalingrad, typical of the destruction in many Soviet

cities. Germany

The Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war Main articles: History of Germany (1945–1990), Forced
against Germany. The Soviet population decreased by labor of Germans after World War II, Morgenthau Plan,
about 40 million during the war; of these, 8.7 mil- Industrial plans for Germany, Denazification, Territorial
lion were combat deaths. The 19 million non-combat changes of Germany after World War II, Legal status of
deaths had a variety of causes: starvation in the siege of Germany and German reparations for World War II
Leningrad; conditions in German prisons and concentra- In the west, Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France.
tion camps; mass shootings of civilians; harsh labour in The Sudetenland reverted to Czechoslovakia following
144 CHAPTER 4. AFTERMATH

The hunger-winter of 1947, thousands protest against the disas-

trous food situation (31 March 1947).

Post-WWII occupation zones of Germany, in its 1937 borders,

with territories east of the Oder-Neisse line shown as annexed
by Poland and the Soviet Union, plus the Saar protectorate and
divided Berlin. East Germany was formed by the Soviet Zone,
while West Germany was formed by the American, British, and
French zones in 1949 and the Saar in 1957.
man heavy industry output to roughly 50% of its 1938
level. Dismantling of West German industry ended in
1951. By 1950, equipment had been removed from 706
the European Advisory Commission's decision to delimit manufacturing plants, and steel production capacity had
German territory to be the territory it held on 31 De- been reduced by 6.7 million tons.* [21] After lobbying by
cember 1937. Close to one quarter of pre-war (1937) the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Generals Lucius D. Clay and
Germany was de facto annexed by the Allies; roughly 10 George Marshall, the Truman administration accepted
million Germans were either expelled from this territory that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward
or not permitted to return to it if they had fled during without the reconstruction of the German industrial base
the war. The remainder of Germany was partitioned into on which it had previously been dependent.* [22] In July
four zones of occupation, coordinated by the Allied Con- 1947, President Truman rescinded on“national security
trol Council. The Saar was detached and put in economic grounds”* [23] the directive that had ordered the US oc-
union with France in 1947. In 1949, the Federal Republic cupation forces to“take no steps looking toward the eco-
of Germany was created out of the Western zones. The nomic rehabilitation of Germany.”A new directive recog-
Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic. nised that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the
Germany paid reparations to the United Kingdom, economic contributions of a stable and productive Ger-
France, and the Soviet Union, mainly in the form of many.”* [24] From mid-1946 onwards Germany received
dismantled factories, forced labour, and coal. German US government aid through the GARIOA programme.
standard of living was to be reduced to its 1932 level.* [19] From 1948 onwards West Germany also became a mi-
Beginning immediately after the German surrender and nor beneficiary of the Marshall Plan. Volunteer organisa-
continuing for the next two years, the US and Britain pur- tions had initially been forbidden to send food, but in early
sued an “intellectual reparations”programme to har- 1946 the Council of Relief Agencies Licensed to Operate
vest all technological and scientific know-how as well as in Germany was founded. The prohibition against send-
all patents in Germany. The value of these amounted to ing CARE Packages to individuals in Germany was re-
around US$10 billion* [20] (US$121 billion in 2015 dol- scinded on 5 June 1946.
lars). In accordance with the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947, After the German surrender, the International Red Cross
reparations were also assessed from the countries of Italy, was prohibited from providing aid such as food or visit-
Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland. ing POW camps for Germans inside Germany. However,
US policy in post-war Germany from April 1945 until after making approaches to the Allies in the autumn of
July 1947 had been that no help should be given to the 1945 it was allowed to investigate the camps in the UK
Germans in rebuilding their nation, save for the mini- and French occupation zones of Germany, as well as to
mum required to mitigate starvation. The Allies' imme- provide relief to the prisoners held there. On 4 Febru-
diate post-war “industrial disarmament”plan for Ger- ary 1946, the Red Cross was permitted to visit and assist
many had been to destroy Germany's capability to wage prisoners also in the U.S. occupation zone of Germany,
war by complete or partial de-industrialization. The first although only with very small quantities of food. The
industrial plan for Germany, signed in 1946, required the Red Cross petitioned successfully for improvements to
destruction of 1,500 manufacturing plants to lower Ger- be made in the living conditions of German POWs.* [25]
4.1. AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR II 145

Italy Douglas MacArthur established the International Mili-

tary Tribunal for the Far East. The Allies collected repa-
The 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy spelled the end of the rations from Japan.
Italian colonial empire, along with other border revisions.
To further remove Japan as a potential future mili-
The 1947 Paris Peace Treaties compelled Italy to pay
tary threat, the Far Eastern Commission decided to de-
$360,000,000 (US dollars at 1938 prices) in war repa-
industrialise Japan, with the goal of reducing Japanese
rations: $125,000,000 to Yugoslavia, $105,000,000 to
standard of living to what prevailed between 1930 and
Greece, $100,000,000 to the Soviet Union, $25,000,000
1934.* [27]* [28] In the end, the de-industrialisation pro-
to Ethiopia and $5,000,000 to Albania. In the 1946
gramme in Japan was implemented to a lesser degree
Italian constitutional referendum the Italian monarchy
than the one in Germany.* [27] Japan received emergency
was abolished, having been associated with the depriva-
aid from GARIOA, as did Germany. In early 1946,
tions of the war and the Fascist rule.
the Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia were formed
Unlike in Germany and Japan, no war crimes tribunals and permitted to supply Japanese with food and clothes.
were held against Italian military and political leaders, In April 1948 the Johnston Committee Report recom-
though the Italian resistance summarily executed some of mended that the economy of Japan should be recon-
them (such as Mussolini) at the end of the war. structed due to the high cost to US taxpayers of continu-
ous emergency aid.
Austria Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Na-
gasaki, known as hibakusha (被爆者), were ostracized by
The Federal State of Austria had been annexed by Ger- Japanese society. Japan provided no special assistance to
many in 1938 (Anschluss, this union was banned by the these people until 1952.* [29] By the 65th anniversary of
Treaty of Versailles). Austria (called Ostmark by the the bombings, total casualties from the initial attack and
Germans) was separated from Germany and divided into later deaths reached about 270,000 in Hiroshima* [30]
four zones of occupation. With the Austrian State Treaty, and 150,000 in Nagasaki.* [31] About 230,000 hibakusha
these zones reunited in 1955 to become the Republic of were still alive as of 2010,* [30] and about 2,200 were suf-
Austria. fering from radiation-caused illnesses as of 2007.* [32]

Japan Finland

Main article: Occupation of Japan In the Winter War of 1939, the Soviet Union invaded
neutral Finland and annexed some of its territory. The
After the war, the Allies rescinded Japanese pre-war an- Finnish attempt to recover this territory during the period
nexations such as Manchuria, and Korea became inde- of the war known as the Continuation War (1941–44)
pendent. The Philippines was returned to the United failed. Finland retained its independence following the
States. Burma, Malaya and Singapore were returned war but remained subject to Soviet-imposed constraints
to Britain and French Indo-China back to France. The in its domestic affairs.
Dutch East Indies was to be handed back to the Dutch, but
was resisted leading to the Indonesian war for indepen-
The Baltic states
dence. At the Yalta Conference, US President Franklin
D. Roosevelt had secretly traded the Japanese Kurils and
south Sakhalin to the Soviet Union in return for Soviet Main article: Occupation and annexation of the Baltic
states by the Soviet Union (1940)
entry in the war with Japan. * [26] The Soviet Union an-
nexed the Kuril Islands, provoking the Kuril Islands dis-
pute, which is ongoing, as Russia continues to occupy the In 1940 the Soviet Union invaded and annexed the neu-
islands. tral Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In June
Hundreds of thousands of Japanese were forced to relo- 1941, the Soviet governments of the Baltic states carried
cate to the Japanese main islands. Okinawa became a out mass deportations of “enemies of the people"; as a
main US staging point. The US covered large areas of result, many treated the invading Nazis as liberators when
it with military bases and continued to occupy it until they invaded only a week later.
1972, years after the end of the occupation of the main The Atlantic Charter promised self-determination to peo-
islands. The bases still remain. To skirt the Geneva Con- ples deprived of it during the war. The British Prime Min-
vention, the Allies classified many Japanese soldiers as ister, Winston Churchill, argued for a weaker interpreta-
Japanese Surrendered Personnel instead of POWs and tion of the Charter to permit the Soviet Union to continue
used them as forced labour until 1947. The UK, France, to control the Baltic states.* [33] In March 1944 the U.S.
and the Netherlands conscripted some Japanese troops accepted Churchill's view that the Atlantic Charter did
to fight colonial resistances elsewhere in Asia. General not apply to the Baltic states.* [34]
146 CHAPTER 4. AFTERMATH

With the return of Soviet troops at the end of the war, the killed in the war that originated from the Polish border-
Forest Brothers mounted a guerrilla war. This continued lands territory (killed by both German Nazi regime and
until the mid-1950s. the Soviet regime or expelled to distant parts of Siberia)
were accounted as Russian, Ukrainian or Belorussian ca-
sualties of war in official Soviet historiography. This fact
Population displacement imposes additional difficulties in making the correct esti-
mation of the number of Polish citizens forcibly trans-
Main articles: World War II evacuation and expulsion, ferred after the war.* [37] The border change also re-
Expulsion of Germans after World War II, Population versed the results of the 1919-1920 Polish-Soviet War.
transfer in the Soviet Union, Japanese American intern- Former Polish cities such as Lwów came under control
ment and Japanese Canadian internment of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Additionally,
As a result of the new borders drawn by the victori- the Soviet Union transferred more than two million peo-
ple within their own borders; these included Germans,
Finns, Crimean Tatars, and Chechens.

Rape during occupation

In Europe Main article: Rape during the occupation

of Germany

As Soviet troops marched across the Balkans, they

committed rapes and robberies in Romania, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.* [38] The population of
Bulgaria was largely spared this treatment, due possibly
to a sense of ethnic kinship or to the leadership of Mar-
Expulsion of Germans from the Sudetenland shal Fyodor Tolbukhin.* [38] The population of Germany
was treated significantly worse.* [39] Rape and murder
ous nations, large populations suddenly found themselves of German civilians was as bad as, and sometimes worse
in hostile territory. The Soviet Union took over areas than, Nazi propaganda had anticipated.* [40]* [41] Politi-
formerly controlled by Germany, Finland, Poland, and cal officers encouraged Soviet troops to seek revenge and
Japan. Poland lost the Kresy region (about half of its terrorise the German population.* [42] On “the basis of
pre-War territory) and received most of Germany east of Hochrechnungen (projections or estimations)",“1.9 mil-
the Oder-Neisse line, including the industrial regions of lion German women altogether were raped at the end of
Silesia. The German state of the Saar was temporarily a the war by Red Army soldiers.”* [43]* [44]* [45] About
protectorate of France, but later returned to German ad- one-third of all German women in Berlin were raped
ministration. As set forth at Potsdam, approximately 12 by Soviet forces.* [43] A substantial minority was raped
million people were expelled from Germany, including multiple times.* [45]* [46] In Berlin, contemporary hospi-
seven million from Germany proper, and three million tal records indicate between 95,000 and 130,000 women
from the Sudetenland. were raped by Soviet troops.* [45] About 10,000 of these
women died, mostly by suicide.* [43]* [45] Over 4.5 mil-
During the war, the United States government in- lion Germans fled towards the West.* [47] The Soviets ini-
terned approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans and tially had no rules against their troops“fraternising”with
Japanese who lived along the Pacific coast of the United German women, but by 1947 they started to isolate their
States in the wake of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Har- troops from the German population in an attempt to stop
bor.* [35]* [36] Canada interned approximately 22,000 rape and robbery by the troops.* [48] Not all Soviet sol-
Japanese Canadians, 14,000 of whom were born in diers participated in these activities.* [49]
Canada. After the war, some internees chose to return
to Japan, while most remained in North America. Foreign reports of Soviet brutality were denounced as
false.* [50] Rape, robbery, and murder were blamed
on German bandits impersonating Soviet soldiers.* [51]
Poland The Soviet Union expelled at least 2 million Some justified Soviet brutality towards German civilians
Poles from east of the new border approximating the based on previous brutality of German troops toward
Curzon Line. This estimate is uncertain as both the Polish Russian civilians.* [52] Until the reunification of Ger-
Communist government and the Soviet government did many, East German histories virtually ignored the actions
not keep track of the number of expelled. The number of Soviet troops, and Russian histories still tend to do
of Polish citizens inhabiting Polish borderlands (Kresy re- so.* [53] Reports of mass rapes by Soviet troops were of-
gion) was about 13 million before World War II broke ten dismissed as anti-Communist propaganda or the nor-
out according to official Polish statistics. Polish citizens mal byproduct of war.* [43]
 4.1. AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR II 147

Rapes also occurred under other occupation forces, A former prostitute recalled that as soon
though the majority were committed by Soviet as Australian troops arrived in Kure in early
troops.* [46] French Moroccan troops matched the 1946, they “dragged young women into their
behaviour of Soviet troops when it came to rape, jeeps, took them to the mountain, and then
especially in the early occupations of Baden and raped them. I heard them screaming for help
Württemberg.* [54] In a letter to the editor of TIME pub- nearly every night'. Such behavior was com-
lished in September 1945, an American army sergeant monplace, but news of criminal activity by Oc-
wrote,“Our own Army and the British Army along with cupation forces was quickly suppressed.* [62]
ours have done their share of looting and raping ... This
offensive attitude among our troops is not at all general, Rape committed by U.S. soldiers occupying Okinawa was
but the percentage is large enough to have given our also a notable phenomenon. Okinawan historian Oshiro
Army a pretty black name, and we too are considered Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural
an army of rapists.”* [55] Robert Lillyʼs analysis of Historical Archives) writes:
military records led him to conclude about 14,000 rapes
occurred in Britain, France, and Germany at the hands Soon after the U.S. marines landed, all the
of US soldiers between 1942 and 1945.* [56] Lilly as- women of a village on Motobu Peninsula fell
sumed that only 5% of rapes by American soldiers were into the hands of American soldiers. At the
reported, making 17,000 GI rapes a possibility, while time, there were only women, children and old
analysts estimate that 50% of (ordinary peace-time) people in the village, as all the young men had
rapes are reported.* [57] Supporting Lilly's lower figure is been mobilized for the war. Soon after landing,
the “crucial difference”that for World War II military the marines “mopped up”the entire village,
rapes “it was the commanding officer, not the victim, but found no signs of Japanese forces. Taking
who brought charges”.* [57] advantage of the situation, they started“hunt-
German soldiers left many war children behind in nations ing for women”in broad daylight and those
such as France and Denmark, which were occupied for who were hiding in the village or nearby air
an extended period. After the war, the children and their raid shelters were dragged out one after an-
mothers often suffered recriminations. In Norway, the other.* [64]
“Tyskerunger“(German-kids) suffered greatly.* [58]* [59]
According to Toshiyuki Tanaka, 76 cases of rape or rape-
murder were reported during the first five years of the
American occupation of Okinawa. However, he claims
In Japan Main article: Rape during the occupation of
this is probably not the true figure, as most cases were
Japan
unreported.* [65]

In the first few weeks of the American military oc-

cupation of Japan, rape and other violent crime was 4.1.2 Post-war tensions
widespread in naval ports like Yokohama and Yokosuka,
but declined shortly afterward. There were 1,336 re- Main articles: Iron Curtain, Origins of the Cold War and
ported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Cold War (1947–1953)
Kanagawa prefecture.* [60] Historian Toshiyuki Tanaka
relates that in Yokohama, the capital of the prefecture,
there were 119 known rapes in September 1945.* [61]
Europe
Historians Eiji Takemae and Robert Ricketts state that
“When US paratroopers landed in Sapporo, an orgy of The alliance between the Western Allies and the So-
looting, sexual violence and drunken brawling ensued. viet Union began to deteriorate even before the war
Gang rapes and other sex atrocities were not infrequent” was over,* [66] when Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill ex-
and some of the rape victims committed suicide.* [62] changed a heated correspondence over whether the Polish
General Robert L. Eichelberger, the commander of the government-in-exile, backed by Roosevelt and Churchill,
U.S. Eighth Army, recorded that in the one instance when or the Provisional Government,
*
backed by Stalin, should
the Japanese formed a self-help vigilante guard to pro- be recognised. Stalin won. [67]
tect women from off-duty GIs, the Eighth Army ordered A number of allied leaders felt that war between the
armored vehicles in battle array into the streets and ar- United States and the Soviet Union was likely. On 19 May
rested the leaders, and the leaders received long prison 1945, American Under-Secretary of State Joseph Grew
terms.* [62]* [63] went so far as to say that it was inevitable.* [68]* [69]
According to Takemae and Ricketts, members of the On 5 March 1946, in his“Sinews of Peace”(Iron Curtain)
British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) were speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, Win-
also involved in rapes: ston Churchill said “a shadow”had fallen over Europe.
148 CHAPTER 4. AFTERMATH

blackmail”.* [74]
In Greece, civil war broke out in 1946 between Anglo-
American-supported royalist forces and communist-led
forces, with the royalist forces emerging as the vic-
tors.* [75] The US launched a massive programme of mil-
itary and economic aid to Greece and to neighbouring
Turkey, arising from a fear that the Soviet Union stood
on the verge of breaking through the NATO defence line
to the oil-rich Middle East. On 12 March 1947, to gain
Congressional support for the aid, President Truman de-
scribed the aid as promoting democracy in defence of
the "free world", a principle that became known as the
Truman Doctrine.* [76]
The US sought to promote an economically strong and
politically united Western Europe to counter the threat
posed by the Soviet Union. This was done openly
using tools such as the European Recovery Program,
which encouraged European economic integration. The
International Authority for the Ruhr, designed to keep
German industry down and controlled, evolved into the
European Coal and Steel Community, a founding pillar
of the European Union. The United States also worked
covertly to promote European integration, for example
using the American Committee on United Europe to fun-
nel funds to European federalist movements. In order to
ensure that Western Europe could withstand the Soviet
military threat, the Western European Union was founded
in 1948 and NATO in 1949. The first NATO Secretary
General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organisation's
Soviet expansion, change of Central-Eastern European borders
goal was“to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and
and creation of the Communist Eastern bloc after World War II
the Germans down”. However, without the manpower
and industrial output of West Germany no conventional
He described Stalin as having dropped an "Iron Curtain" defence of Western Europe had any hope of succeed-
between East and West. Stalin responded by charging ing. To remedy this, in 1950 the US sought to promote
that co-existence between Communist and capitalist sys- the European Defence Community, which would have
tems was impossible.* [70] In mid-1948 the Soviet Union included a rearmed West Germany. The attempt was
imposed a blockade on the Western zone of occupation dashed when the French Parliament rejected it. On 9 May
in Berlin. 1955, West Germany was instead admitted to NATO; the
immediate result was the creation of the Warsaw Pact five
Due to the rising tension in Europe and concerns over days later.
further Soviet expansion, American planners came up
with a contingency plan code-named Operation Drop- The Cold War also saw the creation of propaganda and
shot in 1949. It considered possible nuclear and conven- espionage organisations such as Radio Free Europe, the
tional war with the Soviet Union and its allies in order to Information Research Department, the Gehlen Organiza-
counter a Soviet takeover of Western Europe, the Near tion, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Special Activi-
East and parts of Eastern Asia that they anticipated would ties Division, and the Ministry for State Security.
begin around 1957. In response, the US would saturate
the Soviet Union with atomic and high-explosive bombs,
and then invade and occupy the country.* [71] In later Asia
years, to reduce military expenditures while countering
Soviet conventional strength, President Dwight Eisen-
hower would adopt a strategy of massive retaliation, rely- Main articles: Decolonization of Asia and Wars of
ing on the threat of a US nuclear strike to prevent non- national liberation
nuclear incursions by the Soviet Union in Europe and
elsewhere. The approach entailed a major buildup of US In Asia, the surrender of Japanese forces was compli-
nuclear forces and a corresponding reduction in Amer- cated by the split between East and West as well as by
ica's non-nuclear ground and naval strength.* [72]* [73] the movement toward national self-determination in Eu-
The Soviet Union viewed these developments as“atomic ropean colonial territories.
4.1. AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR II 149

ened popular support among the Chinese for the Com-

munist guerrilla forces while it weakened the KMT, who
depleted their strength fighting a conventional war. Full-
scale war between the opposing forces broke out in June
1946. Despite U.S. support to the Kuomintang, Commu-
nist forces were ultimately victorious and established the
People's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland. The
KMT forces retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949.
Hostilities had largely ceased in 1950.
World map of colonization at the end of the Second World War
in 1945. With the Communist victory in the civil war, the Soviet
Union gave up its claim to military bases in China that it
had been promised by the Western Allies during World
China Main articles: Chinese Civil War and Cross- War II. The defeat of the US-backed KMT led to a de-
Strait relations bate in the United States about who in the US government
As agreed at the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union went was responsible for this, the debate is commonly labeled
“Who lost China?"
The outbreak of the Korean War diverted the attention of
the PRC at the same time as it bolstered US support for
Chiang Kai-shek, the two main factors that prevented the
PRC from invading Taiwan. Intermittent military clashes
occurred between the PRC and Taiwan from
1950-1979. Taiwan unilaterally declared the civil war
over in 1991, but no formal peace treaty or truce ex-
ists and the PRC officially sees Taiwan as a breakaway
province that rightfully belongs to it and has expressed
its opposition to Taiwanese independence. Even so, ten-
sions between the two states has decreased over time for
example with the Chen-Chiang summits (2008-2011).
Sino-American relations (between the PRC and the US)
continued to be mostly hostile up until US president
Nixon visited China in 1972. From this point the rela-
tions between them have improved over time although
some tension and rivalry remain even with the end of the
Cold War and the PRC's distancing from the Communist
ideology.

Korea Main article: Division of Korea

At the Yalta Conference, the Allies agreed that an undi-

vided post-war Korea would be placed under four-power
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Chinese nationalist
Kuomintang multinational trusteeship. After Japan's surrender, this
agreement was modified to a joint Soviet-American oc-
to war against Japan three months after the defeat of Ger- cupation of Korea.* [77] The agreement was that Korea
many. The Soviet forces invaded Manchuria. This was would be divided and occupied by the Soviets from the
the end of the Manchukuo puppet state and all Japanese north and the Americans from the south.* [78]
settlers were forced to leave China. The Soviet Union dis- Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, and which had
mantled the industrial base in Manchuria built up by the been partially occupied by the Red Army following the
Japanese in the preceding years. Manchuria also became Soviet Union's entry into the war against Japan, was
a base for the Communist Chinese forces because of the divided at the 38th parallel on the orders of the US
Soviet presence. War Department.* [77]* [79] A US military government
After the war, the Kuomintang (KMT) party (led by gen- in southern Korea was established in the capital city of
eralissimo Chiang Kai-shek) and the Communist Chinese Seoul.* [80]* [81] The American military commander, Lt.
forces resumed their civil war, which had been temporar- Gen. John R. Hodge, enlisted many former Japanese ad-
ily suspended when they fought together against Japan. ministrative officials to serve in this government.* [82]
The fight against the Japanese occupiers had strength- North of the military line, the Soviets administered the
150 CHAPTER 4. AFTERMATH

Emergency would endure for the next 12 years, ending in

1960. In 1967, communist leader Chin Peng revived hos-
tilities, known as the Communist Insurgency War, end-
ing in the defeat of the communists by British Common-
wealth forces in 1969.

French Indochina Main article: First Indochina War

Events during World War II in the colony of French In-

dochina (consisting of the modern-day states of Vietnam,
Laos and Cambodia) set the stage for the First Indochina
War which in turn led to the Vietnam War.
During World War II, the Vichy French aligned colonial
authorities cooperated with the Japanese invaders. The
communist-controlled common front Viet Minh (sup-
ported by the Allies) was formed among the Vietnamese
in the colony in 1941 to fight for the independence of
Vietnam, against both the Japanese and prewar French
powers. After the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 support
for the Viet Minh was bolstered as the front launched a
rebellion, sacking rice warehouses and urging the Viet-
namese to refuse to pay taxes. Because the French colo-
nial authorities started to hold secret talks with the Free
French, the Japanese interned them 9 March 1945. When
Japan surrendered in August, this created a power vac-
uum, and the Viet Minh took power in the August Rev-
olution, declaring the independent Democratic Republic
of Vietnam. However, the Allies (including the Soviet
Union) all agreed that the area belonged to the French.
Nationalist Chinese forces moved in from the north and
Evolution of the border between the two Koreas, from the Yalta British from the south (as the French were unable to do
Soviet-American 38th parallel division to the stalemate of 1953 so immediately themselves) and then handed power to the
that persists as of today French, a process completed by March 1946. Attempts
to integrate the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with
French rule failed and the Viet Minh launched their rebel-
disarming and demobilisation of repatriated Korean na- lion against the French rule starting the First Indochina
tionalist guerrillas who had fought on the side of Chi- War that same year (the Viet Minh organized common
nese nationalists against the Japanese in Manchuria dur- fronts to fight the French in Laos and Cambodia).
ing World War II. Simultaneously, the Soviets enabled a
The war ended in 1954 with French withdrawal and a par-
build-up of heavy armaments to pro-communist forces in
tition of Vietnam that was intended to be temporary un-
the north.* [83] The military line became a political line
til elections could be held. The Democratic Republic of
in 1948, when separate republics emerged on both sides
Vietnam held the north while South Vietnam formed into
of the 38th parallel, each republic claiming to be the le-
a separate republic in control of Ngo Dinh Diem who was
gitimate government of Korea. It culminated in the north
backed in his refusal to hold elections by the US. The
invading the south, and the Korean War two years later.
communist party of the south eventually organized the
common front NLF to fight to unite south and north un-
Malaya Main article: Malayan Emergency der the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and thus began
the Vietnam War, which ended with the Democratic Re-
public of Vietnam conquering the South in 1975.
Labour and civil unrest broke out in the British colony
of Malaya in 1946. A state of emergency was declared
by the colonial authorities in 1948 with the outbreak of Dutch East Indies Main article: Indonesian National
acts of terrorism. The situation deteriorated into a full- Revolution
scale anti-colonial insurgency, or Anti-British National Japan invaded and occupied Indonesia during the war and
Liberation War as the insurgents referred to it, led by the replaced much of the Dutch colonial state. Although the
Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), the mil- top positions were held by Japanese, the internment of all
itary wing of the Malayan Communist Party.* [84] The Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leader-
4.1. AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR II 151

The "Big Three" at the Yalta Conference: Winston Churchill,

Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin. Diplomatic relations
between their three countries changed radically in the aftermath
of World War II.
A soldier of an Indian armoured regiment examines a light tank
used by Indonesian nationalists and captured by British forces
during the fighting in Surabaya. counter-intelligence supplied to the KGB by Kim Philby
allowed the KGB to penetrate and ultimately gain con-
trol of MI6's entire intelligence network in the Baltic
ship and administrative positions. Following the Japanese
states.* [88]
surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and
Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A Vietnam and the Middle East would later damage the
four and a half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried reputation gained by the US during its successes in Eu-
*
to re-establish their colony, using a significant portion of rope. [89]
*
their Marshall Plan aid to this end. [85] The Dutch were The KGB believed that the Third World rather than
directly helped by UK forces who sought to re-establish Europe was the arena in which it could win the Cold
the colonial dominions in Asia. The UK also kept 35,000 War.* [90] Moscow would in later years fuel an arms
Japanese Surrendered Personnel under arms to fight the buildup in Africa. In later years, African countries used
Indonesians. as proxies in the Cold War would often become “failed
*
Although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indone- states”of their own. [89]
sia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the ma-
jority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opin-
ion, favoured Indonesian independence. In December Recruitment of former enemy scientists
1949, the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian
sovereignty. When the divisions of postwar Europe began to emerge,
the war crimes programmes and denazification policies
of Britain and the United States were relaxed in favour
Covert operations and espionage of recruiting German scientists, especially nuclear and
long-range rocket scientists.* [91] Many of these, prior to
British covert operations in the Baltic States, which be- their capture, had worked on developing the German V-2
gan in 1944 against the Nazis, escalated after the war. In long-range rocket at the Baltic coast German Army Re-
Operation Jungle, the Secret Intelligence Service (known search Center Peenemünde. Western Allied occupation
as MI6) recruited and trained Estonians, Latvians and force officers in Germany were ordered to refuse to coop-
Lithuanians for the clandestine work in the Baltic states erate with* the Soviets in sharing captured wartime secret
between 1948 and 1955. Leaders of the operation in- weapons. [92]
cluded Alfons Rebane, Stasys Žymantas, and Rūdolfs In Operation Paperclip, beginning in 1945, the United
Silarājs. The agents were transported under the cover of States imported 1,600 German scientists and technicians,
the “British Baltic Fishery Protection Service”. They as part of the intellectual reparations owed to the US and
launched from British-occupied Germany, using a con- the UK, including about $10 billion (US$121 billion in
verted World War II E-boat captained and crewed by for- 2015 dollars) in patents and industrial processes.* [93] In
mer members of the wartime German navy.* [86] British late 1945, three German rocket-scientist groups arrived in
intelligence also trained and infiltrated anti-communist the U.S. for duty at Fort Bliss, Texas, and at White Sands
agents into Russia from across the Finnish border, with Proving Grounds, New Mexico, as “War Department
orders to assassinate Soviet officials.* [87] In the end, Special Employees”.* [94]
152 CHAPTER 4. AFTERMATH

agreements on the liquidation of German military instal-

lations.* [103] Some Western observers thought Opera-
tion Osoaviakhim was a retaliation for the failure of the
Socialist Unity Party in elections, though Osoaviakhim
was clearly planned before that.* [104]

4.1.3 Demise of the League of Nations and

the founding of the United Nations

As a general consequence of the war and in an effort to

maintain international peace,* [105] the Allies formed the
United Nations (UN), which officially came into exis-
tence on 24 October 1945.* [106] The UN replaced the
defunct League of Nations (LN) as the global intergov-
ernmental organization. The LN was formally dissolved
on 20 April 1946, but had in practice ceased to function
in 1939, being unable to stop the outbreak of World War
II. The UN inherited some of the bodies of the LN, such
as the International Labour Organization.
League of Nations mandates, mostly territories that had
changed hands in World War I, became United Nations
Trust Territories. South-West Africa, an exception, was
V-2 rocket launching at Peenemünde, on the Baltic German coast still governed under terms of the original mandate. As the
(1943). successor body to the League, the UN still assumed a su-
pervisory role over the territory. The Free City of Danzig,
a semi-autonomous city state that was partly overseen by
The wartime activities of some Operation Paperclip sci- the League, became part of Poland.
entists would later be investigated.* [95] Arthur Rudolph The UN adopted The Universal Declaration of Human
left the United States in 1984, in order to not be prose- Rights in 1948, “as a common standard of achievement
cuted.* [96] Similarly, Georg Rickhey, who came to the for all peoples and all nations.”The Soviet Union ab-
United States under Operation Paperclip in 1946, was re- stained from voting on adoption of the declaration. The
turned to Germany to stand trial at the Mittelbau-Dora US did not ratify the social and economic rights sec-
war crimes trial in 1947. Following his acquittal, he re- tions.* [107]
turned to the United States in 1948 and eventually became
a US citizen.* [97] The five major Allied powers were given permanent
membership in the United Nations Security Council. The
The Soviets began Operation Osoaviakhim in 1946. permanent members can veto any United Nations Secu-
NKVD and Soviet army units effectively deported thou- rity Council resolution, the only UN decisions that are
sands of military-related technical specialists from the binding according to international law. The five powers
Soviet occupation zone of post-war Germany to the So- at the time of founding were: the United States of Amer-
viet Union.* [98] The Soviets used 92 trains to transport ica, the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union and
the specialists and their families, an estimated 10,000- the Republic of China. The Republic of China lost the
15,000 people.* [99] Much related equipment was also Chinese Civil War and retreated to the island of Taiwan
moved, the aim being to virtually transplant research and by 1950 but continued to be a permanent member of the
production centres, such as the relocated V-2 rocket cen- Council even though the de facto state in control of main-
tre at Mittelwerk Nordhausen, from Germany to the So- land China was the People's Republic of China (PRC).
viet Union. Among the people moved were Helmut Gröt- This was changed in 1971 when the PRC was given the
trup and about two hundred scientists and technicians permanent membership previously held by the Republic
from Mittelwerk.* [100] Personnel were also taken from of China. Russia inherited the permanent membership
AEG, BMW's Stassfurt jet propulsion group, IG Far- of the Soviet Union in 1991 after the dissolution of that
ben's Leuna chemical works, Junkers, Schott AG, Siebel, state.
Telefunken, and Carl Zeiss AG.* [101]
The operation was commanded by NKVD deputy
Colonel General Serov,* [98] outside the control of the 4.1.4 Unresolved conflicts
local Soviet Military Administration.* [102] The major
reason for the operation was the Soviet fear of being con- Japanese holdouts persisted on various islands in the
demned for noncompliance with Allied Control Council Pacific Theatre until at least 1974. Although all hostilities
4.1. AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR II 153

are now resolved, a peace treaty has never been signed • Operation Unthinkable
between Japan and Russia due to the Kuril Islands dis-
pute.
4.1.7 Notes
4.1.5 Economic aftermath [1] The Dominance of England, Dorothy Crisp, Holborn Pub-
lishing, London 1960, pages 22-26,
Further information: Post–World War II economic
[2] The World at War, Mark Arnold-Foster, BCA London,
expansion 1974, pages 286-7,

[3] Sunday Times Sept 6, 2009 by Max Hastings

By the end of the war, the European economy had
collapsed with 70% of the industrial infrastructure de- [4] A History of the American People, Paul Johnson, Weiden-
stroyed.* [108] The property damage in the Soviet Union feld & Nicolson, London, 1997, pages 647-8
consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710
cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, and 31,850 in- [5] Michael Ellman and S. Maksudov, “Soviet Deaths in the
dustrial establishments.* [109] The strength of the eco- Great Patriotic War: A Note”, Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.
46, No. 4, pp. 671-680
nomic recovery following the war varied throughout the
world, though in general it was quite robust. In Europe, [6]“20m Soviet war dead may be underestimate”, Guardian,
West Germany, after having continued to decline eco- 30 April 1994 quoting Professor John Erickson of Edin-
nomically during the first years of the Allied occupation, burgh University, Defence Studies.
later experienced a remarkable recovery, and had by the
end of the 1950s doubled production from its pre-war lev- [7] Edwin Bacon,“Glasnost and the Gulag: New Information
on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II”, Soviet
els.* [110] Italy came out of the war in poor economic
Studies, Vol. 44, No. 6 (1992), pp. 1069-1086.
condition,* [111] but by the 1950s, the Italian economy
was marked by stability and high growth.* [112] France [8] Michael Ellman, “Soviet Repression Statistics: Some
rebounded quickly and enjoyed rapid economic growth Comments”, Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 54, No. 7 (Nov.,
and modernisation under the Monnet Plan.* [113] The 2002), pp. 1151-1172
UK, by contrast, was in a state of economic ruin after the
[9] Glenn E. Curtis, ed. Russia: A Country Study, Washing-
war* [114] and continued to experience relative economic
ton: Library of Congress, 1996
decline for decades to follow.* [115]
The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase [10] Senn, Alfred Erich, Lithuania 1940 : revolution from
in production in the immediate post-war era.* [116] above, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 978-
90-420-2225-6
Japan experienced rapid economic growth, becoming
one of the most powerful economies in the world by [11] Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War
the 1980s.* [117] China, following the conclusion of its to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. p. 43.
civil war, was essentially bankrupt. By 1953, economic ISBN 0-300-11204-1.
restoration seemed fairly successful as production had
resumed pre-war levels.* [118] This growth rate mostly [12] Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Eu-
rope. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 20–21. ISBN 0-7425-
persisted, though it was interrupted by economic experi-
5542-9.
ments during the disastrous Great Leap Forward.
At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly [13] Granville, Johanna, The First Domino: International De-
cision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956, Texas
half of the world's industrial output. This dominance had
A&M University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58544-298-4
lessened significantly by the early 1970s.* [119]
[14] Grenville, John Ashley Soames (2005). A History of the
World from the 20th to the 21st Century. Routledge. pp.
4.1.6 See also 370–371. ISBN 0-415-28954-8.

• Bretton Woods system [15] Crampton 1997, pp. 216–7

• Demobilization of United States armed forces after [16] Eastern bloc, The American Heritage New Dictionary of
World War II Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin Com-
pany, 2005.
• Danube River Conference of 1948
[17] Cook 2001, p. 17
• Hunger's Rogues
[18] Wettig 2008, pp. 96–100
• Japanese holdout
[19] Cost of Defeat Time Magazine Monday, 8 April 1946
• Operation Black Tulip ̶the eviction of Germans
from the Netherlands after the war [20] Norman M. Naimark The Russians in Germany pg. 206
154 CHAPTER 4. AFTERMATH

[21] Frederick H. Gareau “Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial [41] The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany,
Disarmament in Germany”The Western Political Quar- 1949-1968 Hanna Schissler, Princeton University Press,
terly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Jun., 1961), pp. 517-534 2001, p.93

[22] Ray Salvatore Jennings “The Road Ahead: Lessons in [42] ”Werwolf!: the history of the National Socialist guerrilla
Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan movement, 1944-1946”, Perry Biddiscombe, University
for Postwar Iraq May 2003, Peaceworks No. 49 pg.15 of Toronto Press, 1998, p.260
[23] Ray Salvatore Jennings “The Road Ahead: Lessons in [43] West Germany under construction: politics, society, and
Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan culture in the Adenauer era”, Robert G. Moeller, Univ.
for Postwar Iraq May 2003, Peaceworks No. 49 p.15 of Michigan Press, 1997, p.35
[24] Pas de Pagaille! Time Magazine 28 July 1947.
[44] ”What difference does a husband make? Women and
[25] Staff. ICRC in WW II: German prisoners of war in Allied marital status in Nazi and postwar Germany”, Elizabeth
hands, 2 February 2005 Heineman, Univ. of California Press, 2003, p.81

[26] Time Magazine, FOREIGN RELATIONS: Secret of the [45] ”Berlin: the downfall, 1945”, Antony Beevor, Viking,
Kurils, Monday, 11 February 1946 URL 2002, p.410

[27] Frederick H. Gareau “Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial [46] West Germany under construction: politics, society, and
Disarmament in Germany”The Western Political Quar- culture in the Adenauer era”, Robert G. Moeller, Univ.
terly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Jun., 1961), pp. 531 of Michigan Press, 1997, p.34

[28] (Note: A footnote in Gareau also states:“For a text of this [47] The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany,
decision, see Activities of the Far Eastern Commission. 1949-1968 Hanna Schissler, Princeton University Press,
Report of the Secretary General, February 1946 to July 2001, p.27
10, 1947, Appendix 30, p. 85.”)
[48] ”The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone
[29]“Japan and North America: First contacts to the Pacific of occupation, 1945-1949”, Norman Naimark, Belknap,
War”, Ellis S. Krauss, Benjamin Nyblade, 2004, pg. 351 1995, p.92

[49] ”The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone

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[31] “Montreal Gazette”. 1995, p.83

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[34] Roger S. Whitcomb, “The Cold War in retrospect: the [52] ”The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone
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[35] National Park Service. Manzanar National Historic Site
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[37] Norman Davies, God's Playground, a History of Poland,
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1995, pp.70-71 [55] Dear editor: letters to Time magazine, 1923-1984“,Phil
Pearman, Salem House, 1985, p.75
[39] ”The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone
of occupation, 1945-1949”, Norman Naimark, Belknap, [56] Politicization of sexual violence: from abolitionism to
1995, p.71 peacekeeping”, Carol Harrington, Ashgate Pub., 2010,
p.80
[40] West Germany under construction: politics, society, and
culture in the Adenauer era”, Robert G. Moeller, Univ. [57] The Interpreter”, Alice Kaplan, Simon and Schuster,
of Michigan Press, 1997, p.41 2005, p.218
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[58] STUART, JULIA (February 2, 2003). “SLEEPING [75] Christopher M Woodhouse, The Struggle for Greece 1941-
WITH THE ENEMY; SPAT AT, ABUSED, SHUNNED 1949, London: Hart-Davis 1976, pp.3-34, 76-7
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[59] “Norway's “lebensborn"". BBC News. 5 December
2001. Archived from the original on 20 February 2007. [77] Dennis Wainstock, Truman, McArthur and the Korean
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[60] Molasky, Michael S; Rabson, Steve (2000), Southern Ex- [78] Dennis Wainstock, Truman, McArthur and the Korean
posure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa, Uni- War, Greenwood, 1999, pp.3, 5
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[61] Tanaka, Yuki; Tanaka, Toshiyuki (2003), Japan's Com-
fort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During [80] Edward Grant Meade, American military government in
World War II, Routledge, ISBN 0-203-30275-3 Korea,: King's Crown Press 1951, p.78
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Ricketts, Sebastian Swann. Continuum International. p.
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[63] Svoboda, Terese. “U.S. Courts-Martial in Occupation p.6
Japan: Rape, Race, and Censorship”. The Asia-Pacific
Journal: Japan Focus. Retrieved 2013-05-20. [83] James M Minnich, The North Korean People's Army: ori-
gins and current tactics, Naval Institute Press, 2005 pp.4-
[64] Tanaka, Yuki; Tanaka, Toshiyuki (2003), Japan's Com- 10
fort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During
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[65] Tanaka, Yuki; Tanaka, Toshiyuki (2003), Japan's Com- footnote, p. 216
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Books.google.com. ISBN 978-0-87727-734-7. Retrieved
[66] Kantowicz, Edward R (2000). Coming Apart, Coming To- 2009-08-18.
gether. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0-
8028-4456-1. [86] Sigured Hess,“The British Baltic Fishery Protection Ser-
vice (BBFPS) and the Clandestine Operations of Hans
[67] Stewart Richardson, Secret History of World War II, New Helmut Klose 1949-1956.”Journal of Intelligence His-
York: Richardson & Steirman, 1986, p.vi. ISBN 0- tory vol. 1, no. 2 (Winter 2001)
931933-05-6
[87] Tom Bower, The Red Web: MI6 and the KGB, London:
[68] Yefim Chernyak and Vic Schneierson, Ambient Conflicts: Aurum, 1989, pp. 19, 22-3 ISBN 1-85410-080-7
History of Relations between Countries with Different So-
cial Systems, ISBN 0-8285-3757-7, Moscow: Progress [88] Bower, (1989) pp. 38, 49, 79
Publishers, 1987, p. 360 [89] Judt, “A Story Still to Be Told”
[69] Challener, R. D.; Grew, J. C.; Johnson, W.; Hooker, [90] Christopher Andrew & Vasili Mitrokhin, The World was
N. H. (1953). “Career Diplomat: the Record of Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third
Joseph C. Grew”. World Politics 5 (2): 263–279. World, New York: Basic Books, 2005, foreword, p. xxvi
doi:10.2307/2008984. JSTOR 2008984.
[91] Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy: Battle for the
[70] Anthony Cave Brown, Dropshot: The United States Plan spoils and secrets of Nazi Germany, London: Michael
for War with the Soviet Union in 1957, New York: Dial Joseph, 1987, pp.75-8, ISBN 0-7181-2744-7
Press, 1978, p.3
[92] Bower, op cit, pp.95-6
[71] Cave Brown, op cit, p. 169
[93] Naimark, Science Technology and Reparations: Exploita-
[72] John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Continment, New York: tion and Plunder in Postwar Germany p.60
Oxford University Press, pp.127-9
[94] Huzel, Dieter K (1960). Peenemünde to Canaveral. En-
[73] Walter LaFeber, America, Russia and the Cold War 1945- glewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 27,226.
1966, New York: John Wiley, 1968, pp.123-200
[95] Walker, Andres (2005-11-21). “Project Paperclip: Dark
[74] Chernyak, op cit, p.359 side of the Moon”. BBC news. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
 156 CHAPTER 4. AFTERMATH

[96] Hunt, Linda (May 23, 1987). “NASA's Nazis”. Nation. [116] Smith, Alan (1993). Russia And the World Economy:
Problems of Integration. Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 0-415-
[97] Michael J. Neufeld (2008). Von Braun: Dreamer of 08924-7.
Space, Engineer of War Vintage Series. Random House,
Inc. ISBN 978-0-307-38937-4. [117] Harrop, Martin (1992). Power and Policy in Liberal
Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN
[98] Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Har- 0-521-34579-0.
vard University Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
[118] Harper, Damian (2007). China. Lonely Planet. p. 51.
[99] Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Har- ISBN 1-74059-915-2.
vard University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
[119] Kunkel, John (2003). America's Trade Policy Towards
[100] Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Har- Japan: Demanding Results. Routledge. p. 33. ISBN 0-
vard University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5. 415-29832-6.
[101] Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Har-
vard University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
4.1.8 Further reading
[102] Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Har-
vard University Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5. • Blum, William (1986). The CIA: A Forgotten His-
tory. London: Zed.
[103] Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Har-
vard University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5. • Cook, Bernard A (2001). Europe Since 1945: An
[104] Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Har- Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8153-
vard University Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5. 4057-5.

[105] Yoder, Amos. The Evolution of the United Nations System, • Granville, Johanna (2004). The First Domino: In-
p. 39. ternational Decision Making during the Hungarian
Crisis of 1956. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN
[106] History of the UN
1-58544-298-4.
[107] “Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Questions and
Answers”(PDF). Amnesty International. p. 6. Archived
• Grenville, John Ashley Soames (2005). A History of
(PDF) from the original on 26 June 2008. Retrieved the World from the 20th to the 21st Century. Rout-
2008-06-02. ledge. ISBN 0-415-28954-8.

[108] "Who benefits from global violence and war: uncovering a • Iatrides (ed), John O (1981). Greece in the 1940s:
destructive system". Marc Pilisuk, Jennifer Achord Roun- A Nation in Crisis. Hanover and London: University
tree (2008). Greenwood Publishing Group. p.136. ISBN Press of New England.
0-275-99435-X
• Jones, Howard (1989). A New Kind of War: Amer-
[109] The New York Times, 9 February 1946, Volume 95, Num- ica's global strategy and the Truman Doctrine in
ber 32158. Greece. London: Oxford University Press.
[110] Dornbusch, Rüdiger; Nölling, Wilhelm; Layard, P.
• Laar, Mart, Tiina Ets, Tonu Parming (1992). War
Richard G (1993). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and
in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944-
Lessons for the East Today. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Press. p. 29. ISBN 0-262-04136-7. 1956. Howells House. ISBN 0-929590-08-2.

[111] Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James (2005). Italian Politics: • Männik, Mart (2008). A Tangled Web: British Spy
Adjustment Under Duress. Polity. p. 20. ISBN 0-7456- in Estonia. Tallinn: Grenader Publishing. ISBN
1299-7. 978-9949-448-18-0.
[112] Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James (2005). Italian Politics: • Martin, David (1990). The Web of Disinformation:
Adjustment Under Duress. Polity. p. 21. ISBN 0-7456- Churchill's Yugoslav Blunder. San Diego: Harcourt,
1299-7. Brace, Jovanovich. ISBN 0-15-180704-3.
[113] Harrop, Martin (1992). Power and Policy in Liberal • Naimark, Norman M. (1995). The Russians in Ger-
Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN many; A History of the Soviet Zone of occupation,
0-521-34579-0.
1945-1949. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-
[114] Dornbusch, Rüdiger; Nölling, Wilhelm; Layard, P. 674-78406-5.
Richard G (1993). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and
Lessons for the East Today. Massachusetts Institute of • Peebles, Curtis (2005). Twilight Warriors. Naval
Technology Press. p. 117. ISBN 0-262-04136-7. Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-660-7.

[115] Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking Interna- • Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From
tional Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance. World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale Univer-
Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 0-415-19540-3. sity Press. ISBN 0-300-11204-1.
4.1. AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR II 157

• Sayer, Ian & Douglas Botting (1989). America's Se-

cret Army: The Story of Counter-intelligence Corps.
London: Grafton.

• Stevenson, William (1973). The Bormann Brother-

hood. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

• Szulc, Tad (1990). Then and Now: How the World

Has Changed since W.W. II. First ed. New York: W.
Morrow & Co. 515 p. ISBN 0-688-07558-4
• Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War
in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-
5542-9.

• Wiesenthal, Simon (1984). SS Colonel Walter Rauff:

The Church Connection 1943-1947. Los Angeles:
Simon Wiesenthal Center.

4.1.9 External links

• Media related to Aftermath of World War II at
Wikimedia Commons
Chapter 5

Impact of the war

5.1 World War II casualties

Dead Soviet soldiers, January 1942. Officially, roughly 8.7 mil- American corpses sprawled on the beach of Tarawa. The
lion Soviet soldiers died in the course of the war. Marines secured the island after 76 hours of intense fighting.
There were over 6,000 US, Japanese and Korean dead in total.

lion from war-related disease and famine. Total military

dead: from 21 to 25 million, including deaths in captivity
of about 5 million prisoners of war.
Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the
topic of Second World War casualties. Research in Rus-
sia since the collapse of the Soviet Union has caused a
revision of estimates of Soviet war dead.* [4] According
to Russian government figures USSR losses within post-
war borders now stand at 26.6 million.* [5]* [6] In Au-
gust 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance
(IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6
*
The killing of Jews at Ivanhorod, Ukraine in 1942. A woman and 5.8 million. [7] Historian Rüdiger Overmans of the
tries to shield a child with her body as Einsatzgruppen soldiers German Armed Forces Military History Research Office
aim their rifles. published a study in 2000 that estimated German military
dead and missing at 5.3 million.* [8]
World War II was the deadliest military conflict in his-
tory in absolute terms of total dead.* [1] Over 60 mil-
lion people were killed, which was about 3% of the 1940 5.1.1 Classification of casualties
world population (est. 2.3 billion).* [2] The tables below
give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses. Compiling or estimating the numbers of deaths caused
World War II fatality statistics vary, with estimates of to- during wars and other violent conflicts is a controversial
tal dead ranging from 50 million to more than 80 mil- subject. Historians often put forward many different es-
lion.* [3] The higher figure of over 80 million includes timates of the numbers killed during World War II.* [9]
deaths from war-related disease and famine. Civilians The authors of the Oxford Companion to World War II
killed totalled 50 to 55 million, including 19 to 28 mil- maintain that “casualty statistics are notoriously unreli-

158
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 159

• Military casualties include deaths of regular military

forces from combat as well as non-combat causes.
Partisan and resistance fighter deaths are included
with military losses. The deaths of prisoners of war
in captivity and personnel missing in action are also
included with military deaths. Whenever possible
the details are given in the footnotes.

• The armed forces of the various nations are treated

as single entities, for example the deaths of Austri-
ans, French and foreign nationals of German ances-
try in eastern Europe in the Wehrmacht are included
with German military losses.
Polish military officers executed by the Soviet NKVD in the Katyn • The official casualty statistics published by the gov-
massacre, exhumation photo taken by the Polish Red Cross dele-
ernments of the United States, France, and the UK
gation in 1943.
do not give the details of the national origin, race
and religion of the losses.
able.”* [10] The table below gives data on the number
of dead for each country, along with population informa- • Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic
tion to show the relative impact of losses. When schol- bombing, Holocaust victims, German war crimes,
arly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the So-
a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers viet Union, Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war
that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are related famine and disease. The exact breakdown is
sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present not always provided in the sources cited.
the different estimates by official governmental sources
as well as historians. Military figures include battle deaths
Nazi Germany
(KIA) and personnel missing in action (MIA), as well as
fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prison-
Main article: German casualties in World War II
ers of war in captivity. Civilian casualties include deaths
caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust victims, German
war crimes, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in
the Soviet Union, other war crimes, and deaths due to • German sources do not provide figures for Soviet
war related famine and disease. The losses listed here citizens conscripted by Germany. Russian historian
are actual deaths, hypothetical losses due to a decline G.Krivosheev puts the losses of the “Vlasovites,
in births are not included with the total dead. The dis- Balts and Muslims etc.”in German service at
tinction between military and civilian casualties caused 215,000* [172]* [173]
directly by warfare and collateral damage is not always
clear cut. For nations that suffered huge losses such as the
Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, USSR
sources can give only the total estimated population loss
caused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown The estimated breakdown for each Soviet Republic of
of deaths caused by military activity, crimes against hu- total war dead * ^AY4
manity and war-related famine. The casualties listed here The source of the figures is Vadim Erlikman. Poteri nar-
include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the odonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik. Moscow, 2004.
USSR, China, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, India ISBN 5-93165-107-1. pp 21–35. Erlikman, a Russian
that are often omitted from other compilations of World historian, notes that these figures are his estimates.
War II casualties.* [11]* [12] The footnotes give a detailed
breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including
• The population listed here of 194.090 million is
data on the number of wounded where reliable sources
taken from Soviet era sources. Recent studies pub-
are available.
lished in Russia put the actual corrected population
in 1940 at 192.598 million.* [174]* [175]

5.1.2 Human losses by country • According to Erlikman in addition to the war dead
there were 1,700,000 deaths due to Soviet repres-
Total deaths sion. (200,000 executed; 4,500,000 sent to prisons
and Gulag of whom 1,200,000 died; 2,200,000 de-
• Figures are rounded to the nearest hundredth place. ported of whom 300,000 died)* [176]
160 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

• Figures for Belarus and Ukraine include about two Holocaust.* [179] The low, high and average percentage
million civilian dead that are also listed in the to- figures for deaths of the pre war population have been
tal war dead of Poland. The territories of Poland added.
annexed by the Soviet Union in 1939 included the
Western Ukraine, West Belarus and the Vilnius Re- • Hungarian Jewish Holocaust victims within the
gion. The territories of Poland annexed by the So- 1939 borders were 200,000.* [185]
viet Union in 1939 included the Western Ukraine,
West Belarus and the Vilnius Region which had a • Romanian Jewish Holocaust victims totalled
population of about 13.0 million, including about 469,000 in 1939 borders which includes 300,000 in
1,400,000 in territory returned to Poland in 1945 Bessarabia and Bukovina occupied by the U.S.S.R.
(Białystok region and Zakerzonia). Polish historian in 1940.* [185]* [186]
Krystyna Kersten estimated losses of about two mil- • According to Martin Gilbert, Jewish Holocaust vic-
lion in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. tims totalled 8,000 in Italy and 562 in the Italian
These losses are included in both the Polish and Rus- colony of Libya* [187]
sian figures for war dead.* [177] The formal trans-
fer of the territories of Poland annexed by the So-
viet Union occurred with the Polish–Soviet border Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-
agreement of August 1945. affiliated forces See also: The Holocaust in Ukraine

Holocaust deaths Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holo-
caust should also include the other victims persecuted and
* *
Further information: The Holocaust and Holocaust killed by the Nazis. [188] [189]
victims
• Donald L. Niewyk professor of history at South-
ern Methodist University maintains that the Holo-
Included in the figures of total war dead for each nation
caust can be defined in four ways: first, that it was
are victims of the Holocaust.
the genocide of the Jews alone; second, that there
were several parallel Holocausts, one for each of the
Jewish deaths The Holocaust is the term generally several groups; third, the Holocaust would include
used to describe the genocide of approximately six mil- Roma and the handicapped along with the Jews;
lion European Jews during World War II. Martin Gilbert fourth, it would include all racially motivated Ger-
estimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in man crimes, such as the murder of Soviet prisoners
German occupied Europe were Holocaust victims.* [178] of war, Polish and Soviet civilians, as well as politi-
Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 cal prisoners, religious dissenters, and homosexuals.
million Jews.* [179] Using this definition, the total number of Holocaust
victims is between 11 million and 17 million peo-
Statistical breakdown of Jewish dead:
ple.* [190]
• In Nazi extermination camps: according to Pol- • According to the College of Education of the Uni-
ish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) re- versity of South Florida Approximately 11 million
searchers 2,830,000 Jews were murdered in the Nazi people were killed because of Nazi genocidal pol-
death camps (500,000 Belzec; 150,000 Sobibor; icy.* [191]
850,000 Treblinka; 150,000 Chełmno; 1,100,000
Auschwitz; 80,000 Majdanek).* [180] Raul Hilberg • R.J. Rummel estimated the death toll due to Nazi
puts the Jewish death toll in the death camps, includ- Democide at 20.9 million persons.* [192]
ing Romanian Transnistria at 3.0 million.* [181] • Timothy Snyder put the victims of the Nazis killed
• In the USSR by the Einsatzgruppen: Raul Hilberg only as result of deliberate policies of mass murder
puts the Jewish death toll in the area of the mobile such as executions, deliberate famine and in death
killing groups at 1.4 million.* [181] camps at 10.4 million persons including 5.4 million
Jews.* [193]
• Aggravated deaths in the Ghettos of Nazi-occupied
Europe: Raul Hilberg puts the Jewish death toll in • German scholar Hellmuth Auerbach puts the death
the Ghettos at 700,000.* [181] toll in the Hitler era at 6 million Jews killed in
the Holocaust and 7 million other victims of the
• Yad Vashem has identified the names of four million Nazis.* [194]
Jewish Holocaust dead.* [182]
• Dieter Pohl puts the total number of victims of the
The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths Nazi era at between 12 and 14 million persons, in-
in the table below are from The Columbia Guide to the cluding 5.6–5.7 million Jews.* [195]
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 161

• Roma Included in the figures of total war dead are tions. Other deaths occurred in the wartime evacu-
the Roma victims of the Nazi persecution, some ations and due to war related malnutrition and dis-
scholars include the Roma deaths with the Holo- ease in the interior. The authors maintain that both
caust. Most estimates of Roma (Gypsies) victims Stalin and Hitler“were both responsible but in dif-
range from 130,000 to 500,000.* [190]* [196] Ian ferent ways for these deaths”, and “In short the
Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Stud- general picture of Soviet wartime losses suggests a
ies and the Romani Archives and Documentation jigsaw puzzle. The general outline is clear: peo-
Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has ar- ple died in colossal numbers but in many different
gued in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 miserable and terrible circumstances. But individ-
and 1,500,000 Roma dead.* [197] Hancock writes ual pieces of the puzzle do not fit well; some over-
that, proportionately, the death toll equaled “and lap and others are yet to be found”.* [209] Bohdan
almost certainly exceed[ed], that of Jewish victims” Wytwycky maintained that civilian losses of 3.0 mil-
.* [198] In a 2010 publication, Ian Hancock stated lion Ukrainians and 1.4 million Belarusians “were
that he agrees with the view that the number of Ro- racially motivated”.* [210]* [211] According to Paul
manis killed has been underestimated as a result of Robert Magocsi, between 1941 and 1945, approxi-
being grouped with others in Nazi records under mately 3,000,000 Ukrainian and other non-Jewish
headings such as “remainder to be liquidated”, victims were killed as part of Nazi extermination
“hangers-on”and “partisans”.* [199] policies in the territory of modern Ukraine.* [212]
Dieter Pohl puts the total number of victims of
The following figures are from The Columbia Guide to the Nazi policies in the USSR at 500,000 civilians
the Holocaust, the authors maintain that “statistics on killed in the repression of partisans, 1.0 million vic-
Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. tims of the Nazi Hunger Plan, c. 3.0 million So-
These figures (cited below) are based on necessarily rough viet POW and 1.0 million Jews (in pre-war bor-
estimates”.* [200] ders).* [213] Soviet author Georgiy A. Kumanev put
the civilian death toll in the Nazi-occupied USSR at
8.2 million (4.0 million Ukrainians, 2.5 million Be-
• Handicapped persons: 200,000 to 250,000
larusians, and 1.7 million Russians).* [214] A report
handicapped persons were killed.* [201] A 2003 re-
published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in
port by the German Federal Archive put the total
1995 put the death toll due to the German occupa-
murdered during the Action T4 and Action 14f13
tion at 13.7 million civilians (including Jews): 7.4
programs at 200,000.* [202]* [203]
million victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals; 2.2
• Prisoners of War: POW deaths in Nazi captivity million persons deported to Germany for forced la-
totalled 3.1 million* [204] including 2.6 to 3 million bor; and 4.1 million famine and disease deaths in
Soviet prisoners of war.* [205] occupied territory. Sources published in the Soviet
Union were cited to support these figures.* [215]
• Ethnic Poles: 1.8 to 1.9 million ethnic Polish civil-
ians were victims during the German occupation • Homosexuals: According to the United States
(see Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles).* [206] Holocaust Memorial Museum “Between 1933 and
1945 the police arrested an estimated 100,000 men
• Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians: Accord- as homosexuals. Most of the 50,000 men sentenced
ing to Nazi ideology, Slavs were useless sub- by the courts spent time in regular prisons, and be-
humans. As such, their leaders, the Soviet elite, tween 5,000 and 15,000 were interned in concen-
were to be killed and the remainder of the pop- tration camps.”They also noted that There are no
ulation enslaved or expelled further eastward. As known statistics for the number of homosexuals who
a result, millions of civilians in the Soviet Union died in the camps.* [216]
were deliberately killed, starved, or worked to
• Other victims of Nazi persecution: Between
death.* [207] Contemporary Russian sources use the
1,000 and 2,000 Roman Catholic clergy,* [217]
terms “genocide”and “premeditated extermina-
about 1,000 Jehovah's Witnesses,* [218] and an un-
tion”when referring to civilian losses in the occupied
known number of Freemasons* [219] perished in
USSR. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet
Nazi prisons and camps. “The fate of black peo-
partisan war and wartime-related famine account for
ple from 1933-45 in Nazi Germany and in German-
a major part of the huge toll.* [208] The Cambridge
occupied territories ranged from isolation to perse-
History of Russia puts overall civilian deaths in the
cution, sterilization, medical experimentation, in-
Nazi-occupied USSR at 13.7 million persons includ-
carceration, brutality, and murder.”* [220] Dur-
ing 2 million Jews. There were an additional 2.6
ing the Nazi era Communists, Socialists, Social
million deaths in the interior regions of the Soviet
Democrats, and trade union leaders were victims of
Union. The authors maintain “scope for error in
Nazi persecution.* [221]
this number is very wide”. At least 1 million per-
ished in the wartime GULAG camps or in deporta- • Serbs: The numbers of Serbs murdered by the
162 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Ustaše is the subject of debate and estimates vary • There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895
widely. Yad Vashem estimates over 500,000 mur- western civilians interned by the Japanese due to
dered, 250,000 expelled and 200,000 forcibly con- famine and disease.* [229]* [230]
verted to Catholicism.* [222] The estimate of the
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is that
the Ustaše murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 Repression in the Soviet Union
ethnic Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia
between 1941–45, with roughly 45,000 to 52,000 The total war dead in the USSR includes victims of So-
murdered at the Jasenovac concentration camp viet repression. The number of deaths in the Gulag la-
alone.* [223] According to the Wiesenthal Center at bor camps increased as a result of wartime overcrowding
least 90,000 Serbs, Jews, Gypsies and anti-fascist and food shortages.* [231] The Stalin regime deported the
Croatians perished at the hands of the Ustashe at the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be
camp at Jasenovac.* [224] According to Yugoslav potentially disloyal.* [232] Since 1990 Russian scholars
sources published in the Tito era the estimates of have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have
the number of Serb victims range from 200,000 to published data on the numbers of people executed and
at least 600,000 persons.* [225] See also World War those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons.* [233]
II persecution of Serbs. The Russian scholar Viktor Zemskov puts the death toll
from 1941–1945 at about 1 million based on data from
the Soviet archives.* [234] The Soviet-era archive figures
Japanese war crimes on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vig-
orous academic debate outside Russia since their publi-
Main article: Japanese war crimes cation in 1991. J. Arch Getty and Stephen G. Wheatcroft
maintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail
Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin
crimes. era.* [235]* [236] Robert Conquest and Steven Rosefielde
have disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet
• R. J. Rummel estimates the civilian victims of archives, maintaining that the demographic data and tes-
Japanese democide at 5,424,000. Detailed by coun- timonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate
try: China 3,695,000; Indochina 457,000; Ko- a higher death toll.* [237]* [238] Rosefielde posits that the
rea 378,000; Indonesia 375,000; Malaya-Singapore release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation
283,000; Philippines 119,000, Burma 60,000 and generated by the modern KGB.* [239] Rosefielde main-
Pacific Islands 57,000. tains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete;
for example, he pointed out that the figures do not in-
Rummel estimates POW deaths in Japanese clude the 22,000 victims of the Katyn massacre.* [240]
custody at 539,000 Detailed by country: Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of
China 400,000; French Indochina 30,000; excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in
Philippines 27,300; Netherlands 25,000; 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941–1945.* [241] Michael
France 14,000; Britain 13,000; British Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the So-
Colonies 11,000; US 10,700; Australia viet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims,
8,000.* [12]* [226] they maintain that the demographic data depicts an under-
developed Soviet economy and the losses in World War
• Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag
at 20,365,000. Detailed by country: China labor camps.* [242]
12,392,000; Indochina 1,500,000; Korea 500,000; In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remem-
Dutch East Indies 3,000,000; Malaya and Sin- brance (IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citi-
gapore 100,000; Philippines 500,000; Burma zens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the col-
170,000; Forced laborers in Southeast Asia 70,000, lapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do
30,000 interned non-Asian civilians; Timor 60,000; research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during
Thailand and Pacific Islands 60,000.* [227] the Soviet occupation.* [177] Andrzej Paczkowski puts
the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the
Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese cap-
1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the
tivity at 331,584. Detailed by country: China
Soviets.* [243] In 2005 Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated the
270,000; Netherlands 8,500; Britain 12,433;
death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000.* [244]
Canada 273; Philippines 20,000; Australia
7,412; New Zealand 31; and the United States The Estonian State Commission on Examination of Poli-
12,935.* [227] cies of Repression put civilian deaths due to the Soviet
occupation in 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800
• Out of 60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths,
of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.* [228] (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 163

(14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccu- tion, the other half (700,000) however in fact died
pation by the U.S.S.R., 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet in Soviet custody”.* [292]
prisons during 1944–45.* [245]
3. Soviet sources list the deaths of 474,967 of the
The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet 2,652,672 German Armed Forces POW taken in the
archives: war.* [293]
Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, in-
cluding: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag la- USSR
bor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons
422,629.* [246] 1. Estimated total Soviet military war dead from 1941–
Deported to special settlements: (figures are for depor- 45 on the Eastern Front (World War II) including
tations to Special Settlements only, not including those missing in action, POWs and Soviet partisans range
executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into from 8.6 to 10.6 million.* [277] There were an ad-
the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional ditional 127,000 war dead in 1939–40 during the
deportations after the war). Winter War with Finland.* [294]
Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 2. The official figures for military war dead and
to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; missing from 1941–45 are 8,668,400 comprising
Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; 6,329,600 combat related deaths, 555,500 non-
Moldova 22,842.* [247] In August 1941, 243,106 Poles combat deaths.* [295] 500,000 missing in action and
living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and re- 1,103,300 POW dead and another 180,000 liber-
leased by the Soviets.* [248] ated POWs who most likely emigrated to other
Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million countries.* [296]* [297]* [298] Figures include Navy
persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including: Soviet losses of 154,771.* [299] Non-combat deaths in-
Germans 1,209,000; Finns 9,000; Karachays 69,000; clude 157,000 sentenced to death by court mar-
Kalmyks 92,000;Chechens and Ingush 479,000; Balkars tial.* [300]
37,000; Crimean Tatars 191,014; Meskhetian Turks
91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 3. Casualties in 1939–40 include the following dead
42,000; Ukrainian OUN members 100,000; Poles and missing, Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939
30,000.* [249] (8,931); Invasion of Poland of 1939 (1,139); Winter
A total of 2,230,500* [250] persons were living in the War with Finland (1939–40) (126,875).* [273]
settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were
4. The number of wounded includes 2,576,000 perma-
reported in special settlements for the years 1941–
* nently disabled.* [301]
1948. [251]
Russian sources list Axis prisoner of war deaths of 5. The official Russian figure for total POW held by the
580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the So- Germans is 4,059,000; the number of Soviet POW
viet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Ro- who survived the war was 2,016,000, including
mania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 180,000 who most likely emigrated to other coun-
*
62,069). [252] However some western scholars estimate tries, and an additional 939,700 POW and MIA who
*
the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million. [253] were redrafted as territory was liberated. This leaves
1,103,000 POW dead. However, western historians
put the number of POW held by the Germans at 5.7
Military casualties by branch of service million and about 3 million as dead in captivity (in
the official Russian figures 1.1 million are military
Germany POW and remaining balance of about 2 million are
included with civilian war dead).* [296]* [302]
1. The number killed in action was 2,303,320; died
6. Conscripted reservists is an estimate of men called
of wounds, disease or accidents 500,165; 11,000
up, primarily in 1941, who were killed in battle or
sentenced to death by court martial; 2,007,571
died as POWs before being listed on active strength.
missing in action or unaccounted for after the war;
* Soviet and Russian sources classify these losses as
25,000 suicides; 12,000 unknown; [290] 459,475
civilian deaths.* [303]
confirmed POW deaths, of whom 77,000 were
in the custody of the U.S., UK and France; and
363,000 in Soviet custody. POW deaths includes British Commonwealth
266,000 in the post-war period after June 1945, pri-
marily in Soviet captivity.* [291] 1. Number served: UK and Crown Colonies
(5,896,000); India-(British colonial adminis-
2. Rüdiger Overmans writes“It seems entirely plausi- tration) (2,582,000), Australia (993,000); Canada
ble, while not provable,that one half of the 1.5 mil- (1,100,000); New Zealand (295,000); South Africa
lion missing on the eastern front were killed in ac- (250,000).* [304]
164 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

2. Total war related deaths reported by the all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Com-
Commonwealth War Graves Commission: UK monwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death
and Crown Colonies (383,786); India-(British colo- was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and
nial administration) (87,032), Australia (40,464); civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status
Canada (45,383); New Zealand (11,929); South if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For
Africa (11,903).* [278] the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Com-
monwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 De-
3. Total military dead for the United Kingdom alone: cember 1947.
264,443. Royal Navy (50,758); British Army
(144,079); Royal Air Force (69,606).* [305]* [306]
4. Wounded: UK and Crown Colonies
5.1.3 Charts and graphs
(284,049); India-(British colonial administra- • Military and civilian deaths during World War II for
tion) (64,354), Australia (39,803); Canada the Allied and the Axis Powers.
(53,174); New Zealand (19,314); South Africa
(14,363).* [279]* [307]* [308] • Axis Military personnel killed, percentage by coun-
try.
5. Prisoner of war: UK and Crown Colonies
(180,488); India-(British colonial adminis- • World War II Military Deaths by Country (using
tration) (79,481); Australia (26,358); South Wikipedia's cited numbers)
Africa (14,750); Canada (9,334); New Zealand
(8,415).* [279]* [307]* [308]
5.1.4 See also
6. The Debt of Honour Register from the
Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists • World War II casualties of Poland
the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth
• World War II casualties of the Soviet Union
forces who died during the two world wars.* [309]
• German casualties in World War II
U.S.
• Equipment losses in World War II
1. Battle deaths (including POWs who died in cap- • World War I casualties
tivity, does not include those who died of dis-
ease and accidents) * [282] were 292,131: Army • List of wars and disasters by death toll
234,874 (including Army Air Forces 52,173); Navy
36,950; Marine Corps 19,733; and Coast Guard 574
5.1.5 Footnotes
(185,924 deaths occurred in the European/Atlantic
theater of operations and 106,207 deaths occurred
^A Albania
in Asia/Pacific theater of operations).* [282]* [310]
2. During World War II, 14,059 American POWs died • No reliable statistics on Albania's wartime losses ex-
in enemy captivity throughout the war (12,935 held ist, but the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation
by Japan and 1,124 held by Germany).* [311] Administration reported about 30,000 Albanian war
dead. Albanian official statistics claim somewhat
3. During World War II, 1.2 million African Ameri- higher losses.* [14]
cans served in the U.S. Armed Forces and 708 were
killed in action. 350,000 American women served • Jewish Holocaust victims totalled 200, these Jews
in the Armed Forces during World War II and 16 were Yugoslav citizens resident in Albania. Jews of
were killed in action.* [312] During World War II, Albanian origin survived the Holocaust.* [185]
26,000 Japanese-Americans served in the Armed
Forces and over 800 were killed in action.* [313] ^B Australia

• The Australian War Memorial* [15] reports 39,648

Commonwealth military casualties military deaths. This figure includes all personnel
who died from war-related causes during 1939–47.
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC)
Annual Report 2010–2011* [278] is the source of the • According to official statistics Australian battle ca-
military dead for the British Empire. The war dead to- sualties included 27,073 killed, died of wounds or
tals listed in the report are based on the research by the died as POW; wounded or injured in action were
CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth 23,477,these figures exclude non-battle casualties,
war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are rep- such as deaths in non operational areas and deaths
resentative of the number of names commemorated for due to natural causes.* [314]* [315]
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 165

• The Australian government does not regard • Total Bulgarian military war dead were 18,500 in-
merchant mariners as military personnel and the cluding 6,671 battle deaths* [321]
349 Australians killed in action while crewing mer-
chant ships around the world,* [316] are included • There were 3,000 civilian deaths in Allied air raids
in the total civilian deaths. Other civilian fatalities including 1,400 in the bombing of Sofia* [322]
were due to air raids and attacks on passenger ships. • A Russian historian in a handbook of human losses
• The preliminary data for Australian losses included in the 20th century has provided the following as-
23,365 killed, 6,030 missing, 39,803 wounded, and sessment of Bulgarian casualties:Military deaths:
26,363 POWs.* [308] 2,000 military Axis occupation forces in Yugoslavia
and Greece; 10,124 dead as allies of the USSR and
10,000 Anti-Fascist Partisan deaths.* [323] Regard-
^C Austria
ing partisan and civilian casualties Erlikman notes
“According to the official data of the royal govern-
• Military war dead reported by Rüdiger Overmans of ment 2,320 were killed and 199 executed. The com-
261,000 are included with Germany.* [317] munists claim that 20–35,000 persons died. In re-
• Austrian civilian casualties were 99,700 victims of ality deaths were 10,000, including and unknown
Nazi persecution and 24,000 killed in Allied air number of civilians.”* [323]
raids. The Austrian government provides the fol-
lowing information on human losses during the rule ^G Burma
of the Nazis. “For Austria the consequences of the
Nazi regime and the Second World War were disas- • Military casualties with the pro-Japanese Burma
trous: During this period 2,700 Austrians had been National Army were 400 killed in action, 1,500
executed and more than 16,000 citizens murdered other deaths, 715 missing, 2,000 wounded and 800
in the concentration camps. Some 16,000 Austri- POW* [21]
ans were killed in prison, while over 67,000 Aus-
trian Jews were deported to death camps, only 2,000 • Civilian deaths during the Japanese occupation of
of them lived to see the end of the war. In addi- Burma totalled 250,000; 110,000 Burmese, plus
tion, 247,000 Austrians lost their lives serving in the 100,000 Indian and 40,000 Chinese civilians in
*
army of the Third Reich or were reported missing, Burma. [21]
and 24,000 civilians were killed during bombing” • Werner Gruhl estimates 70,000 Asian laborers died
raids.* [150] cruelly during the construction of the Burma Rail-
way.* [324]
^D Belgium
^H Canada
• Belgian government sources reported 12,000 mil-
itary war dead which included (8,800 killed, 500 • The Canadian War Museum puts military losses at
missing in action, 200 executed, 800 resistance 42,000 plus 1,600 Merchant Navy deaths. An ad-
movement fighters and 1,800 POWs) and civilian ditional 700 military dead from Newfoundland are
losses of 73,000 which included (32,200 deaths due included with the U.K.* [22]
to military operations, 3,400 executed, 8,500 po-
litical deportees, 5,000 workers in Germany and • The Canadian Virtual War Memorial contains a reg-
*
27,000 Jewish Holocaust victims). [318] istry of information about the graves and memori-
als of Canadians and Newfoundlanders who served
• Losses of about 10,000 in the German Armed valiantly and gave their lives for their country.* [325]
Forces are not included in these figures, they are in-
cluded with German military casualties.* [319] • The preliminary data for Canadian losses included
killed 37,476, missing 1,843, wounded 53,174 and
^E Brazil POW 9,045.* [326]

• The Brazilian Expeditionary Force war dead were ^I China Sources for total Chinese war dead are diver-
510,* [320] Navy losses in the Battle of the Atlantic gent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below.
were 492.* [19]
• John W. Dower has noted “So great was the dev-
• Civilian losses due to attacks on merchant ship- astation and suffering in China that in the end it is
ping were 470 merchant mariners and 502 passen- necessary to speak of uncertain 'millions' of deaths.
gers.* [19] Certainly, it is reasonable to think in general terms
of approximately 10 million Chinese war dead, a to-
^F Bulgaria tal surpassed only by the Soviet Union.”Dower cited
166 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

a United Nations report from 1947 that put Chinese • Werner Gruhl estimates China's total war losses
war dead at 9 million.* [38] at 15,554,000, Civilians :12,392,000 including
(8,191,000) due to the Japanese brutality and mil-
• According to Rana Mitter “the death toll on China itary dead 3,162,000.* [27]
is still being calculated, but conservative estimates
number the dead at 14 million”* [327] Rana Mitter ^J Cuba
cited the estimate of Chinese casualties by Odd Arne
Westad of 2 million combat deaths and 12 civilian
deaths, Mitter also cited a Chinese study published • Cuba lost 5 merchant ships and 79 dead merchant
in 2006 that put the death toll in the war at 8 to 10 mariners.* [19]
million.* [328]
^K Czechoslovakia
• An academic study of the Chinese population
concluded that “a conservative estimate would • According to the Czechoslovak State Statistical Of-
put total human casualties directly caused by the fice the population at 1/1/1939(within post war
war of 1937-1945 at between 15,000,000 and 1945-1992 borders) was 14,612,000* [30] The pop-
20,000,000”* [28] This study cited a Chinese ulation in 1939 included about 3.3 million ethnic
Nationalist source that put total civilian casual- Germans that were expelled after the war or were
ties at 2,144,048 =(1,073,496 killed; 237,319 German military casualties during the war.
wounded; 71,050 captured by Japanese; 335,934
killed in Japanese air raids; 426,249 wounded in • Russian demographer Boris Urlanis estimated
air raids), military casualties at 6,750,000 from Czechoslovak war dead of 340,000 persons, 46,000
1937-1943 (1,500,000 killed; 3,000,000 wounded; military and 294,000 civilians* [31]
750,000 missing; 1,500,000 deaths caused by sick-
ness,etc.* [329] In addition 960,000 collaborator • A Russian historian in a handbook of human losses
forces and 446,736 Communist were killed or in the 20th century has provided the following as-
*
wounded [329] sessment of Czechoslovak casualties:* [32]
35,000 Military deaths: including: killed during
• The official Chinese government (communist) 1938 occupation (171); Czechoslovak Forces with
statistic for China's civilian and military casualties the Western Allies (3,220); Czechoslovak military
in the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937–1945 units on Eastern front (4,570); Slovak Republic Axis
*
is 20 million dead and 15 million wounded. [330] forces (7,000); Czechs in German forces (5,000),
partisan losses 10,000 and (5,000) POWs.
• Chinese scholar Bianxiu Yue has published a study 320,000 Civilian deaths: (10,000) in bombing and
of China's population losses in the Second Sino- shelling; (22,000) executed; (285,000 in camps in-
Japanese War . He put total Chinese losses at 20.6 cluding 270,000 Jews, 8,000 Roma); and (3,000)
*
million dead and 14.2 million injured. [331] forced laborers in Germany.* [32]

• Official Nationalist Chinese casualty figures were: ^L Denmark

killed 1,319,958; wounded 1,716,335 and missing
130,126,* [332] An academic study of the Chinese • The Danish Ministry of Education has detailed Den-
population concluded that these figures are“unrea- mark's losses in the war of about 8,000 persons in-
*
sonably low”and “highly suspect” [333] cluding 2,685 killed in Denmark in bombing raids,
resistance fighters and those executed by the Ger-
• R. J. Rummel's estimate of total war dead
* mans and 3,000 who died outside Denmark includ-
from 1937–45 is 19,605,000. [334] Military
ing (2,000 merchant seamen, 63 serving with Allied
dead: 3,400,000 (including 400,000 POW) Na-
forces, 600 in German camps, 400 workers in Ger-
tionalist/Communist, and 432,000 collaborator
many). In addition 2,000 Danish volunteers were
forces.Civilian war deaths: 3,808,000 killed in
killed serving in the Germany military.* [33]
fighting and 3,549,000 victims of Japanese war
crimes (not including an additional 400,000
POWs).Other deaths: Repression by Chinese Na- ^M Dutch East Indies
tionalists 5,907,000 (3,081,000 military conscripts
who died due to mistreatment and 2,826,000 • The United Nations reported in 1947 that “about
civilian deaths caused by Nationalist government, 30,000 Europeans and 300,000 Indonesian in-
including the 1938 Yellow River flood); political ternees and forced laborers died during the occupa-
repression by Chinese Communists 250,000 and by tion.”They reported,“The total number who were
Warlords 110,000. Additional deaths due to famine killed by the Japanese, or who died from, hunger,
were 2,250,000. disease and lack of medical attention is estimated at
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 167

3,000,000 for Java alone, 1,000,000 for the Outer by the Soviets.* [340] Included in the above figures
Islands. Altogether 35,000 of the 240,000 Euro- is the genocide of (243) Roma people and (929)
peans died; most of them were men of working age.” Jews* [341]
*
[335]
• After the reoccupation by the USSR, 16,000 Es-
• John W. Dower cited the 1947 UN report that esti- tonians died in Soviet repressions during 1944–
mated 4 million famine and forced labor dead during 53.* [342]
the Japanese Occupation of Indonesia.* [38]
• Total deaths from 1940–53 due the war and the So-
• Werner Gruhl estimated the civilian death toll due viet occupation were approximately 83,000 persons
to the war and Japanese occupation at 3,000,000 In- (7.3% of the population).* [245]
donesians and 30,000 interned Europeans.* [336]
^O Ethiopia
• A discussion of the famine in Java during 1944–45,
leads Pierre van der Eng to conclude that 2.4 million • Total military and civilian dead in the East African
Indonesians perished.* [37] Campaign were 100,000 including 15,000 native
military with Italian forces.* [42]
• Dutch Military losses in Asia were 2,500 killed in
the 1942 Dutch East Indies campaign* [337] • Small and Singer put the military losses at
5,000.* [343]
• Data from the Netherlands Institute of War Doc-
umentation puts the number of Dutch POW cap- • The deaths of African soldiers conscripted by Italy
tured by the Japanese at 37,000 of whom 8,500 are not included with the Italian war dead. The Ital-
died.* [338] ian Ministry of Defense estimated 10,000 deaths of
native soldiers in East African Campaign* [344]
• The Japanese interned 105,530 Dutch civilians in
the East Indies, of whom 13,567 died.* [338] • These totals do not include losses in the Italian
Second Italo-Abyssinian War and Italian occupa-
tion from 1935–41. The official Ethiopian gov-
^MA Egypt
ernment report lists 760,000 deaths due to the war
and Italian occupation from 1935–41.* [345] How-
• Egyptian military casualties were 1,125 killed and ever, R.J. Rummel estimates 200,000 Ethiopians
1,308 wounded. The British used the Egyptian army and Libyans were killed by the Italians from the
to guard lines of communication and to clear mine- 1920s–1941“based on Discovery TV Cable Chan-
fields.* [339] nel Program 'Timewatch'", which aired January 17,
1992.* [346]
^N Estonia
^P Finland
• Estonia's human losses due to the Soviet and Ger-
man occupation of Estonia from 1940 to 1945 were • Military dead include killed and missing from the
approximately 67,000 persons based on a study by Winter War and Continuation War with the So-
Estonian State Commission on Examination of Poli- viet Union, as well as action against German forces
cies of Repression.* [41] in 1944–45. Winter War (1939–40) losses were
22,830, military deaths from 1941–44 were 58,715,
• Soviet occupation 1940-41 dead and missing of and 1,036 in 1944–45 in the Lapland War.* [43]
43,900 including (7,800) arrested persons who were
murdered or perished in the Soviet Union; (6,000) • The Finnish National Archives website lists the
deported persons who perished in the Soviet Union; names of the 95,000 Finnish war dead. The war
(24,000) mobilized persons who perished in the So- dead database 1939-1945 includes all servicemen
viet Union and (1,100) persons who went missing) and women who died during being listed in the
Finnish army, navy or the air force. It also includes
• Losses during the 1941–1944 Occupation of Es- foreign volunteers who died during their service in
tonia by Nazi Germany were 23,040, including Finland and Finnish SS-men who died while serving
(7,800) executed by Nazis and (1,040) killed in in the German army.The database contains civilians
prison camps. (200) people died in forced labor in case they have been buried at a military ceme-
in Germany. (800) deaths in Soviet bombing raids tery. That was sometimes done if the deceased was,
against Estonian cities, (1,000) killed in Allied air for example, an ammunition worker, air raid victim
raids on Germany and (1,000) perished at sea while or a civilian worker who for some other reason died
attempting to flee the country in 1944–45. (10,000) because of the war. Some parishes continued bury-
Estonians were war dead in the Germany armed ing in second world war military cemeteries up to
forces and (1,000) surrendered POW were executed the 1980s.* [44]
168 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

• Soviet sources list the deaths of 403 of the 2,377 ^S Germany The following notes summarize German
Finnish POW taken in the War.* [347] casualties, the details are presented in German casualties
in World War II.
• During the Winter war of 1939–40 the Swedish Vol-
unteer Corps served alongside the Finns in combat. German population

• 1,407 Finnish volunteers served in the Finnish Vol- • The 1939 Population for Germany within 1937
unteer Battalion of the Waffen-SS and 256 were borders File:DR1937.1.png was 69.3 million per-
killed in action.* [348] sons* [47]

• Civilian war dead were 2,000,* [45] due in part to • Foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern
the bombing of Helsinki in World War II. Europe were subject to conscription by Nazi Ger-
many during the war. According to a 1958 re-
port by the West German Statistisches Bunde-
^Q France samt (Federal Statistical Office) the pre war eth-
nic German population in eastern Europe was
• French military war of 210,000 dead include 7,423,300 persons (249,500 Baltic states & Memel;
150,000 regular forces (1939–40 Battle of France 380,000 Danzig; 1,371,000 Poland (1939 Bor-
92,000; 1940–45 on Western Front (World War ders) ; 3,477,000 Czechoslovakia; 623,000 Hun-
II) 58,000); 20,000 French resistance fighters and gary; 536,800 Yugoslavia; and 786,000 Roma-
40,000 POWs in Germany.* [349] Civilian losses of nia).* [354]* [355] These German estimates are dis-
390,000 include:(60,000 killed in bombardments, puted. A recent analysis by a Polish scholar found
60,000 in land fighting, 30,000 murdered in execu- that “Generally speaking, the German estimates...
tions, 60,000 political deportees, 40,000 workers in are not only highly arbitrary, but also clearly ten-
Germany, 100,000 victims of Nazi genocide (Jews dentious in presentation of the German losses”. He
& Roma) and 40,000 French nationals in the Ger- maintains that the German government figures from
man Armed forces who were conscripted in Alsace- 1958 overstated the total number of the ethnic Ger-
Lorraine,)* [349] mans living in Poland prior to war as well as the total
civilian deaths due to the post war expulsions.* [356]
• The French Ministry of Defense puts French mili-
tary war dead at 200,000.* [350] They note that these Total German war dead
losses include combatants from the French colonies
as well as metropolitan France; regular soldiers and
• (1949)The West German Statistisches Bundesamt
members of the resistance.* [351]
(Federal Statistical Office)estimated total war dead
• Vadim Erlikman a Russian historian, estimates of 5,483,000; (3,250,000)military; (500,000) civil-
losses of Africans in the French Colonial Forces at ians killed in bombing raids and the land campaign;
*
about 22,000. [352] (1,533,000) deaths in the expulsions from Poland
and (200,000) victims of Nazi racial, religious or
• 752 civilians were killed during the US air attacks political persecution. These figures are for Germany
on French Tunisia in 1942–43.* [353] in 1937 borders File:DR1937.1.png and do not in-
clude Austria or foreign nationals of German ances-
• R. J. Rummel estimates the deaths of 20,000 anti- try in eastern Europe* [357]
Fascist Spanish refugees resident in France who
were deported to Nazi camps, these deaths are in- • (1953) The German economist de:Bruno Gleitze
*
cluded with French civilian casualties. [192] from the German Institute for Economic Re-
search estimated total war dead of 6,000,000;
(3,100,000)military; (600,000) civilians killed in
^R French Indochina bombing raids and the land campaign; (800,000)
deaths to expulsion from Poland ( 300,000) vic-
• John W. Dower estimated 1.0 million deaths due to tims of Nazi racial, religious or political persecu-
Vietnamese Famine of 1945 during Japanese occu- tion, (1,200,000) increase in natural deaths due to
pation.* [258] the war. These figures are for Germany in 1937 bor-
ders File:DR1937.1.png and do not include Austria
• Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian death toll or foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern
due to the war and Japanese occupation at Europe.* [358]
*
1,500,000. [336]
• (1956) The West German Statistisches Bundesamt
• Vietnamese sources put the number of deaths during (Federal Statistical Office)estimated total war dead
the 1944–45 famine in North Vietnam at between 1 of 5,650,000 = (3,760,000)military; (430,000)civil-
and 2 million.* [46] ians killed in bombing raids and the land campaign;
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 169

(1,260,000) deaths to expulsion from Poland and • (1946)The Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. esti-
(200,000) victims of Nazi racial, religious or polit- mated German military dead at 3,250,000.* [365]
ical persecution. These figures are for Germany in
1937 borders File:DR1937.1.png and do not include • (1947)The combined staff of the U.K., Canada and
Austria or foreign nationals of German ancestry in the U.S. prepared “A study of the employment of
eastern Europe.* [359] German manpower from 1933-1945”. They esti-
mated German casualties up until April 30, 1945 at
• (1961) The West German government issued a state- 2,230,324 dead, 2,870,404 missing and POW held
ment listing a total of 7,032,800 war dead: (mili- by Allies.* [366]* [367]
tary dead 3,760,000 in prewar 1937 borders File: • (1960) The West German government issued fig-
DR1937.1.png and 432,000 foreign nationals of ures of the war losses. Total military dead were
German ancestry in eastern Europe); (430,000 civil- put at 4,440,000 (3,760,000 in prewar 1937 bor-
ians killed in bombing raids and the land campaign ders File:DR1937.1.png; 430,000 foreign nationals
in prewar 1937 borders); (300,000 victims of Nazi of German ancestry in eastern Europe and 250,000
racial, religious or political persecution including Austria.)* [147]
170,000 Jews); (expulsion dead 1,224,900 in pre-
war 1937 borders and 885,900 foreign nationals • (1974) The Maschke Commission found that about
of German ancestry in eastern Europe) These fig- 1.2 million German military personnel reported as
ures do not include Austria.* [360] The Statistisches missing more than likely died as POWs, including
Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1960, 1.1 million in the USSR.* [368]
listed Austrian casualties as 250,000 military dead
and 24,000 civilians killed in bombing raids* [147] • (1985) The Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt) has been
responsible for providing information for the fami-
• (1984) A German demographic study estimated lies of those military personnel who were killed or
6,900,000 deaths caused by the war in prewar 1937 went missing in the war, they do not compile fig-
borders File:DR1937.1.png. (3,800,000)military ures of the total war dead. By 1985 they had iden-
and (3,100,000) civilians.* [47] tified 3.1 million confirmed dead and 1.2 million
missing and presumed dead.* [367] The Deutsche
• (1991) A German demographic study estimated Dienststelle (WASt) reported the same figures in
5,450,000 to 5,600,000 war dead (4,300,000 mili- 2005* [363]
tary dead; 430,000 civilians killed in bombing raids
and the land campaign and 882,000 deaths due to • (1993) The Russian historian G.Krivosheev puts the
expulsions from Poland). These figures are for Ger- losses of the "Vlasovites, Balts and Muslims etc.”
many in 1937 borders File:DR1937.1.png and do in German service at 215,000* [172] According to
not include Austria or foreign nationals of German Krivosheev 450,600 German POWs died in Soviet
ancestry in eastern Europe* [361] captivity (356,700 in camps and 93,900 in tran-
sit)* [369]
• (1998) A German demographic study estimated
• (2000) Rüdiger Overmans, an associate of the
5,500,000 to 6,900,000 war dead. These figures
German Armed Forces Military History Research
vary because of the shift of borders between 1937
Office* [370] provided a reassessment of German
and 1940.* [362]
military war dead based on a statistical survey of
• (2005) The German government issued a report list- German military personnel records at the Deutsche
ing total war dead of 7,375,800 = (3,100,000 sol- Dienststelle (WASt). The Overmans research
diers killed; 1,200,000 soldiers missing; 500,000 project was financed by a private foundation and
civilians killed in bombing raids; 2,251,500 civilian published with the endorsement of the German
victims of expulsions and deportations; 24,300 Aus- Armed Forces Military History Research Office of
trian civilians killed and 300,000 victims of Nazi the Federal Ministry of Defense (Germany). The
racial, religious or political persecution. These fig- study found that the statistics compiled by Ger-
ures include Austria and foreign nationals of Ger- man military during the war were incomplete and
man ancestry in eastern Europe.)* [363] did not provide an accurate accounting of casual-
ties. The research by Overmans concluded that
German military dead and missing were 5,318,000
German military casualties (4,456,000 in prewar 1937 borders File:DR1937.1.
png and 539,000 foreign nationals of German ances-
• (1945)The casualty figures compiled by the German try in eastern Europe, 261,000 Austria and 63,000
High Command (OKW) as of January 31, 1945 put foreign nationals from western European nations).
total military losses at 2,001,399 dead, 1,902,704 The Overmans study did not include Soviet citizens
missing and POW held by Allies and 4,429,875 in German service* [148] The details of the Over-
wounded.* [364] mans study are presented in German casualties in
170 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

World War II. In a separate study Overmans con- 2. ^ 'United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Effects
cluded that the actual death toll of German POWs of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economy,
was about 1.1 million men including (1.0 million)in pages 13, 136
the USSR* [371]
3. ^ United States Strategic Bombing Survey, The Ef-
Civilian Casualties fect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Ger-
many, pp. 11-13
1. ^S1 Official German and Austrian sources from the
1950s reported about 2,950,000 civilian war dead: • (1956) A German government study put German air
434,000 air raid dead (410,000 Germany,24,000 war dead at 635,000; 500,000 killed by allied strate-
Austria* [372] 300,00 deaths due to Nazi racial, re- gic bombing and 135,000 refugees killed during the
ligious and political persecution not including vic- evacuations from eastern Europe in 1945. These
tims of the Nazi euthanasia program.* [373] Aus- figures include 593,000 Germany in 1937 borders
trian sources put the number of victims of the File:DR1937.1.png (410,000 civilians, 32,000 for-
Nazis at at 100,000;* [374] 2,111,000 Deaths due eigners and POW and 23,000 military and Po-
to expulsion of the Germans from east-central Eu- lice killed in strategic bombing and 127,000 civil-
rope.* [375]* [376] The German government still ians and 1,000 military and Police refugees flee-
maintains that 2.0 million civilians perished dur- ing on the eastern front). There were an additional
ing the flight and expulsions from Eastern Eu- 42,000 dead in Austria and the annexed territories(
rope.* [377] 26,000 civilians, 7,000 foreigners and POW and
1,000 military and Police were killed in strategic
1. ^S2 Recent research indicates about 1,550,000 bombing and 7,000 refugees fleeing on the eastern
civilian war dead: 353,000 000 air raid dead* [378] front)* [382]* [383]* [384]
300,000 00 deaths due to Nazi racial, religious
and political persecution in Germany* [379] and • Historian Richard Overy in 2014 published a study
100,000 in Austria;.* [374] German government of the air war The Bombers and the Bombed: Allied
sources reported 200,000 victims of the Nazi eu- Air War Over Europe 1940-1945 in which he dis-
thanasia program* [380] Deaths due to expulsion puted the official German figures of air war dead.
of the Germans from east-central Europe were He estimated total air raid deaths at 353,000. Overy
600,000 according to a report by the German Fed- maintains that the German estimates are based on
eral Archive* [381] incorrect speculations for losses during the last three
months of the war when there was a gap in the record
Civilian casualties in air raids keeping system. He points out that the figures for air
raid dead in the last three months of the war were
• (1945-47) The United States Strategic Bombing estimated in the West German figures from 1956
Survey gave three different figures for German air at 300,000 people which he believes is not plausi-
raid deaths. ble. The official figures include an inflated total of
60,000 in the Bombing of Dresden and the inclusion
of refugees fleeing westward.* [154]
1- The summary report of September 30, 1945 put to-
tal casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign
killed and 780,000 wounded.* [1]
2- The section Effects of Strategic Bombing on the Ger- • The West German government in made a rough es-
man War Economy of October 31, 1945 put the losses at timate in 1956 of 20,000 civilians killed during the
375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded* [2] 1945 military campaign in current post war German
3- The section The Effect of Bombing on Health and Med- borders, not including the former German territories
ical Care in Germany of January 1947 made a preliminary in Poland.* [147] However, there is a more recent es-
calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regard- timate of 22,000 civilians killed during the fighting
ing overall losses they concluded that “It was further es- in Berlin only.* [385]
timated that an additional number, approximately 25%
of known deaths in 1944-45,were still unrecovered and
unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944- Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecu-
45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round tion
numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Al-
lied aerial attacks”* [3] • The West German government put the number of
Germans killed by the Nazi political, racial and re-
1. ^ United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Sum- ligious persecution at 300,000 (including 170,000
mary Report German Jews)* [363]* [386]
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 171

• A 2003 report by the German Federal Archive put results of this survey were kept secret until
the total murdered during the Action T4 Euthanasia 1987.* [403]* [404]* [405]* [406]* [407]
program at over 200,000 persons.* [387]
• (1966)The West German Federal Ministry for Ex-
pellees, Refugees and War Victims issued a state-
Expulsion and flight of ethnic Germans The following
ment that put the number of expulsion dead at
notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the
2,111,000 (1,225,000 Germany in 1937 borders
details are presented in the flight and expulsion of
Oder–Neisse line#/media/File:Oder-neisse.gif and
Germans (1944–1950) , the forced labor of Germans
886,000 foreign nationals of German ancestry in
in the Soviet Union' and the Demographic estimates
eastern Europe)* [376]* [408]
of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures
for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the • (1974)A study by the German Federal Archive es-
total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The timated a death toll of 600,000 of civilians in the
death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was expulsions and deportations to the USSR. (400,000
estimated at 2.2 million by the West German govern- in Poland (in post war borders) and the Kaliningrad
ment in 1958.* [388] German government reports which Oblast of Russia; 130,000 in Czechoslovakia and
were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have 80,000 in Yugoslavia.) The authors of the report
caused some historians in Germany to put the actual maintain that these figures cover only those deaths
total at 500,000 to 600,000.* [389] English language caused violent acts and deaths in forced labor and
sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on internment camps. They also stated that their fig-
the West German government statistical analysis of the ures
* do not include deaths due to malnutrition and
1950s.* [390]* [391]* [392]* [393]* [394]* [395]* [396]* [397]* [398] [399] this has been disputed by historian Ingo
disease,
Haar who believes that total losses are between 500-
• (1950) The West German government made a pre- 600,000* [409] This report was kept secret and not
liminary estimate of 3.0 million civilian deaths in published until 1989.* [410]
the expulsions.(1.5 million in prewar 1937 Germany
Oder–Neisse line#/media/File:Oder-neisse.gif and • (1985) A demographic analysis which has the
1.5 million foreign nationals of German ancestry in support of the German government, estimated
eastern Europe)* [400] 2,020,000 civilians died during the post war expul-
sions and the forced labor of Germans in the So-
• (1954-1961) The Schieder commission made pre- viet Union broken out as follows: (870,000Ger-
liminary estimates the civilian death toll in the ex- many in 1937 borders east of the Oder–Neisse
pulsions of about 2.3 million persons, broken out line; 108,000 Germans resettled in Poland dur-
as follows: 2,000,000 Poland (in post war bor- ing the war; 174,000 Poland in 1939 borders ;
ders) and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia; 225,600 40,000 Danzig; 220,000 Czechoslovakia; 106,000
Czechoslovakia; 69,000 Yugoslavia; 40,000 Roma- Yugoslavia; 75,000 Romania; 84,000 Hungary;
nia; 6,000 Hungary.These preliminary figures were 33,000 Baltic States; 310,000 USSR)* [411]
superseded with the publication of the 1958 West
German demographic study.* [401] • The German government currently maintains that
2.0 million civilians perished in the flight and ex-
• (1958) A West German government demographic
pulsion from Eastern Europe. In 2006 Christoph
study estimated 2,225,000 civilians died during the
Bergner, Secretary of State in Germany's Bureau for
flight during the war, post war expulsions and the
Inner Affairs maintainted that the figure of 2 million
Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union, bro-
deaths is correct because it includes the deaths from
ken out as follows: Germany in 1937 borders Oder–
malnutrition and disease of those civilians subject to
Neisse line#/media/File:Oder-neisse.gif 1,339,000;
the expulsions.* [412]
Poland in 1939 borders 185,000; Danzig 83,000;
Czechoslovakia 273,000; Yugoslavia 136,000; Ro- • A 2005 report by the German government search
mania 101,000; Hungary 57,000; Baltic States service put the death toll at 2,251,500, they did not
51,000.* [147]* [402] provide details of the figure * [413] The current po-
• (1965), The search service of the German churches sition in 2015 of the German government Federal
and Red Cross was able to confirm 473,013 civil- Agency for Civic Education is that 2 million civilians
ian deaths in eastern Europe due to the expul- perished in the expulsions, they cited as the source
sions, broken out as follows: 367,392 Poland(in for this figure Gerhard Reichling, Die deutschen
post war borders); 18,889 Sudetenland; 64,779 Slo- Vertriebenen in Zahlen.* [414]
vakia, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia; 9,064
Baltic States ; and 12,889 Germans resettled in The German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 mil-
Poland. There were an additional 1,905,991 un- lion civilian deaths due to the expulsions have
solved cases of persons reported missing. The been disputed by scholars since the publication
172 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

of the results of the German church search ser- tain that the figure of 2 million deaths in the previous
vice survey and the report by the German Federal government studies cannot be supported.* [426]
Archive.* [409]* [415]* [416]* [417]* [418]* [419]* [420]* [421]
• A joint Czech–German Historical Commission de-
termined that between 15,000 and 30,000 Germans
• German historians Hans Henning Hahn and Eva perished in the expulsions. The commission found
Hahn have published a detailed study of the flight that the demographic estimates by the German gov-
and expulsions. They maintain that figures related ernment of 220,000 to 270,000 civilian deaths due
to flight and expulsion have been manipulated by to expulsions from Czechoslovakia were based on
the German government due to political pressure. faulty data. The Commission determined that the
The Hahn's believe the official German figure of 2 demographic estimates by the German government
million deaths is an historical myth, lacking founda- counted as missing 90,000 ethnic Germans assim-
tion. They place the ultimate blame for the mass ilated into the Czech population; military deaths
flight and expulsion on the wartime policy of the were understated and that the 1950 census data
Nazis in Eastern Europe. The Hahn's maintain used to compute the demographic losses was unre-
that the 473,013 confirmed deaths is a correct ac- liable.* [427]
counting of the losses. Most of these losses oc-
curred during the Nazi organized flight and evacu- • Polish historian Bernadetta Nitschke has provided
ation during the war, and the forced labor of Ger- a summary of the research in Poland on German
mans in the Soviet Union; they point out that there losses due to the flight and resettlement of the Ger-
are 80,522 confirmed deaths in the postwar intern- mans from Poland, not including other eastern Eu-
ment camps.* [415] ropean countries. Nitschke contrasted the estimate
of 1.6 million deaths in Poland reported by the West
• German historian Rüdiger Overmans published a German government in the 1950s with the figure of
study of German military casualties, this project 400,000 ( in Poland only) that was disclosed in 1989.
did not investigate civilian expulsion deaths.* [422] According to Nitschke most of the civilian deaths
Overmans did however provide a critical analysis of occurred during the flight and evacuation during the
the previous studies by German government of the war, the deportation to the U.S.S.R. for forced labor,
human losses in the expulsions. Overmans main- and after the resettlement in the Soviet occupation
tains that these studies lack adequate support, he zone in post war Germany.* [428]
maintains that a figure of 500,000 expulsion dead is
credible and that there are more arguments for the • Polish historians Witold Sienkiewicz and Grzegorz
lower figures rather than the higher figures, he be- Hryciuk believe that between 600,000 and 1.2 mil-
lieves that new research is needed to determine the lion German civilians perished during the wartime
correct balance of the human losses in the expul- evacuations. The main causes of death were
sions. According to Overmans the figure of 1.9 mil- cold, stress, and bombing .* [429] According to
lion missing persons reported by the search service Sienkiewicz and Hryciuk between 200,000-250,000
is unreliable as it includes military dead and persons persons were held in postwar Polish internment
of dubious German ancestry who were not expelled camps and between 15,000-60,000 perished.* [430]
after the war but remained in eastern Europe, also
the figures for expellees living in the GDR was un- Post war increase in natural deaths
derstated.* [416]* [417]* [423]

• German historian Ingo Haar called into question the • German government figures of war losses do not in-
validity of the official government figure of 2.0 mil- clude the increase in natural deaths with war casu-
lion expulsion deaths in a 2006 article in the Ger- alties. The German economist Bruno Gleitze from
man newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung.* [409] Since the German Institute for Economic Research es-
then Haar has published three articles in academic timated that there were 1,200,000 excess deaths
journals that covered the background of the research caused by the harsh conditions in Germany dur-
by the West German government on the expulsions. ing and after the war. Gleitze estimated 400,000
According to Haar the numbers were set too high excess deaths during the war and 800,000 in post
for postwar political reasons. His own research indi- war Germany* [358] The West German Statistisches
cates that all reasonable estimates of deaths from ex- Bundesamt put the actual deaths from 1939-46 due
pulsions lie between around 500,000 and 600,000, to natural causes at 7,130,000 persons, the demo-
he maintains that deaths due to disease, hunger and graphic study by Peter Marschalck estimated the ex-
other conditions are already included in these num- pected deaths in peacetime due to natural causes of
bers.* [420]* [421]* [424]* [425] 5,900,000 persons, a difference of 1,230,000 ex-
cess deaths.* [47] In Allied-occupied Germany the
• The German Historical Museum puts the number of shortage of food was an acute problem in 1946–
deaths due to the expulsions at 600,000, they main- 47. The average kilocalorie intake per day was only
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 173

1,600 to 1,800, an amount insufficient for long-term • According to an official U.S. report during the Battle
health.* [431] of Guam on December 8–10, 4 Guam local mil-
itary personnel and 3 Guam residents were killed
in the battle.* [436] However, Japanese sources re-
^T Greece
ported 40–50 of the local population killed.* [437]

• The Greek government is planning to claim repara- • Between 1,000* [54] to 2,000* [55] Chamorro peo-
tions from Germany for war damages.* [432]* [433] ple were killed or otherwise died of abuse and mis-
treatment during the Japanese occupation of Guam
• The Greek National Council for Reparations from from December 10, 1941 until August 10, 1944, in-
Germany reports the following casualties during cluding an estimated 600 civilians who were mas-
the Axis occupation of Greece during World War sacred by the Japanese during the Battle of Guam
II. Military dead 35,077, including: 13,327 killed (1944).* [55]
in the Greco-Italian War of 1940–41; 1,100 with
the Greek Royal Forces in the Middle East, and ^U Hungary
20,650 partisan deaths. Civilian deaths 171,845, in-
cluding: 56,225 executed by Axis forces; 105,000 • Tamás Stark of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
dead in German concentration camps (including has provided the following assessment of Hungarian
Jews); 7,120 deaths due to bombing; 3,500 mer- losses.
chant marine dead; 600,000 Famine deaths during Military losses were 300,000 to 310,000 including
the war* [51] 110–120,000 killed in action and 200,000 in Soviet
POW and labor camps and 20-25,000 Jews in Hun-
• A study published by Cambridge University Press in garian military labor service.* [56] About 210,000
2010 estimated that Greece suffered approximately were from Hungary in the 1939 borders and about
300,000 deaths during the Axis occupation as a re- 100,000 men who were conscripted from the an-
sult of famine and malnutrition* [52] nexed territories of Greater Hungary in Slovakia,
Romania and Yugoslavia.* [57]
• Gregory Frumkin, who was throughout its existence Civilian dead within the borders of present-day
editor of the Statistical Year-Book of the League Hungary included 220,000 Hungarian Jews killed in
of Nations gave the following assessment of Greek the Holocaust and 44,000 deaths from military op-
losses in the war. He points out that that “the erations* [57]
data on Greek war losses are frequently divergent
and even inconsistent”. His estimates for Greek
^V Iceland
losses are as follows: the war dead included 20,000
military deaths in the Greco-Italian War of 1940–
41, 60,000 non-Jewish civilians, 20,000 non-Jewish • Confirmed losses of civilian sailors due to German
deportees, 60,000 Jews and 140,000 famine deaths attacks and mines.* [59]
during the Axis occupation of Greece during World
War II.* [434] ^W India

• In campaigns against the Greek Resistance the Ger- • India which was a British Colony during World
man occupiers engaged in a policy of reprisals War II included the present day India, Pakistan and
against civilians, the most notorious were the Bangladesh. India under British administration is
Distomo massacre and the Massacre of Kalavryta. sometimes referred to as the British Raj.
According to the German historian Dieter Pohl at
least 25,000 but perhaps even more civilians were • The war dead of 87,028 listed here are those re-
killed in mass executions. Pohl maintains that about ported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commis-
1 million persons (14% of the population) were dis- sion,* [438]
placed in the campaigns against the Greek Resis- • Gurkhas recruited from Nepal fought with the
tance because their homes were destroyed or they British Indian Army during the Second World War.
were expelled and became refugees.* [435] Gurkha casualties with the British Indian Army can
be broken down as: 8,985 killed or missing and
^TA Guam 23,655 wounded.* [439]
• The preliminary 1945 data for Indian losses was,
• Guam was a United States administered territory killed 24,338, missing 11,754, wounded 64,354 and
during World War Two. The local Chamorro people POW 79,489.* [308] Out of 60,000 Indian Army
were granted U.S. citizenship in the Guam Organic POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died
Act of 1950. in captivity.* [228]
174 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

• The pro-Japanese Indian National Army lost 2,615 raids 61,432 (42,613 post armistice).* [1] A brief
dead and missing.* [21] summary of data from this report can be found
online.* [2]
Bengal famine of 1943

• John W. Dower estimated 1.5 million civilian deaths Military war dead
in the Bengal famine of 1943.* [62] Confirmed dead were 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice,
67,090 post armistice)* [3]
• Amartya Sen currently the Lamont University Pro- Missing and presumed dead(including POWs)
fessor at Harvard University has recently estimated were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post
that a figure of 2.0 to 2.5 million fatalities may be armistice)* [4]
more accurate.* [63] Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy
22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354; Chaplains
^X Iran 91; Fascist militia
10,066; Paramilitary 3,252; not indicated 45,078.* [5]
• Losses during allied occupation in 1941. [65]
* Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573
post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice);
^Y Iraq Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece,
Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice);
USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341
• Losses during Anglo-Iraqi War and UK occupation
* (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post
in 1941. [65]
armistice);
• According to the United States Holocaust Memorial other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice).* [6]
Museum between 150-180 Jews were killed in the
Farhud pogram in 1941 * [67] 1. ^ Roma:Instituto Centrale Statistica. Morti E Dis-
persi Per Cause Belliche Negli Anni 1940–45 Rome,
^Z Ireland 1957.

• Although neutral, an estimated 70,000 of the Irish 2. ^ “The effects of war losses on mortality estimates
Free State's citizens volunteered in the British mil- for Italy: A first attempt. Demographic Research,
itary service. Some 40 Irish citizens were killed by Vol. 13, No. 15”. Demographic-research.org. Re-
accidental bombings in Dublin and Carlow, and 33 trieved 2011-06-15.
Irish merchant seamen were killed in U-boat attacks
by Germany.* [69]* [440]* [440] 3. ^ Roma:Instituto Centrale Statistica Morti E Dis-
persi Per Cause Belliche Negli Anni 1940–45 Rome
1957, pp. 4-5
^AA Italy The casualties recorded for Italy do not in-
clude Italians who were born in Italian colonies and pos- 4. ^ Roma:Instituto Centrale Statistica Morti E Dis-
sessions (ethnic Italians in Libya, Eritrea, Ethiopia, So- persi Per Cause Belliche Negli Anni 1940–45, Rome
malia and the Dodecanese) and in national territories that 1957, pp. 6-7
Italy lost with the Paris peace treaty of 1947 (mainly the
Julian March, Istria and Zara/Zadar; a large part of the 5. ^ Roma:Instituto Centrale Statistica Morti E Dis-
victims of the Foibe massacres are thus not included). persi Per Cause Belliche Negli Anni 1940–45, Rome
1957, p. 20
• Updated studies (2010) by the Ufficio dell'Albo
d'Oro of the Italian Ministry of Defence, p. 4 have 6. ^ Roma:Instituto Centrale Statistica Morti E Dis-
revised the military deaths to 319,207, of which persi Per Cause Belliche Negli Anni 1940–45, Rome
246,432 belonged to the Army, 31,347 to the Navy, 1957, pp. 10-11
13,210 to the Air Force, 15,197 to the Partisan for-
mations and 13,021 to the armed forces of the Italian • Military losses in Italy after the September 1943
Social Republic. Armistice with Italy, included 5,927 with the Al-
lies, 17,488 Italian resistance movement fighters in
• The Italian government issued an accounting of the Italy and 13,000 RSI Italian Social Republic Fascist
war dead in 1957, they broke out the losses before forces.* [441]
and after the Armistice with Italy: military dead
and missing 291,376 (204,376 pre-armistice and • Included in the losses are 64,000 victims of Nazi
87,030 post armistice).Civilian dead and missing at reprisals and genocide including 30,000 POWs and
153,147 (123,119 post armistice) including in air 8,500 Jews.* [192]
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 175

• According to Martin Gilbert, Jewish Holocaust vic- Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead
tims totaled 8,000 in Italy and 562 in the Italian came not from combat, but from starvation and dis-
colony of Libya* [187] ease.* [446] In some cases this figure was potentially even
higher, up to 80% in the Philippines* [447] and a stagger-
^AB Japan ing 97% in New Guinea.* [448]

• Estimates for total Japanese war dead from 1937- • According to John W. Dower the Japanese source
1945 range from at least 2.5 million* [442] to 3.237 Showa Shi – 1959 by Shigeki Toyama put Japanese
million* [443] war dead from 1937-1941 in the Second Sino-
Japanese War at 185,467* [449]
• According to the Japanese Ministry of Health and
Welfare Japanese war dead(1937–45) totaled 3.1 • In 1949 the report of the Japanese govern-
million persons including 2.3 million soldiers and ment Economic Stabilization Board put mili-
Army/Navy civilian employees(including civilians, tary war dead from December 1941 to Decem-
Koreans and Chinese from Taiwan conscripted by ber 21, 1946 at 1,555,308 Killed and 309,402
Japanese military), 500,000 civilians in Japan and wounded* [450]* [451] These figures do not include
300,000 civilians living outside of Japan.* [444] an additional 240,000 missing Army personnel. The
figures of wounded show only those receiving pen-
sions.* [450] The details of these figures are as fol-
Military dead lows:* [452]* [453]

• According to a report compiled by the Relief Bu- Army

reau of the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare China after Pearl Harbor 202,958 killed and 88,920
in March 1964, combined Japanese Army and Navy wounded.
deaths during the war(1937–45) numbered approx- vs. United States 485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded.
imately 2,121,000( not including Koreans and Chi- vs. U.K. and Netherlands 208,026 killed and 139,225
nese from Taiwan conscripted by Japanese mili- wounded.
tary), broken down as follows:* [445] vs. Australia 199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded.
French Indochina 2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded.
Key: Location, Army dead, Navy dead, (Total dead) Manchuria & USSR 7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded.
Japan Proper: 58,100, 45,800, (103,900) other overseas 23,388 killed and 0 wounded
Bonin Islands: 2,700, 12,500, (15,200) Japan proper 10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded
Okinawa: 67,900, 21,500, (89,400) Army total 1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded.
Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500, 10,600, (39,100) Navy
Korea: 19,600, 6,900, (26,500) Sailors 300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing.
Sakhalin, the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200, 3,200, Civilians in Navy service 114,493 killed and 1,880
(11,400) wounded and missing.
Manchuria: 45,900, 800, (46,700) Navy total 414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and
China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600, 20,100, (455,700) missing.
Siberia: 52,300, 400, (52,700)
Central Pacific: 95,800, 151,400, (247,200)
Philippines: 377,500, 121,100, (498,600) • The Japanese Central Liaison Office reported
French Indochina: 7,900, 4,500, (12,400) in July 1947 to the Allied occupation author-
Thailand: 6,900, 100, (7,000) ities that Japanese military dead from 1935-
Burma (inc. India): 163,000, 1,500, (164,500) 1945 were 1,687,738(1,340,700 Army and 347,038
Malaya & Singapore: 8,500, 2,900, (11,400) Navy)* [454]
Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900, 1,500, (2,400)
Sumatra: 2,700, 500, (3,200) • The Yasukuni Shrine in Japan lists a total of 191,250
Java: 2,700, 3,800, (6,500) war dead from 1937 to 1941 in the Second Sino-
Lesser Sundas: 51,800, 1,200, (53,000) Japanese War and 2,133,915 in the Pacific War
Borneo: 11,300, 6,700, (18,000) Their figures include civilians who participated in
Celebes: 1,500, 4,000, (5,500) combat and Chinese(Taiwan) and Koreans in the
Moluccas: 2,600, 1,800, (4,400) Japanese Armed Forces.
New Guinea: 112,400, 15,200, (127,600)
Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700, 10,800, (30,500) • According to the calculations of Werner Gruhl
Solomon Islands: 63,200, 25,000, (88,200) Japanese military war dead were 2,565,878
Total: 1,647,200, 473,800, (2,121,000) (250,000 from 1931–41 and 2,315,878 from
1942-45)* [455]
176 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

• John W. Dower Dower maintains that “only one Damage Caused by the Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima
third of the military deaths occurred in actual com- and Nagasaki puts the total dead in the atomic
bat, the majority being caused by illness and star- attacks at 140,000 (± 10,000) in Hiroshima and
vation.”* [456] According to Dower over 300,000 70,000 (± 10,000) in Nagasaki.* [466]According to
Japanese POW were missing after being captured the authors of the report a study of atomic bomb re-
by the Soviets. Japanese figures as of 12/31/1948 lated casualties in Hiroshima in December 1945 was
listed 469,074 missing personnel in Soviet hands, “lost and not discovered until twenty years later”,
while at the same time the Soviets admitted to hold- they cited a similar survey in Nagasaki done in De-
ing 95,000 Japanese prisoners thus leaving 374,041 cember 1945.* [467]The authors maintain that the
surrendered Japanese personnel who were unac- lower casualty figures published in the immediate
counted for and presumed dead.* [457] According to post war era did not include military personnel and
Dower“Known deaths of Japanese troops awaiting missing persons.* [468] The figures of dead in the
repatriation in Allied(non-Soviet) hands were listed atomic attacks from this study were cited by John
as 81,090 by U.S. authorities.* [458]* [459] W. Dower in his 'War Without Mercy * [469]
• The Japanese Ministry of Welfare and Foreign Of- • According to the World Nuclear Association, “In
fice reported from 1951-60 that 254,000 military Hiroshima, of a resident civilian population of
personnel and civilians were confirmed dead and 250,000 it was estimated that 45,000 died on the
95,000 went missing in Soviet hands after the war. first day and a further 19,000 during the subse-
The details of these losses are as follows: 199,000 in quent four months. In Nagasaki, out of a popula-
Manchurian transit camps, 36,000 in North Korea, tion of 174,000, 22,000 died on the first day and
9,000 on Sakhalin and 103,000 in the USSR.* [460] another 17,000 within four months. Unrecorded
deaths of military personnel and foreign workers
• According to the Japanese Ministry of Health and
may have added considerably to these figures. About
Welfare 65,000 soldiers and civilians were killed
15 square kilometers (over 50%) of the two cities
in the 1945 military campaign against the Soviet
was destroyed. It is impossible to estimate the pro-
Union, after the war ended deaths at the hands of
portion of these 103,000 deaths, or of the further
the Red Army and local Chinese population were
deaths in military personnel, which were due to ra-
185,000 Manchuria, 28,000 in North Korea and
diation exposure rather than to the very high tem-
10,000 on Sakhalin and the Kurile islands. An ad-
peratures and blast pressures caused by the explo-
ditional 700,000 were taken prisoner by the Soviets
sions.”They noted that“To the 103,000 deaths from
were 50,000 died in forced labor in the USSR and
the blast or acute radiation exposure at Hiroshima
Outer Mongolia.* [461]
and Nagasaki have since been added those due to
• The Japanese government figures for POW deaths radiation-induced cancers, which amounted to some
are not in agreement with Soviet figures. Russian 400 within 30 years, and which may ultimately reach
sources report that the Soviets reported the POW about 550. (Some 93,000 exposed survivors were
deaths of 62,105 (61,855 Japanese and 214 collab- still being monitored 50 years later.)"* [470]
orator forces) out of the 640,105 captured (609,448
Japanese and 30,657 collaborator forces).* [462] • The Radiation Effects Research Foundation puts the
number of deaths (within two to four months), in
Civilian Dead Hiroshima at 90,000 to 166,000 persons, and in Na-
gasaki at 60,000 to 80,000 persons. They noted that
deaths caused by the atomic bombings include those
• The 1949 report of the Japanese government Eco-
that occurred on the days of the bombings due to the
nomic Stabilization Board detailed the casualties
overwhelming force and heat of the blasts, as well as
caused by air raids and sea bombardment. Total
later deaths attributable to radiation exposure. The
casualties were 668,315 including 299,485 dead,
total number of deaths is not known precisely be-
24,010 missing and 344,820 injured. These figures
cause military personnel records in each city were
include the casualties in Tokyo (東京) 97,031 dead,
destroyed; entire families perished, leaving no one
6,034 missing and 113,923 injured; in Hiroshima
to report deaths; and unknown numbers of forced
(広島) 86,141 dead, 14,394 missing and 46,672 in-
laborers were present in both cities* [471]
jured, in Nagasaki (⻑崎) 26,238 dead, 1,947 miss-
ing and 41,113 injured.* [463]* [464]* [465] Accord- • The U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey published the
ing to John W. Dower an error which appears in following estimates of Japanese casualties due to
English language sources puts the total killed in air U.S. bombing.
raids at 668,000, a figure which includes dead, miss-
ing and injured.* [458]
1-Summary Report (July 1946) Total civilian casualties
• A Japanese academic study published in 1979 by in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, includ-
The Committee for the Compilation of Materials on ing those from the atomic bombs, were approximately
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 177

806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatali- • Werner Gruhl estimated the civilian death toll due to
ties.* [472] the war and Japanese occupation at 533,000* [479]
2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Di- • John W. Dower has noted“Between 1939 and 1945,
vision (1947) The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civil- close to 670,000 Koreans were brought to Japan for
ians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died fixed terms of work, mostly in mines and heavy in-
and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leav- dustry, and it has been estimated that 60,000 or
ing 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional more of them died under harsh conditions of their
bombing.* [473] work places. Over 10,000 others were probably
3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. killed in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Na-
Summary report (1947) Estimated that 252,769 Japanese gasaki”.* [480]
were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war.* [474]
4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese morale ^AD Latvia
Based on a survey of Japanese households the death toll
was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS • Independent Russian historian Vadim Erlikman es-
noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling timated Latvian civilian war dead from 1941-45 at
*
error of 30%. [475] 220,000 ( 35,000 in military operations; 110,000
executed, 35,000 in Germany and 40,000 due to
5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic hunger and disease. Military dead were estimated
Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki The most striking re- with Soviet forces at 10,000 and 15,000 with Ger-
sult of the atomic bombs was the great number of casu- man. POW deaths 3,000.* [83]
alties. The exact number of dead and injured will never
be known because of the confusion after the explosions.
^AE Lithuania
Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond
recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one
of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or • Independent Russian historian Vadim Erlikman es-
driven out of the city to die or recover without any record timated Lithuanian civilian war dead from 1941-45
remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid popula- at 345,000 (25,000 in military operations; 230,000
tions existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two executed, 15,000 in Germany and 75,000 due to
port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the hunger and disease. Military dead were estimated
formal evacuation programs of the Government, an un- with Soviet forces at 15,000 and 5,000 with Ger-
known number of the inhabitants had either drifter away man. POW deaths 4,000.* [85]
from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this
uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have gener- ^AF Luxembourg
ally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima,
and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Sur- • Total war dead were 5,000* [481] which included
vey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between military losses of about 3,000 with the German
70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Na- Armed Forces and 200 in a separate unit attached
gasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that to the Belgian Army.
injured seems the most plausible estimate. * [476]
^AG Malaya and Singapore
• John W. Dower puts Japanese civilian dead in Battle
of Saipan at 10,000 and 150,000 in Battle of Oki- • The British colony of Malaya consisted of the
nawa.* [458] Straits Settlements, the Federated Malay States and
Unfederated Malay States. Today they are the na-
• War related deaths of Japanese merchant marine
tions Malaysia and Singapore.
personnel were 27,000.* [477]
• According to John W. Dower “Malayan officials
^AC Korea after the war claimed, possibly with exaggeration,
that as many as 100,000 residents, mostly Chinese,
may have been killed by the Japanese; of 73,000
• American researcher R. J. Rummel estimated Malayans transported to work on the Burma-Siam
378,000 Korean dead due to forced labor in Japan railway, 25,000 were reported to have died.* [482]
and Manchuria. According to Rummel, “Informa-
tion on Korean deaths under Japanese occupation is • According to Werner Gruhl in Singapore the
difficult to uncover. We do know that 5,400,000 Japanese murdered 5,000 to 10,000 Chinese in
Koreans were conscripted for labor beginning in 1942. In Malaya and Singapore an estimated 50,000
1939, but how many died can only be roughly es- Chinese were killed in this genocide by the end of
timated.”* [478] the war* [483]
178 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

^AH Malta 3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces

and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and
• About 1,500 civilians were killed during the Siege 16,000 deaths
of Malta (World War II)* [484] Maltese civil- in the Dutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure
ian war dead are included with the U.K. by the of 210,000 war dead are 70,000“indirect war casualties”
Commonwealth War Graves Commission. ,
which are attributed to an increase in natural deaths from
1940-1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serv-
^AI Mexico
ing in the
Dutch Merchant Marine* [1]
• Mexico lost 7 merchant ships and 63 dead merchant
mariners.* [89] A Mexican Air Force unit Escuadrón
1. ^ Cite error: The named reference cbs.nl was in-
201 served in the Pacific and suffered 5 combat
voked but never defined (see the help page).
deaths.

• The Netherlands War Graves Foundation maintains

^AJ Mongolia
a registry of the names of Dutch war dead.* [486]

• Military losses with USSR against Japan in the 1939

^AM Newfoundland
Battle of Khalkhin Gol (200) and the 1945 Soviet
*
invasion of Manchuria (72) campaigns. [91]
• Newfoundland's losses are not listed separately since
they served with U.K. and Canadian Forces during
^AK Nauru
the war. According to the Canadian War Museum
" Over 700 Newfoundlanders also died during the
• During World War II Japan occupied Nauru in Au- war.* [22]
gust 1942 and deported 1,200 Nauruans to work
as laborers in the Caroline Islands, where 463 • The losses of the Newfoundland Merchant Navy
died. The survivors returned to Nauru in January are commemorated at the Allied Merchant Navy
1946.* [92] Memorial in Newfoundland,* [487]

• Civilian losses were due to the sinking of the SS

^BG Nepal
Caribou in October 1942.* [95]

• Gurkhas recruited from Nepal fought with the

^AN New Zealand
British Indian Army and Nepalese Army during the
Second World War. The war dead reported by the
Commonwealth War Graves Commission for India • The Auckland War Museum puts the number of
include Nepalese in the British Indian Army and World War II dead at 11,671* [96]
Nepalese Army.* [485] • The preliminary data for New Zealand losses was
• Gurkha casualties can be broken down as: 8,985 killed 10,033, missing 2,129, wounded 19,314 and
*
killed or missing and 23,655 wounded. [439] POW 8,453.* [308]

^AL Netherlands ^AO Norway

• In 1948 the Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics • According to Norwegian government sources the
(CBS) issued a report of war losses. They listed war dead were 10,200* [1]
210,000 direct war casualties in the Netherlands
,not including the Dutch East Indies.
Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces)2,000 (800 Army,
900 Navy and 100 Air).* [1]
Military deaths 6,750 which included 3,900 regular Civilians 7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 re-
Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany. sistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews
*
Civilian deaths of 203,250 which included 1,350 Mer- killed) [1]
*
chant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch con- In German Armed Forces700 [1]
centration camps,
20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust 1. ^ * a * b * c * d Cite error: The named ref-
dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 erence Gregory_Frumkin_1951._pp._112-114 was
workers in Germany, invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 179

^AP Papua New Guinea victims of Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles and The
Holocaust, 350,000 deaths during the Soviet occu-
• Civilian deaths were caused by Allied bombing and pation in 1940–41 and about 100,000 Poles killed
shellfire and Japanese atrocities. Both the Allies and in 1943–44 during the massacres of Poles in Volhy-
Japanese also conscripted civilians to work as labor- nia. Losses by ethnic group were 3,100,000 Jews;
ers and porters.* [99] 2,000,000 ethnic Poles; 500,000 Ukrainians and
Belarusians.* [494]
^AQ Philippines • The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
maintains that in addition to 3 million Polish Jews
• According to Werner Gruhl the death toll due killed in the Holocaust. “Documentation remains
to the war and Japanese occupation at 527,000 fragmentary, but today scholars of independent
(27,000 military dead, 141,000 massacred, 22,500 Poland believe that at least 1.9 million Polish civil-
forced labor deaths and 336,500 deaths due war re- ians (non-Jews) were victims of German Occupation
lated famine). Civilian losses included victims of policies and the war.* [495]
Japanese war crimes, such as the Manila massacre
• Total losses by geographic area were about 4.4
which claimed the lives of 100,000 Filipinos* [100]
million in present-day Poland and about 1.6 mil-
• Between 5,000 and 10,000 Filipinos serving with lion in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet
the Filipino troops,Scouts, Constabulary and Philip- Union.* [496]* [497] Polish historian Krystyna
pine Army units lost their lives on the Bataan Death Kersten estimated losses of about 2.0 million in the
March.* [488] Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union.* [177]
Contemporary Russian sources also include
Poland's losses in the annexed territories with
^AR Poland Total Polish war dead
Soviet war deaths.* [498]

• Czesław Łuczak in 1993 estimated Poland's war • The official Polish government report on war dam-
dead to be 5.9 to 6.0 million, including 2.9 to 3.0 ages prepared in 1947 listed 6,028,000 war victims
million Jews killed in the Holocaust and 2.0 mil- during the German occupation (including 123,178
lion ethnic Polish victims of the German and So- military deaths, 2.8 million Poles and 3.2 mil-
viet occupations, (1.5 million under German oc- lion Jews), out of a population of 27,007,000 eth-
cupation and the balance of 500,000 in the for- nic Poles and Jews; this report excluded ethnic
mer eastern Polish regions under Soviet occupa- Ukrainian and Belarusian losses. Losses were calcu-
tion).* [489] Łuczak also included in his figures an lated for the territory of Poland in 1939, including
estimated 1,000,000 war dead of Polish citizens the territories annexed by the USSR.* [499] The fig-
from the ethnic Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnic ure of 6.0 million war dead has been disputed by
groups who comprised 20% of Poland's pre-war Polish scholars since the fall of communism who
population.* [490]* [491] now put the total actual losses at about 3.0 mil-
lion Jews and 2.0 million ethnic Poles, not includ-
• In 2009, the Polish Institute of National Remem- ing other ethnic groups (Ukrainians and Belarus-
brance (IPN) put the figure of Poland's dead at be- sians). They maintain that the official statistics in-
tween 5,620,000 and 5,820,000; including an esti- clude those persons who were missing and presumed
mated 150,000 Polish citizens who died due to So- dead, but actually remained abroad in the West and
viet repression. The IPN's figures include 2.7 to 2.9 the USSR after the war.* [491]* [500]
million Polish Jews who died in the Holocaust and
2,770,000 ethnic Poles.* [492] including (“Direct Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941)
War Losses”−543,000; “Murdered in Camps and
in Pacification”−506,000; “Deaths in prisons and
• In August 2009, the Polish Institute of National Re-
Camps”1,146,000;“Deaths outside of prisons and
membrance (IPN) researchers estimated 150,000
Camps”473,000; “Murdered in Eastern Regions”
Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression.
100,000;“Deaths in other countries”2,000.)* [493]
Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have
Polish researchers have determined that the Nazis
been able to do research in the Soviet archives on
murdered 2,830,000 Jews (including 1,860,000 Pol-
Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.* [177]
ish Jews) in the extermination camps in Poland, in
addition over 1.0 million Polish Jews were murdered • Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish
by the Einsatzgruppen in the eastern regions or died deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons
of starvation and disease while in ghettos.* [492] deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.* [243]
• Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated Poland's losses in • In 2005 Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated the death toll
World War II to be 5.6 million; including 5,150,000 in Soviet hands at 350,000.* [501]
180 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

• An earlier estimate made in 1987 by Franciszek • Total Romanian military war dead were approxi-
Proch of the Polish Association of Former Political mately 300,000. Total killed were 93,326 (72,291
Prisoners of Nazi and Soviet Concentration Camps with Axis and 21,035 with Allies). Total missing
estimated the total dead due to the Soviet occupation and POW were 341,765 (283,322 with Axis and
at 1,050,000.* [502] 58,443 with Allies), only about 80,000 survived So-
viet captivity.* [511]
Polish military casualties
• Civilian losses included 160,000 Jewish Holocaust
• Poland lost a total of 139,800 regular soldiers and dead,* [185] the genocide of Roma people 36,000
100,000 Polish resistance movement fighters dur- and 7,693 civilians killed in Allied air raids on Ro-
ing the war.* [491] Polish military casualties. Mil- mania* [512]
itary dead and missing were 66,000 and 130,000
wounded in the 1939 Invasion of Poland, in addi-
tion 17,000–19,000 were killed by the Soviets in the ^AU Ruanda Urundi
Katyn massacre and 12,000 died in German POW
camps.* [503] The Polish contribution to World War • The 1943 famine in Ruanda which took 300,000
II included the Polish Armed Forces in the West, and lives was due to a local drought and the harsh
the 1st Polish Army fighting under Soviet command. wartime policies of the Belgian colonial administra-
Total casualties of these forces in exile were 33,256 tion to increase food production for the war effort in
killed in action, 8,548 missing in action, 42,666 the Congo.* [109]* [513]
*
wounded and 29,385 interned. [503]
The Polish Red Cross reported that the 1944 • As Ruanda [Rwanda] was not occupied nor its food
Warsaw Uprising cost the lives of 120,000–130,000 supply cut off, these deaths are not usually included
Polish civilians and 16,000–17,000 Polish resis- with World War II casualties. However, at least one
tance movement fighters.* [491]* [504] The names historian has compared the 1943 famine there to
of Polish war dead are presented at a database on- the Bengal famine of 1943, which is attributed to
line.* [505] war.* [514]
• During the war, 2,762,000* [506] Polish citizens
of German descent declared their loyalty to Ger- ^AW South Africa
many by signing the Deutsche Volksliste. A West
German government report estimated the deaths • The war dead of 11,906 listed here are those re-
of 108,000 Polish citizens serving in the German ported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commis-
armed forces,* [507] these men were conscripted in sion,* [515]
violation of international law.* [508] The Institute of
National Remembrance (IPN) estimates 200,000– • The preliminary 1945 data for South African losses
210,000 Polish citizens, including 76,000 ethnic was killed 6,840, missing 1,841 wounded 14,363
Poles were conscripted into the Soviet armed forces and POW 14,589.* [308]
in 1940–41 during the occupation of the eastern
regions. The (IPN) also reported that the Ger-
mans conscripted 250,000 Polish nationals into the ^AX South Pacific Mandate
Wehrmacht, 89,300 later deserted and joined the
Polish Armed Forces in the West.* [493] • This territory includes areas now known as the
Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Palau, and the
^AS Timor Northern Mariana Islands.
• Officially neutral, East Timor was occupied by Japan • Micronesian war related civilian deaths were caused
during 1942–45. Allied commandos initiated a by American bombing and shellfire; and malnutri-
guerrilla resistance campaign and most deaths were tion caused by the U.S. blockade of the islands. In
caused by Japanese reprisals against the civilian pop- addition the civilian population was conscripted by
ulation. The Australian Dept. of Defence estimated the Japanese as forced laborers and were subjected
the civilian death toll at 40,000 to 70,000.* [107] to numerous mindless atrocities.* [516]
However, another source puts the death toll at
40,000 to 50,000.* [509] • John W. Dower put Japanese civilian dead in Battle
of Saipan at 10,000* [458]
^AT Romania

• Demographer Boris Urlanis estimated Romanian ^AY Soviet Union The following notes summarize So-
war dead at 300,000 military and 200,000 civilians viet casualties, the details are presented in World War II
*
[510] casualties of the Soviet Union
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 181

• A 1993 report published by the Russian Academy conscripted back into the Soviet army during the
of Science estimated the total Soviet losses in war as territories were being liberated, 1,836,000
World War II at 26.6 million.* [6]* [517]* [518] liberated POWs are known to have returned to
The Russian Ministry of Defense in 1993 put the USSR after the war, this leaves 1,103,300
total military dead and missing from 1941-45 POW presumed dead and another 180,000 liberated
at 8,668,400* [296]* [297] These figures have POWs who most likely emigrated to other countries
generally been accepted by historians in the after the war.* [296]* [297]
west.* [519]* [520]* [521]
• Richard Overy has noted that “The official figures
themselves must be viewed critically, given the dif-
Total population losses
ficulty of knowing in the chaos of 1941 and 1942
exactly who had been killed, wounded or even con-
• Russian demographers E.M. Andreev, L.E. Darski scripted”.* [525]
and T. L. Kharkova (ADK) authored a study of
the Soviet population from 1922–1991 which was • Official Russian statistics issued in 1993 for mil-
published by the Russian Academy of Science, itary dead do not include an additional estimated
they put total losses from 1941–1945 at 26.6 mil- 500,000 conscripted reservists missing or killed be-
lion* [6]* [522] which is the figure accepted by fore being listed on active strength, 1,000,000 civil-
the Russian government for total losses in the ians treated as POW by Germany; and an estimated
war. Andreev, Darski and Kharkova (ADK) esti- 150,000 militia and 250,000 Soviet partisan dead,
mated the population of the USSR in June 1941 who are considered civilian war losses in the offi-
within the 1946-1991 borders of the USSR at cial figures.* [526] The estimate by most western his-
196.716 million, this figure included the 1939 torians of Soviet military POW deaths is about 3
USSR population of 168.625 million, a natural million out of 5.7 million total POWs in German
growth in the population from 1939 to mid 1941 hands.* [192]
of 7.923 million and territories annexed by the
• In 2000, the late S.N. Mikhalev of the History de-
USSR of 20.268 million, (eastern regions of Poland,
partment of Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical Univer-
Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Romanian Bessarabia
sity* [527] published a critical analysis of the official
and Bukovina, Tuva, Zakarpattia Oblast , South
Russian wartime casualty statistics, he estimated ac-
Sakhalin and the Kaliningrad Oblast).* [523]
tual Soviet military war dead at more than 10.9 mil-
• According to the Russian demographer Dr. L.L. Ry- lion persons. He maintained that the official figures
bakovsky there are a wide range of estimates for cannot be reconciled to the total men drafted and
total war dead by Russian scholars. He cites fig- that POW deaths were understated* [528]
ures of total war dead that range from 21.8 million
up to 28.0 million. Rybakovsky points out that the • The figure of 8.7 million war dead is based on the
variables that are used to compute losses are by no field reports of the Red Army and the reconcilia-
means certain and are currently disputed by histo- tion of the balance for persons conscripted. An al-
rians in Russia. Some Russian historians put the ternative method to determine Soviet war losses is
figure as high as 46.0 million by counting the pop- the Russian Military Archives data base listing the
ulation deficit due to children not born during the names with the individual war dead and missing.
war. Based on the birth rate prior to the war there S.A. Il'enkov, an official of the Central Archives of
is a population shortfall of about 20 million births the Russian Ministry of Defense, maintained, “We
in 1946, some would have been born but died dur- established the number of irreplaceable losses of our
ing the war and the balance were never born. The Armed Forces at the time of the Great Patriotic War
figures for the number of children born during the of about 13,850,000”.* [529]
war who did not survive as well as those unborn are • There were additional casualties in 1939–40, which
rough estimates.* [524] totalled 136,945: Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939
(8,931); Invasion of Poland of 1939 (1,139);
Military Casualties and the Winter War with Finland from 1939–40
(126,875).* [273]
• The official Russian Ministry of Defense figure for
• The names of many Soviet war dead are presented
military total dead and missing from 1941 to 1945
in the OBD Memorial database online.* [530]
is 8,668,400; including 6,330,000 killed in action
or died of wounds and 556,000 dead from non-
combat causes; 500,000 MIA and 1,283,000 dead Civilian war dead
and missing POW. Official Russian figures indicate
4,559,000 POWs and missing, out of which about • In 1995 the Russian Academy of Science published
500,000 missing were killed in battle, 939,700 were a report that analyzed Soviet losses in the war. They
182 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

estimated civilian deaths in the German occupied • Allied bombing in 1944–45 caused 2,000 civilian
USSR at 13.7 million persons, which included 7.4 deaths.* [539]
million deaths caused by direct, intentional actions
of violence, 2.2 million deaths of civilians deported • Unlike other parts of South East Asia, Thailand did
to Germany for forced labor; and 4.1 million famine not suffer from famine during the war.* [540]
and disease deaths in occupied territory. The au-
thors cited sources published in the Soviet era to ^BD Turkey
support these figures.* [531]
• Russian demographers E.M. Andreev, L.E. Darski • The Refah tragedy (Turkish: Refah faciası) refers
and T. L. Kharkova (ADK) study of the Soviet pop- to a maritime disaster during World War II, when
ulation from 1922–1991 estimated that there was an the cargo steamer Refah of neutral Turkey, carrying
increase of 1.3 million in Infant mortality caused by Turkish military personnel from Mersin in Turkey to
the war.* [519]* [522] Port Said, Egypt was sunk in eastern Mediterranean
waters by a torpedo fired from an unidentified sub-
• The Russian Academy of Science report estimated marine. Of the 200 passengers and crew aboard,
an additional 2.5 to 3.2 million civilian dead due to only 32 survived.* [139]
famine in Soviet territory not occupied by the Ger-
mans.* [532]
^BE United Kingdom and Colonies

^AZ Spain
• The Commonwealth War Graves Commission re-
ported a total of 383,718 military dead from all
• There were 4,500 military deaths with the all Span-
causes for both the UK and non-dominion British
ish Blue Division serving with the German Army in
colonies, figures include identified burials and those
the U.S.S.R. The unit was withdrawn by Spain in
commemorated by name on memorials.These fig-
1943.* [533]
ures include deaths that occurred after the war up
• R.J. Rummel estimates the deaths of 20,000 anti- until 31 December 1947.* [541]
Fascist Spanish refugees resident in France who
were deported to Nazi camps, these deaths are in- • The Commonwealth War Graves Commission also
cluded with French civilian casualties.* [192] maintains a Roll of Honour of those civilians un-
der Crown Protection (including foreign nationals)
who died as a result of enemy actions in the Sec-
^BA Sweden
ond World War. The names of 67,170 are com-
memorated in the Civilian War Dead Roll of Hon-
• During the Winter war of 1939–40 the Swedish Vol- our.* [542]
unteer Corps served with the Finnish Armed Forces
and lost 28 men in combat.* [132]
• The official UK report on war casualties of June
• 33 Swedish sailors were killed when submarine 1946 provided a summary of the U.K. war losses.
HMS Ulven was sunk by a German mine on April This report (HMSO 6832) listed:* [1]* [2]
16, 1943.
• During the war, Swedish merchant shipping was
attacked by both German and Soviet submarines; Total war dead of 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army
2,000 merchant seamen were killed.* [534] (144,079); Air Force (69,606); Women's Auxiliary Ter-
ritorial Service (624);
Merchant Navy (30,248); British Home Guard (1,206)
^BB Switzerland
and Civilians (60,595).
The total still missing on 2/28/1946 were 6,244; Navy
• The Americans accidentally bombed Switzer- (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089); Women's Aux-
land during the war causing civilian casual- iliary Territorial Service (18);
ties.* [535]* [536] Merchant Navy (530); British Home Guard (0) and Civil-
ians (0).
^BC Thailand These figures included the losses of Newfoundland and
Southern Rhodesia.
• Military deaths included: 108 dead in the French– Colonial forces are not included in these figures.
Thai War (1940–41)* [537] and 5,559 who died ei- There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to
ther resisting the Japanese invasion (1941), or fight- “natural causes”which are not included in these figures.
ing alongside Japanese forces in the Burma Cam- Deaths due to air and V-rocket attacks were 60,595 civil-
paign of 1942–45.* [538] ians and 1,206 British Home Guard.
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 183

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference HMSO_6832 Guard 31,485, Marine Corps 19,733); unidenti-
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). fied theaters 39 (Army).* [282]* [310] Included with
combat deaths are 14,059 POWs (1,124 in Eu-
2. ^ UK Central Statistical Office Statistical Digest of rope and 12,935 in Asia).* [310] The details of
the War HMSO 1951 U.S. military casualties are listed online: the U.S.
Army,* [282] the U.S. Navy, and the U.S. Marine
• The preliminary 1945 data for colonial forces was Corps.* [548]
killed 6,877, missing 14,208, wounded 6,972 and
POW 8,115.* [308] • U.S. Army figures include the deaths of 5,337 Fil-
ipinos serving in the Philippine Scouts, of whom
• UK casualties include losses of the colonial 5,135 died in battle (see p. 118).* [282]
forces.* [543] UK colonial forces included units
• The names of individual U.S. military personnel
from East Africa, West Africa, Ghana, the
killed in World War II can be found at the U.S. Na-
Caribbean, Malaya, Burma, Hong Kong, Jordan,
tional Archives.* [549]
Sudan, Malta and the Jewish Brigade. The Cyprus
Regiment made up of volunteers that fought with • American Battle Monuments Commission website
the UK Army, and suffered about 358 killed and lists the names of military and civilian war dead
250 missing.* [544] Gurkhas recruited from Nepal from World War II buried in ABMC cemeteries or
fought with the British Army during the Second listed on Walls of the Missing.* [550]
World War. Included with U.K. casualties are cit-
izens of the various European countries occupied American civilian dead #^BF2
by Germany. There were separate RAF squadrons
with citizens from Poland (17); Czechoslovakia (5);
• According to the Usmm.org, 9,521 merchant
Netherlands (1); Free French (7); Yugoslavia (2);
mariners lost their lives in the war (8,421 killed
Belgium (3); Greece (3); Norway (2). Volunteers
and 1,100 who later died of wounds). In 1950, the
from the United States served in 3 RAF squadrons
United States Coast Guard put U.S. Merchant Ma-
known as the Eagle Squadrons. Many foreign na-
rine losses at 5,662 (845 due to enemy action, 37 in
tionals and persons from the British colonies served
* prison camps, and 4,780 missing), excluding U.S.
in the UK Merchant Navy. [545]
Army transports and foreign flagged ships and they
did not break out losses between the Atlantic and
^BF United States Pacific theaters.* [551]* [552]* [553]
American military dead#^BF1
• The names of U.S. Merchant Mariners killed in
• Total U.S. military deaths in battle and from other World War II are listed by USMM.org.* [551]* [554]
causes were 407,316. The breakout by service • During World War II the Civil Air Patrol assumed
is as follows: Army 318,274 (234,874 battle, many missions including anti-submarine patrol and
83,400 nonbattle),* [281] Navy 62,614,* [281] Ma- warfare, border patrols, and courier services. Dur-
rine Corps 24,511,* [281] and the Coast Guard ing World War II CAP's coastal patrol had flown
1,917.* [546]* [547] 24 million miles, found 173 enemy U-boats, at-
tacked 57, hit 10 and sank two, dropping a total
• Deaths in battle were 292,131. The breakout by
of 83 bombs and depth charges throughout the con-
service is as follows: Army 234,874,* [281] Navy
flict.* [555] By the end of the war, 64 CAP members
36,950,* [281] Marine Corps 19,733,* [281] and
had lost their lives in the line of duty.* [556]
Coast Guard 574.* [484]* [546] These losses were
incurred during the period 12/1/41 until 12/31/46 • According to U.S. War Department figures, 18,745
including an additional 126 men in October 1941 American civilians were interned in the war (13,996
when the USS Kearny and the USS Reuben James in the Far East and 4,749 in Europe). A total of
were attacked by U-Boats. 2,419 American civilian internees were listed as
dead and missing. Under Japanese internment, 992
• The United States Army Air Forces losses, which
died and another 544 were listed as“unknown"; un-
are included in the Army total, were 52,173
der German internment, 168 died and a further 715
deaths due to combat and 35,946 from non-combat
were listed as “unknown”.* [289]* [557]* [558]
causes.* [282]
• During World War II, 68 U.S. civilians were killed
• U.S. Combat Dead by Theater of war: Europe– during the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7,
Atlantic 183,588 (Army ground forces 141,088, 1941.* [559]
Army Air Forces 36,461, and Navy/Coast Guard
6,039); Asia–Pacific 108,504 (Army ground forces • The official U.S report listed 1 U.S. civilian
41,592, Army Air Forces 15,694, Navy/Coast killed during the Battle of Guam on December
184 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

8–10.* [436] However, another source reported 13 • Croatian emigres in the west made exaggerated
“civilians”killed during in the battle* [560] and 70 allegations that 500-600,000 Croatians and Chet-
U.S. civilians were killed during the Battle of Wake niks were massacred by the Partisans after the war,
Island from December 8–23, 1941.* [561] 98 U.S. these claims are cited by Rudolph Rummel in his
civilian POWs were massacred by the Japanese on study Statistics of Democide * [572]Jozo Tomase-
Wake Island in October 1943. vich noted that the figures of the number of col-
laborators killed by the Partisans are disputed. Ac-
• 6 U.S. civilians were killed in Oregon in May 1945 cording to Tomasevich some Croatian exiles“have
by Japanese balloon bombs.* [562] been more moderate in their estimates”, putting the
death toll at“about 200,000”.* [573] Regarding the
^BG Yugoslavia death toll in the reprisals by the Yugoslav partisans
Tomasevich believed that “It is impossible to es-
• The official Yugoslav figure for total war dead is tablish the exact number of victims in these opera-
1.7 million (300,000 military and 1,400,000 civil- tions, although fairly accurate figures could proably
ians). This figure is cited in reference works deal- be reached after much additional unbiased research”
ing with World War II* [145]* [563]* [564] Stud- *
[574]
ies in Yugoslavia by Franjo Tudjman and Ivo
Lah put losses at 2.1 million* [565] However, the The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were
official Yugoslav figure has been disputed stud- as follows
ies by Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović
who put actual losses at about 1.0 million per- A. Military operations between the occupying mili-
sons.* [566]* [567]* [568]* [569] The calculation of tary forces and their quisling collaborators against the
Yugoslav losses is not an exact accounting listing of Yugoslav resistance.* [146]
the dead, but is based on demographic calculations B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler,
of the population balance which estimate births dur- fought with a special vengeance against the Serbs, who
ing the war and natural deaths. The number of per- were considered Untermensch.* [146] One of the worst
sons who emigrated after the war (ethnic Germans, one-day massacres during the German military occupa-
Hungarians, Italians and Yugoslav refugees to the tion of Serbia was the Kragujevac massacre.
west) are rough estimates.* [566]* [567]* [569] C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations
were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced
• The U.S. Bureau of the Census published a report the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the
in 1954 that concluded that Yugoslav war-related war, many Ustaše and Slovene collaborators were killed
deaths were 1,067,000. The U.S. Bureau of the in or as a result of the Bleiburg repatriations.* [146]
Census noted that the official Yugoslav government D. The systematic extermination of large numbers of
figure of 1.7 million war dead was overstated be- people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most
cause it “was released soon after the war and was numerous victims were Serbs.* [146] According to Yad
estimated without the benefit of a postwar census” Vashem “During their four years in power, the Ustasa
.* [567] carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000,
expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert
• A recent study by Vladimir Žerjavić estimates to- to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatias
tal war related deaths at 1,027,000, which included Jews, 20,000 Gypsies and many thousands of their po-
losses of 237,000 Yugoslav partisans and 209,000 litical enemies.”* [575] According to the United States
“Quislings and collaborators"(see discussion below Holocaust Memorial Museum “The Croat authorities
losses of Yugoslav collaborators) * [570] Civilian murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb res-
dead of 581,000 included 57,000 Jews. Losses idents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Us-
by each Yugoslav republic were: Bosnia 316,000; taša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed
Serbia 273,000; Croatia 271,000; Slovenia 33,000; either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau”. * [576]
Montenegro 27,000; Macedonia 17,000; and killed The USHMM reports between 77,000 and 99,000 per-
abroad 80,000.* [566] sons were killed at the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška con-
• Bogoljub Kočović, a Yugoslav statistician, centration camps.* [577] The Jasenovac Memorial Site
calculated that the actual war losses were quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000
1,014,000.* [569] victims. Stara Gradiška was a sub-camp of Jasenovac es-
tablished for women and children.* [578] The names and
• Jozo Tomasevich, Professor Emeritus of Economics data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been estab-
at San Francisco State University, stated that the cal- lished Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 per-
culations of Kočović and Žerjavić“seem to be free sons were murdered at Jasenovac* [578]
of bias, we can accept them as reliable”.* [571] Some 40,000 Roma were murdered.* [579] Jewish vic-
tims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122.* [580]
The losses of Yugoslav collaborators E. Reduced food supply caused famine and dis-
5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 185

ease.* [146] [14] Albania: a country study Federal Research Division,

F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civil- Library of Congress; edited by Raymond E. Zickel and
ian casualties. The hardest hit localities were Podgorica, Walter R. Iwaskiw. 2nd ed. 1994. ISBN 0-8444-0792-5.
*
Leskovac, Zadar and Belgrade. [146] Available online at Federal Research Division of the U.S.
G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of Library of Congress. See section “On The Communist
Takeover”. Library of Congress Country Study
335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not
*
included with war casualties. [146] [15] “Deaths as a result of service with Australian units
^BH Other Nations (AWM) web page”. AWM. Retrieved 2011-06-15.

[16] “Australian Military Statistics World War II - A Global

• Dominican Republic had 27 Merchant Perspective”. AWM. Archived from the original on May
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[17] Gregory Frumkin. Population Changes in Europe Since

1939, Geneva 1951.p.44-45
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[108] League of Nations Yearbook 1942 p.14 Saint-Petersburg, 1995. ISBN 978-5-86789-023-0 Page
[109] Catharine Newbury The Cohesion of Oppression: 127 (4,100,000 deaths due to famine and disease in Ger-
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[124] Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sci-
[111] Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report ences). Людские потери СССР в период второй
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[112] League of Nations Yearbook 1942 p.22 cles. Saint-Petersburg, 1995; ISBN 978-5-86789-023-0,
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[125] Andreev EM; Darsky LE; Kharkova TL, Population dy-
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[118] S. N Mikhalev Liudskie poteri v Velikoi Otechestvennoi
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[132] “Swedish Volunteer Corps”. Svenskafrivilliga.com. Re-
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[137] Eiji Murashima,“The Commemorative Character of Thai [156] Germany reports. With an introd. by Konrad Adenauer.
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100,000 in internment camps)
[142] Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report
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[143] “Population Statistics”. Library.uu.nl. Retrieved 2015-
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[145] I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot Oxford Companion to cestry
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[146] Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, www.digizeitschriften.de/de/openaccess)
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[165] The Statistisches Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik
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1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993; ISBN 978-5-02-013479-9, tion and the Restoration of Thai Independence”Modern
pp. 50-53 Asian Studies, v40, n4 (2006) pp. 1053–96, p. 1057n:
 5.1. WORLD WAR II CASUALTIES 201

“Deaths in the Thai military forces from 8 December [551] “Mariners in“ocean-going service”during World War II
1941 through the end of the war included 143 officers, have Veteran Status. They may be entitled to a gravestone,
474 non-commissioned officers, and 4,942 soldiers. (De- flag for their coffin, and burial in a National Cemetery”.
fense Ministry of Thailand, In Memory of Victims who Fell Usmm.org. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
in Battle [in Thai], Bangkok: Krom phaenthi Thahanbok,
1947). With the exception of about 180 who died in the [552] “American Merchant Marine at War”. Usmm.org. Re-
8 December [1941] battles and another 150 who died in trieved March 4, 2016.
battles in the Shan states [Burma], almost all of the war
[553] Summary of Merchant Marine Personnel Casualties in
dead died of malaria and other diseases.”
World War II, US Coast Guard, Washington: Government
[539] E. Bruce Reynolds,“Aftermath of Alliance: The Wartime Printing Office, July 1, 1950, p. VII
Legacy in Thai-Japanese Relations”, Journal of Southeast
[554] “U.S. Merchant Marine Casualties during World War II”
Asian Studies, v21, n1, March 1990, pp. 66–87. “An
. Usmm.org. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
OSS document (XL 30948, RG 226, USNA) quotes Thai
Ministry of Interior figures of 8,711 air raids deaths in [555] “Civil Air Patrol”. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved April
1944–45 and damage to more than 10,000 buildings, most 4, 2008. With the attacks of September 11, 2001 and
of them totally destroyed. However, an account by M. the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, the
R. Seni Pramoj (a typescript entitled 'The Negotiations decision was made in 2002 for the United States Air Force
Leading to the Cessation of a State of War with Great to move CAP “operational”mission activities from the
Britain' and filed under Papers on World War II, at the Air Force's operations directorate (HAF/A3) to the Air
Thailand Information Center, Chulalongkorn University, Force's newly created homeland security directorate...
p. 12) indicates that only about 2,000 Thai died in air
raids.” [556] “CAP History and Organization”(PDF). Civil Air Patrol.
Retrieved February 27, 2011.
[540] E. Bruce Reynolds,“Aftermath of Alliance: The Wartime
Legacy in Thai-Japanese Relations”, Journal of Southeast [557] Center for Internee Rights, Civilian prisoners of the
Asian Studies, v21, n1, March 1990, pp 66-87. Thailand Japanese in the Philippine Islands Turner Press 2002;
exported rice to neighboring Japanese-occupied countries ISBN 1-56311-838-6
during 1942–45 (p 72n) and did not experience the noto-
rious famines that occurred in India and French Indochina [558] The annual death rate from 1942–1945 of Americans in-
(see above) between 1943–44. terned by Japan was about 3.5%. There were 1,536 deaths
among the 13,996 interned civilians from 1942–45.
[541] Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report The United States interned about 100,000 Japanese
2013-2014, page 44. Americans between 1942–45. The 1946 report by the
U.S. Dept. of The Interior “The Evacuated People a
[542] Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report Quantitative Description”gave the annual death rate from
2013-2014, page 44. Figures include identified burials 1942–1945 of Japanese detained in the U.S. at about
and those commemorated by name on memorials.These 0.7%. There were 1,862 deaths among the 100,000 to
figures include deaths that occurred after the war up until 110,000 American civilians of Japanese ancestry interned
31 December 1947. in the U.S. from 1942–45. The annual death rate among
the U.S. population as a whole from 1942–45 was about
[543] Marika Sherwood. “Colonies, Colonials and World War 1.1% per annum.
Two”. BBC. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
[559] Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A
[544]“Cyprus Veterans Association World War II”. Cyprusvet- Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–
erans.com.cy. Retrieved March 4, 2016. 2000 (2nd ed.), 2002; ISBN 0-7864-1204-6, p. 552

[545] Marika Sherwood, World War II Colonies and Colonials. [560] Roger Mansell Captured: The Forgotten Men of Guam
Savannah Press 2013; ISBN 978-0951972076, p. 15
[561] Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A
Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–
[546] “U.S. Coast Guard History”. Uscg.mil. Retrieved March
2000 (2nd ed.), 2002; ISBN 0-7864-1204-6, p. 552
4, 2016.
[562] Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A
[547] Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–
Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500– 2000 (2nd ed.), 2002; ISBN 0-7864-1204-6, p. 580
2000 (2nd ed.), 2002; ISBN 0-7864-1204-6, pp 584–91
[563] Robert Goralski, World War II Almanac, 1939–1945: a
[548] “US Navy and Marine Corps Personnel Casualties in political and military record, New York, p. 428
World War II”. History.navy.mil. Retrieved June 29,
2015. [564] Sir John Keegan Atlas of the Second World War, Harper-
Collins 1997, pp. 204-05
[549] U.S. National Archives Casualties from World War II
[565] Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia,
[550] “American Battle Monuments Commission”. Abmc.gov. 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford
Retrieved March 4, 2016. University Press, 2001; ISBN 0-8047-3615-4, p. 733
 202 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

[566] Danijela Nadj (1993). Yugoslavia manipulations with the 5.2 Consequences of Nazism
number Second World War victims. Zagreb: Croatian
Information center. ISBN 0-919817-32-7. Retrieved
Nazism and the acts of the Nazi German state profoundly
March 4, 2016.
affected many countries, communities and people before,
[567] U.S. Bureau of the Census. The Population of Yugoslavia during and after World War II. While the attempt of Ger-
(eds. Paul F. Meyers and Arthur A. Campbell), Washing- many to exterminate several nations viewed as subhuman
ton, p. 23 by Nazi ideology was eventually stopped by the Allies,
[568] Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, Nazi aggression nevertheless led to the deaths of tens of
1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford millions and the ruin of several states.
University Press, 2001; ISBN 0-8047-3615-4, Cap. 17
Alleged and True Population Losses
5.2.1 Jewish people
[569] Kočović, Bogoljub Žrtve Drugog svetskog rata u Jugoslav-
iji, 1990; ISBN 86-01-01928-5, pp 172–89
Of the world's 15 million Jews in 1939, more than a third
were killed in the Holocaust.* [1]* [2] Of the three million
[570] Danijela Nadj (1993). Yugoslavia manipulations with the
Jews in Poland, the heartland of European Jewish cul-
number Second World War victims-The authors survey of
the demographic and human war losses in Yugoslavia. Za-
ture, fewer than 350,000 survived. Most of the remain-
greb: Croatian Information center. ISBN 0-919817-32-7.
ing Jews in Eastern and Central Europe were destitute
Retrieved March 4, 2016. refugees who were unable or unwilling to return to coun-
[571] Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, tries that became Soviet puppet states, or countries they
1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford felt had betrayed them to the Nazis.
University Press, 2001; ISBN 0-8047-3615-4, In Cap. 17
Alleged and True Population Losses there is a detailed ac-
count of the controversies related to Yugoslav war losses. 5.2.2 Poland
p. 737
[572] Statistics of Democide (1997).
[573] Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia,
1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford
University Press, 2001; ISBN 0-8047-3615-4, p. 729
[574] Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia,
1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford
University Press, 2001; ISBN 0-8047-3615-4, p. 746
[575] “Croatian President Mesic Apologizes for Croatian
Crimes Against the Jews during the Holocaust”. Yad
Vashem. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
[576]“JASENOVAC”. USHMM. United States Holocaust
Memorial Museum.
[577] “United States Holocaust Memorial Museum's Holocaust
Encyclopedia: “Jasenovac"". Ushmm.org. Retrieved
During World War II 85% of buildings in Warsaw were de-
March 4, 2016.
stroyed by German troops.
[578] Silberman, F. (2013). Memory and Postwar Memorials:
Confronting the Violence of the Past. Springer. p. 79. The Nazis intended to destroy the Polish nation com-
[579] Donald Kendrick, The Destiny of Europe's Gypsies. Basic pletely. In 1941, the Nazi leadership decided that Poland
Books, 1972; ISBN 0-465-01611-1, p. 184 was to be fully cleared of ethnic Poles within 10 to 20
years and settled by German colonists.* [3] From the be-
[580] Martin Gilbert Atlas of the Holocaust 1988; ISBN 0-688- ginning of the occupation, Germany's policy was to plun-
12364-3, p. 244
der and exploit Polish territory, turning it into a giant con-
[581] Thomas M. Leonard, John F. Bratzel, George Lauder- centration camp for Poles who were to be eventually ex-
baugh. Latin America in World War II, Rowman & Little- terminated as "Untermenschen".* [3] The policy of plun-
field Publishers (September 11, 2006), p. 83 der and exploitation inflicted material losses to Polish in-
dustry, agriculture, infrastructure and cultural landmarks,
with the cost of the destruction by Germans alone esti-
5.1.7 External links mated at approximately €525 billion or $640 billion.* [4]
The remaining industry was largely destroyed or trans-
• The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names
ported to Russia by Soviet occupation forces following
• The Fallen of World War II the war.
5.2. CONSEQUENCES OF NAZISM 203

The official Polish government report of war losses pre- Nazi war materiel was made in many captured Czech fac-
pared in 1947 reported 6,028,000 war victims out of a tories using Czech laborers during the war. As a con-
population of 27,007,000 ethnic Poles and Jews alone. sequence of the war and especially Soviet occupation,
For political reasons the report excluded the losses to Central European countries found themselves under the
the Soviet Union and the losses among Polish citizens of “Soviet sphere of influence”(as agreed upon at the Yalta
Ukrainian and Belarusian origin. Conference). Immediately following the war, communist
Poland's eastern border was significantly moved west- governments were installed in all of these countries and
wards to the Curzon line. The resulting territorial loss any forms of 'western style democracy' that existed before
the war were erased. For the countries of Central Europe
of 188,000 km² (formerly populated by 5.3 million eth-
nic Poles* [5]) was to be compensated by the addition installation of totalitarian Communism meant the decline
of their economies and more significantly, a loss of na-
of 111,000 km² of former German territory east of the
Oder-Neisse line (formerly populated by 11.4 million tional sovereignty and unique global identity until the col-
lapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1989 (see also “the Velvet
ethnic Germans* [6]). Kidnapping of Polish children by
Germany also took place, in which children who were be- Revolution”).
lieved to hold German blood were taken away; 20,000–
200,000* [7] Polish children were taken away from their
parents. Out of the abducted only 10–15% returned 5.2.4 Soviet Union
home.* [8] Polish elites were decimated and over half of
the Polish intelligentsia were murdered. Some profes- More than 26 million Soviet citizens had been killed as
sions lost 20–50% of their members, for example 58% a result of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, in-
of Polish lawyers, 38% of medical doctors and 28% of cluding 10,651,000 soldiers who died in battle against
university workers were exterminated by the Nazis. The Hitler's armies or died in POW camps.* [9] Millions of
Polish capital Warsaw was razed by German forces and civilians also died from starvation, exposure, atrocities,
most of its old and newly acquired cities lay in ruins (e.g. and massacres, and a huge area of the Soviet Union from
Wrocław) or lost to the Soviet Union (e.g. Lwów). In the suburbs of Moscow and the Volga River to the western
addition Poland became a Soviet satellite state, remain- border had been destroyed, depopulated, and reduced to
ing under a Soviet-controlled communist government un- rubble. The mass death and destruction there badly dam-
til 1989. Russian troops did not withdraw from Poland aged the Soviet economy, society, and national psyche.
until 1993. The death toll included c.a. 1.5 million Soviet Jews killed
by the German invaders.* [10] The mass destruction and
mass murder was one of the reasons why the Soviet Union
See also
installed satellite states in Central Europe; as the govern-
ment hoped to use the countries as a buffer zone against
• Expulsion of Poles by Germany
any new invasions from the West. This helped break
• Generalplan Ost down the wartime alliance between the Soviet Union and
the Western Allies, setting the stage for the Cold War,
• German AB-Aktion in Poland which lasted until 1989, two years before the dissolution
of the Soviet Union in 1991. Soviet culture in the 1950s
• Holocaust in Poland was defined by results of the Great Patriotic War.
Close to 60% of the European war dead were from the
• Operation Tannenberg
Soviet Union. Russian historian Vadim Erlikman has
detailed Soviet losses totaling 26.5 million war related
5.2.3 Central Europe deaths. Military losses of 10.6 million include 7.6 million
killed or missing in action and 2.6 million POW dead,
Central Europe's response to the Nazis (and involvement plus 400,000 paramilitary and Soviet partisan losses.
with the Nazis) was a mixture of resistance and support Civilian deaths totaled 15.9 million which included 1.5
depending on time and political circumstances. Austria million from military actions. 7.1 million victims of
for example was first vehemently opposed to the Nazi Nazi genocide and reprisals; 1.8 million deported to Ger-
Party but later became a key member of the Axis Pow- many for forced labor; and 5.5 million famine and disease
ers. Other Central European countries, namely Hungary, deaths. Additional famine deaths which totaled 1 million
Romania, and Bulgaria, first attempted to remain neutral during 1946–47 are not included here. These losses are
but later fought alongside the Nazis during the invasion of for the entire territory of the USSR including territories
the Soviet Union. Yugoslavia's response was also mixed; annexed in 1939–40.* [11]
Croatia and Slovenia fought alongside the Nazis (and in To the north, the Germans reached Leningrad (Saint Pe-
some cases fought with distinction) whereas Serbia did tersburg) in August 1941. The city was surrounded on
not. Some Central European countries did not fight but 8 September, beginning a 900-day siege during which
were conquered by the Nazis including Czechoslovakia. about 1.2 million citizens perished.
204 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Of the 5.7 million Soviet prisoners of war captured by the 28,000 villages were destroyed.* [24]
Germans, more than 3.5 million had died while in Ger-
man captivity by the end of the war.* [12] On 11 Febru-
ary 1945, at the conclusion of the Yalta Conference, the See also
United States and United Kingdom signed a Repatria-
tion Agreement with the USSR.* [13] The interpretation • Forced settlements in the Soviet Union
of this Agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation
of all Soviets regardless of their wishes.* [14] Millions • Generalplan Ost
of Soviet POWs and forced laborers transported to Ger-
many are believed to have been treated as traitors, cow- • Hunger Plan
ards and deserters on their return to the USSR(see Order
No. 270) .* [15]* [16] According to some sources, many • Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany
were executed or deported to the Soviet prison camps,
over 1.5 million surviving Red Army soldiers imprisoned • Operation Keelhaul
by the Germans were sent to the Gulag in Siberia and the
far north.* [17]* [18]* [19] However, statistical data from • World War II casualties
Soviet archives, that became available after Perestroika,
attest that the overall increase of the Gulag population
was minimal during 1945–46* [20] and only 272,867 of 5.2.5 Yugoslavia
repatriated Soviet POWs and civilians (out of 4,199,488)
were imprisoned* [21].

Belarus

Belarus lost a quarter of its pre-war population, including

practically all its intellectual elite and 90% of the coun-
tryʼs Jewish population. Following bloody encirclement
battles, all of the present-day Belarus territory was occu-
pied by the Germans by the end of August 1941. The
Nazis imposed a brutal regime, deporting some 380,000
young people for slave labour, and killing hundreds of
thousands of civilians more. At least 5,295 Belarusian
settlements were destroyed by the Nazis and some or all
their inhabitants killed (out of 9,200 settlements that were Due to their strong opposition to Nazism, Serbs were considered
burned or otherwise destroyed in Belarus during World enemies of Nazi Germany. Alongside Jews, Serbs were killed and
War II). More than 600 villages like Khatyn were burned expelled in wartime Yugoslavia.
with their entire population.* [22] More than 209 cities
and towns (out of 270 total) were destroyed. Himmler It is estimated that 1,700,000 people were killed during
had pronounced a plan according to which 3/4 of Belaru- World War II in Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945. Very
sian population was designated for“eradication”and 1/4 high losses were among Serbs who lived in Bosnia and
of racially cleaner population (blue eyes, light hair) would Croatia, as well as Jewish and Romani minorities, with
be allowed to serve Germans as slaves (Ostarbeiter). losses also high among all other non-collaborating pop-
ulations. In the summer of 1941, the Serbian uprising
Some recent estimates raise the number of Belarusians
came at the time of the German invasion of the USSR.
who perished in War to “3 million 650 thousand peo-
The Nazi response was the execution of 100 Serbian civil-
ple, unlike the former 2.2 million. That is to say not
ians for every killed soldier and 50 Serbian civilians for
every fourth inhabitant but about 40% of the pre-war
every wounded soldier. The Yugoslav Partisans fought
Belarusian population perished (considering the present-
both a guerrilla campaign against the Axis occupiers and
day borders of Belarus).”* [23] This compares to 15%
a civil war against the Chetniks. The Independent State of
of Poland's post war borders and 19% of Ukrainian
Croatia was established as a Nazi puppet-state, ruled by
population in post war border and comparing to 2% of
the fascist militia known as the Ustaše. During this time
Czechoslovakian population that perished in post war
the Independent State of Croatia created extermination
borders.
camps for anti-fascists, communists, Serbs, Muslims,
Gypsies and Jews, one of the most infamous being the
Ukraine Jasenovac concentration camp. A large number of men,
women and children, mostly Serbs, were murdered in
Estimates on population losses in Ukraine range from 7 these camps. In 1945, the Federal People's Republic of
million to 11 million. More than 700 cities and towns and Yugoslavia was created as a communist republic.* [25]
 5.2. CONSEQUENCES OF NAZISM 205

5.2.6 Western Europe pation, conditions in Greece often approximated a civil

war between EAM and everyone else. The rift would be-
Britain and France were on the side of the victors, but come permanent in December 1944, when EAM and the
they were exhausted and bankrupted by the war, and British-backed government clashed in Athens, and again
Britain never recovered its status as a superpower. With in a fully fledged civil war from 1946–1949.
Germany and Japan in ruins as well, the world was left
with two dominant powers, the United States and the So-
viet Union. Economic and political reality in Western Eu- 5.2.8 Germany
rope would soon force the dismantling of the European
colonial empires, especially in Africa and Asia.
One of the most important political consequences of
the Nazi experience in Western Europe was the estab-
lishment of new, human rights-based political alliances
which eventually became the European Union and an
international military alliance of democratic European
countries known as NATO to counterbalance the Sovi-
ets' Warsaw Pact and Comintern until communist rule in
Eastern Europe ended in the late 1980s.
The Communists emerged from the war sharing the vast
prestige of the victorious Soviet armed forces, and for a
while it looked as though they might take power in France,
Italy and Greece. The West quickly acted to prevent this
from happening, hence the Cold War.

5.2.7 Greece

In Greece the German occupation (April 1941 – Octo-

German territories lost in both World Wars are shown in black,
ber 1944) destroyed the economy through war repara-
present-day Germany is marked dark grey on this 1914 map.
tions, plundering of the country's resources and hyper-
inflation. In addition, the Germans left most of the coun-
try's infrastructure in ruins as they withdrew in 1944. As More than 7 million Germans, including almost 2 million
a result of an Allied blockade and German indifference to civilians, died during World War II (see World War II
local needs, the first winter of the occupation was marked casualties). After the end of the war in Europe additional
by widespread famine in the main urban centres, with casualties were incurred during the Allied occupation and
as many as 300,000 civilians dead from starvation. Al- also during the population expulsions that followed.
though these levels of starvation were not repeated in the After the war, the German people were often viewed
next years, malnourishment was common throughout the with contempt because they were blamed by other Eu-
occupation. In addition, thousands more were executed ropeans for Nazi crimes. Germans visiting abroad, par-
by German forces as reprisals for partisan activities. As ticularly in the 1950s and 1960s, attracted insults from
part of the Holocaust, Greece's Jewish community was al- locals, and from foreigners who may have lost their fam-
most wiped out, especially the large Sephardi community ilies or friends in the atrocities. Today in Europe and
of Thessaloniki, which had earned the city the sobriquet worldwide (particularly in countries that fought against
“Mother of Israel”and had first settled there in the early the Axis), Germans may be scorned by elderly people
16th century at the invitation of the then-ruling Ottoman who were alive to experience the atrocities committed
Empire. In total, at least 81% (ca. 60,000) of Greece's by Nazi Germans during World War II. This resulted
total pre-war Jewish population perished. in a feeling of controversy for many Germans, caus-
The bitterest and longest-lasting legacy of the German ing numerous discussions and rows among scholars and
occupation was the social upheaval it wrought. The old politicians in Post-War West Germany (for example, the
political elites were sidelined, and the Resistance against "Historikerstreit" [historians' argument] in the 1980s)
the Axis brought to the fore the leftist National Libera- and after Reunification. Here, the discussion was mainly
tion Front (EAM), arguably the country's first true mass- about the role that the unified Germany should play in the
movement, where the Communists played a central role. world and in Europe. Bernard Schlink's novel The Reader
In an effort to oppose its growing influence, the Ger- concerns how post-war Germans dealt with the issue.
mans encouraged the pre-war conservative establishment Following World War II, the Allies embarked on a pro-
to confront it, and allowed the creation of armed units. As gram of denazification, but as the Cold War intensified
elsewhere in Eastern Europe, in the last year of the occu- these efforts were curtailed in the west.
206 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Germany itself and the German economy were devas- many (SPD) and Communist Party of Germany (KPD)
tated, with great parts of most major cities destroyed in the Soviet sector), was elected first President of the
by the bombings of the Allied forces, sovereignty taken German Democratic Republic.
away by the Allies and the territory filled with millions of West Germany, (officially: Federal Republic of Ger-
refugees from the former eastern provinces which the Al- many, FRG – this is still the official name of the uni-
lies had decided were to be annexed by the Soviet Union fied Germany today) received (de facto) semi-sovereignty
and Poland, moving the eastern German border west- in 1949, as well as a constitution, called the Grundgesetz
wards to the Oder-Neisse line and effectively reducing (Basic Law). The document was not called a Constitution
Germany in size by roughly 25%. (see also Potsdam Con-
officially, as at this point, it was still hoped that the two
ference) The remaining parts of Germany were divided German states would be reunited in the near future.
among the Allies and occupied by British (the north-
west), French (the south-west), Americans (the south) The first free elections in West Germany were held in
and Soviets (the east) troops. 1949, which were won by the Christian Democratic Party
of Germany (CDU) (conservatives) by a slight margin.
Konrad Adenauer, a member of the CDU, was the first
Bundeskanzler (Chancellor) of West Germany.
Both German states introduced, in 1948, their own
money, colloquially called West-Mark and Ost-Mark
(Western Mark and Eastern Mark).
Foreign troops still remain in Germany today, for exam-
ple Ramstein Air Base, but the majority of troops left
following the end of the Cold War (By 1994 for Soviet
troops, mandated under the terms of the Treaty on the Fi-
nal Settlement With Respect to Germany and in the mid-
1990s for Western forces). The Bush Administration in
the United States in 2004 stated intentions to withdraw
most of the remaining American troops out of Germany
in the coming years. During the years 1950–2000 more
than 10,000,000 U.S. military personnel were stationed
in Germany.* [26]
The West German economy was by the mid 1950s re-
built thanks to the abandonment in mid-1947 of some
of the last vestiges of the Morgenthau Plan and to fewer
war reparations imposed on West Germany (see also
Wirtschaftswunder). After lobbying by the Joint Chiefs
of Staff, and Generals Clay and Marshall, the Truman ad-
ministration realized that economic recovery in Europe
Postwar occupation zones in Germany
could not go forward without the reconstruction of the
German industrial base on which it previously had been
The expulsions of Germans from the lost areas in the dependent.* [27] In July 1947, President Harry S. Tru-
east (see also Former eastern territories of Germany), the man rescinded on “national security grounds”* [27] the
Sudetenland, and elsewhere in eastern Europe went on for punitive JCS 1067, which had directed the U.S. forces of
several years. The number of Germans expelees totaled occupation in Germany to“take no steps looking toward
roughly 15,000,000. Estimates of number of deaths in the economic rehabilitation of Germany.”It was replaced
connection with expulsion range from under 500,000 to by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly,
3 million. prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions
After a short time the Allies broke over ideological prob- of a stable and productive Germany.”* [28]
lems (Communism versus Capitalism), and thus both The dismantling of factories in the western zones, for
sides established their own spheres of influence, creating further transport to the Soviet Union as reparations, was
a previously non-existent division in Germany between in time halted as frictions grew between East and West.
East and West, (although the division largely followed the Limits were placed on permitted levels of German pro-
borders of states which had existed in Germany before duction in order to prevent resurgence of German mili-
Bismarck's unification less than 100 years before). tarism, part of which included severely restricting Ger-
A constitution for East Germany was drafted on 30 May man steel production and affected the rest of the Ger-
1949. Wilhelm Pieck, a leader of the Socialist Unity man economy very negatively (see "The industrial plans
Party of Germany (SED) party (which was created by for Germany"). Dismantling of factories by France and
a forced merger of the Social Democratic Party of Ger- Great Britain as reparations and for the purpose of lower-
5.2. CONSEQUENCES OF NAZISM 207

ing German war and economic potential under the“level ing 2300 calories through emergency food imports and
of industry plans”took place (halted in 1951), but to Red Cross help.* [34] In early October 1945 the UK gov-
nowhere near the scale of the dismantling and transport ernment privately acknowledged in a cabinet meeting that
to the Soviet Union of factories in the eastern zone of oc- German civilian adult death rates had risen to 4 times
cupation. The Eastern Block did not accept the Marshall the pre-war levels and death rates amongst the German
Plan, denouncing it as American economic imperialism, children had risen by 10 times the pre-war levels.* [34]
and thus it (East Germany included) recovered much The German Red Cross was dissolved, and the Interna-
more slowly than their Western counterparts. German tional Red Cross and the few other allowed international
political and economic control of its main remaining cen- relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through
ters of industry was reduced, the Ruhr area was under in- strict controls on supplies and travel.* [34] The few agen-
ternational control. The Ruhr Agreement was imposed cies permitted to help Germans, such as the indigenous
on the Germans as a condition for permitting them to es- Caritasverband, were not allowed to use imported sup-
tablish the Federal Republic of Germany.* [29] (see also plies. When the Vatican attempted to transmit food sup-
the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR)). In the plies from Chile to German infants the US State Depart-
end, the beginning of the Cold War led to increased Ger- ment forbade it.* [34] The German food situation reached
man control of the area, although permanently limited by its worst during the very cold winter of 1946–1947 when
the pooling of German coal and steel into a multinational German calorie intake ranged from 1,000–1,500 calories
community in 1951 (see European Coal and Steel Com- per day, a situation made worse by severe lack of fuel for
munity). The neighboring Saar area, containing much heating.* [34] Meanwhile, the Allies were well fed, aver-
of Germany's remaining coal deposits, handed over by age adult calorie intake was; U.S. 3200–3300; UK 2900;
the U. S. to French economic administration as a protec- U.S. Army 4000.* [34] German infant mortality rate was
torate in 1947 and did not politically return to Germany twice that of other nations in Western Europe until the
until January 1957, with economic reintegration occur- close of 1948.* [34]
ring a few years later. (see also the Monnet Plan). Upper As agreed by the Allies at the Yalta conference Germans
Silesia, Germany's second largest center of mining and were used as forced labor as part of the reparations to
industry, had been handed over to Poland at the Potsdam be extracted to the countries ruined by Nazi aggression.
Conference, and its population expelled. By 1947 it is estimated that 4,000,000 Germans (both
The Allies confiscated intellectual property of great value, civilians and POWs) were being used as forced labor by
all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and the U.S., France, the UK and the Soviet Union. German
used them to strengthen their own industrial competitive- prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in
ness by licensing them to Allied companies.* [30] Begin- France and the low countries. By December 1945 it was
ning immediately after the German surrender and con- estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German pris-
tinuing for the next two years the U.S. pursued a vig- oners were being killed or maimed each month in acci-
orous program to harvest all technological and scien- dents.* [35] In Norway the last available casualty record,
tific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of
Gimbel comes to the conclusion, in his book "Science 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while
Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder 392 had been maimed.* [36] Death rates for the German
in Postwar Germany", that the “intellectual reparations” civilians doing forced labor in the Soviet Union ranged
taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 between 19% and 39%, depending on category. (see also
billion.* [31]* [32]* [33] During the more than two years Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union).
that this policy was in place, no industrial research in Ger- Norman Naimark writes in “The Russians in Germany:
many could take place, as any results would have been au- A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949.”
tomatically available to overseas competitors who were that although the exact number of women and girls who
encouraged by the occupation authorities to access all were raped by members of the Red Army in the months
records and facilities. Meanwhile, thousands of the best preceding and years following the capitulation will never
German researchers were being put to work in the Soviet be known, their numbers are likely in the hundreds of
Union and in the U.S. (see also Operation Paperclip) thousands, quite possibly as high as the 2,000,000 vic-
For several years following the surrender German nutri- tims estimate made by Barbara Johr, in “Befreier und
tional levels were very low, resulting in very high mortal- Befreite”. Many of these victims were raped repeatedly.
ity rates. Throughout all of 1945 the U.S. forces of oc- Naimark states that not only had each victim to carry
cupation ensured that no international aid reached ethnic the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it inflicted
Germans.* [34] It was directed that all relief went to non- a massive collective trauma on the East German nation
German displaced persons, liberated Allied POWs, and (the German Democratic Republic). Naimark concludes
concentration camp inmates.* [34] During 1945 it was es- “The social psychology of women and men in the soviet
timated that the average German civilian in the US and zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from
UK occupation zones received 1200 calories a day.* [34] the first days of occupation, through the founding of the
Meanwhile, non-German displaced persons were receiv- GDR in the fall of 1949, until - one could argue - the
208 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

present.”* [37] 5.2.9 World politics

The post-war hostility shown to the German people is ex-
The war led to the discrediting and dissolution of the
emplified in the fate of the War children, sired by German
League of Nations and led to the founding of the United
soldiers with women from the local population in nations
Nations on 24 October 1945. Like its predecessor, the
such as Norway where the children and their mothers af-
UN was established to help prevent other world wars and
ter the war had to endure many years of abuse. In the case
contain or stop smaller conflicts. The principles enshrined
of Denmark the hostility felt towards all things German
in the Charter of the United Nations are a testament to the
also showed itself in the treatment of German refugees
world's attitudes at the fall of the Third Reich.
during the years 1945 to 1949. During 1945 alone 7000
German children under the age of 5 died as a result of
being denied sufficient food and denied medical atten-
5.2.10 International law
tion by Danish doctors who were afraid that rendering
aid to the children of the former enemy would be seen
as an unpatriotic act. Many children died of easily treat-
able ailments. As a consequence“more German refugees
died in Danish camps,“than Danes did during the entire
war.""* [38]* [39]* [40]* [41]
During the Cold War, it was difficult for West Germans
to visit East German relatives and friends and impossible
vice versa. For East Germans, especially after the build-
ing of the Berlin Wall on 13 August 1961 and until Hun-
gary opened up its border to the West in the late 1980s,
thus allowing hundreds of thousands of vacationing East
Germans to flee into Western Europe, it was only possible
to get to West Germany by illegally fleeing across heavily
fortified and guarded border areas.
44 years after the end of World War II, the Berlin Wall
Nuremberg Trials. Defendants in the dock. The main target of
fell on 9 November 1989. The East and West parts of the prosecution was Hermann Göring (at the left edge on the first
Germany were reunited on 3 October 1990. row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving
Economic and social divisions between East and West official in the Third Reich after Hitler's death.
Germany continue to play a major role in politics and
society in Germany at present. It is likely the contrast The effect the Nazis had on present-day international law
between the generally well-off and economically diverse should not be underestimated. The United Nations Geno-
West and the weaker, heavy-industry reliant East will cide Convention, a series of laws that made genocide a
continue at least into the foreseeable future. crime, was approved in December 1948, three years af-
ter the Nazi defeat.* [42] That same month, the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights also became a part of in-
See also ternational law. The Nuremberg trials, followed by other
Nazi war crimes trials, also created an unwritten rule stat-
• Berlin Wall ing that government officials who “follow orders”from
leaders in committing crimes against humanity cannot use
such a motive to excuse their crimes. It also had an ef-
• Cold War
fect through the Fourth Geneva Convention (Art 33) in
making collective punishments a war crime.* [43]
• German reunification

• Germany 5.2.11 Racism

• East Germany After the world viewed the Nazi death camps, many
Western peoples began to outwardly oppose ideas of
• West Germany racial superiority. Liberal anti-racism became a sta-
ple of many Western governments. Whereas racism is
• History of Germany since 1945 still present, openly racist publications were looked down
upon. The move towards tolerance of different cultures
• Marshall Plan in Western societies has continued to the present day.
Since the collapse of Nazi Germany, Western populations
• Ostpolitik have been wary of racial political parties and have actively
5.2. CONSEQUENCES OF NAZISM 209

discouraged white ethnocentrism, fearing the return of [2] Luke Harding in Moscow (5 June 2007). “Pipeline
a catastrophe similar to the purges carried out by Nazis workers find mass grave of Jews killed by Nazis”. The
in Germany. On the other hand, it can be argued that Guardian (UK). Retrieved 13 November 2011.
the conception of multiculturalism as one of the pillars [3] Volker R. Berghahn “Germans and Poles 1871–1945”
of contemporary Western society has gained importance in“Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and
because of the same reaction. The actions of the Nazis Cultural Differences”, Rodopi 1999
caused an increase in Anti-German sentiment.
[4] Poles Vote to Seek War Reparations, Deutsche Welle, 11
September 2004
5.2.12 Military [5] Concise statistical year-book of Poland , Polish Ministry
of Information. London June 1941 P.9 & 10
German military doctrine under the Nazi regime, char-
acterized (with some controversy) as Blitzkrieg, called [6] The Expulsion of Germans from Poland, Revisited, H-Net
for air strikes that softened an intended victim for at- Review
tack by motorized, mechanized, and airborne forces on [7] A. Dirk Moses, Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Vio-
the schwerpunkt (focal point), followed by encirclement lence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History,
by motorized forces, and exploitation of the gap by con- Google Print, p.260
ventional infantry forces. Radio communication allowed
for the close coordination necessary for such attacks, and [8] Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife,
Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the
allowed for coordination of the air force. The Nazis as
Second Republic, 1918–1947, Google Print, p.22
much broke the rules of engagement which previously
governed nations at war (such violations often deemed [9] “Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead”. BBC News. 9
after the war as crimes against peace) as they innovated May 2005. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
techniques of war. Axis reverses beginning with Allied
[10] Zvi Gitelman, History, Memory and Politics: The Holo-
routs of overextended German forces in El Alamein and
caust in the Soviet Union
Stalingrad resulted from British and Soviet forces adopt-
ing Nazi field strategies, and as the United States be- [11] Soviet deaths in the Great Patriotic War: a note – World
came a participant in the war it adopted much the same War II
techniques of aerial attack upon Nazi Germany, if with
[12] “Soviet Prisoners of War: Forgotten Nazi Victims of
greater force than the Luftwaffe could ever inflict. World War II”. Historynet.com. Retrieved 13 November
As Nazi Germany faced severe defeat after the Battle of 2011.
Kursk and especially the cross-channel invasion it intro-
[13] The United States and Forced Repatriation of Soviet Citi-
duced cross-channel use of the V-1 flying bomb and V- zens, 1944–47 by Mark Elliott Political Science Quarterly,
2 rocket, although too late and too ineffectively to turn Vol. 88, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 253–275
the war to its advantage. The German military machine
was developing jet aircraft as fighters and bombers and [14] “Forced Repatriation to the Soviet Union: The Secret
long-range missiles, but far too late (they were only in the Betrayal”. Hillsdale.edu. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
design and test stages) to change the outcome of the war. [15] “The warlords: Joseph Stalin”. Channel4.com. Retrieved
The victorious Allies would incorporate the early inno- 13 November 2011.
vations of jet technology and long-distance rocket-based
missiles into their armed forces, but only after the end of [16] Remembrance (Zeithain Memorial Grove) Archived 13
World War II after getting them beyond the developmen- October 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
tal stages of design and testing. [17] Beichman, Arnold. “Sorting Pieces of the Russian Past”
. Hoover.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

5.2.13 References [18] “Patriots ignore greatest brutality”. Sydney Morning Her-
ald. 13 August 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
• Steven Bela Vardy and T. Hunt Tooley, eds. Eth- [19] “Joseph Stalin killer file”. Moreorless.au.com. Retrieved
nic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe ISBN 0- 13 November 2011.
88033-995-0. subsection by Richard Dominic Wig-
gers, The United States and the Refusal to Feed Ger- [20] Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. “Victims of the Soviet Pe-
man Civilians after World War II nal System in the Pre-war Years”.

[21] "Репатриация перемещённых советских граждан //

Виктор Земсков". Scepsis.ru. Retrieved 13 November
5.2.14 Footnotes 2011.

[1] “History of the Holocaust – An Introduction”. Jewishvir- [22] “Khatyn WWII Memorial in Belarus”. Belarus-
tuallibrary.org. 19 April 1943. Retrieved 13 November guide.com. 22 March 1943. Retrieved 13 November
2011. 2011.
210 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

[23] “Partisan Resistance in Belarus during World War II”. 5.3 Japanese war crimes
Belarusguide.com. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[24] “Ukraine :: World War II and its aftermath”. Britan-

nica.com. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[25] Stephen A. Hart. “Partisans: War in the Balkans 1941 -

1945”. BBC. Retrieved 5 March 2013.

[26] Tim Kane, PhD., Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950–

2003, Heritage Foundation 27 October 2004

[27] Ray Salvatore Jennings “The Road Ahead: Lessons in

Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan
for Postwar Iraq May 2003, Peaceworks No. 49 pg.15

[28] Pas de Pagaille! Time Magazine 28 July 1947.

[29] Amos Yoder,“The Ruhr Authority and the German Prob-

lem”, The Review of Politics, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Jul., 1955),
pp. 345–358

[30] C. Lester Walker “Secrets By The Thousands”, Harper's

Magazine. October 1946 Chinese prisoners being buried alive.
[31] Norman M. Naimark The Russians in Germany pg. 206.
Japanese war crimes occurred in many Asian and Pa-
(Naimark refers to Gimbels book)
cific countries during the period of Japanese imperial-
[32] The $10 billion compares to the U.S. annual GDP of $258 ism, primarily during the Second Sino-Japanese War and
billion in 1948. World War II. These incidents have also been described
[33] The $10 billion compares to the total Marshall plan ex-
as an Asian Holocaust* [1] and Japanese war atroc-
* * *
penditure (1948–1952) of $13 billion, of which Germany ities. [2] [3] [4] Some war crimes were committed by
received $1.4 billion (partly as loans). military personnel from the Empire of Japan in the late
19th century, although most took place during the first
[34] Steven Bela Vardy and T. Hunt Tooley, eds. Ethnic part of the Shōwa Era, the name given to the reign of
Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe ISBN 0-88033- Emperor Hirohito, until the surrender of the Empire of
995-0. subsection by Richard Dominic Wiggers, “The
Japan, in 1945.
United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians
after World War II” Some historians and governments of some countries
hold Japanese military forces, namely the Imperial
[35] S. P. MacKenzie“The Treatment of Prisoners of War in
World War II”The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 66,
Japanese Army, the Imperial Japanese Navy, and the
No. 3. (Sep., 1994), pp. 487–520. Imperial Japanese family, especially Emperor Hiro-
hito, responsible for killings and other crimes com-
[36] Jonas Tjersland, Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere, mitted against millions of civilians and prisoners of
VG Nett, 8 April 2006 war.* [5]* [6]* [7]* [8]* [9] Some Japanese soldiers have
[37] Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A His- admitted to committing these crimes.* [10] Airmen of
tory of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Har- the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial
vard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. Japanese Navy Air Service were not included as war
132,133 criminals because there was no positive or specific
customary international humanitarian law that prohibited
[38] Children were starved in war aftermath, Copenhagen Post,
15 April 2005
the unlawful conduct of aerial warfare either before or
during World War II. The Imperial Japanese Army Air
[39] Manfred Ertel, Denmark's Myths Shattered: A Legacy of Service took part in conducting chemical and biologi-
Dead German Children, Spiegel Online, 16 May 2005 cal attacks on enemy nationals during the Second Sino-
[40] Andrew Osborn, Documentary forces Danes to confront Japanese War and World War II and the use of such
past, The Observer, 9 February 2003 weapons in warfare were generally prohibited by interna-
tional agreements signed by Japan, including the Hague
[41] Danish Study Says German Children Abused, Deutsche Conventions (1899 and 1907), which banned the use of
Welle, 10 April 2005 “poison or poisoned weapons”in warfare.* [11]* [12]
[42] “Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Since the 1950s, senior Japanese Government officials
Crime of Genocide, New York, 9 December 1948”. Re- have issued numerous apologies for the country's war
trieved 7 December 2012.
crimes. Japan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that
[43] “International Humanitarian Law - Fourth 1949 Geneva the country acknowledges its role in causing “tremen-
Convention”. Retrieved 7 December 2012. dous damage and suffering”during World War II, es-
5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 211

pecially in regard to the IJA entrance into Nanjing dur- campaigns of World War II (1941–45). In addition to
ing which Japanese soldiers killed a large number of non- Japanese civil and military personnel, Koreans and Tai-
combatants and engaged in looting and rape.* [13] Some wanese who were forced to serve in the military of the
members of the Liberal Democratic Party in the Japanese Empire of Japan were also found to have committed war
government such as former prime minister Junichiro crimes as part of the Japanese Imperial Army.* [19]* [20]
Koizumi and current Prime Minister Shinzo Abe have
prayed at the Yasukuni Shrine, which includes convicted
Class A war criminals in its honored war dead. Some International and Japanese law
Japanese history textbooks only offer brief references
Japan did not sign the 1929 Geneva Convention on the
to the various war crimes,* [14] and members of the
Prisoners of War (except the 1929 Geneva Convention
Liberal Democratic Party such as Shinzo Abe have de-
on the Sick and Wounded),* [21] though in 1942, it did
nied some of the atrocities such as government involve-
promise to abide by its terms.* [22] The crimes com-
ment in abducting women to serve as "comfort women"
(sex slaves).* [10]* [15] mitted also fall under other aspects of international and
Japanese law. For example, many of the crimes com-
mitted by Japanese personnel during World War II broke
5.3.1 Definitions Japanese military law, and were subject to court mar-
tial, as required by that law.* [23] The Empire also vio-
Main article: Definitions of Japanese war crimes lated international agreements signed by Japan, including
War crimes have been defined by the Tokyo Charter provisions of the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)
such as protections for prisoners of war and a ban on
the use of chemical weapons, the 1930 Forced Labour
Convention which prohibited forced labor, the 1921 In-
ternational Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic
in Women and Children which prohibited human traf-
ficking, and other agreements.* [24]* [25] The Japanese
government also signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1929),
thereby rendering its actions in 1937–45 liable to charges
of crimes against peace,* [26] a charge that was intro-
duced at the Tokyo Trials to prosecute “Class A”war
criminals. “Class B”war criminals were those found
guilty of war crimes per se, and “Class C”war crimi-
nals were those guilty of crimes against humanity. The
Japanese government also accepted the terms set by the
Potsdam Declaration (1945) after the end of the war, in-
cluding the provision in Article 10 of punishment for“all
war criminals, including those who have visited cruelties
upon our prisoners.”

Soochow, China, 1938. A ditch full of the bodies of Chinese

civilians, killed by Japanese soldiers.

as “violations of the laws or customs of war,”* [16]

which includes crimes against enemy combatants and en-
emy non-combatants.* [17] War crimes also included de-
liberate attacks on citizens and property of neutral states
as they fall under the category of non-combatants, as
at the attack on Pearl Harbor.* [18] Military personnel
from the Empire of Japan have been accused or con-
victed of committing many such acts during the period
of Japanese imperialism from the late 19th to mid-20th
centuries. They have been accused of conducting a se- Japanese bayonet practice with dead Chinese near Tianjin.
ries of human rights abuses against civilians and prisoners
of war throughout East Asia and the western Pacific re- Japanese law does not define those convicted in the post-
gion. These events reached their height during the Second 1945 trials as criminals, despite the fact that Japan's gov-
Sino-Japanese War of 1937–45 and the Asian and Pacific ernments have accepted the judgments made in the tri-
212 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

als, and in the Treaty of San Francisco (1952). This Military culture, especially during Japan's imperialist
is because the treaty does not mention the legal valid- phase had great bearing on the conduct of the Japanese
ity of the tribunal. Had Japan certified the legal validity military before and during World War II. After the Meiji
of the war crimes tribunals in the San Francisco Treaty, Restoration and the collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate,
the war crimes would have become open to appeal and the Emperor became the focus of military loyalty. During
overturning in Japanese courts. This would have been the so-called “Age of Empire”in the late 19th century,
unacceptable in international diplomatic circles. Current Japan followed the lead of other world powers in devel-
Prime Minister Shinzō Abe has advocated the position oping an empire, pursuing that objective aggressively.
that Japan accepted the Tokyo tribunal and its judge-
Unlike many other major powers, Japan had not signed
ments as a condition for ending the war, but that its ver- the Geneva Convention̶also known as the Convention
dicts have no relation to domestic law. According to this
relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva
view, those convicted of war crimes are not criminals un- July 27, 1929̶which was the version of the Geneva Con-
der Japanese law.* [27]
vention that covered the treatment of prisoners of war
during World War II.* [31] Nevertheless, Japan ratified
the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 which con-
Historical and geographical extent
tained provisions regarding prisoners of war* [32] and an
Imperial Proclamation (1894) stated that Japanese sol-
Outside Japan, different societies use widely different diers should make every effort to win the war without
timeframes in defining Japanese war crimes. For exam- violating international law. According to historian Yuki
ple, the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 was en- Tanaka, Japanese forces during the First Sino-Japanese
forced by the Japanese military, and the Society of Yi War, released 1,790 Chinese prisoners without harm,
Dynasty Korea was switched to the political system of once they signed an agreement not to take up arms against
the Empire of Japan. Thus, North and South Korea refer Japan again.* [33] After the Russo-Japanese War (1904–
to“Japanese war crimes”as events occurring during the 05), all 79,367 Russian Empire prisoners were released
period of Korea under Japanese rule. and were paid for labour performed, in accordance with
By comparison, the Western Allies did not come into mil- the Hague Convention.* [33] Similarly the behaviour of
itary conflict with Japan until 1941, and North Ameri- the Japanese military in World War I (1914–18) was at
cans, Australians, South East Asians and Europeans may least as humane as that of other militaries, with some
consider“Japanese war crimes”to be events that occurred German POWs of the Japanese finding life in Japan so
in 1941–45.* [28] agreeable that they stayed and settled in Japan after the
war.* [34]* [35]
Japanese war crimes were not always carried out by ethnic
Japanese personnel. A small minority of people in every
Asian and Pacific country invaded or occupied by Japan
collaborated with the Japanese military, or even served
in it, for a wide variety of reasons, such as economic
hardship, coercion, or antipathy to other imperialist pow-
ers.* [29]
Japan's sovereignty over Korea and Formosa (Taiwan), in
the first half of the 20th century, was recognized by inter-
national agreements̶the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895)
and the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty (1910) ̶and
they were considered at the time to be integral parts of the
Japanese Empire. Under the international law of today,
there is a possibility the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty
was illegal,* [30] as the native populations were not con-
sulted, there was armed resistance to Japan's annexations,
and war crimes may also have been committed during the
civil wars.

Two Japanese officers, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda com-

5.3.2 Background peting to see who could kill (with a sword) one hundred people
first. The bold headline reads, "'Incredible Record' (in the Contest
Japanese military culture and imperialism to Decapitate 100 People)̶Mukai 106 – 105 Noda̶Both 2nd
Lieutenants Go Into Extra Innings”.
Main articles: Statism in Shōwa Japan, Japanese mili-
tarism, Eugenics in Japan and Ethnic issues in Japan
5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 213

The events of the 1930s and 1940s 1937 (the Rape of Nanjing) and 1945, may be
roughly corollary to the time-frame of the Nazi
By the late 1930s, the rise of militarism in Japan cre- Holocaust, but it falls far short of the actual
ated at least superficial similarities between the wider numbers killed by the Japanese war machine.
Japanese military culture and that of Nazi Germany's If you add, say, 2-million Koreans, 2-million
elite military personnel, such as those in the Waffen-SS. Manchurians, Chinese, Russians, many East
Japan also had a military secret police force within the European Jews (both Sephardic and Ashke-
IJA, known as the Kempeitai, which resembled the Nazi nazi), and others killed by Japan between 1895
Gestapo in its role in annexed and occupied countries, but and 1937 (conservative figures), the total of
which had existed for nearly a decade before Hitler's own Japanese victims is more like 10-million to 14-
birth.* [36] Perceived failure or insufficient devotion to million. Of these, I would suggest that between
the Emperor would attract punishment, frequently of the 6-million and 8-million were ethnic Chinese,
physical kind.* [37] In the military, officers would assault regardless of where they were resident.* [39]
and beat men under their command, who would pass the
beating on to lower ranks, all the way down. In POW According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the
camps, this meant prisoners received the worst beatings death rate among POWs from Asian countries, held by
of all,* [38] partly in the belief that such punishments Japan was 27.1%.* [40] The death rate of Chinese POWs
were merely the proper technique to deal with disobedi- was much higher because̶under a directive ratified on
ence.* [37] August 5, 1937 by Emperor Hirohito̶the constraints of
international law on treatment of those prisoners was re-
moved.* [41] Only 56 Chinese POWs were released after
5.3.3 Crimes the surrender of Japan.* [42] After March 20, 1943, the
Japanese Navy was under orders to execute all prisoners
The Japanese military during the 1930s and 1940s is of- taken at sea.* [43]
ten compared to the military of Nazi Germany during
1933–45 because of the sheer scale of suffering. Much
of the controversy regarding Japan's role in World War Attacks on Pearl Harbor, Malaya, Singapore, and
II revolves around the death rates of prisoners of war and Hong Kong
civilians under Japanese occupation. Historian Sterling
Seagrave has written that:

Arriving at a probable number of Japanʼs

war victims who died is difficult for several in-
teresting reasons, which have to do with West-
ern perceptions. Both Americans and Euro-
peans fell into the unfortunate habit of seeing
WW1 and WW2 as separate wars, failing to
comprehend that they were interlaced in a mul-
titude of ways (not merely that one was the con-
sequence of the other, or of the rash behav-
ior of the victors after WW1). Wholly aside
from this basic misconception, most Ameri-
cans think of WW2 in Asia as having begun
with Pearl Harbor, the British with the fall of
Singapore, and so forth. The Chinese would The USS Arizona (BB-39) burning during the Japanese attack on
correct this by identifying the Marco Polo Pearl Harbor.
Bridge incident as the start, or the Japanese
seizure of Manchuria earlier. It really began Article 1 of the 1907 Hague Convention III – The Opening
in 1895 with Japanʼs assassination of Koreaʼ of Hostilities prohibited the initiation of hostilities against
s Queen Min, and invasion of Korea, resulting neutral powers “without previous and explicit warning,
in its absorption into Japan, followed quickly in the form either of a reasoned declaration of war or of
by Japanʼs seizure of southern Manchuria, an ultimatum with conditional declaration of war”and
etc. – establishing that Japan was at war from Article 2 further stated that "[t]he existence of a state of
1895–1945. Prior to 1895, Japan had only war must be notified to the neutral Powers without delay,
briefly invaded Korea during the Shogunate, and shall not take effect in regard to them until after the
long before the Meiji Restoration, and the in- receipt of a notification, which may, however, be given by
vasion failed. Therefore, Rummelʼs esti- telegraph.”Japanese diplomats intended to deliver the no-
mate of 6-million to 10-million dead between tice to the United States thirty minutes before the attack
214 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, but it was de- inflict injury and from the evil effects which
livered to the U.S. government an hour after the attack ensue ... Unjust war are plainly crimes and
was over. Tokyo transmitted the 5,000-word notification not simply torts or breaches of contracts. The
(commonly called the“14-Part Message”) in two blocks act comprises the willful, intentional, and un-
to the Japanese Embassy in Washington, but transcribing reasonable destruction of life, limb, and prop-
the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador erty, subject matter which has been regarded
to deliver it in time.* [44] The 14-Part Message was actu- as criminal by the laws of all civilized peo-
ally about sending a message to U.S. officials that peace ples ... The Pearl Harbor attack breached the
negotiations between Japan and the U.S. were likely to be Kellogg–Briand Pact and the Hague Conven-
terminated, not a declaration of war. In fact, Japanese of- tion III. In addition, it violated Article 23 of the
ficials were well aware that the 14-Part Message was not a Annex to the Hague Convention IV, of Octo-
proper declaration of war as required by the 1907 Hague ber 1907 ... But the attack of Pearl Harbor did
Convention III – The Opening of Hostilities. They decided not alone result in murder and the slaughter of
not to issue a proper declaration of war anyway as they thousands of human beings. It did not eventu-
feared that doing so would expose the possible leak of ate only in the destruction of property. It was
the secret operation to the Americans.* [45]* [46] Some an outright act of undermining and destroying
conspiracy theorists charged that President Franklin D. the hope of a world for peace. When a nation
Roosevelt willingly allowed the attack to happen in order employs a deceit and treachery, using periods
to create a pretext for war but no credible evidence sup- of negotiations and the negotiations themselves
ports that claim.* [47]* [48]* [49] The day after the attack as a cloak to screen a perfidious attack, then
on Pearl Harbor, Japan declared war on the U.S. and the there is a prime example of the crime of all
U.S. declared war on Japan in response the same day. crimes.* [56]* [57]
Simultaneously with the bombing of Pearl Harbor on
December 7, 1941 (Honolulu time), Japan invaded the Admiral Yamamoto, who planned the attack on Pearl
British colonies of Malaya and bombed Singapore and Harbor, was fully aware that if Japan lost the war, he
Hong Kong, without a declaration of war or an ultima- would be tried as a war criminal for that attack (although
tum. Both the U.S. and Britain were neutral when Japan he was killed by the United States Army Air Forces
attacked their territories without explicit warning of a in Operation Vengeance in 1943). At the Tokyo Tri-
state of war.* [50]* [51] als, Prime Minister Hideki Tojo; Shigenori Tōgō, then
Foreign Minister; Shigetarō Shimada, the Minister of the
Like with the victims of several other unannounced at- Navy; and Osami Nagano, Chief of Naval General Staff,
tacks * [52] the U.S. officially classified all 3,649 mil- were charged with crimes against peace (charges 1 to 36)
itary and civilian casualties and destruction of military and murder (charges 37 to 52) in connection with the at-
property at Pearl Harbor as non-combatants as there was tack on Pearl Harbor. Along with war crimes and crimes
no state of war between the U.S. and Japan when the against humanity (charges 53 to 55), Tojo was among the
attack occurred.* [53]* [54]* [55] Joseph B. Keenan, the seven Japanese leaders sentenced to death and executed
chief prosecutor in the Tokyo Trials, says that the attack by hanging in 1948, Shigenori Tōgō received a 20-year
on Pearl Harbor not only happened without a declaration sentence, Shimada received a life sentence, and Nagano
of war but also a treacherous and deceitful act. In fact, died of natural causes during the Trial in 1947.* [46]* [58]
Japan and the U.S. were still negotiating for a possible
peace agreement which kept U.S. officials very distracted Over the years, many Japanese nationalists argued that
when Japanese planes bombed Pearl Harbor. Keenan ex- the attack on Pearl Harbor was justified as they acted in
plained the definition of a war of aggression and the crim- self-defense in response to the oil embargo imposed by
inality of the attack on Pearl Harbor: the United States. Most historians and scholars agreed
that the oil embargo cannot be used as justification for
using military force against a foreign nation imposing the
The concept of aggressive war may not be oil embargo because there is a clear distinction between a
expressed with the precision of a scientific for- perception that something is essential to the welfare of the
mula, or described like the objective data of nation-state and a threat truly being sufficiently serious to
the physical sciences. Aggressive War is not warrant an act of force in response, which Japan failed to
entirely a physical fact to be observed and de- consider. Japanese scholar and diplomat, Takeo Iguchi,
fined like the operation of the laws of matter. states that it is "[h]ard to say from the perspective of in-
It is rather an activity involving injustice be- ternational law that exercising the right of self-defense
tween nations, rising to the level of criminal- against economic pressures is considered valid.”While
ity because of its disastrous effects upon the Japan felt that its dreams of further expansion would be
common good of international society. The in- brought to a screeching halt by the American embargo,
justice of a war of aggression is criminal of this “need”cannot be considered proportional with the
its extreme grosses, considered both from the destruction suffered by the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl
point of view of the will of the aggressor to Harbor, intended by Japanese military planners to be as
5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 215

comprehensive as possible.* [46] Filipinos died at the hands of the Japanese during the
occupation.* [63]* [64] In Singapore during February and
March 1942, the Sook Ching massacre was a systematic
Mass killings extermination of perceived hostile elements among the
Chinese population there. Lee Kuan Yew, the ex-Prime
Minister of Singapore, said during an interview with Na-
tional Geographic that there were between 50,000 and
90,000 casualties,* [65] while according to Major Gen-
eral Kawamura Saburo, there were 5,000 casualties in to-
tal.* [66]
There were other massacres of civilians, e.g. the
Kalagong massacre. In wartime Southeast Asia, the
Overseas Chinese and European diaspora were special
targets of Japanese abuse; in the former case, motivated
by an inferiority complex vis-à-vis the historic expanse
top to bottom; Japanese soldiers shooting blindfolded and influence of Chinese culture that did not exist with the
Sikh prisoners before bayonetting them. This set of four Southeast Asian indigenes, and the latter, motivated by a
photographs were found among Japanese records when racist Pan-Asianism and a desire to show former colonial
British troops entered Singapore. subjects the impotence of their Western masters.* [67]
The Japanese executed all the Malay Sultans on Kaliman-
R. J. Rummel, a professor of political science at the tan and wiped out the Malay elite in the Pontianak inci-
University of Hawaii, estimates that between 1937 and dents. In the Jesselton Revolt, the Japanese slaughtered
1945, the Japanese military murdered from nearly 3 thousands of native civilians during the Japanese occu-
to over 10 million people, most likely 6 million Chi- pation of British Borneo and nearly wiped out the entire
nese, Koreans, Malaysians, Indonesians, Filipinos and Suluk Muslim population of the coastal islands. During
Indochinese, among others, including Western prisoners the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, when a Moro
of war. According to Rummel, “This democide [i.e., Muslim juramentado swordsman launched a suicide at-
death by government] was due to a morally bankrupt po- tack against the Japanese, the Japanese would massacre
litical and military strategy, military expediency and cus- the man's entire family or village.
tom, and national culture.”* [59] According to Rummel, Historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta reports that a "Three Alls
in China alone, during 1937–45, approximately 3.9 mil- Policy" (Sankō Sakusen) was implemented in China from
lion Chinese were killed, mostly civilians, as a direct re- 1942 to 1945 and was in itself responsible for the deaths
sult of the Japanese operations and 10.2 million in the of “more than 2.7 million”Chinese civilians. This
course of the war.* [60] The most infamous incident dur- scorched earth strategy, sanctioned by Hirohito himself,
ing this period was the Nanking Massacre of 1937–38, directed Japanese forces to“Kill All, Burn All, and Loot
when, according to the findings of the International Mili- All”. Additionally, captured Allied servicemen and civil-
tary Tribunal for the Far East, the Japanese Army massa- ians were massacred in various incidents, including:
cred as many as 300,000 civilians and prisoners of war,
although the accepted figure is somewhere in the hun-
• Alexandra Hospital massacre
dreds of thousands.* [61]
During the Second Sino-Japanese War the Japanese fol- • Laha massacre* [68]
lowed what has been referred to as a “killing policy”,
• Banka Island massacre* [69]
including against minorities like Hui Muslims in China.
According to Wan Lei, “In a Hui clustered village in • Parit Sulong
Gaocheng county of Hebei, the Japanese captured twenty
Hui men among whom they only set two younger men free • Palawan Massacre
through “redemption', and buried alive the other eigh-
teen Hui men. In Mengcun village of Hebei, the Japanese • SS Behar
killed more than 1,300 Hui people within three years of
• SS Tjisalak massacre perpetrated by Japanese sub-
their occupation of that area.”Mosques were also dese-
marine I-8
crated and destroyed by the Japanese, and Hui cemeteries
were also destroyed.* [62] Many Hui Chinese Muslims in • Wake Island massacre
the Second Sino-Japanese war fought in the war against
Japan. • Tinta Massacre
In Southeast Asia, the Manila massacre of February 1945 • Bataan Death March
resulted in the death of 100,000 civilians in the Philip-
pines. It is estimated that at least one out of every 20 • Shin'yō Maru Incident
216 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

• Sulug Island massacre according to the 2002 International Symposium on the

Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare, the number of peo-
• Pontianak incidents ple killed by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare
and human experiments is around 580,000.* [73] Accord-
ing to other sources, “tens of thousands, and perhaps
Human experimentation and biological warfare
as many as 400,000, Chinese died of bubonic plague,
cholera, anthrax and other diseases ...”, resulting from
the use of biological warfare.* [74] Top officers of Unit
731 were not prosecuted for war crimes after the war,
in exchange for turning over the results of their research
to the Allies. They were also reportedly given responsi-
ble positions in Japan's pharmaceutical industry, medical
schools and health ministry.* [75]* [76]
One case of human experimentation occurred in Japan
itself. At least nine out of 11 crew members survived
the crash of a U.S. Army Air Forces B-29 bomber on
Kyūshū, on May 5, 1945. (This plane was Lt. Mar-
vin Watkins' crew of the 29th Bomb Group of the 6th
Bomb Squadron.* [77]) The bomber's commander was
separated from his crew and sent to Tokyo for interroga-
tion, while the other survivors were taken to the anatomy
department of Kyushu University, at Fukuoka, where
they were subjected to vivisection or killed.* [78]* [79]
During the final months of World War II, Japan had
planned to use plague as a biological weapon against
U.S. civilians in San Diego, California, during Operation
Cherry Blossoms at Night, hoping that the plague
would spread as much terror to the American popu-
lation and thereby dissuading America from attacking
Japan. The plan was set to launch at night on Septem-
ber 22, 1945, but Japan surrendered five weeks ear-
lier.* [80]* [81]* [82]* [83]
Shiro Ishii, commander of Unit 731. On March 11, 1948, 30 people, including several doc-
tors and one female nurse, were brought to trial by the
Special Japanese military units conducted experiments on Allied war crimes tribunal. Charges of cannibalism were
civilians and POWs in China. One of the most infamous dropped, but 23 people were found guilty of vivisection
was Unit 731 under Shirō Ishii. Unit 731 was established or wrongful removal of body parts. Five were sentenced
by order of Hirohito himself. Victims were subjected to to death, four to life imprisonment, and the rest to shorter
experiments including but not limited to vivisection and terms. In 1950, the military governor of Japan, General
amputations without anesthesia and testing of biological Douglas MacArthur, commuted all of the death sentences
weapons. Anesthesia was not used because it was be- and significantly reduced most of the prison terms. All
lieved that anesthetics would adversely affect the results of those convicted in relation to the university vivisection
of the experiments.* [70] were free after 1958.* [84] In addition, many participants
who were responsible for these vivisections were never
To determine the treatment of frost- charged by the Americans or their allies in exchange for
bite, prisoners were taken outside in freezing the information on the experiments.
weather and left with exposed arms, period-
In 2006, former IJN medical officer Akira Makino
ically drenched with water until frozen solid.
stated that he was ordered ̶as part of his training ̶
The arm was later amputated; the doctor would
to carry out vivisection on about 30 civilian prison-
repeat the process on the victim's upper arm to
ers in the Philippines between December 1944 and
the shoulder. After both arms were gone, the
February 1945.* [85] The surgery included amputa-
doctors moved on to the legs until only a head
tions.* [86] Most of Makino's victims were Moro Mus-
and torso remained. The victim was then used
lims.* [87]* [88]* [89]* [90]* [91] Ken Yuasa, a former mil-
for plague and pathogens experiments.* [71]
itary doctor in China, has also admitted to similar inci-
dents in which he was compelled to participate.* [92]
According to one estimate, the experiments carried out by
Unit 731 alone caused 3,000 deaths.* [72] Furthermore,
5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 217

Use of chemical weapons

See also: Changde chemical weapon attack

According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Ken-

taro Awaya, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, gas
weapons, such as tear gas, were used only sporadically
in 1937, but in early 1938 the Imperial Japanese Army
began full-scale use of phosgene, chlorine, Lewisite and
nausea gas (red), and from mid-1939, mustard gas (yel-
low) was used against both Kuomintang and Communist
Chinese troops.* [93]
According to Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, Emperor Hiro-
hito signed orders specifying the use of chemical weapons
in China.* [94] For example, during the Battle of Wuhan
from August to October 1938, the Emperor authorized
the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions, despite
the 1899 Hague Declaration IV, 2 – Declaration on the
Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of
Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases* [95] and Article 23 (a)
of the 1907 Hague Convention IV – The Laws and Cus-
toms of War on Land.* [24]* [96] A resolution adopted by
the League of Nations on 14 May condemned the use of
poison gas by Japan.
Another example is the Battle of Yichang in October
1941, during which the 19th Artillery Regiment helped
the 13th Brigade of the IJA 11th Army by launching An Australian POW, Sgt. Leonard Siffleet, captured in New
Guinea, about to be beheaded by a Japanese officer with a guntō,
1,000 yellow gas shells and 1,500 red gas shells at the Chi-
1943.
nese forces. The area was crowded with Chinese civilians
unable to evacuate. Some 3,000 Chinese soldiers were in
the area and 1,600 were affected. The Japanese report When you're winning, the losers look really
stated that“the effect of gas seems considerable”.* [97] miserable. We concluded that the Yamato race
In 2004, Yoshimi and Yuki Tanaka discovered in the [i.e., Japanese] was superior.* [100]
Australian National Archives documents showing that
cyanide gas was tested on Australian and Dutch prison- The effectiveness of torture might also have been coun-
ers in November 1944 on Kai Islands (Indonesia).* [98] terproductive to Japan's war effort. After the dropping
of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during
World War II, the Japanese military tortured a captured
Torture of prisoners of war American P-51 fighter pilot named Marcus McDilda in
order to discover how many atomic bombs the Allies
Japanese imperial forces employed widespread use of had and what the future targets were. McDilda, who
torture on prisoners, usually in an effort to gather mil- knew nothing about the atomic bomb nor the Manhattan
itary intelligence quickly.* [99] Tortured prisoners were Project,“confessed”under torture that the U.S. had 100
often later executed. A former Japanese Army officer atomic bombs and that Tokyo and Kyoto were the next
who served in China, Uno Shintaro, stated: targets. McDilda's false confession may have swayed the
Japanese leaders' decision to surrender.* [101]
The major means of getting intelligence
was to extract information by interrogating
prisoners. Torture was an unavoidable neces- Execution and killing of captured Allied airmen
sity. Murdering and burying them follows nat-
urally. You do it so you won't be found out. I Many Allied airmen captured by the Japanese on land or
believed and acted this way because I was con- at sea were executed in accordance with official Japanese
vinced of what I was doing. We carried out our policy. During the Battle of Midway in June, 1942, three
duty as instructed by our masters. We did it for American airmen who were shot down and landed at sea
the sake of our country. From our filial obli- were spotted and captured by Japanese warships. After
gation to our ancestors. On the battlefield, we brief interrogations, two airmen were killed, their bodies
never really considered the Chinese humans. then tied to five-gallon kerosene cans filled with water and
218 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

itary arrived to take the airmen into custody.* [106] An-

other 94 airmen died from other causes while in Japanese
custody, including 52 who were killed when they were de-
liberately abandoned in a prison during the bombing of
Tokyo on May 24–25, 1945.* [107]* [108]

Cannibalism

Many written reports and testimonies collected by the

Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal,
and investigated by prosecutor William Webb (the fu-
ture Judge-in-Chief), indicate that Japanese personnel in
many parts of Asia and the Pacific committed acts of
A blindfolded Doolittle Raider taken captive in 1942. cannibalism against Allied prisoners of war. In many
cases this was inspired by ever-increasing Allied attacks
on Japanese supply lines, and the death and illness of
dumped overboard from destroyer Makigumo; the third Japanese personnel as a result of hunger. According to
was killed and his body dumped overboard from Arashi. historian Yuki Tanaka: “cannibalism was often a sys-
On August 13, 1942, Japan passed the Enemy Airmen's tematic activity conducted by whole squads and under the
Act, which stated that Allied pilots who bombed non- command of officers”.* [109] This frequently involved
military targets in the Pacific Theater and were captured murder for the purpose of securing bodies. For example,
on land or at sea by Japanese forces were subject to an Indian POW, Havildar Changdi Ram, testified that:
trial and punishment despite the absence of any inter- "[on November 12, 1944] the Kempeitai beheaded [an
national law containing provisions regarding aerial war- Allied] pilot. I saw this from behind a tree and watched
fare.* [102] This legislation was passed in response to the some of the Japanese cut flesh from his arms, legs, hips,
Doolittle Raid, which occurred on April 18, 1942, in buttocks and carry it off to their quarters ... They cut it
which American B-25 bombers under the command of [into] small pieces and fried it.”* [110]
Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle bombed Tokyo and In some cases, flesh was cut from living people: another
other Japanese cities. According to the Hague Conven- Indian POW, Lance Naik Hatam Ali (later a citizen of
tion of 1907 (the only convention which Japan had rat- Pakistan), testified in New Guinea and stated:
ified regarding the treatment of prisoners of war), any
military personnel captured on land or at sea by enemy
troops were to be treated as prisoners of war and not pun- "... the Japanese started selecting prison-
ished for simply being lawful combatants. Eight Doolit- ers and every day one prisoner was taken out
tle Raiders captured upon landing in China (and unaware and killed and eaten by the soldiers. I person-
of the existence of the Enemy Airmen's Act) were the ally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners
first Allied aircrew to be brought before a kangaroo court were eaten at this place by the Japanese. The
in Shanghai under the act, charged with alleged (but un- remainder of us were taken to another spot 50
proven) strafing of Japanese civilians during the Doolittle miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died
Raid. The eight aircrew were forbidden to give any de- of sickness. At this place, the Japanese again
fense and, despite the lack of legitimate evidences, were started selecting prisoners to eat. Those se-
found guilty of participating in aerial military operations lected were taken to a hut where their flesh was
against Japan. Five of the eight sentences were commuted cut from their bodies while they were alive and
to life imprisonment; the other three airmen were taken to they were thrown into a ditch where they later
a cemetery outside Shanghai, where they were executed died.”* [111]
* *
by firing squad on October 14, 1942. [103] [104]
The Enemy Airmen's Act contributed to the deaths Perhaps the most senior officer convicted of cannibalism
of hundreds of Allied airmen throughout the Pacific was Lt Gen. Yoshio Tachibana (⽴花芳夫,Tachibana
War. An estimated 132 Allied airmen shot down dur- Yoshio), who with 11 other Japanese personnel was tried
ing the bombing campaign against Japan in 1944–1945 in August 1946 in relation to the execution of U.S. Navy
were summarily executed after short kangaroo trials or airmen, and the cannibalism of at least one of them, dur-
drumhead courts-martial. Imperial Japanese military ing August 1944, on Chichi Jima, in the Bonin Islands.
personnel deliberately killed 33 American airmen at The airmen were beheaded on Tachibana's orders. Be-
Fukuoka, including fifteen who were beheaded shortly af- cause military and international law did not specifically
ter the Japanese Government's intention to surrender was deal with cannibalism, they were tried for murder and
announced on August 15, 1945.* [105] Mobs of civilians “prevention of honorable burial”. Tachibana was sen-
also killed several Allied airmen before the Japanese mil- tenced to death, and hanged.* [112]
5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 219

Forced labor ianfu) are euphemisms for women in Japanese military

brothels in occupied countries, who were often recruited
Main article: Slavery in Japan by deception or abducted and forced into sexual slavery.
The Japanese militaryʼs use of forced labor, by Asian In 1992, historian Yoshiaki Yoshimi published material
based on his research in archives at Japan's National In-
stitute for Defense Studies. Yoshimi claimed that there
was a direct link between imperial institutions such as the
Kōain and“comfort stations”. When Yoshimi's findings
were published in the Japanese news media on 12 January
1993, they caused a sensation and forced the government,
represented by Chief Cabinet Secretary Kato Koichi, to
acknowledge some of the facts that same day. On 17 Jan-
uary Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa presented formal
apologies for the suffering of the victims, during a trip in
South Korea. On 6 July and 4 August, the Japanese gov-
ernment issued two statements by which it recognised that
“Comfort stations were operated in response to the re-
Australian and Dutch prisoners of war at Tarsau in Thailand, quest of the military of the day”,“The Japanese military
1943. was, directly or indirectly, involved in the establishment
and management of the comfort stations and the transfer
civilians and POWs also caused many deaths. Ac- of comfort women”and that the women were“recruited
cording to a joint study by historians including Zhifen in many cases against their own will through coaxing and
Ju, Mitsuyoshi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, coercion”.* [117]
more than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilised The controversy was re-ignited on 1 March 2007, when
by the Kōa-in (Japanese Asia Development Board) for Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe mentioned sugges-
forced labour.* [113] More than 100,000 civilians and tions that a U.S. House of Representatives committee
POWs died in the construction of the Burma-Siam Rail- would call on the Japanese Government to “apologise
way.* [114] for and acknowledge”the role of the Japanese Imperial
The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java the military in wartime sex slavery. Abe denied that it ap-
Japanese military forced between four and ten million plied to comfort stations. “There is no evidence to prove
romusha (Japanese: “manual laborers”) to work.* [115] there was coercion, nothing to support it.”* [118] Abe's
About 270 thousand of these Javanese laborers were sent comments provoked negative reactions overseas. For ex-
to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, but only ample, a New York Times editorial on March 6 said:* [119]
52 thousand were repatriated to Java, meaning that there
was a death rate of eighty percent. These were not commercial brothels.
According to historian Akira Fujiwara, Emperor Force, explicit and implicit, was used in re-
Hirohito personally ratified the decision to remove the cruiting these women. What went on in them
constraints of international law (The Hague Convetions) was serial rape, not prostitution. The Japanese
on the treatment of Chinese prisoners of war in the Army's involvement is documented in the gov-
directive of 5 August 1937. This notification also ernment's own defense files. A senior Tokyo
advised staff officers to stop using the term “prisoners official more or less apologized for this horrific
of war”.* [116] The Geneva Convention exempted crime in 1993 ... Yesterday, he grudgingly ac-
POWs of sergeant rank or higher from manual labour, knowledged the 1993 quasi apology, but only
and stipulated that prisoners performing work should be as part of a pre-emptive declaration that his
provided with extra rations and other essentials. Japan government would reject the call, now pend-
was not a signatory to the 1929 Geneva Convention on ing in the United States Congress, for an of-
the Prisoners of War at the time, and Japanese forces did ficial apology. America isn't the only country
not follow the convention, although they ratified the 1929 interested in seeing Japan belatedly accept full
Geneva Convention on the Sick And Wounded.* [21] responsibility. Korea, China, and the Philip-
pines are also infuriated by years of Japanese
equivocations over the issue.
Comfort women
The same day, veteran soldier Yasuji Kaneko admitted to
Main article: Comfort women The Washington Post that the women “cried out, but it
didn't matter to us whether the women lived or died. We
The terms“comfort women”(慰安婦 ianfu) Hangul: 위 were the emperor's soldiers. Whether in military brothels
안부 or“military comfort women”(従軍慰安婦 jūgun- or in the villages, we raped without reluctance.”* [120]
220 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

On 17 April 2007, Yoshimi and another historian, Hiro- Looting

fumi Hayashi, announced the discovery, in the archives of
the Tokyo Trials, of seven official documents suggesting Many historians state that the Japanese government
that Imperial military forces, such as the Tokkeitai (naval and individual military personnel engaged in widespread
secret police), directly coerced women to work in front- looting during the period of 1895 to 1945.* [133]* [134]
line brothels in China, Indochina and Indonesia. These The stolen property included private land, as well as many
documents were initially made public at the war crimes different kinds of valuable goods looted from banks,
trial. In one of these, a lieutenant is quoted as confessing depositories, temples, churches, mosques, museums,
having organized a brothel and having used it himself. other commercial premises and private homes.
Another source refers to Tokkeitai members having ar-
rested women on the streets, and after enforced medical
examinations, putting them in brothels.* [121] Perfidy

On May 12, 2007, journalist Taichiro Kaijimura an- Throughout the Pacific War, Japanese soldiers often
nounced the discovery of 30 Netherland government feigned injury or surrender in order to lure the approach-
documents submitted to the Tokyo tribunal as evidence ing American forces before attacking them. One of the
of a forced massed prostitution incident in 1944 in most famous examples of this was the “Goettge Pa-
Magelang.* [122] trol” during the early days of the Guadalcanal Cam-
In other cases, some victims from East Timor testified paign in August 1942. After the patrol saw a white flag
they were forced when they were not old enough to have displayed on the west bank of Matanikau River, Marine
started menstruating and repeatedly raped by Japanese Corps Lieutenant Colonel Frank Goettge assembled 25
soldiers.* [123] men, primarily consisting of intelligence personnel, to
search the area. Unknown to the patrol, the white flag
A Dutch-Indonesian comfort woman, Jan Ruff-O'Hearn was actually a Japanese flag with the Hinomaru disc
(now resident in Australia), who gave evidence to the U.S. insignia obscured. A Japanese prisoner earlier tricked
committee, said the Japanese Government had failed to the Marines by telling them that there were a number
take responsibility for its crimes, that it did not want to of Japanese west of the Matanikau River who wanted
pay compensation to victims and that it wanted to rewrite to surrender, knowing they would be ambushed.* [135]
history. Ruff-O'Hearn said that she had been raped“day The Goettge Patrol landed by boat west of the Lunga
and night”for three months by Japanese soldiers when Point perimeter, between Point Cruz and the Matanikau
she was 19.* [124] River, on a reconnaissance mission to contact a group
Only one Japanese woman published her testimony. In of Japanese troops that American forces believed might
1971 a former comfort woman, forced to work for be willing to surrender. Soon after the patrol landed,
Japanese soldiers in Taiwan, published her memoirs un- a group of Japanese naval troops ambushed and almost
der the pseudonym of Suzuko Shirota.* [125] completely wiped out the patrol. Goettge was among the
dead. Only three Americans made it back to American
There are different theories on the breakdown of the
comfort women's place of origin. While some Japanese lines in the Lunga Point perimeter alive. News of the
killing and treachery by the Japanese outraged the Amer-
sources claim that the majority of the women were from
ican Marines:
Japan, others, including Yoshimi, argue as many as
200,000 women,* [126] mostly from Korea, and some
other countries such as China, the Philippines, Burma, This was the first mass killing of the
the Dutch East Indies, Netherlands,* [127] and Aus- Marines on Guadalcanal. We were shocked.
tralia* [128] were forced to engage in sexual activ- Shocked ... because headquarters had believed
ity.* [129] In June 2014, more official documents from anything a Jap had to say ... The loss of this
the government of Japan's archives were made pub- patrol and the particularly cruel way in which
lic, documenting sexual violence committed by Impe- they had met death, hardened our hearts to-
rial Japanese soldiers in French Indochina and Indone- ward the Japanese. The idea of taking pris-
sia.* [130] oners was swept from our minds. It was too
dangerous.* [136]
On 26 June 2007, the U.S. House of representatives For-
eign Affairs Committee passed a resolution asking that
Japan “should acknowledge, apologize and accept his- Second Lieutenant D. A. Clark of the 7th Marines told a
torical responsibility in a clear and unequivocal manner similar story while patrolling Guadalcanal:
for its military's coercion of women into sexual slavery
during the war”.* [131] On 30 July 2007, the House of I was on my first patrol here, and we were
Representatives passed the resolution, while Shinzo Abe moving up a dry stream bed. We saw 3 Japs
said this decision was “regrettable”.* [132] come down the river bed out of the jungle. The
one in front was carrying a white flag. We
thought they were surrendering. When they
 5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 221

got up to us they dropped the white flag and

then all 3 threw hand grenades. We killed 2
of these Japs, but 1 got away. Apparently they
do not mind a sacrifice in order to get informa-
tion.* [135]

Samuel Eliot Morison, in his book, The Two-Ocean War:

A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second
World War, wrote:

There were innumerable incidents such as a

wounded Japanese soldier at Guadalcanal seiz-
ing a scalpel and burying it in the back of
a surgeon who was about to save his life by
an operation; and a survivor of the Battle of
Vella Lavella, rescued by PT-163, pulling a gun
and killing a bluejacket in the act of giving a
Japanese sailor a cup of coffee.* [137]

These incidents, along with many other perfidious ac-

tions of the Japanese throughout the Pacific War, led
to an American tendency to shoot the dead or wounded
Japanese soldiers and those who were attempting to sur- General Tomoyuki Yamashita (second right) was tried in Manila
render and not take them as prisoners of war easily. Two between October 29 and December 7, 1945, by a U.S. military
Marines of Iwo Jima told cautionary tales. One confided: commission relating to the Manila Massacre and earlier occur-
“They always told you take prisoners but we had some bad rences in Singapore, and was sentenced to death. The case set
experiences on Saipan taking prisoners, you take them a precedent regarding the responsibility of commanders for war
and then as soon as they get behind the lines they drop crimes, and is known as the Yamashita Standard.
grenades and you lose a few more people. You get a lit-
tle bit leery of taking prisoners when they are fighting to
The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was
the death and so are you.”The other reported, “Very
formed to try accused people in Japan itself.
few of them came out on their own; when they did, why,
usually one in the front he'd come out with his hands High-ranking officers who were tried included Koichi
up and one behind him, he'd come out with a grenade.” Kido and Sadao Araki. Three former (unelected) prime
*
[138]* [139]* [140] ministers: Koki Hirota, Hideki Tojo and Kuniaki Koiso
were convicted of Class-A war crimes. Many military
leaders were also convicted. Two people convicted as
5.3.4 War crimes trials Class-A war criminals later served as ministers in post-
war Japanese governments.
Soon after the war, the Allied powers indicted 25 per-
sons as Class-A war criminals, and 5,700 persons were
• Mamoru Shigemitsu served as foreign minister both
indicted as Class-B or Class-C war criminals by Allied
during the war and in the post-war Hatoyama gov-
criminal trials. Of these, 984 were initially condemned
ernment.
to death, 920 were actually executed, 475 received life
sentences, 2,944 received some prison terms, 1,018 were • Okinori Kaya was finance minister during the war
acquitted, and 279 were not sentenced or not brought to and later served as justice minister in the gov-
trial. These numbers included 178 ethnic Taiwanese and ernment of Hayato Ikeda. These two had no di-
148 ethnic Koreans.* [141] The Class-A charges were all rect connection to alleged war crimes committed
tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far by Japanese forces, and foreign governments never
East, also known as “the Tokyo Trials”. Other courts raised the issue when they were appointed.
were formed in many different places in Asia and the Pa-
cific.
Hirohito and all members of the imperial family impli-
cated in the war such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Asaka,
Tokyo Trials Prince Takeda and Prince Higashikuni were exonerated
from criminal prosecutions by MacArthur, with the help
Main article: International Military Tribunal for the Far of Bonner Fellers who allowed the major criminal sus-
East pects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor
would be spared from indictment.* [142] Many historians
222 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

criticize this decision. According to John Dower, “with Philippines. Additionally, the Chinese Communists also
the full support of MacArthur's headquarters, the pros- held a number of trials for Japanese personnel. More
ecution functioned, in effect, as a defense team for the than 4,400 Japanese personnel were convicted and about
emperor”* [143] and even Japanese activists who endorse 1,000 were sentenced to death.
the ideals of the Nuremberg and Tokyo charters, and who The largest single trial was that of 93 Japanese personnel
have labored to document and publicize the atrocities of charged with the summary execution of more than 300
the Showa regime “cannot defend the American deci- Allied POWs, in the Laha massacre (1942). The most
sion to exonerate the emperor of war responsibility and prominent ethnic Korean convicted was Lieutenant Gen-
then, in the chill of the Cold War, release and soon after-
eral Hong Sa Ik, who orchestrated the organisation of
wards openly embrace accused right-winged war crimi- prisoner of war camps in Southeast Asia. In 2006, the
nals like the later prime minister Nobusuke Kishi.”* [144]
South Korean government “pardoned”83 of the 148
For Herbert Bix,“MacArthur's truly extraordinary mea- convicted Korean war criminals.* [20] One hundred-sixty
sures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a
Taiwanese who had served in the forces of the Empire
lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese un- of Japan were convicted of war crimes and 11 were exe-
derstanding of the lost war.”* [145]
cuted.* [19]

Other trials
5.3.5 Post-war events and reactions
Main articles: Khabarovsk War Crime Trials and Nanjing
The parole-for-war-criminals movement
War Crimes Tribunal
Between 1946 and 1951, the United States, the United
In 1950, after most Allied war crimes trials had ended,
thousands of convicted war criminals sat in prisons across
Asia and across Europe, detained in the countries where
they were convicted. Some executions were still out-
standing as many Allied courts agreed to reexamine their
verdicts, reducing sentences in some cases and instituting
a system of parole, but without relinquishing control over
the fate of the imprisoned (even after Japan and Germany
had regained their status as sovereign countries).
An intense and broadly supported campaign for amnesty
for all imprisoned war criminals ensued (more aggres-
sively in Germany than in Japan at first), as attention
turned away from the top wartime leaders and towards
the majority of “ordinary”war criminals (Class B/C in
Japan), and the issue of criminal responsibility was re-
26 October 1945, Sandakan, North Borneo. During the framed as a humanitarian problem.
investigation into Sandakan Death Marches and other inci- On March 7, 1950, MacArthur issued a directive that re-
dents, Sergeant Hosotani Naoji (left, seated), a member of
duced the sentences by one-third for good behavior and
the Kempeitai unit at Sandakan, is interrogated by Squadron
Leader F.G. Birchall (second right) of the Royal Australian Air
authorized the parole of those who had received life sen-
Force, and Sergeant Mamo (right), a Nisei member of the U.S. tences after fifteen years. Several of those who were im-
Army/Allied Translator and Interpreter Service. Naoji confessed prisoned were released earlier on parole due to ill-health.
to shooting two Australian POWs and five ethnic Chinese civil- The Japanese popular reaction to the Tokyo War Crimes
ians. Tribunal found expression in demands for the mitigation
of the sentences of war criminals and agitation for parole.
Kingdom, China, the Soviet Union, Australia, New Shortly after the San Francisco Peace Treaty came into
Zealand, Canada, France, the Netherlands and the effect in April 1952, a movement demanding the release
Philippines all held military tribunals to try Japanese in- of B- and C-class war criminals began, emphasizing the
dicted for Class B and Class C war crimes. Some 5,600 “unfairness of the war crimes tribunals”and the “mis-
Japanese personnel were prosecuted in more than 2,200 ery and hardship of the families of war criminals.”The
trials outside Japan. Class B defendants were accused of movement quickly garnered the support of more than ten
having committed such crimes themselves; class C defen- million Japanese. In the face of this surge of public opin-
dants, mostly senior officers, were accused of planning, ion, the government commented that “public sentiment
ordering or failing to prevent them. in our country is that the war criminals are not criminals.
The judges presiding came from the United States, Rather, they gather great sympathy as victims of the war,
China, the United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands, and the number of people concerned about the war crimes
France, the Soviet Union, New Zealand, India and the tribunal system itself is steadily increasing.”
5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 223

The parole-for-war-criminals movement was driven by Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka stated: "[t]he
two groups: those from outside who had 'a sense of pity' Japanese side is keenly conscious of the responsibility for
for the prisoners; and the war criminals themselves who the serious damage that Japan caused in the past to the
called for their own release as part of an anti-war peace Chinese people through war, and deeply reproaches it-
movement. The movement that arose out of 'a sense of self.”* [148]
pity' demanded 'just set them free (tonikaku shakuho o) The official apologies are widely viewed as inadequate
regardless of how it is done'. or only a symbolic exchange by many of the survivors
On September 4, 1952, President Truman issued Exec- of such crimes or the families of dead victims. On Octo-
utive Order 10393, establishing a Clemency and Parole ber 2006, while Prime Minister Shinzo Abe expressed an
Board for War Criminals to advise the President with re- apology for the damage caused by its colonial rule and ag-
spect to recommendations by the Government of Japan gression, more than 80 Japanese lawmakers from his rul-
for clemency, reduction of sentence, or parole, with re- ing party LDP paid visits to the Yasukuni Shrine. Many
spect to sentences imposed on Japanese war criminals by people aggrieved by Japanese war crimes also maintain
military tribunals.* [146] that no apology has been issued for particular acts or that
On May 26, 1954, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles the Japanese government has merely expressed “regret”
rejected a proposed amnesty for the imprisoned war or “remorse”.* [149] On 2 March 2007, the issue was
criminals but instead agreed to“change the ground rules” raised again by Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe, in
by reducing the period required for eligibility for parole which he denied that the military had forced women into
from 15 years to 10.* [147] sexual slavery during World War II. He stated, “The
fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coer-
By the end of 1958, all Japanese war criminals, includ- cion.”Before he spoke, a group of Liberal Democratic
ing A-, B- and C-class were released from prison and po- Party lawmakers also sought to revise the Kono State-
litically rehabilitated. Hashimoto Kingorô, Hata Shun- ment.* [10]* [15] This provoked negative reaction from
roku, Minami Jirô, and Oka Takazumi were all released Asian and Western countries.
on parole in 1954. Araki Sadao, Hiranuma Kiichirô,
Hoshino Naoki, Kaya Okinori, Kido Kôichi, Ôshima Hi- On 31 October 2008, the chief of staff of Japan's Air
Self-Defense Force Toshio Tamogami was dismissed
roshi, Shimada Shigetarô, and Suzuki Teiichi were re-
leased on parole in 1955. Satô Kenryô, whom many, with a 60 million yen allowance* [150] due to an essay he
published, arguing that Japan was not an aggressor during
including Judge B. V. A. Röling regarded as one of the
convicted war criminals least deserving of imprisonment, World War II, that the war brought prosperity to China,
was not granted parole until March 1956, the last of the Taiwan and Korea, that the Imperial Japanese Army's
Class A Japanese war criminals to be released. On April conduct was not violent and that the Greater East Asia
7, 1957, the Japanese government announced that, with War is viewed in a positive way by many Asian countries
the concurrence of a majority of the powers represented and criticizing the war crimes trials which followed the
on the tribunal, the last ten major Japanese war criminals war.* [151] On 11 November, Tamogami added before
who had previously been paroled were granted clemency the Diet that the personal apology made in 1995 by for-
and were to be regarded henceforth as unconditionally mer prime minister Tomiichi Murayama was “a tool to
free from the terms of their parole. suppress free speech”.* [150]
Some in Japan have asserted that what is being demanded
is that the Japanese Prime Minister or the Emperor per-
Official apologies form dogeza, in which an individual kneels and bows his
head to the ground̶a high form of apology in East Asian
Further information: List of war apology statements societies that Japan appears unwilling to do.* [152] Some
issued by Japan point to an act by West German Chancellor Willy Brandt,
who knelt at a monument to the Jewish victims of the
The Japanese government considers that the legal and Warsaw Ghetto, in 1970, as an example of a powerful
moral positions in regard to war crimes are separate. and effective act of apology and reconciliation similar to
Therefore, while maintaining that Japan violated no in- dogeza, although not everyone agrees.* [153]
ternational law or treaties, Japanese governments have of- On 13 September 2010, Japanese Foreign Minister
ficially recognised the suffering which the Japanese mil- Katsuya Okada met in Tokyo with six former American
itary caused, and numerous apologies have been issued POWs of the Japanese and apologized for their treatment
by the Japanese government. For example, Prime Min- during World War II. Okada said: “You have all been
ister Tomiichi Murayama, in August 1995, stated that through hardships during World War II, being taken pris-
Japan “through its colonial rule and aggression, caused oner by the Japanese military, and suffered extremely in-
tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many humane treatment. On behalf of the Japanese govern-
countries, particularly to those of Asian nations”, and ment and as the foreign minister, I would like to offer
he expressed his “feelings of deep remorse”and stated you my heartfelt apology.”* [154]
his “heartfelt apology”. Also, on September 29, 1972,
224 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

On 29 November 2011, Japanese Foreign Minister was public knowledge in Japan. Due to the release of
Koichiro Genba apologized to former Australian POWs the information by the Korean government, a number of
on behalf of the Japanese government for pain and suf- claimants have stepped forward and are attempting to sue
fering inflicted on them during the war.* [155] the government for individual compensation of victims.
There are those that insist that because the governments
of China and Taiwan abandoned their claims for mone-
Compensation
tary compensation, then the moral or legal responsibility
for compensation belongs with these governments. Such
There is a widespread perception that the Japanese gov-
critics also point out that even though these governments
ernment has not accepted the legal responsibility for com-
abandoned their claims, they signed treaties that recog-
pensation and, as a direct consequence of this denial,
nised the transfer of Japanese colonial assets to the re-
it has failed to compensate the individual victims of
spective governments. Therefore, to claim that these gov-
Japanese atrocities. In particular, a number of promi-
ernments received no compensation from Japan is incor-
nent human rights and women's rights organisations in-
rect, and they could have compensated individual victims
sist that Japan still has a moral or legal responsibility to
from the proceeds of such transfers. Others dispute that
compensate individual victims, especially the sex slaves
Japanese colonial assets in large proportion were built or
conscripted by the Japanese military in occupied coun-
stolen with extortion or force in occupied countries, as
tries and known as "comfort women".
was clearly the case with artworks collected (or stolen)
The Japanese government officially accepted the re- by Nazis during World War II throughout Europe.
quirement for monetary compensation to victims of war
The Japanese government, while admitting no legal re-
crimes, as specified by the Potsdam Declaration. The
sponsibility for the so-called “comfort women”, set up
details of this compensation have been left to bilateral
the Asian Women's Fund in 1995, which gives money to
treaties with individual countries, except North Korea,
people who claim to have been forced into prostitution
because Japan recognises South Korea as the sole legiti-
during the war. Though the organisation was established
mate government of the Korean Peninsula. In the Asian
by the government, legally, it has been created such that it
countries involved, claims to compensation were either
is an independent charity. The activities of the fund have
abandoned by their respective countries, or were paid out
been controversial in Japan, as well as with international
by Japan under the specific understanding that it was to be
organisations supporting the women concerned. Some
used for individual compensation. In some cases such as
argue that such a fund is part of an ongoing refusal by
with South Korea, the compensation was not paid out to
the Japanese government to face up to its responsibilities,
victims by their governments, instead being used for civic
while others say that the Japanese government has long
projects and other works. Due to this, large numbers of
since finalised its responsibility to individual victims and
individual victims in Asia received no compensation.
is merely correcting the failures of the victims' own gov-
Therefore, the Japanese government's position is that the ernments. California Congressman Mike Honda, speak-
proper avenues for further claims are the governments of ing before U.S. House of Representatives on behalf of
the respective claimants. As a result, every individual the women, said that“without a sincere and unequivocal
compensation claim brought to Japanese court has failed. apology from the government of Japan, the majority of
Such was the case in regard to a British POW who was surviving Comfort Women refused to accept these funds.
unsuccessful in an attempt to sue the Japanese govern- In fact, as you will hear today, many Comfort Women
ment for additional money for compensation. As a result, returned the Prime Minister's letter of apology accom-
the British Government later paid additional compensa- panying the monetary compensation, saying they felt the
tion to all British POWs. There were complaints in Japan apology was artificial and disingenuous.”* [157]
that the international media simply stated that the former
POW was demanding compensation and failed to clarify
that he was seeking further compensation, in addition to Intermediate compensation The term “intermedi-
that paid previously by the Japanese government. ate compensation”(or intermediary compensation) was
applied to the removal and reallocation of Japanese in-
A small number of claims have also been brought in US dustrial (particularly military-industrial) assets to Allied
courts, though these have also been rejected.* [156] countries. It was conducted under the supervision of
During the treaty negotiation with South Korea, the Allied occupation forces. This reallocation was referred
Japanese government proposed that it pay monetary com- to as “intermediate”because it did not amount to a fi-
pensation to individual Korean victims, in line with the nal settlement by means of bilateral treaties, which settled
payments to Western POWs. The Korean government in- all existing issues of compensation. By 1950, the assets
stead insisted that Japan pay money collectively to the Ko- reallocated amounted to 43,918 items of machinery, val-
rean government, and that is what occurred. The South ued at ¥165,158,839 (in 1950 prices). The proportions
Korean government then used the funds for economic de- in which the assets were distributed were: China, 54.1%;
velopment. The content of the negotiations was not re- the Netherlands, 11.5%; the Philippines 19%, and; the
leased by the Korean government until 2004, although it United Kingdom, 15.4%.
5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 225

Compensation under the San Francisco Treaty ship with China, Asahi Shimbun, a major liberal newspa-
Main article: Treaty of San Francisco per, ran a series on Japanese war crimes in China includ-
ing the Nanking Massacre. This opened the floodgates to
debates which have continued ever since. The 1990s are
generally considered to be the period in which such is-
Compensation from Japanese overseas assets sues become truly mainstream, and incidents such as the
Japanese overseas assets refers to all assets owned Nanking Massacre, Yasukuni Shrine, comfort women,
by the Japanese government, firms, organization and the accuracy of school history textbooks, and the validity
private citizens, in colonised or occupied countries. In of the Tokyo Trials were debated, even on television.
accordance with Clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty,
Allied forces confiscated all Japanese overseas assets, As the consensus of Japanese jurists is that Japanese
except those in China, which were dealt with under forces did not technically commit violations of interna-
Clause 21. It is considered that Korea was also entitled tional law, many right wing elements in Japan have taken
to the rights provided by Clause 21. this to mean that war crimes trials were examples of
victor's justice. They see those convicted of war crimes
as“Martyrs of Shōwa”(昭和殉難者 Shōwa Junnansha),
Compensation to Allied POWs Clause 16 of the San Shōwa being the name given to the rule of Hirohito. This
Francisco Treaty stated that Japan would transfer its as- interpretation is vigorously contested by Japanese peace
sets and those of its citizens in countries which were at groups and the political left. In the past, these groups have
war with any of the Allied Powers or which were neutral, tended to argue that the trials hold some validity, either
or equivalents, to the Red Cross, which would sell them under the Geneva Convention (even though Japan hadn't
and distribute the funds to former prisoners of war and signed it), or under an undefined concept of international
their families. Accordingly, the Japanese government and law or consensus. Alternatively, they have argued that,
private citizens paid out £4,500,000 to the Red Cross. although the trials may not have been technically valid,
they were still just, somewhat in line with popular opin-
According to historian Linda Goetz Holmes, many funds ion in the West and in the rest of Asia.
used by the government of Japan were not Japanese
funds but relief funds contributed by the governments of
the US, the UK and the Netherlands and sequestred in
the Yokohama Specie Bank during the final year of the
war.* [159]

Allied territories occupied by Japan Clause 14 of the

treaty stated that Japan would enter into negotiations with
Allied powers whose territories were occupied by Japan
and suffered damage by Japanese forces, with a view to
Japan compensating those countries for the damage.
Accordingly, the Philippines and South Vietnam received
compensation in 1956 and 1959 respectively. Burma
and Indonesia were not original signatories, but they later Member of the right-wing revisionist group "Japanese Society for
signed bilateral treaties in accordance with clause 14 of History Textbook Reform" putting up a banner reading "(Teach)
the kids the correct history”in front of the Yasukuni Jinja
the San Francisco Treaty.
The last payment was made to the Philippines on 22 July
By the early 21st century, the revived interest in Japan's
1976.
imperial past had brought new interpretations from a
group which has been labelled both“new right”and“new
Debate in Japan left” . This group points out that many acts committed by
Japanese forces, including the Nanjing Incident, were vi-
From a fringe topic to an open debate Until the olations of the Japanese military code. It is suggested that
1970s, Japanese war crimes were considered a fringe had war crimes tribunals been conducted by the post-war
topic in the media. In the Japanese media, the opin- Japanese government, in strict accordance with Japanese
ions of the political centre and left tend to dominate the military law, many of those who were accused would
editorials of newspapers, while the right tend to dominate still have been convicted and executed. Therefore, the
magazines. Debates regarding war crimes were confined moral and legal failures in question were the fault of the
largely to the editorials of tabloid magazines where calls Japanese military and the government, for not executing
for the overthrow of "Imperialist America" and revived their constitutionally defined duty.
veneration of the Emperor coexisted with pornography. The new right/new left also takes the view that the Allies
In 1972, to commemorate the normalisation of relation- committed no war crimes against Japan, because Japan
226 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

was not a signatory to the Geneva Convention, and as always accepted the decisions and consensus reached by
a victors, the Allies had every right to demand some the high command. According to this position, the moral
form of retribution, to which Japan consented in various and political failure rests primarily with the Japanese
treaties. High Command and the Cabinet, most of whom were
Under the same logic, the new right/new left considers later convicted at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal as
the killing of Chinese who were suspected of guerrilla class-A war criminals, apart all members of the imperial
activity to be perfectly legal and valid, including some family such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Yasuhiko Asaka,
of those killed at Nanjing, for example. They also take Prince Higashikuni, Prince Hiroyasu Fushimi and Prince
Takeda.
the view that many Chinese civilian casualties resulted
from the scorched earth tactics of the Chinese nation-
alists. Though such tactics are arguably legal, the new
Nippon Kaigi, the main revisionist lobby The de-
right/new left takes the position that some of the civilian
nial of Japanese war crimes is one of the key missions
deaths caused by these scorched earth tactics are wrongly
of the openly revisionist lobby Nippon Kaigi (Japan Con-
attributed to the Japanese military.
ference), a nationalistic nonparty organisation that was
Similarly, they take the position that those who have at- established in 1997 and also advocates patriotic educa-
tempted to sue the Japanese government for compensa- tion, the revision of the constitution, and official vis-
tion have no legal or moral case. its to Yasukuni Shrine.* [161]* [162]* [163]* [164]Nippon
The new right/new left also takes a less sympathetic view Kaigi's members and affiliates include countless lawmak-
of Korean claims of victimhood, because prior to annex- ers, many ministers, a few prime ministers, and the chief
ation by Japan, Korea was a tributary of the Qing Dynasty priests of prominent Shinto shrines. The chairman, Toru
and, according to them, the Japanese colonisation, though Miyoshi, is a former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
undoubtedly harsh, was “better”than the previous rule of Japan.
in terms of human rights and economic development.
They also argue that, the Kantōgun (also known as the Later investigations
Kwantung Army) was at least partly culpable. Although
the Kantōgun was nominally subordinate to the Japanese As with investigations of Nazi war criminals, official in-
high command at the time, its leadership demonstrated vestigations and inquiries are still ongoing. During the
significant self-determination, as shown by its involve- 1990s, the South Korean government started investigat-
ment in the plot to assassinate Zhang Zuolin in 1928, ing some people who had allegedly become wealthy while
and the Manchurian Incident of 1931, which led to the collaborating with the Japanese military.* [165]* [166] In
foundation of Manchukuo in 1932. Moreover, at that South Korea, it is also alleged that, during the political
time, it was the official policy of the Japanese high com- climate of the Cold War, many such people or their asso-
mand to confine the conflict to Manchuria. But in defi- ciates or relatives were able to acquire influence with the
ance of the high command, the Kantōgun invaded China wealth they had acquired collaborating with the Japanese
proper, under the pretext of the Marco Polo Bridge Inci- and assisted in the covering-up, or non-investigation, of
dent. The Japanese government not only failed to court war crimes in order not to incriminate themselves. With
martial the officers responsible for these incidents, but it the wealth they had amassed during the years of collabo-
also accepted the war against China, and many of those ration, they were able to further benefit their families by
who were involved were even promoted. (Some of the obtaining higher education for their relatives.* [166]
officers involved in the Nanking Massacre were also pro-
Non-government bodies and persons have also under-
moted.)
taken their own investigations. For example, in 2005, a
Whether or not Hirohito himself bears any responsibil- South Korean freelance journalist, Jung Soo-woong, lo-
ity for such failures is a sticking point between the new cated in Japan some descendants of people involved in
right and new left. Officially, the imperial constitution, the 1895 assassination of Empress Myeongseong (Queen
adopted under Emperor Meiji, gave full powers to the Min). The assassination was conducted by the Genyōsha,
Emperor. Article 4 prescribed that “The Emperor is perhaps under the auspices of the Japanese government,
the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights because of the Empress's involvement in attempts to re-
of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the pro- duce Japanese influence in Korea. Jung recorded the
visions of the present Constitution”and article 11 pre- apologies of the persons.
scribed that “The Emperor has the supreme command
As these investigations continue more evidence is dis-
of the Army and the Navy”.
covered each day. It has been claimed that the Japanese
For historian Akira Fujiwara, the thesis that the emperor government intentionally destroyed the reports on Korean
as an organ of responsibility could not reverse cabinet de- comfort women.* [167]* [168] Some have cited Japanese
cisions is a myth (shinwa) fabricated after the war.* [160] inventory logs and employee sheets on the battlefield as
Others argue that Hirohito deliberately styled his rule in evidence for this claim. For example, one of the names
the manner of the British constitutional monarchy, and he on the list was of a comfort woman who stated she was
5.3. JAPANESE WAR CRIMES 227

forced to be a prostitute by the Japanese. She was clas- • Nippon Kaigi

sified as a nurse along with at least a dozen other verified
comfort women who were not nurses or secretaries. Cur- • Uyoku dantai
rently, the South Korean government is looking into the
hundreds of other names on these lists.* [169] Anti-Japanese movements
Today cover-ups by Japan and other countries such as the
United Kingdom are slowly exposed as more thorough in- • 2005 anti-Japanese demonstrations
vestigations are conducted. The reason for the cover-up
was because the British government wanted to end the • Anti-Japanese sentiment
war crimes trial early in order to maintain good relations • Anti-Japanese sentiment in China
with Japan to prevent the spread of communism.* [170]
Meanwhile, scholars and public intellectuals continue to • Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
criticize Japan for what they view as a refusal to acknowl-
edge and apologize fully for Japanese war crimes. Amitai Agreements
Etzioni of the Institute for Communitarian Policy Stud-
ies, who was a child in Germany when the Nazis rose to
power, has stated in response to Prime Minister Abe's • Japan-China Joint Declaration On Building a Part-
visits to Yasukuni Shrine, “Unlike Japan, [Germany] nership of Friendship and Cooperation for Peace
faced their past, came to terms with it and learned from and Development
*
it. Japan should do the same.” [171] • Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and
Tamaki Matsuoka's documentary "Torn Memories of the Government of the People's Republic of China
Nanjing" includes interviews with Japanese veterans who
admit to raping and killing Chinese civilians.* [172] War crimes
Potentially in contrast to Prime Minister Abe's example
of his Yasukuni Shrine visits, by February 2015 some • Command responsibility
concern within the Imperial House of Japan ̶which nor-
mally does not issue such statements ̶over the issue was • List of war crimes
voiced by Crown Prince Naruhito.* [173] Naruhito stated
• Nazi crime
on his 55th birthday (February 23, 2015) that it was“im-
portant to look back on the past humbly and correctly” • German war crimes
, in reference to Japan's role in World War II-era war
crimes, and that he was concerned about the ongoing need • Italian war crimes
to “correctly pass down tragic experiences and the his-
tory behind Japan to the generations who have no direct • Soviet war crimes
knowledge of the war, at the time memories of the war
are about to fade”.* [174]
5.3.8 Notes
[1] Blumenthal, Ralph (March 7, 1999). “The World: Re-
5.3.6 List of major crimes visiting World War II Atrocities; Comparing the Unspeak-
able to the Unthinkable”. The New York Times. Retrieved
• Andaman Islands occupation 2008-07-26.

• Balalae Island [2] “World | Scarred by history: The Rape of Nanking”.

BBC News. 1997-12-13. Retrieved 2013-07-21.

5.3.7 See also [3] Sanger, David (October 22, 1992).“Japanese Edgy Over
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gust 20, 2015. • The Knights of Bushido: A Short History of Japanese
War Crimes. Greenhill Books. 2006. ISBN 1-
• L, Klemen (1999–2000). “Massacres of POWs, 85367-651-9.
Dutch East Indies, 1941–1942”. Forgotten Cam-
paign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. • Sissons, D. C. S. The Australian War Crimes Trials
and Investigations 1942–51 (PDF).
• Landas, Wiley (2004). The Fallen A True Story of
American POWs and Japanese Wartime Atrocities.
Hoboken John Wiley. ISBN 0-471-42119-7. • “Wartime Cabinet Document Discloses Conscrip-
tion of 290,000 Koreans in 1944”. The People's
• B, Leagualt. ""The arch agitator:" Dr. Frank W. Korea. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
Schofield and the Korean independence movement”.
National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S.
National Library of Medicine. Retrieved August 20, 5.3.10 Further information
2015.
Books
• Noh, Jooeun.“The Great Kantō Earthquake”. Har-
vard Yenching Institute. Retrieved August 20, 2015. • Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Se-
cret World of Biological Warfare, Frog Ltd, 1999.
• McCurry, Justin. “Japanese PM Shinzo Abe Stops ISBN 1-883319-85-4 ISBN 0-7567-5698-7 ISBN
Short of New Apology in War Anniversary Speech” 0-8264-1258-0 ISBN 0-8264-1415-X
. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
• Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance:
• Ozawa, Harumi (Nov 6, 2007). “Japanese war vet- The Politics of War Crimes Trials. Princeton, NJ:
eran speaks of atrocities in the Philippines”. TAIPEI Princeton University Press, 2000.
TIMES. p. 9. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
• Bayly, C.A. & Harper T. Forgotten Armies. The Fall
• PARRY, RICHARD LLOYD (February 26, 2007). of British Asia 1941-5 (London: Allen Lane) 2004
“Dissect them alive: chilling Imperial that order
could not be di”. THE AUSTRALIAN. Retrieved • Bergamini, David. Japan's Imperial Conspiracy,
16 May 2014. William Morrow, New York, 1971.

• Parry, Richard Lloyd (February 25, 2007). “Dis- • Brackman, Arnold C.: The Other Nuremberg: the
sect them alive: order not to be disobeyed”. Times Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trial. New
Online. Archived from the original on 2007-02-26. York: William Morrow and Company, 1987. ISBN
Retrieved 16 May 2014. 0-688-04783-1

• Parry, Richard Lloyd (February 25, 2007). “Dis- • Dower, John W. (1987). War Without Mercy: Race
sect them alive: order not to be disobeyed”. The and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon.
Times. Archived from the original on 28 February ISBN 0-394-75172-8.
2007. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
• Endicott, Stephen and Edward Hagerman. The
• Richard Lloyd Parry (February 25, 2007). “Dis- United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from
sect them alive: order not to be disobeyed”. Times the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University
Online. Retrieved 10 December 2009. Press, 1999. ISBN 0-253-33472-1

• Ramsey, Edwin, and Stephen Rivele. (1990). Lieu- • Felton, Mark (2007). Slaughter at Sea: The Story of
tenant Ramsey's War. Knightsbridge Publishing Japan's Naval War Crimes. Annapolis, Maryland:
Co., New York. ASIN: B000IC3PDE Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-263-8.
234 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

• Frank, Richard B. (1999). Downfall: The End of • Neier, Aryeh. War Crimes: Brutality, Genocide,
the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York: Penguin Terror and the Struggle for Justice,”Times Books,
Books. Random House, New York, 1998.
• Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony, Charles E Tuttle • Piccigallo, Philip R. (1979). The Japanese on Trial:
Co., 1996. ISBN 4-900737-39-9 Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945–
1951. Austin, Texas, USA: University of Texas
• Handelman, Stephen and Ken Alibek. Biohazard:
Press.
The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biolog-
ical Weapons Program in the World̶Told from In- • Rees, Laurence. Horror in the East, published 2001
side by the Man Who Ran It, Random House, 1999. by the British Broadcasting Company
ISBN 0-375-50231-9 ISBN 0-385-33496-6
• Seagrave, Sterling & Peggy. Gold warriors: Amer-
• Harries, Meirion; Susie Harries (1994). Soldiers of ica's secret recovery of Yamashita's gold, Verso
the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Books, 2003. ISBN 1-85984-542-8
Army. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-
75303-6. • Sherman, Christine (2001). War Crimes: Interna-
tional Military Tribunal. Turner Publishing Com-
• Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman. A Higher Form pany. ISBN 1-56311-728-2.-Detailed account of
of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Bi- the International Military Tribunal for the Far East
ological Warfare, Random House, 2002. ISBN 0- proceedings in Tokyo
8129-6653-8
• Tsurumi, Kazuko (1970). Social change and the in-
• Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Bi- dividual;: Japan before and after defeat in World
ological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover- War II. Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press.
Up, Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0-415-09105-5 ISBN ISBN 0-691-09347-4.
0-415-93214-9
• Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological
• Holmes, Linda Goetz (2001). Unjust Enrichment:
Warfare in World War II, Free Press, 1989. ISBN
How Japan's Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Us-
0-02-935301-7
ing American POWs. Mechanicsburg, PA, USA:
Stackpole Books. • Yamamoto, Masahiro (2000). Nanking: Anatomy
of an Atrocity. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-
• Holmes, Linda Goetz (2010). Guests of the Em-
96904-5.- A rebuttal to Iris Chang's book on the
peror: The Secret History of Japan's Mukden POW
Nanking massacre.
Camp. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-
377-2.
• Horowitz, Solis. “The Tokyo Trial”International Audio/visual media
Conciliation 465 (November 1950), 473–584.
• Minoru Matsui (2001), Japanese Devils, documen-
• Kratoksa, Paul (2005). Asian Labor in the Wartime tary with interview of veteran soldiers from the Im-
Japanese Empire: Unknown Histories. M.E. Sharpe perial Japanese Army (Japanese Devils shed light on
and Singapore University Press. ISBN 0-7656- a dark past) CNN
1263-1.
• Japanese Devils, Midnight Eye,
• Lael, Richard L. (1982). The Yamashita Precedent:
War Crimes and Command Responsibility. Wilm- • The History Channel (2000). Japanese War Crimes:
ington, Del, USA: Scholarly Resources. Murder Under The Sun (Video documentary (DVD
& VHS)). A & E Home Video.
• Latimer, Jon, Burma: The Forgotten War, London:
John Murray, 2004. ISBN 0-7195-6576-6
5.3.11 External links
• MacArthur, Brian (2005). Surviving the Sword :
Prisoners of the Japanese in the Far East, 1942–45. • Battling Bastards of Bataan
Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6413-9.
• “Biochemical Warfare – Unit 731”. Alliance for
• Minear, Richard H. (1971). Victor's Justice: The Preserving the Truth of Sino-Japanese War. No
Tokyo War Crimes Trial. Princeton, NJ, USA: date.
Princeton University Press.
• “Cannibalism”. Dan Ford,“Japan at War, 1931–
• Maga, Timothy P. (2001). Judgment at Tokyo: The 1945” September 2007.
Japanese War Crimes Trials. University Press of
Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-2177-9. • “Confessions of Japanese war criminals”. No date.
5.4. MILITARY PRODUCTION DURING WORLD WAR II 235

• “History of Japan's biological weapons program”

Federation of American Scientists, 2000-04-16

• Ji Man-Won's website (in Korean) Various dates.

• Justin McCurry, “Japan's sins of the past” in The

Guardian, 2004-10-28

• Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Govern-

ment Records Interagency Working Group (IWG)
U.S. National Archives and Records Administration
(NARA). No date.

• “The Other Holocaust” No date.

Assembly line of Messerschmitt Bf 109G-6s fighters in a German
• “Rape of Queen MIN” 2002 aircraft factory.

• R.J. Rummel, “Statistics Of Japanese Democide:

Estimates, Calculations, And Sources” University The mobilization of funds, people, natural resources and
of Hawaii, 2002 matériel for the production and supply of military equip-
ment and military forces during World War II was a crit-
• Shane Green. “The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731” ical component of the war effort. During the conflict, the
in The Age, 2002-08-29 Allies outpaced the Axis powers in most production cat-
egories. Access to the funding and industrial resources
•“Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama”
necessary to sustain the war effort was linked to their re-
1995-08-15
spective economic and political alliances. As formerly
• Steven Butler, “A half century of denial: the hid- neutral powers (such as the United States) joined the esca-
den truth about Japan's unit 731” at the Wayback lating conflict, territory changed hands, combatants were
Machine (archived November 19, 2006) in US News defeated, the balance of power shifted in favour of the Al-
& World Report 1995-07-31 lies (as did the means to sustain the military production
required to win the war).
• Japanese Treatment of World War II POWs

5.4.1 Historical context

5.4 Military production during
World War II

German poster entitled “Designing and Building the East”.

Russian women working in city factory at the height of the Siege During the 1930s, political forces in Germany increased
of Leningrad. their financial investment in the military to develop the
armed forces required to support near- and long-term po-
Military production during World War II includes the litical and territorial goals. Germany's economic, scien-
arms, ammunitions, natural resources, personnel and fi- tific, research and industrial capabilities were one of the
nancing which were mobilized for the war. Military pro- most technically advanced in the world at the time and
duction, in this article, means everything produced by the supported a rapidly growing, innovative military. How-
belligerents from the occupation of Austria in early 1938 ever, access to (and control of) resources and production
to the surrender and occupation of Japan in late 1945. capacity required to entertain long-term goals (such as
236 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

European control, German territorial expansion and the

destruction of the USSR) were limited. Political demands
necessitated the expansion of Germany's control of nat-
ural and human resources, industrial capacity and farm-
land beyond its borders. Germany's military production
was tied to resources outside its area of control, a dynamic
not found amongst the Allies.

British Commonwealth in 1921.

In 1938 the British Commonwealth was a global super-

power, with political and economic control of a quarter
of the world's population, industry and resources. From
1938 to mid-1942, the British coordinated the Allied ef-
fort in all global theatres. They fought the German, Ital-
ian, Japanese and Vichy armies, air forces and navies
across Europe, Africa, Asia, the Middle East, India, the The first atomic bomb.
Mediterranean and in the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific and
Arctic Oceans. British forces destroyed Italian armies
in North and East Africa and occupied overseas colonies
of occupied European nations. Following engagements American propaganda; in 1939, annual aircraft produc-
with Axis forces, British Empire troops occupied Libya, tion for the US military was less than 3,000 planes. By
Italian Somaliland, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Iran and Iraq. The the end of the war US factories had produced 300,000
Empire funded and delivered needed supplies by Arc- planes,* [4]* [5] and by 1944 had produced two-thirds of
tic convoys to the USSR, and supported Free French the Allied military equipment used in the war̶bringing
forces to recapture French Equatorial Africa. Britain military forces into play in North and South America, the
also established governments in exile in London to rally Caribbean, the Atlantic, Western Europe and the Pacific.
support in occupied Europe for the Allied effort. The The U.S. produced large quantities of military equipment
British defeated, held back or slowed the Axis powers into late 1945, including nuclear weapons, and became
for three years while mobilizing their globally integrated one of the strongest, most technically advanced military
economy and industrial infrastructure to build what be- forces in the world. In addition to out-producing the Axis,
came, by 1942, the most extensive military apparatus of the Allies produced technological innovations; through
the war. This allowed their later allies (such as the United the Tizard Mission, British contributions included radar
States) to mobilise their economies and develop the mil- (instrumental in winning the Battle of Britain), sonar (im-
itary forces required to play a role in the war effort, and proving their ability to sink U-boats), and the proximity
for the British to go on the offensive in its theatres of op- fuze; the Americans led the Manhattan Project (which
eration.* [1]* [2] eliminated the need to invade Japan). The proximity
The entry of the United States into the war in late 1941 in- fuze, for example, was five times as effective as contact
jected financial, human and industrial resources into Al- or timed fuzes and was devastating in naval use against
lied operations. Like the Commonwealth countries, the Japanese aircraft and so effective against German ground
US produced more than its own military forces required troops that General George S. Patton said it “won the
and armed itself and its allies for the most industrial- Battle of the Bulge for us.”* [6]
ized war in history.* [3] At the beginning of the war, the The human and social costs of the war on the population
British and French placed large orders for aircraft with of the USSR were immense, with combat deaths alone in
American manufacturers and the US Congress approved the millions. Recognising the importance of their popula-
plans to increase its air forces by 3,000 planes. In May tion and industrial production to the war effort, the USSR
1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt called for the production of evacuated the majority of its European territory̶moving
185,000 aeroplanes, 120,000 tanks, 55,000 anti-aircraft 2,500 factories, 17 million people and great quantities of
guns and 18 million tons of merchant shipping in two resources to the east.* [7] Out of German reach, the USSR
years. Adolf Hitler was told by his advisors that this was produced equipment and forces critical to the Axis defeat
5.4. MILITARY PRODUCTION DURING WORLD WAR II 237

in Europe. Over one million women served in the Soviet

armed forces.

To move raw materials and supply distant forces, large numbers

of cargo ships had to be built

Assembly line production of fighter aircraft near Niagara Falls, Land forces
New York.
See also: British armoured fighting vehicle production
The statistics below illustrate the extent to which the Al- during World War II, French combat vehicle production
lies outproduced the Axis. Production of machine tools during World War II, American armored fighting vehicle
tripled, and thousands of ships were built in shipyards production during World War II, Soviet combat vehicle
which did not exist before the war.* [8] According to production during World War II and German armored
William S. Knudsen,“We won because we smothered the fighting vehicle production during World War II
enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he
had never seen, nor dreamed possible.”* [9]
Access to resources and large, controlled international Air forces
labour pools and the ability to build arms in relative peace
were critical to the eventual victory of the Allies. Accord- Naval forces
ing to Donald Douglas (founder of the Douglas Aircraft
Company),“Here's proof that free men can out-produce Commercial forces
slaves.”* [10]
Resources

5.4.2 Production summaries 1939–1945 All figures in millions of tonnes

See also: Swedish iron ore during World War II
Personnel

Major weapons groups

5.4.4 Reference data for summary tables
Economy
GDP
In billions of international dollars, at 2014 prices. GDP provides insight into the relative strength of the bel-
* ligerents in the run up to, and during the conflict.
[11]

[1] Billions of international dollars, at 1990 prices. Adjusted

Vital commerce and raw materials annually for changing compositions within each alliance.
[2] In 1939, the USSR invaded and took over Eastern Poland
• Cargo and resources in metric tonnes
[3] The USSR occupied the Baltic states in mid 1940
[4] Alaska and Hawaii did not become states of the US until
5.4.3 Production overview: service, power post-war

and type [5] GDP ratio: A 2.06 ratio means combined Allied GDP was
2.06 times higher than Axis GDP.
238 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

1. Auxiliary units include Home Guard, Wehrmachts-

gefolge, Reserves, Police regiments, etc.

2. USSR includes Armenia 4k SS,14k Wehr, 7k Aux;

Azerbaijan 55k SS, 70k Wehr; Belarus 12k Wehr,
20k Aux; Cossack 200k Wehr; Estonia 20k SS, 50k
Wehr, 7k Aux; Georgia 10k SS; 30k Wehr; Kalmyk
5k Wehr; Latvia 55k SS; 87k Wehr, 300 Air, 23k
Aux; Lithuania 50k Wehr, 10 Aux; North Caucuses
4k SS; Russia 60k SS, 26k Wehr; Turkestan 16k
Wehr; Ukrainian 300k Wehr; 2k Aux; Tatar/Urals
12k Wehr

Aircraft - Allied - British Empire

See also: List of aircraft of the United Kingdom in

World War II

The relationship in GDP between the major Allied and Axis pow-
ers 1938-1945. Within the UK, initially aircraft production was very vul-
nerable to enemy bombing. To expand and diversify the
production base the British setup “Shadow factories”.
Table notes These brought other manufacturing companies - such as
vehicle manufacturers - into aircraft production, or air-
1. France to Axis: 1940:50% (light green), 1941- craft parts production. These inexperienced companies
44:100% (brown) were set up in groups under the guidance or control of
the aircraft manufacturers. New factory buildings were
2. USSR to Allies: 1941:44% (light green), 1942- provided with government money.* [23]
1945:100%.

3. US direct support to the Allies begins with Lend Aircraft - Allies - France, Poland and minor powers
Lease in March 1941, though the US made it possi-
ble for the Allies to purchase US-produced materiel Production numbers until the time of the German occu-
from 1939* [22] pation of the respective country. Some types listed were
in production before the war, those listed were still in pro-
4. Italy to Allies and Axis: 1938:0%, 1939- duction at the time of or after the Munich crisis.
1943:100% Axis (brown), 1944-1945:100%
Allies
Aircraft - Axis - All
5. Japanese to Axis begins with Tripartite Pact in 1940
Occupied countries produced weapons for the Axis powers.
6. The Allied and Axis totals are not the immediate Figures are for the period of occupation only.
sum of the table values; see the distribution rules
used above.
5.4.5 Propaganda posters
Personnel - Allied - British Empire
5.4.6 See also
Including all non-British subjects in British services. • Allied technological cooperation during World War
Note: II

• Combined Food Board

1. Auxiliary units include Home Guard, Reserves, Po-
lice regiments, etc. • Combined Munitions Assignments Board

• Combined Raw Materials Board

Personnel - Axis - German Reich
• Combined Shipping Adjustment Board
Including all non-German subjects in German services. • American armored fighting vehicle production dur-
Note: ing World War II
5.4. MILITARY PRODUCTION DURING WORLD WAR II 239

• British armoured fighting vehicle production during (1), General Aircraft Owlet (1), General Aircraft Fleet
World War II Shadower (1), General Aircraft GAL.47 (1), General
Aircraft GAL.55 (2), General Aircraft GAL.56 (4),
• German armored fighting vehicle production during Canadian Car and Foundry FDB-1, Canada (1), Gloster
World War II F.5/34 (2) , Gloster F.9/37 (2) , Handley Page Manx (1),
Hawker Hotspur (1), Hawker Tornado (4), Miles M.20
• Soviet armored fighting vehicle production during (2), Miles X Minor (1), Miles M.35 (1), Miles M.39 (1),
World War II Miles LR 5 (1), Parnall 382 (1), Reid and Sigrist R.S.1/2
(2), Saro A33 (1), Saro Shrimp (1), Short Shetland (2),
• United States aircraft production during World War Supermarine Type 322 (2), Vickers Type 432 (1), Vickers
II VC.1 Viking (1), Vickers Windsor (3)

• Forced labour under German rule during World War [17] includes: CCF Maple Leaf Trainer II (2 plus 10 built in
II Mexico )

• Technology during World War II [18] includes: Folland Fo.108 engine test bed (12), General
Aircraft Cygnet (10), General Aircraft Monospar ST-25
(30), Hawker Henley (200), Hawker Sea Fury (10), Miles
5.4.7 References M.15 (2), Miles M.18 (3) , Miles Mercury (6), Percival
Petrel (27), Percival Vega Gull (~20), Supermarine Spite-
[1] the five King George V class were started prior to war, ful fighter (19)
a further four battleships were cancelled to make re-
sources available for construction of other ships (Gazarke [19] Delivered to France.
& Dulin)
[20] Only 1 out of 6 (the prototype) completed before German
[2] Two battlecruisers of Kronshtadt-class laid down but never occupation.
progressed
[21] Only 1 (designated P.11g) used by Poland in 1939. The
[3] The majority of Blenheims were built as light bombers remaining ones were exported to various Balkan countries.

[4] Total includes 140 unarmed Defiants produced as target [22] Around 200 more airframes were in advanced production
tugs stage.

[5] Pre-war production. 165 additional to export customers. [23] not counting uncompleted PZL.50
Sea Gladiator conversions and production listed in Sea
Gladiator entry. [24] Production was started in Denmark, but not completed
before the German invasion.
[6] includes post-war production
[25] Originally an advanced fighter-training aircraft, this type
[7] Includes some post-war production and conversions of was later used as a light attack plane, in particular by the
Spitfires Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia.

[8] changed to ground attack role during war [26] not counting P.4/34

[9] up to 1942 the Hurricane was chiefly used as a fighter air- [27] According to some sources a license production was
craft started in Denmark but not completed before the German
invasion.
[10] includes transport and Coastal Command reconnaissance
versions [28] All but 5 delivered to Bulgaria.
[11] Includes pre-war production [29] Prototypes that were used in combat.
[12] a variant of the Blenheim, 457 of the total were produced [30] Never entered service
as trainer aircraft
[31] Number refers to production resumed after German oc-
[13] used as light bomber and transport aircraft in Middle East cupation.
and Mediterranean theatre
[32] Produced shortly before the war and mainly used for test-
[14] assault gliders generally not reusable following use ing and propaganda purposes.
[15] Initially used as light bomber e.g. during Battle of France [33] Conversion from MS.406/410.
[16] Including: Arpin A-1 (1) , Airspeed Cambridge (2),
[34] Conversion from MS.406.
Airspeed Fleet Shadower (1), Avro Tudor (2), Blackburn
B-20 (1), Boulton Paul P.92 (1), Burnelli CBY-3 (2), [35] Produced before the war and 2 delivered to Japan, which
CAC Woomera, Australia (2), Chrislea Airguard (1) , used it for testing and practice.
de Havilland Dove (1), de Havilland T.K.5 (1) , Fairey
Spearfish (5), Fane F.1/40 (1), General Aircraft Cagnet [36] All produced before the war, but used until 1944.
240 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

[37] Only 90 German-built Me 210 were completed and de- [18] Including 23.4 synthetic.
livered, about 100 Hungarian-built were supplied to Ger-
many [19] Volume 3 -The Effects of Strategic Bombing on the Ger-
man War Economy 1940-1944 only, retrieved June 8,
[38] Also used as a fighter and for reconnaissance 2014
[39] Produced for Germany after German occupation. [20] “Comparison of GDP adjusted for actual yearly shared
contribution to war efforts after Zuljan, Ralph, Allied and
[40] Only bomber versions listed here.
Axis GDP”, “Articles On War” (OnWar.com), 2003,
retrieved June 8, 2014
Notes
[21] Harrison, 1998
[1] History of the Second World War (104 volumes), Her [22] General Article: Foreign Affairs, pbs.org
Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1949 to 1993
[23] Granatstein, Dr. J. L. (MAY 27, 2005).“ARMING THE
[2] Nigel Davies. “rethinking history”. rethinkinghis- NATION: CANADAʼS INDUSTRIAL WAR EFFORT,
tory.blogspot.ca. 1939-1945” (PDF). Canadian Council of Chief Exec-
[3] Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American Busi- utives. Retrieved April 5, 2016. Check date values in:
ness Produced Victory in World War II, p. IX, Random |date= (help)
House, New York, NY, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4000-6964-
[24] Baugher “Hawk 75A-5 for China” 1999
4.

[4] Parker, Dana T. Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing [25] Ethell, Jeffrey L. and Steve Pace. Spitfire. St. Paul, Min-
in the Los Angeles Area in World War II, p. 7, Cypress, nesota: Motorbooks International, 1997. ISBN 0-7603-
CA, 2013. ISBN 978-0-9897906-0-4. 0300-2. p117

[5] Wrynn, V. Dennis. Forge of Freedom: American Aircraft

Production in World War II, pp. 4-5, Motorbooks Inter- Table data
national, Osceola, WI, 1995. ISBN 0-7603-0143-3.
Personnel -Allied - British Empire
[6] Baldwin, Ralph B. The Deadly Fuze: Secret Weapon of
World War II, pp. 4-6, 11, 50, 279, Presidio Press, San
Rafael, California, 1980. ISBN 978-0-89141-087-4. • “Wings of Thunder - Wartime RAF Veterans Fly-
ing in From Argentina” (Press release). Lon-
[7] Kumanev, G.A., “War and the evacuation of the USSR: don: PRNewswire - The Anglo-Argentine Society
1941-1942”, New Age, 2006 in conjuction with the Argentine Embassy. April 6.
[8] Sawyer, L. A. and Mitchell, W. H. The Liberty Ships: The Check date values in: |date= (help)
History of the“Emergency”Type Cargo Ships Constructed
• Second World War Official Histories
in the United States During the Second World War, Second
Edition, pp. vii, 1-8, Lloyd's of London Press Ltd., Lon- • Australia 2
don, England, 1985. ISBN 1-85044-049-2.

[9] Parker, Dana T. Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing • “Facts & Information”Canada at War July 4, 2009
in the Los Angeles Area in World War II, pp. 5, 7, Cypress,
• Colonel C.P. Stacey. “Chapter XIX Conclusion”
CA, 2013. ISBN 978-0-9897906-0-4.
. Repatriation and Demoblization. The Canadian
[10] Parker, Dana T. Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing Army 1939-1945: An Official Historical Summary.
in the Los Angeles Area in World War II, p. 8, Cypress,
California, 2013. ISBN 978-0-9897906-0-4. • Daniel Owen Spence, Imperial Loyalties, 'Imagined
Communities' and 'Britishness': The Royal Navy and
[11] “Financial Calculators”. dollartimes.com. the Cayman Islands
[12] Mitchell, B.R. British Historical Statistics, 1988
• Marika Sherwood (30 March 2011), Colonies, Colo-
[13] http://www.teindia.nic.in/mhrd/50yrsedu/15/8P/82/ nials and World War Two, BBC History
8P820T03.htm
• Gillespie, Oliver A. “I: New Zealand's Responsi-
[14] Dialogue on Aluminium 110 years of history in Canada bility” The Pacific Historical Publications Branch,
approximation 1952, Wellington (The Official History of New
[15] Baker The New Zealand People at War: War Economy Zealand in the Second World War 1939–1945)
1965
• India
[16] Lend Lease as a Function of the Soviet war Economy
• “Officers Database FAQ” bharat-rakshak.com
[17] Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment and
the Defense Burden, 1940-1945 Mark Harrison, 1996 • India 3 idsa.in
5.4. MILITARY PRODUCTION DURING WORLD WAR II 241

• India Pioneers defencejournal.com Aircraft - Allied

• India RIAF
• Australia
• Luxembourg
• Bristol Brigand
• Malay 2
• Free Dutch
• Merchant Navy
• New Zealand
• Netherlands
• General
• Netherlands 2
• Barnes 1989
• Newfoundland
• Bishop 2002
• New Zealand
• Bowyer 1980
• Nigeria
• Butler 2004
• Saunders, Hilary St. George (1954), “Volume III
The Fight Is Won”, Royal Air Force 1939-1945 • Flint 2006
(London: HMSO)
• Green 1967
• South Africa 2
• Jackson 1987
• South Africa 3
• Jane's 1989
• South Africa 4
• Mason 1994
• Martin Plaut (11 March 2014), African troops who
fought in World War Two, Martin Plaut • Morgan ?

• West Africa 2 • Otway 1990

• West Africa 3 • Swanborough 1997
• “Fact File : Commonwealth and Allied Forces”, • Tapper 1988
WWII Peoples War (BBC)
• The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft, 1985

Personnel - Axis This includes all German and non-

German subjects serving within German Reich forces. Aircraft - Axis

• Croatia 2, Munoz 1996 • Italy

• Croatia 3, Tomasevich 2001 • Dressel and Griehl 1994

• Croatia, feldgrau.com • Encyclopedia of weapons of World War Two

• Czech • Francillon 1970

• Daniel Laurent, French Volunteers in the Wehrmacht • The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft, 1985
in WWII, feldgrau.com
• Jane's 1989
• Germany, feldgrau.com
• Mondey 1996
• Poland 2
• Smith and Anthony ?
• Lt. Gen Wladyslaw Anders and Antonio Munoz,
Russian Volunteers in the German Wehrmacht in
WWII, feldgrau.com Raw materials

• The Latvian Squadrons in the Luftwaffe, Latvianavi- • The Mineral Industry of the British Empire and
ation.com Foreign Countries, Statistical Summary 1938-1944,
The Imperial Institute, HMSO, 1948
• Volunteers, Ailsby 2004
• The Mineral Industry of the British Empire and
• Volunteers 2
Foreign Countries, Statistical Summary 1941-1947,
• Volunteer Pilots The Imperial Institute, HMSO, 1949
242 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Official histories • Francillon, René J., Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific

War, London, Putnam, 1970
• History of the Second World War (104 volumes),
Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1949 to • Gregg, W.A ed., Canadaʼs Fighting Vehicles Eu-
1993 rope 1943-1945, Canadian Military Historical So-
ciety, 1980
• Official History of Australia in the War of 1939–
1945 (22 volumes), Australian Government Printing • Green, William. War Planes of The Second World
Service, 1952 to 1977 War:Volume Seven - Bombers and Reconnaissance
Aircraft. London: Macdonald, 1967
• Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second
World War, Vol I Six Years of War, Stacey, C P., • Harrison, Mark, “The Economics of World War
Queen's Printer, Ottawa, 1955 II: Six Great Powers in International Compari-
• Official History of the Indian Armed Forces in the son”, Cambridge University Press, 1998 (Author's
Second World War 1939-45 (24 volumes), Com- overview)
bined Inter-Services Historical Section, India & • Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American
Pakistan, New Delhi, 1956-1966 Business Produced Victory in World War II, Random
• Official History of New Zealand in the Second World House, New York, 2012
War 1939–45, Historical Publications Branch,
• The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft (Part Work
Wellington, New Zealand, 1965
1982-1985). London: Orbis Publishing, 1985

Bibliography • Jackson, A.J., De Havilland Aircraft since 1909

(Third ed.), London, Putnam, 1987
• Ailsby, Christopher, Hitler's Renegades: Foreign
• Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II, London,
Nationals in the Service of the Third Reich (Photo-
Studio Editions Ltd, 1989
graphic Histories), Potomac Books, 2004
• Barnett, Correlli, The audit of war : the illusion & • “Les luxembourgeois de la Brigade Piron”. (in
reality of Britain as a great nation, Macmillan, 1986 French) Armee.lu. Retrieved 29 June 2013

• Barnes, C.H.; James D.N. Shorts Aircraft since 1900, • Long, Jason, Lend Lease as a Function of the So-
London, Putnam, 1989 viet war Economy, sturmvogel.orbat.com, Retrieved
June 12, 2014
• Bishop, Chris, The Encyclopaedia of Weapons of
World War II, Sterling Publishing, 2002 • Mason, Francis K. The British Bomber since 1914,
London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1994
• Bowyer, Michael J.F. Aircraft for the Royal Air
Force: The “Griffon”Spitfire, The Albemarle • Milward, Alan S., War, economy, and society, 1939-
Bomber and the Shetland Flying-Boat, London, 1945, University of California Press, 1979
Faber & Faber, 1980
• Morgan, Eric B.“Albemarle”in Twentyfirst Profile,
• Boyd, David, (2009) “Wartime Production by the Volume 1, No. 11. New Milton, Hants, UK: 21st
Commonwealth during WWII” British Equipment Profile Ltd.
of the Second World War
• Munoz, A.J., For Croatia and Christ: The Croat-
• Boyd, David (2009),“British Production of Aircraft ian Army in World War II 1941–1945, Axis Europa
By Year During The Second World War”, British Books,NY, 1996
Equipment of the Second World War
• Mondey, David. The Concise Guide to Axis Aircraft
• Butler, Tony. British Secret Projects: Fighters and
of World War II. New York: Bounty Books, 1996
Bombers 1935–1950. Hinckley, UK: Midland Pub-
lishing, 2004 • Ness, Leland, Jane's World War II Tanks and Fight-
• Canada at War, “The Canadian War Industry” ing Vehicles, The Complete Guide, Harper Collins,
2002
• Dressel, Joachim and Manfred Griehl. Bombers of
the Luftwaffe. London: DAG Publications, 1994 • Otway, Lieutenant-Colonel T.B.H. The Second
World War 1939-1945 Army: Airborne Forces.
• Flint, Keith, Airborne Armour: Tetrarch, Locust, London: Imperial War Museum, 1990
Hamilcar and the 6th Airborne Armoured Recon-
naissance Regiment 1938-1950. Helion & Company • Overy, Richard, Why the Allies Won (Paperback),
Ltd., 2006 W. W. Norton & Company, 1997
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 243

• Scientia Militaria, South African Journal of Military

Studies

• Smith, J.R. and Anthony L. Kay. German Aircraft

of the Second World War. London: Putnam and
Company Ltd.,

• Swanborough, Gordon. British Aircraft at War,

1939-1945. East Sussex, UK: HPC Publishing,
1997

• Tapper, Oliver. Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft since

1913. London: Putnam, 1988

• Tomasevich, Jozo, War and Revolution in Yu-

goslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration
2. San Francisco: Stanford University Press, 2001

• Veterans Affairs Canada,“Canadian Production of

War Materials”

• Wilson, Stewart, Aircraft of WWII, 1998

• Wrynn, V. Dennis. Forge of Freedom: American

Aircraft Production in World War II, Motorbooks In-
ternational, Osceola, WI, 1995

• Zuljan, Ralph,“Allied and Axis GDP”Articles On

War OnWar.com (2003) INF3-160 Fighting Fit in the Factory Artist A R Thomson

5.4.8 External links Typically women were mobilized to an unprecedented

degree.
• Allies and Lend-Lease Museum, Russia All of the powers involved had learned from their expe-
riences good and bad on the home front during World
• Australia War Memorial official war history online
War I. Their success in mobilizing economic output was
archive
a major factor in supporting combat operations. Among
• Canada at War morale-boosting activities that also benefited combat ef-
forts, the home front engaged in a variety of scrap drives
• National War Museum, United States for materials crucial to the war effort such as metal, rub-
ber, and rags.
• New Zealand in the Second World War, official war
history online

• South Africa Journal of Military Studies 5.5.1 Overview

The major powers devoted 50–61 percent of their total

GDP to munitions production. The Allies produced about
5.5 Home front during World War three times as much in munitions as the Axis powers.
II Source: Goldsmith data in Harrison (1988) p. 172

The home front covers the activities of the civilians in Source: Jerome B Cohen, Japan's Economy in War and
a nation at war. World War II was a total war; home- Reconstruction (1949) p 354
land production became even more invaluable to both the
Allied and Axis powers. Life on the home front during
World War II was a significant part of the war effort for
5.5.2 Allies
all participants and had a major impact on the outcome of
the war. Governments became involved with new issues Main article: Allies of World War II
such as rationing, manpower allocation, home defense,
evacuation in the face of air raids, and response to occu- The Allies called themselves the "United Nations" (even
pation by an enemy power. The morale and psychology before that organization formed in 1945), and pledged
of the people responded to leadership and propaganda. their support to the Atlantic Charter of 1941. The Char-
244 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

nist, provided intelligence to the Allies. During the Holo-

caust in Belgium, the Nazis hunted down the 70,000
Jews living in Belgium, most of them refugees, and killed
29,000 of them.* [2]
The Germans expected to exploit Belgium's industrial re-
sources to support their war machine. Their policies cre-
ated severe shortages for the Belgian people, but shipped
out far less than Germany had expected. They set up the
“Armaments Inspection Board”in 1940 to relay muni-
tions orders to factories; the Board came under the con-
trol of the German Minister of Armaments, Albert Speer
in 1943, and had offices in industrial areas that were sup-
posed to facilitate orders for materiél, and supervise pro-
duction. However, factory production fell sharply after
1942. Although collaboration with the Nazis, especially
among the Flemish, was evident in 1940, it soon faded
in importance. Labor strikes and systematic sabotage
slowed production, as did the emigration of workers to
rural areas, Allied bombing, food shortages, and worker
resentment to forced labor.* [3]
The Allies retook all of Belgium in September 1944 as
the Germans retreated. They reappeared briefly during
the hard fighting of the Battle of the Bulge in Decem-
ber 1944, but were finally expelled in January 1945. The
London‐based government‐in‐exile returned, but had to
confront the resistance movements that demanded radi-
Salvage – Help put the lid on Hitler by saving your old metal and cal political change.* [4]
paper

China
ter stated the ideal goals of the war: no territorial aggran-
dizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes
See also: Second Sino-Japanese War
of the people; restoration of self-government to those de-
prived of it; free access to raw materials; reduction of
trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better eco- China suffered the second highest number of casualties of
nomic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and the entire war. Civilians in the occupied territories had
want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use to endure many large-scale massacres, including that in
of force, as well as the disarmament of aggressor nations. Nanking. In a few areas, Japanese forces also unleashed
newly developed biological weapons on Chinese civilians
leading to an estimated 200,000 dead.* [5] Tens of thou-
Belgium sands died when Nationalist troops broke the levees of
the Yangtze to stop the Japanese advance after the loss
Main article: Belgium in World War II of the Chinese capital, Nanjing. Millions more Chinese
died because of famine during the war.
The sudden German invasion of neutral Belgium in May Japan captured major coastal cities like Shanghai early in
1940 led in a matter of 18 days to the collapse of the Bel- the war; cutting the rest of China off from its chief sources
gian army; King Leopold obtained an armistice that in- of finance and industry. Millions of Chinese moved to re-
volved direct German military administration. The King mote regions to avoid invasion. Cities like Kunming bal-
refused the demand of the government that he flee with looned with new arrivals. Entire factories and universities
them to Britain; he remained as a puppet ruler under Ger- were often taken along so the society could still function.
man control. The Belgian bureaucracy remained in place Japan replied with hundreds of air raids on the new cap-
and generally cooperated with the German rulers. Two ital of Chongqing.
pro-German movements, the Flemish National Union
comprising Flemish (Dutch-speaking ) separatists and Although China received much aid from the United
the Walloon (French-speaking ) Rexists led by Léon De- States, China did not have sufficient infrastructure to
grelle (1906–94) supported the invaders and encouraged properly arm or even feed its military forces, let alone
their young men to volunteer for the German army.* [1] its civilians.
Small but active resistance movements, largely Commu- China was divided into three zones, with the Nationalists
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 245

in the southwest and the Communists led by Mao Zedong produce and two percent of the champagne.* [13] Sup-
(Mao) in control of much of the northwest. Coastal areas ply problems quickly affected French stores which lacked
were occupied by the Japanese and civilians were treated most items. The government answered by rationing, but
harshly; young men were drafted into a puppet Chinese German officials set the policies and hunger prevailed,
army. especially affecting youth in urban areas. The queues
lengthened in front of shops. Some people̶including
German soldiers who could take advantage of arbitrary
France exchange rates that favored Germany ̶benefited from
the black market, where food was sold without tickets at
Main article: Vichy France very high prices. Farmers especially, diverted meat to the
Further information: German occupation of France black market, which meant that there was much less for
during World War II and Italian occupation of France the open market. Counterfeit food tickets were also in
during World War II circulation. Direct buying from farmers in the country-
side and barter against cigarettes became common. These
After the stunningly quick victory in June 1940, France activities were strictly forbidden, however, and thus car-
was knocked out of the war and part of it, with its cap- ried out at the risk of confiscation and fines. Food short-
ital in Vichy, became an informal ally of the Germans. ages were most acute in the large cities. Vitamin de-
A powerful Resistance movement sprang up, as the Ger- ficiencies and malnutrition were prevalent.* [14] Advice
mans fortified the coast against an Allied invasion and about eating a healthier diet and home growing produce
occupied the northern half of the country.* [6] The Ger- was distributed. Slogans like 'Digging for Victory' and
mans captured 2,000,000 French soldiers, and kept them 'Make Do and Mend' appeared on national posters and
in prisoner of war camps inside Germany for the duration became a part of the war effort. The city environment
of the war, using them as hostages to guarantee French made these efforts nearly negligible.* [15] In the more re-
cooperation. The Vichy French government, cooperated mote country villages, however, clandestine slaughtering,
closely with the Germans, sending food, machinery and vegetable gardens and the availability of milk products
workers to Germany. Several hundred thousand French- permitted better survival. The official ration provided
men and women were forced to work in German facto- starvation level diets of 1,300 or fewer calories a day, sup-
ries, or volunteered to do so, as the French economy itself plemented by home gardens and, especially, black market
deteriorated. Nevertheless, there was a strong Resistance purchases.* [16]
movement, with fierce anti-resistance activities carried
out by the Nazis and the French police. Most Jews were
rounded up by the Vichy police and handed over to the Netherlands
Germans, who sent them to death camps.* [7]* [8]
See also: Dutch famine of 1944

War wives The two million French soldiers held as The Dutch famine of 1944, known as the “Hongerwin-
POWs and forced laborers in Germany throughout the ter”(“Hunger winter”) was a man-made famine im-
war were not at risk of death in combat, but the anxi- posed by Germany in the occupied western provinces dur-
eties of separation for their 800,000 wives were high. The ing the winter of 1944–1945. A German blockade cut off
government provided a modest allowance, but one in ten food and fuel shipments from farm areas. A total 4.5 mil-
became prostitutes to support their families.* [9] Mean- lion people were affected, of whom 18,000 died from the
while, the Vichy regime promoted a highly traditional episode despite an elaborate system of emergency soup
model of female roles.* [10] After the war, France gave kitchens.* [17]
women the vote and additional legal and political rights,
although nothing on the scale of the enfranchisement that
followed World War I. Poland

Main articles: Occupation of Poland (1939–1945),

Food shortages of the home front Women suffered Polish culture during World War II and Polish Under-
shortages of all varieties of consumer goods and the ab- ground State
sence of the men in POW camps.* [11] The rationing
system was stringent but badly mismanaged, leading to
pronounced malnourishment, black markets and hostility
to state management of the food supply. The Germans Food deprivation as a Nazi weapon The Nazi Hunger
seized about 20% of the French food production, which Plan was to quickly kill the Jews of Poland and slowly
caused severe disruption to the household economy of the force the Poles to leave by threat of starvation, so that
French people.* [12] French farm production fell by half they could be replaced by new German settlers. The
because of the lack of fuel, fertilizer and workers; even Nazis coerced Poles to work in Germany by provid-
so, the Germans seized half the meat, 20 percent of the ing favorable food rations for families who had mem-
246 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

around which they built high walls, the Germans crowded

550,000 Polish Jews, many from the Polish provinces. At
first, people were able to go in and out of the Ghetto, but
soon its border became an“iron curtain.”Unless on offi-
cial business, Jews could not leave, and non-Jews, includ-
ing Germans, could not enter. Entry points were guarded
by German soldiers. Because of extreme conditions and
hunger, mortality in the Ghetto was high. Additionally,
in 1942, the Germans moved 400,000 ghetto residents
to Treblinka where they were gassed on arrival. When,
on April 19, 1943, the Ghetto Uprising commenced, the
population of the Ghetto had dwindled to 60,000 indi-
viduals. In the following three weeks, virtually all died
as the Germans fought and systematically destroyed the
buildings in the Ghetto.* [25]

Warsaw Uprising of 1944 The uprising by Poles be-

gan on August 1, 1944, when the Polish underground, the
“Home Army”, aware that the Soviet Army had reached
the eastern bank of the Vistula, sought to liberate Warsaw
much as the French resistance had liberated Paris a few
weeks earlier. Joseph Stalin had his own group of Com-
munist leaders for the new Poland and did not want the
Home Army or its leaders (based in London) to control
Warsaw. So he halted the Soviet offensive and gave the
Germans free rein to suppress it. During the ensuing 63
'Harvesting' – Artist Allinson 1939–1946 days, 250,000 Poles of the Home Army surrendered to
the Germans. After the Germans forced all the surviv-
ing population to leave the city, Hitler ordered that any
bers working in the Reich. The ethnic German popu- buildings left standing be dynamited – 98 percent of the
lation in Poland Volksdeutsche were given good rations buildings in Warsaw were destroyed.* [26]
and were allowed to shop for food in special stores. The
German occupiers created a draconian system of food
controls, including strong penalties for the omnipresent Soviet Union
black market. There was a sharp increase in mortality
due to the general malnutrition, and a decline in birth During the invasion of the Soviet Union, rapid German
rates.* [18]* [19]* [20]* [21] advances in the early months of the war, almost cap-
By mid 1941, the German minority in Poland received tured the cities of Moscow and Leningrad. The bulk of
2,613 calories per day while Poles received 699 and Jews Soviet industry which could not be evacuated was either
in the ghetto 184.* [22] The Jewish ration fulfilled 7.5 destroyed or lost due to German occupation. Agricul-
percent of their daily needs; Polish rations only 26 per- tural production was interrupted, with grain harvests left
cent. Only the ration allocated to Germans fulfilled the standing in the fields that would later cause hunger remi-
full needs of their daily Calorie intake.* [23] niscent of the early 1930s. In one of the greatest feats of
war logistics, factories were evacuated on an enormous
Additionally the Generalplan Ost of the Nazis, which en- scale, with 1,523 factories dismantled and shipped east-
visioned the elimination of the Slavic population in the wards along four principal routes to the Caucasus, Central
occupied territories and artificial famines-as proposed in Asian, the Ural, and Siberian regions.* [27] In general, the
the Hunger Plan, were to be used. tools, dies and production technology were moved, along
with the blueprints and their management, engineering
Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto: 1943 On September 1, staffs and skilled labor.
1939, Germany invaded Poland, conquering it in three The whole of the Soviet Union become dedicated to the
weeks, as the Soviets invaded the eastern areas. During war effort. The population of the Soviet Union was prob-
the German occupation, there were two distinct civilian ably better prepared than any other nation involved in the
uprisings in Warsaw, one in 1943, the other in 1944. The fighting of World War II to endure the material hardships
first took place in an entity, less than two square miles of the war. This is primarily because the Soviets were so
in area, which the Germans carved out of the city and used to shortages and coping with economic crisis in the
called“Ghetto Warschau.”Into the thus created Ghetto, past, especially during wartime̶(World War I), brought
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 247

similar restrictions on food.* [28] Conditions were never- Russians were evacuated before the siege began, this left
theless severe. World War II was especially devastating two and a half million in Leningrad, including four hun-
to citizens of the USSR because it was fought on Soviet dred thousand children. Subsequently, more managed to
territory and caused massive destruction. In Leningrad, escape; this was most successful when the nearby lake
under German siege, over a million people died of starva- Ladoga froze over and people could walk over the ice road
tion and disease. Many factory workers were teenagers, ̶or “road of life”̶to safety.* [32] Those in influential
women and old people. The government implemented ra- political or social positions used their connections to other
tioning in 1941 and first applied it to bread, flour, cereal, elites to leave Leningrad both before and after the siege
pasta, butter, margarine, vegetable oil, meat, fish, sugar began. Some factory owners even looted state funds to se-
and confectionery all across the country. The rations re- cure transport out of the city during the first summer of
mained largely stable in other places during the war. Ad- the war.* [33] The most risky means of escape, however,
ditional rations were often so expensive that they could was to defect to the enemy and hope to avoid governmen-
not add substantially to a citizen's food supply unless that tal punishment.
person was especially well-paid. Peasants received no ra- Most survival strategies during the siege, though, involved
tions and had to make do with any local resources they
staying within the city and facing the problems through
farmed themselves. Most rural peasants struggled and resourcefulness or luck. One way to do this was by se-
lived in unbearable poverty but others sold any surplus curing factory employment because many factories be-
they had at a high price and a few became rouble million- came autonomous and possessed more of the tools of sur-
aires until a currency reform two years after the end of vival during the winter, such as food and heat. Workers
the war wiped out their wealth.* [29] got larger rations than regular civilians and factories were
Despite harsh conditions, the war led to a spike in Soviet likely to have electricity if they produced crucial goods.
nationalism and unity. Soviet propaganda toned down Factories also served as mutual-support centers and had
extreme Communist rhetoric of the past as the people clinics and other services like cleaning crews and teams of
now rallied to the belief of protecting their Motherland women who would sew and repair clothes. Factory em-
against the evils of the German invaders. Ethnic mi- ployees were still driven to desperation on occasion and
norities thought to be collaborators were forced into ex- people resorted to eating glue or horses in factories where
ile. Religion, which was previously shunned, became a food was scarce, but factory employment was the most
part of a Communist Party propaganda campaign in So- consistently successful method of survival, and at some
viet society in order to mobilize the religious elements. food production plants not a single person died.* [34]
The social composition of Soviet society changed dras-
Survival opportunities open to the larger Soviet com-
tically during the war. There was a burst of marriages munity included bartering and farming on private land.
in June and July 1941 between people about to be sep-
Black markets thrived as private barter and trade became
arated by the war and in the next few years the mar- more common, especially between soldiers and civilians.
riage rate dropped off steeply, with the birth rate follow-
Soldiers, who had more food to spare, were eager to trade
ing shortly thereafter to only about half of what it would with Soviet citizens that had extra warm clothes to trade.
have been in peacetime. For this reason mothers with
Planting vegetable gardens in the spring became popular,
several children during the war received substantial hon- primarily because citizens got to keep everything grown
ors and money benefits if they had a great enough number on their own plots. The campaign also had a potent psy-
of children̶mothers could earn around 1,300 rubles for chological effect and boosted morale, a survival compo-
having their fourth child and earn up to 5,000 rubles for nent almost as crucial as bread.* [35]
their tenth.* [30]
Many of the most desperate Soviet citizens turned to
crime as a way to support themselves in trying times.
Survival in Leningrad The city of Leningrad endured Most common was the theft of food and of ration cards,
more suffering and hardships than any other city in the which could prove fatal for a malnourished person if their
Soviet Union during World War II. Hunger, malnutrition, card was stolen more than a day or two before a new card
disease, starvation, and even cannibalism became com- was issued. For these reasons, the stealing of food was
mon during the siege which lasted from September 1941 severely punished and a person could be shot for as lit-
– January 1944. It was a plight that has become the focus tle as stealing a loaf of bread. More serious crimes such
of Paulina Simons 'The Bronze Horseman.' Many So- as murder and cannibalism also occurred, and special po-
viet citizens lost weight, grew weaker, and became more lice squads were set up to combat these crimes, though by
vulnerable to disease. If malnutrition persisted for long the end of the siege, roughly 1,500 had been arrested for
enough, its effects were irreversible. People's feelings of cannibalism.* [36]
loyalty disappeared if they got hungry enough and they
would steal from their closest family members to sur-
vive.* [31]
The citizens of Leningrad managed to survive with vary-
ing degrees of success. Since only four hundred thousand
 248 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

provinces. One element of resistance in the Central Lu-

zon area was furnished by the Hukbalahap, which armed
some 30,000 people and extended their control over much
of Luzon.* [40] The Americans invaded in 1944–45; the
battle for Manila was contested street by street with large
numbers of civilians killed.
As in most occupied countries, crime, looting, corrup-
tion, and black markets were endemic.* [41] With a view
of building up the economic base of the Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese Army envisioned us-
ing the islands as a source of agricultural products needed
by its industry. For example, Japan had a surplus of
sugar from Taiwan, and a severe shortage of cotton, so
they try to grow cotton in on sugar lands with disastrous
US Government Publicity photo of American machine tool results. They lacked the seeds, pesticides, and techni-
worker in Texas cal skills to grow cotton. Jobless farm workers flock
to the cities, where there was minimal relief and few
jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane sugar for
United States fuel, castor beans and copra for oil, derris for quinine,
cotton for uniforms, and abaca (hemp) for rope. The
Main articles: United States home front during World plans were very difficult to implement in the face of lim-
War II and American propaganda during World War II ited skills, collapsed international markets, bad weather,
and transportation shortages. The program was a fail-
In the United States, farming and other production was in- ure that gave very little help to Japanese industry, and
creased. For example, citizens were encouraged to plant diverted resources needed for food production.* [42] As
“victory gardens”, personal farms that children some- Karnow reports, Filipinos “rapidly learned as well that
times worked on.* [37] Standlee (2010) argues that during 'co-prosperity' meant servitude to Japan's economic re-
the war the traditional gender division of labor changed quirements.”* [43]
somewhat, as the “home”or domestic female sphere Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines
expanded to include the “home front"; meanwhile the during the war. Transportation between the islands was
public sphere̶the male domain̶was redefined as the difficult because of lack of fuel. Food was in very
international stage of military action.* [38] short supply, with sporadic famines and epidemic dis-
eases* [44]* [45]
The Japanese tried to remove all Western and Ameri-
The Philippines Main article: History of the Philip-
can cultural influences. They met fierce resistance when
pines § World War II and Japanese occupation
they tried to undermine the Catholic Church by arresting
500 Christian missionaries. The Filipinos came to feel
The Philippines was an American possession on the way morally superior to the brutal Japanese and rejected their
to independence (scheduled in 1946) and controlled its advances.* [46] Newspapers and the media were tightly
own internal affairs. The Japanese invaded and quickly censored. The Japanese tried to reshape schools and im-
conquered the islands in early 1942. The Japanese mili- pose the Japanese language. They formed neighborhood
tary authorities immediately began organizing a new gov- associations to inform on the opposition.* [47]
ernment structure in the Philippines and established the
Philippine Executive Commission. They initially orga-
nized a Council of State, through which they directed civil
5.5.3 Britain and Commonwealth
affairs until October 1943, when they declared the Philip-
pines an independent republic. The Japanese-sponsored
Britain
Second Philippine Republic headed by President José P.
Laurel proved to be ineffective and unpopular as Japan
maintained very tight controls.* [39] See Timeline of the United Kingdom home front
during World War II.
Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed
by large-scale underground and guerrilla activity. The
Philippine Army, as well as remnants of the U.S. Army Britain's total mobilization during this period proved to
Forces Far East continued to fight the Japanese in a guer- be successful in winning the war, by maintaining strong
rilla war. They formed an auxiliary unit of the United support from public opinion. The war was a “people's
States Army. Their effectiveness was such that by the end war”that enlarged democratic aspirations and produced
of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight promises of a postwar welfare state.* [48]* [49]
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 249

was expanded by a fifth, thanks especially to the Women's

Land Army.* [53]
Parents had much less time for supervision of their chil-
dren, and the fear of juvenile delinquency was upon the
land, especially as older teenagers took jobs and emu-
lated their older siblings in the service. The government
responded by requiring all youth over 16 to register, and
expanded the number of clubs and organizations available
to them.* [54]

Munitions In mid-1940, the RAF (Royal Air Force)

was called on to fight the Battle of Britain but it had suf-
fered serious losses. It lost 458 aircraft̶more than cur-
rent production̶in France and was hard pressed. The
government decided to concentrate on only five types
of aircraft in order to optimize output. They were:
Wellingtons, Whitley Vs, Blenheims, Hurricanes and
Spitfires. These aircraft received extraordinary priority.
Covering the supply of materials and equipment and even
made it possible to divert from other types the necessary
parts, equipment, materials and manufacturing resources.
Labor was moved from other aircraft work to factories
engaged on the specified types. Cost was not an object.
The delivery of new fighters rose from 256 in April to
467 in September̶more than enough to cover the losses
̶and Fighter Command emerged triumphantly from the
Salvage – Up Housewives and at 'em – put out your paper, metal, Battle of Britain in October with more aircraft than it had
bones. Artist Yates-Wilson possessed at the beginning.* [55] Starting in 1941, the US
provided munitions through Lend lease that totaled $15.5
billion* [56]
Mobilization of women Historians credit Britain with
a highly successful record of mobilizing the home front
Rationing Main article: Rationing in the United King-
for the war effort, in terms of mobilizing the greatest pro-
dom during and after World War II
portion of potential workers, maximizing output, assign-
Food, clothing, petrol, leather and other such items were
ing the right skills to the right task, and maintaining the
morale and spirit of the people.* [50] Much of this suc-
cess was due to the systematic planned mobilization of
women, as workers, soldiers and housewives, enforced
after December 1941 by conscription.* [51] The women
supported the war effort, and made the rationing of con-
sumer goods a success. In some ways, the government
over planned, evacuating too many children in the first
days of the war, closing cinemas as frivolous then re-
opening them when the need for cheap entertainment was
clear, sacrificing cats and dogs to save a little space on
shipping pet food, only to discover an urgent need to keep
the rats and mice under control.* [52] In the balance be-
tween compulsion and voluntarism, the British relied suc-
cessfully on voluntarism. The success of the government War-time food and cookery demonstrations 1940
in providing new services, such as hospitals, and school
lunches, as well as the equalitarian spirit of the People's rationed. However, items such as sweets and fruits were
war, contributed to widespread support for an enlarged not rationed, as they would spoil. Access to luxuries was
welfare state. Munitions production rose dramatically, severely restricted, although there was also a significant
and the quality remained high. Food production was em- black market. Families also grew victory gardens, and
phasized, in large part to open up shipping for munitions. small home vegetable gardens, to supply themselves with
Farmers increased the number of acres under cultivation food. Many things were conserved to turn into weapons
from 12,000,000 to 18,000,000, and the farm labor force later, such as fat for nitroglycerin production. People in
250 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Belfast during the war See also: Belfast Blitz

Belfast in Northern Ireland was a representative British

A British Restaurant in London, 1942. 2000 were opened to

serve low cost basic meals to people who had run out of rationing
coupons.* [57] A news theatre in Leicester Square – publicity for Movietone
News coverage of the "Mareth Victory"

the countryside were less affected by rationing as they

city that has been well studied by historians.* [61]* [62] It
had greater access to locally sourced unrationed products
was a key industrial city producing ships, tanks, aircraft,
than people in metropolitan areas and were more able to
engineering works, arms, uniforms, parachutes and a host
grow their own.
of other industrial goods. The unemployment that had
The rationing system, which had been originally based been so persistent in the 1930s disappeared, and labour
on a specific basket of goods for each consumer, was shortages appeared. There was a major munitions strike
much improved by switching to a points system which al- in 1944.* [63] As a key industrial city, Belfast became a
lowed the housewives to make choices based on their own target for German bombing missions, but it was thinly
priorities. Food rationing also permitted the upgrading defended; there were only 24 anti-aircraft guns in the
of the quality of the food available, and housewives ap- city for example. The Northern Ireland government un-
proved̶except for the absence of white bread and the der Richard Dawson Bates (Minister for Home Affairs)
government's imposition of an unpalatable wheat meal had prepared too late, assuming that Belfast was too dis-
"national loaf.”People were especially pleased that ra- tant. When Germany conquered France in spring 1940 it
tioning brought equality and a guarantee of a decent meal gained closer airfields. The city's fire brigade was inade-
at an affordable cost.* [58] quate, there were no public air raid shelters as the North-
ern Ireland government was reluctant to spend money on
them and there were no searchlights in the city, which
Evacuation From very early in the war, it was thought made shooting down enemy bombers all the more dif-
that the major industrial cities of Britain, especially Lon- ficult. After seeing the Blitz in London in the autumn
don in the southeast, would come under Luftwaffe air at- of 1940, the government began the construction of air
tack, which did happen with The Blitz. Some children raid shelters. The Luftwaffe in early 1941, flew recon-
were sent to Canada, the USA and Australia and mil- naissance missions that identified the docks and industrial
lions of children and some mothers were evacuated from areas to be targeted. Especially hard hit were the work-
London and other major cities when the war began un- ing class areas in the north and east of the city where over
der government plans for the evacuation of civilians, but a thousand were killed and hundreds were seriously in-
they often filtered back. When the Blitz bombing began jured. Many people left the city afraid of future attacks.
on September 6, 1940, they evacuated again. The dis- The bombing revealed the terrible slum conditions. In
covery of the poor health and hygiene of evacuees was a May 1941, the Luftwaffe hit the docks and the Harland
shock to many Britons, and helped prepare the way for the and Wolff shipyard, closing it for six months. Apart from
Beveridge Report. Children were evacuated if their par- the numbers of dead, the Belfast blitz saw half of the city's
ents agreed but in some cases they did not have a choice. houses destroyed. Approximately twenty million pounds
The children were only allowed to take a few things with worth of damage was caused. The Northern Ireland gov-
them, including a gas mask, books, money, clothes, ration ernment was criticized heavily for its lack of preparation.
book and some small toys.* [59]* [60] The criticism forced the resignation of Northern Ireland's
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 251

Prime Minister J. M. Andrews. The bombing raids con-

tinued until the invasion of Russia in the summer of 1941.
The American army arrived in 1942–44, setting up bases
around Northern Ireland, and spending freely.

Welfare state Main article: Beveridge Report

An Emergency Hospital Service was established at the be-

ginning of the war, in the expectation that it would be
required to deal with large numbers of casualties.
A common theme called for an expansion of the welfare
state as a reward to the people for their wartime sacrifices
*
[64] The goal was operationalized in a famous report
by William Beveridge It recommended that the various
income maintenance services that a grown-up piecemeal
since 1911 be systematized and made universal. Unem-
ployment benefits and sickness benefits were to be univer-
sal. There would be new benefits for maternity. The old-
age pension system would be revised and expanded, and
require that a person retired. A full-scale National Health
Service would provide free medical care for everyone.
All the major parties endorsed the principles and they
were largely put into effect when peace returned.* [65] Two boys in Montreal gather rubber for wartime salvage, 1942

Memory The themes of equality and sacrifice were Britain and partly to give the country extra time to import
dominant during the war, and in the memory of the war. arms from the United States as a non-belligerent.* [70]
Harris points out that the war was seen at the time and War production was ramped up quickly, and was centrally
by a generation of writers as a period of outstanding na- managed through the Department of Munitions and Sup-
tional unity and social solidarity. There was little antiwar ply. Unemployment faded away.
sentiment during or after the war. Furthermore, Britain
turned more toward the collective welfare state during the Canada became one of the largest trainers of pilots for
war, expanding it in the late 1940s and reaching a broad the Allies through the British Commonwealth Air Train-
consensus supporting it across party lines. By the 1970s ing Plan. Many Canadian men joined the war effort,
and 1980s, however, historians were exploring the subtle so with them overseas and industries pushing to increase
elements of continuing diversity and conflict in society production, women took up positions to aid in the war ef-
during the war period.* [66] For example, at first histori- fort. The hiring of men in many positions in civilian em-
ans emphasized that strikes became illegal in July 1940, ployment was effectively banned later in the war through
and no trade union called one during the war. Later his- measures taken under the National Resources Mobilization
torians pointed to the many localized unofficial strikes, Act..
especially in coal mining, shipbuilding, the metal trades,
Shipyards and repair facilities expanded dramatically as
and engineering, with as many as 3.7 million man days over a thousand warships and cargo vessels were built,
lost in 1944.* [67] along with thousands of auxiliary craft, small boats and
*
The BBC collected 47,000 wartime recollections and others. [71]
15,000 images in 2003-6 and put them online.* [68] Canada expanded food production, but shipped so much
The CD audiobook Home Front 1939–45 also contains to Britain that food rationing had to be imposed. In 1942
a selection of period interviews and actuality record- it shipped to Britain 25 per cent of total meat production
ings.* [69] (including 75% of the bacon), 65 per cent of cheese and
13 per cent of the eggs.* [72]

Canada
Ethnics from enemy countries Since 20% of
Main article: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Canada's population were not of British or French origin,
Years § World War II their status was of special concern. The main goal was to
Canada joined the war effort on September 10, 1939; the integrate the marginalized European ethnicities̶as op-
government deliberately waited after Britain's decision to posed to the First World War policy of internment camps
go to war, partly to demonstrate its independence from for Ukrainians and Germans. In the case of Germany,
252 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Italy and especially Japan, the government watched the The government greatly expanded its powers in order to
ethnics closely for signs of loyalty to their homelands. better direct the war effort, and Australia's industrial and
The fears proved groundless.* [73] In February 1942 human resources were focused on supporting the Aus-
21,000 Japanese Canadians were rounded up and sent to tralian and American armed forces. There were a few
internment camps that closely resembled similar camps Japanese attacks, most notably on Darwin in February
in the US because the two governments had agreed in 1942, along with the widespread fear in 1942, that Aus-
1941 to coordinate their evacuation policies.* [74] Most tralia would be invaded.
had lived in British Columbia, but in 1945 they were
released from detention and allowed to move anywhere
in Canada except British Columbia, or they could go to
Japan. Most went to the Toronto area.* [75]* [76]

Australian women were encouraged to contribute to the war effort

by joining one of the female branches of the armed forces or
participating in the labor force

Australia entered the war in 1939 and sent its forces to

fight the Germans in the Middle East (where they were
Shop Stewards in the canteen of the Burrard Dry Dock in North
successful) and Singapore (where they were captured by
Vancouver, Canada. Commencing in 1942, Burrard Dry Dock
hired over 1000 women, all of whom were dismissed at the end
the Japanese in 1942). By 1943, 37% of the Australian
of the war to make way for returning men. GDP was directed at the war effort. Total war expenditure
came to £2,949 million between 1939 and 1945.* [78]
Women Canadian women responded to urgent appeals The Curtin Labor Government took over in October
to make-do, recycle and salvage in order to come up with 1941, and energized the war effort, with rationing of
needed supplies. They saved fats and grease; gathered re- scarce fuel, clothing and some food. When Japan en-
cycled goods, handed out information on the best meth- tered the war in December 1941, the danger was at hand,
ods to use that one may get the most out of recycled goods and all women and children were evacuated from Dar-
and organized many other events to decrease the amount win and northern Australia. The Commonwealth Gov-
of waste. Volunteer organizations led by women also pre- ernment took control of all income taxation in 1942,
pared packages for the military overseas or for prisoners which gave it extensive new powers and greatly reduced
of war in Axis countries. the states' financial autonomy.* [79] Manufacturing grew
rapidly, with the assembly of high performance guns and
With World War II came the dire need for employees in
aircraft a specialty. The number of women working in
the workplace, without women to step-in, the economy
factories rose from 171,000 to 286,000.* [80] The arrival
would have collapsed. By autumn 1944 the number of
of tens of thousands of Americans was greeted with re-
women working full-time in Canada's paid labor force
lief, as they could protect Australia where Britain could
was twice what it had been in 1939, and that figure of be-
not. The US sent in $1.1 billion in Lend Lease, and Aus-
tween 1,000,000 and 1,200,000 did not include part-time
tralia returned about the same total in services, food, rents
workers or women working on farms.”* [77] Women had
and supplies to the Americans.* [81]
to take on this intensive labor and while they did this they
still had to find time to make jam, clothes and other such
acts of volunteering to aid the men overseas. New Zealand

New Zealand, with a population of 1.7 million, includ-

Australia ing 99,000 Maori, was highly mobilized during the war.
The Labour party was in power and promoted unioniza-
Main article: Australian home front during World War II tion and the welfare state. The armed forces peaked at
157,000 in September 1942; 135,000 served abroad, and
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 253

10,100 died. Agriculture expanded, sending record sup- tige and membership, as well as British support for its de-
plies of meat, butter and wool to Britain. When Ameri- mands for a separate Muslim state (which became Pak-
can forces arrived, they were fed as well. The nation spent istan in 1947).
£574 million on the wear, of which 43% came from taxes,
41% from loans and 16% from American Lend Lease. It
was an era of prosperity as the national income soared Hong Kong
from £158 million in 1937 to £292 million in 1944. Ra-
tioning and price controls kept inflation to only 14% dur- Hong Kong was a British colony captured by Japan on
ing 1939–45.* [82]* [83] December 25, 1941, after 18 days of fierce fighting. The
conquest was swift, but was followed by days of large-
Montgomerie shows that the war dramatically increased
scale looting; over ten thousand Chinese women were
the roles of women, especially married women, in the
raped or gang-raped by the Japanese soldiers.* [89] The
labour force. Most of them took traditional female jobs.
population halved, from 1.6 million in 1941 to 750,000
Some replaced men but the changes here were tempo-
at war's end because of fleeing refugees; they returned in
rary and reversed in 1945. After the war, women left tra-
1945.* [90]
ditional male occupations and many women gave up paid
employment to return home. There was no radical change The Japanese imprisoned the ruling British colonial elite
in gender roles but the war intensified occupational trends and sought to win over the local merchant gentry by ap-
under way since the 1920s.* [84]* [85] pointments to advisory councils and neighborhood watch
groups. The policy worked well for Japan and produced
extensive collaboration from both the elite and the mid-
India dle class, with far less terror than in other Chinese cities.
Hong Kong was transformed into a Japanese colony, with
Main article: India in World War II Japanese businesses replacing the British. However, the
Japanese Empire had severe logistical difficulties and
by 1943 the food supply for Hong Kong was problem-
During World War II, India was a colony of Britain known
atic. The overlords became more brutal and corrupt, and
as British Raj. Britain declared war on behalf of India
* the Chinese gentry became disenchanted. With the sur-
without consulting with Indian leaders. [86] This resulted
* render of Japan the transition back to British rule was
in resignation of Congress Ministries. [87]
smooth, for on the mainland the Nationalist and Com-
The British recruited some 2.5 million Indian volunteers, munists forces were preparing for a civil war and ignored
who played major roles as soldiers in the Middle East, Hong Kong. In the long run the occupation strengthened
North Africa, and Burma in the British Indian Army. In- the pre-war social and economic order among the Chi-
dia became the main base for British operations against nese business community by eliminating some conflicts
Japan, and for American efforts to support China. of interests and reducing the prestige and power of the
*
In Bengal, with an elected Muslim local government un- British. [91]
der British supervision, the cutoff of rice imports from
Burma led to severe food shortages, made worse by mal-
administration. Prices soared and millions starved be- 5.5.4 Axis
cause they could not buy food. In the Bengal famine of
1943, three million people died.* [88] Germany
A small anti-British force of about 40,000 men (and a few
Germany had not fully mobilized in 1939, nor even in
women) formed in Southeast Asia, the Indian National
1941. Not until 1943, under Albert Speer (the minister
Army (INA) under Subhas Chandra Bose. It was under
of armaments in the Reich), did Germany finally redi-
Japanese army control and performed poorly in combat.
rect its entire economy and manpower to war produc-
Its members were captured Indian soldiers from British
tion. Instead of using all available Germans, it brought
Indian Army who gained release from extreme condi-
in millions of foreign workers from conquered countries,
tions in POW camps by joining the Japanese-sponsored
treating them badly (and getting low productivity in re-
INA. It participated in Battle Of Kohima and Battle of
turn).* [92] Germany's economy was simply too small for
Imphal. In postwar Indian politics, some Indians called
a longer all-out war. Hitler's strategy was to change this
them heroes.
by a series of surprise blitzkriegs. This failed with defeats
The Congress Party in 1942 demanded immediate in- in Russia in 1941 and 1942, and against the economic
dependence, which Britain rejected. Congress then de- power of the allies.* [93]
manded the British immediately "Quit India" in Au-
gust 1942, but the Raj responded by immediately jail-
ing tens of thousands of national, state and regional lead- Forced labour Main article: Forced labour under
ers; knocking Congress out of the war. Meanwhile, the German rule during World War II
Muslim League supported the war effort and gained pres-
254 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Instead of expanding the economies of the occupied

nations, the Nazis seized the portable machinery and
rail cars, requisitioned most of their industrial output,
took large quantities of food (15% of French output),
and forced the victims to pay for their military occupa-
tion.* [94]
The Nazis forced 15 million people to work in Germany
(including POWs); many died from bad living condi-
tions, mistreatment, malnutrition, and executions. At
its peak, forced laborers comprised 20% of the German
work force and were a vital part of the German economic
exploitation of the conquered territories. They were espe-
cially concentrated in munitions and agriculture.* [95] For
example, 1.5 million French soldiers were kept in POW
camps in Germany as hostages and forced workers and,
in 1943, 600,000 French civilians were forced to move to
Germany to work in war plants.* [96]

Economy Although Germany had about double the

population of Britain (80 million versus 40 million), it
had to use far more labor to provide food and energy.
Britain imported food and employed only a million peo- Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, head of the women's wing of the Nazi
Party as well as the Woman's Bureau in the German Labor Front
ple (5% of the labour force) on farms, while Germany
used 11 million (27%). For Germany to build its twelve
synthetic oil plants with a capacity of 3.3 million tons a
year required 2.4 million tons of structural steel and 7.5
Rationing Rationing in Germany was introduced in
million man-days of labor. (Britain imported all its oil
1939 immediately upon the outbreak of hostilities. Hitler
from Iraq, Persia and North America). To overcome this
was at first convinced that it would affect public support
problem, Germany employed millions of forced laborers
for the war if a strict rationing program was introduced.
and POWs; by 1944, they had brought in more than five
The Nazi popularity was in fact partially due to the fact
million civilian workers and nearly two million prisoners
that Germany under the Nazis was relatively prosperous,
of war̶a total of 7.13 million foreign workers.
and Hitler did not want to lose popularity or faith. Hitler
felt that food and other shortages had been a major factor
in destroying civilian morale during World War I which
led to defeatism and surrender.
Despite the rationing, civilians had sufficient amounts of
food and clothing; witness Howard K. Smith later wrote
that "[f]or a people engaged in a life-and-death war ... the
German people for two years of war ate amazingly well.”
The meat ration, for example, was 500g per week per per-
son. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in
June 1941, however, this changed to 400g per week, then
fell further. Estimating that the meat ration had dropped
by up to 80% in five months of fighting in Russia, and cit-
ing many other changes in living conditions that suddenly
occurred, Smith wrote that by the time he left Germany
in late 1941,“for the first time ... the German people are
Teenage girls in agricultural work in the occupied territories, one undernourished".* [97] The system gave extra rations for
of the possible duties assigned by the Bund Deutscher Mädel men involved in heavy industry, and extremely low star-
(League of Young German Women), the female version of the
vation rations for Jews and Poles in the areas occupied
Hitler Youth, with compulsory membership for girls. The caption
in Das Deutsche Mädel, in its May 1942 issue, states: “bringing
by Germany, but not to the Poles inside Germany many
all the enthusiasm and life force of their youth, our young daugh- of whom had been brought in to perform heavy labor in
ters of the Work Service make their contribution in the German German war industries.
territories regained in the East According to a 1997 post by Walter Felscher to the
“Memories of the 1940s”electronic mailing list:
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 255

For every person, there were rationing Displaced persons The conquest of Germany in 1945
cards for general foodstuffs, meats, fats (such freed 11 million foreigners, called “displaced persons”
as butter, margarine and oil) and tobacco prod- (DPs)- chiefly forced laborers and POWs. In addition to
ucts distributed every other month. The cards the POWs, the Germans seized 2.8 million Soviet work-
were printed on strong paper, containing nu- ers to labor in factories in Germany. Returning them
merous small “Marken”subdivisions printed home was a high priority for the Allies. However, in the
with their value – for example, from “5 g case of Russians and Ukrainians returning often meant
Butter”to “100 g Butter”. Every acquisi- suspicion or prison or even death. The UNRRA, Red
tion of rationed goods required an appropriate Cross and military operations provided food, clothing,
“Marken”, and if a person wished to eat a cer- shelter and assistance in returning home. In all, 5.2 mil-
tain soup at a restaurant, the waiter would take lion were repatriated to the Soviet Union, 1.6 million to
out a pair of scissors and cut off the required Poland, 1.5 million to France, and 900,000 to Italy, along
items to make the soup and amounts listed on with 300,000 to 400,000 each to Yugoslavia, Czechoslo-
the menu. In the evenings, restaurant-owners vakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, and Belgium.* [101]
would spend an hour at least gluing the col-
lected “Marken”onto large sheets of paper
which they then had to hand in to the appropri- Refugees In 1944–45, over 2.5 million ethnic Germans
ate authorities.* [98] fled from Eastern Europe in family groups, desperately
hoping to reach Germany before being overtaken by the
Russians.* [102]* [103] Half a million died in the process,
The amounts available under rationing were sufficient to the survivors were herded into refugee camps in East and
live from, but clearly did not permit luxuries. Whipped West Germany for years. Meanwhile, Moscow encour-
cream became unknown from 1939 until 1948, as well as aged its troops to regard German women as targets for
chocolates, cakes with rich crèmes etc. Meat could not revenge. Russian Marshal Georgi Zhukov called on his
be eaten every day. Other items were not rationed, but troops to,“Remember our brothers and sisters, our moth-
simply became unavailable as they had to be imported ers and fathers, our wives and children tortured to death
from overseas: coffee in particular, which throughout was by Germans....We shall exact a brutal revenge for every-
replaced by substitutes made from roasted grains. Veg- thing.”Upwards of two million women inside Germany
etables and local fruit were not rationed; imported citrus were raped in 1945 in a tidal wave of looting, burning and
fruits and bananas were unavailable. In more rural areas, vengeance.* [104]
farmers continued to bring their products to the markets,
as large cities depended on long distance delivery. Many
Japan
people kept rabbits for their meat when it became scarce
in shops, and it was often a child's job to care for them
The Japanese home front was not well organized, as the
each day.
government paid more attention to propaganda and not
enough on mobilization of manpower, identification of
critical choke points, food supplies, logistics, air raid shel-
Nursing Germany had a very large and well organized ters, and the evacuation of civilians from targeted cities.
There was only a small increase of 1.4 million women
nursing service, with three main organizations, one for
Catholics, one for Protestants, and the DRK (Red Cross). entering the labor force between 1940 and 1944. The
minister of welfare announced, “In order to secure its
In 1934 the Nazis set up their own nursing unit, the Brown
nurses, and absorbed one of the smaller groups, bringing labor force, the enemy is drafting women, but in Japan,
out of consideration for the family system, we will not
it up to 40,000 members. It set up kindergartens, hoping *
to seize control of the minds of the younger Germans, in draft them.” [105]
competition with the other nursing organizations. Civil- The failure of the maximum utilization of womanpower
ian psychiatric nurses who were Nazi party members par- was indicated by the presence of 600,000 domestic ser-
ticipated in the killing of invalids, although the process vants in wealthy families in 1944. The government
was shrouded in euphemisms and denials.* [99] wanted to raise the birthrate, even with 8.2 million men
Military nursing was primarily handled by the DRK, in the armed forces, of whom three million were killed.
which came under partial Nazi control. Frontline med- Government incentives help to raise the marriage rate, but
ical services were provided by male doctors and medics. the number of births held steady at about 2.2 million per
Red Cross nurses served widely within the military medi- year, with a 10% decline in 1944–45, and another 15%
cal services, staffing the hospitals that perforce were close decline in 1945–46. Strict rationing of milk led to smaller
to the front lines and at risk of bombing attacks. Two babies. There was little or no long-term impact on the
dozen were awarded the highly prestigious Iron Cross for overall demographic profile of Japan.* [106]
heroism under fire. They are among the 470,000 German The government began making evacuation plans in late
women who served with the military.* [100] 1943, and started removing entire schools in 1944;
256 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

sions.* [111]

Deaths The American aerial bombing of a total of 65

Japanese cities took from 400,000 to 600,000 civilian
lives, with 100,000+ in Tokyo alone, over 200,000 in Hi-
roshima and Nagasaki combined. The Battle of Okinawa
resulted in 80,000–150,000 civilian deaths. In addition
civilian death among settlers who died attempting to re-
turn to Japan from Manchuria in the winter of 1945 were
probably around 100,000. The total of Japanese military
fatalities between 1937 and 1945 were 2.1 million; most
came in the last year of the war and were caused by starva-
tion or severe malnutrition in garrisons cut off from sup-
plies.* [113]
Japanese Schoolchildren evacuating to rural areas in 1944

Condition at war's end Health and living conditions

450,000 children were moved̶with their teachers but worsened after the surrender in September 1945. Most
not their parents. When the American bombing began of the housing stock in large cities was destroyed, just
in earnest in late 1944, 10 million people fled the cities as refugees tried to return from the rural areas. Adding
to the safety of the countryside, including two-thirds of to the crisis there was an influx of 3.5 million returning
the residents of the largest cities and 87% of the chil- soldiers and 3.1 million Japanese civilians forcibly repa-
dren. Left behind were the munitions workers and gov- triated from Imperial outposts in Manchuria, China, In-
ernment officials. By April 1945, 87% of the younger dochina, Formosa, Korea, Saipan and the Philippines;
children had been moved to the countryside. Civil de- about 400,000 civilians were left behind and not heard
fense units were transformed into combat units, especially of again. Meanwhile, 1.2 million Koreans, POWs and
the Peoples Volunteer Combat Corps, enlisting civilian other non-Japanese left Japan. The government imple-
men up to the age of 60 and women to age 40. They mented pro-natalist policies, which led to an increase in
were trained with bamboo pikes, since serious weapons the marriage rate, but birth rates remained steady until
were lacking; the media advocated“the Laureates Death they declined by 10% in the stress of the last year of the
of One Hundred Million”to defend the nation. Health war, and another 15% during the hardship of the postwar
conditions became much worse after the surrender in period.* [114]
September 1945, with so much housing stock destroyed, The American bombing campaign of all major cities
and an additional 6.6 million Japanese repatriated from severely impacted the economy, as did the shortages of
Manchuria, China, Indochina, Formosa, Korea, Saipan oil and raw materials that intensified when Japanese mer-
and the Philippines.* [107] chant shipping was mostly sunk by American submarines.
When industrial production was available to the military,
for example, 24 percent of Japan's finished steel in 1937
Food Agricultural production in the home islands held was allocated to the military, compared to 85 percent in
up well during the war until the bombing started. It fell 1945.* [115] By the end of the war, output percent of the
from an index of 110 in 1942 to 84 in 1944 and only 65 highest capacity was still 100 percent for steel, although
in 1945. Worse, imports dried up.* [108] The Japanese only 75 percent for aluminum, 63 percent for machine
food rationing system was effective throughout the war, tools, 42 percent for vacuum tubes, 54 percent cement,
and there were no serious incidences of malnutrition. A 32 percent cotton fabric, and 36 percent for wool.* [116]
government survey in Tokyo showed that in 1944 fam-
ilies depended on the black market for 9% of their rice,
38% of their fish, and 69% of their vegetables.* [109] The 5.5.5 Famines
Japanese domestic food supply depended, however, on
imports, which were largely cut off by the American sub- Severe food shortages were common throughout the war
marine and bombing campaigns. Likewise there was little zones, especially in Europe where Germany used starva-
deep sea fishing, so that the fish ration by 1941 was mostly tion as a military weapon. Japan did not use it as a delib-
squid harvested from coastal waters. The result was a erate policy, but the breakdown of its transportation and
growing food shortage, especially in the cities. There was distribution systems led to famine and starvation condi-
some malnutrition but no reported starvation.* [110] De- tions among its soldiers on many Pacific islands.* [117]
spite government rationing of food, some families were Bose (1990) studies the three great Asian famines that
forced to spend more than their monthly income could took place during the war: Bengal in India, Honan in
offer on black market food purchases. They would rely China, and Tonkin in Vietnam. In each famine at least
on savings or exchange food for clothes or other posses- two million people died. They all occurred in densely
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 257

populated provinces where the subsistence foundations of [6] Rod Kedward, Occupied France: Collaboration And Re-
agriculture was failing under the weight of demographic sistance 1940–1944 (1991)
and market pressures. In each cases famine played a role
[7] Matthew Cobb, The Resistance: The French Fight against
in undermining the legitimacy of the state and the preex- the Nazis (2009)
isting social structure.* [118]
[8] Julian Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944
(2003)
5.5.6 Housing
[9] Sarah Fishman, We Will Wait: Wives of French Prisoners
of War, 1940–1945 (1991).
A great deal of housing was destroyed or largely dam-
aged during the war, especially in the Soviet Union,* [119] [10] Miranda Pollard, Reign of Virtue: Mobilizing Gender in
Germany, and Japan. In Japan, about a third of the Vichy France (1998)
families were homeless at the end of the war.* [120] In
Germany, about 25% of the total housing stock was de- [11] Hanna Diamond, Women and the Second World War in
France, 1939–1948: Choices and Constraints (1999)
stroyed or heavily damaged; in the main cities the propor-
tion was about 45%.* [121] Elsewhere in Europe, 22% [12] E. M. Collingham , The Taste of War: World War Two
of the prewar housing in Poland was totally destroyed; and the Battle for Food (2011)
21% in Greece; 9% in Austria, 8% in the Netherlands;
8% in France, 7% in Britain, 5% Italy and 4% in Hun- [13] Kenneth Mouré, “Food Rationing and the Black Market
in France (1940–1944),”French History, June 2010, Vol.
gary.* [122]
24 Issue 2, p 272-3

[14] Mattapan. 2010. Vitamin D. Available from: http://www.

5.5.7 See also mattapanchc.org/more_vitamin_d.html

• Women's roles in the World Wars#World War II [15] British Library. 2005. 1900s food. Available
from: http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/booksforcooks/
• Lotta Svärd 1900s/1900sfood.html

• Rosie the Riveter [16] Mouré,“Food Rationing and the Black Market in France
(1940–1944)" pp 262–282,
• Squander Bug
[17] C. Banning, C. “Food Shortage and Public Health, First
• Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during Half of 1945,”Annals of the American Academy of Polit-
World War II ical and Social Science Vol. 245, The Netherlands during
German Occupation (May 1946), pp. 93–110 in JSTOR
• Utility furniture
[18] Lizzie Collingham, Taste of War: World War II and the
• Veronica Foster Battle for Food (2011) pp 180–218
• Women's Land Army [19] Mark Rutherford, Prelude to the final solution
• Military production during World War II [20] Richard Lukas, The Other Holocaust

[21] Jan Gross, Polish Society Under German Occupation

5.5.8 References
[22] Roland, Charles G (1992). “Scenes of Hunger and Star-
vation”. Courage Under Siege : Disease, Starvation and
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[1] Martin Conway, Collaboration in Belgium: Leon Degrelle
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[23] “Odot” (PDF). Jerusalem: Yad Vashem.
[2] Bob Moore,“Jewish Self-Help and Rescue in the Nether-
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1970, p.226 volume 2
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[26] Davies (2004)
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[5] Peter Williams and David Wallace, Unit 731: Japan's [28] John Barber and Mark Harrison, The Soviet Home Front,
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1989). World War II (1991) p. 77.
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[29] Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945 [50] Robin Havers, The Second World War: Europe, 1939–
pp 81, 85–86. 1943 (2002) Volume 4, p 75

[30] Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945 [51] W.K. Hancock, W.K. and M. Gowing, British War Econ-
pp 91–93. omy (1949)

[31] Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945 [52] Arthur Marwick, Britain in the Century of Total War:
pp 86–87. Peace and Social Change, 1900–67 (1968), p. 258

[32] Richard Bidlack,“Survival Strategies in Leningrad during [53] Calder, The People's War: Britain, 1939–45 (1969) pp
the First Year of the Soviet-German War,”in The People's 276–83, 411–30
War: Responses to World WarII in the Soviet Union, eds.
Robert W. Thurston and Bernd Bonwetsch (Urbana: Uni- [54] Marwick, Britain in the Century of Total War: Peace and
versity of Illinois Press, 2000), 88. Social Change, 1900–67 (1968), pp. 292–94, 258

[33] Bidlack, “Survival Strategies in Leningrad,”p 89. [55] Postan (1952), Chapter 4.

[34] Bidlack, “Survival Strategies in Leningrad,”pp 93–94. [56] Hancock, British War Economy online p 353

[35] Bidlack, “Survival Strategies in Leningrad,”p 97. [57] see “Sources for the History of London 1939–45: Ra-
tioning”History in Focus: War
[36] Bidlack, “Survival Strategies in Leningrad,”p 98.
[58] Calder, The People's War: Britain, 1939–45 (1969) pp
[37]“World War II: Civic Responsibility”(PDF). Smithsonian 276–83
Institution. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
[59] A.J.P. Taylor, English History 1914–1945 (1965) p 454
[38] Alecea Standlee, “Shifting Spheres: Gender, Labor
and the Construction of National Identity in U.S. Propa- [60] Calder, The People's War (1969) pp 35–50
ganda during the Second World War,”Minerva Journal [61] Brian Barton,“The Belfast Blitz: April–May 1941,”His-
of Women & War Spring 2010, Vol. 4 Issue 1, pp 43–62 tory Ireland, (1997) 5#3 pp 52–57
[39]“World War II”in Ronald E. Dolan, ed. Philippines: A [62] Robson S. Davison, “The Belfast Blitz,”Irish Sword:
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[40] Bernard Norling, The Intrepid Guerrillas of North Luzon 16#63 pp 65–83
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[41] Dear and Foot, eds. Oxford Companion to World War II Relations and Strikes in Northern Ireland in World War
pp 877–79 Two,”Labour History Review (2005) 70#1 pp 5–25

[42] Francis K. Danquah, “Reports on Philippine Industrial [64] F. M. Leventhal, Twentieth-Century Britain: an Encyclo-
Crops in World War II from Japan's English Language pedia (1995) pp 74–75, 830
Press,”Agricultural History (2005) 79#1 pp. 74–96 in [65] Brian Abel‐Smith,“The Beveridge report: Its origins and
JSTOR outcomes.”International Social Security Review (1992)
[43] Stanley Karnow, In Our Image: America's Empire in the 45#1‐2 pp 5–16. online
Philippines (1989) pp 308–9 [66] Jose Harris,“War and social history: Britain and the home
[44] Satoshi Ara,“Food supply problem in Leyte, Philippines, front during the Second World War,”Contemporary Eu-
during the Japanese Occupation (1942–44),”Journal of ropean History (1992) 1#1 pp 17–35.
Southeast Asian Studies (2008) 39#1 pp 59–82. [67] Paul Addison . “The Impact of the Second World War,”
[45] Francis K. Danquah, “Japan's Food Farming Policies in in Paul Addison and Harriet Jones, eds. A Companion to
Wartime Southeast Asia: The Philippine Example, 1942– Contemporary Britain: 1939–2000 (2005) pp 3–22
1944,”Agricultural History (1990) 64#3 pp. 60–80 in [68] See BBC, “WW2 People's War”(2006)
JSTOR
[69]
[46] Alfredo G. Parpan, “The Japanese and the Philippine
Church, 1942–45,”Philippine Studies (1989) 37#4 pp [70] Until November 1939, the Neutrality Acts prohibited the
451–466. export of arms from the United States to belligerents.

[47] Victory Gosiengfiao, “The Japanese Occupation: 'The [71] James Pritchard, A Bridge of Ships: Canadian Shipbuild-
Cultural Campaign,'" Philippine Studies (1966) 14#2 pp ing during the Second World War (2011)
228–242.
[72] Keesing's Contemporary Archives Volume IV-V, Novem-
[48] Mark Donnelly, Britain in the Second World War (1999) ber, 1943 p. 6099
is a short survey
[73] Ivana Caccia, Managing the Canadian Mosaic in Wartime:
[49] Angus Calder, The People's War: Britain, 1939–45 (1969) Shaping Citizenship Policy, 1939–1945 (McGill-Queen's
is the standard scholarly history. University Press, 2010)
5.5. HOME FRONT DURING WORLD WAR II 259

[74] Roger Daniels, “The Decisions to Relocate the North [95] Panikos Panayi, “Exploitation, Criminality, Resistance.
American Japanese: Another Look,”Pacific Historical Re- The Everyday Life of Foreign Workers and Prisoners of
view, February 1982, Vol. 51 Issue 1, pp 71–77 War in the German Town of Osnabrück, 1939–49,”Jour-
nal of Contemporary History Vol. 40, No. 3 (Jul., 2005),
[75] Ken Adachi, The Enemy that Never Was: A History of the pp. 483–502 in JSTOR
Japanese Canadians (1976)
[96] Ulrich Herbert, “Forced Laborers in the 'Third Reich'",
[76] Patricia E. Roy, The Triumph of Citizenship: The Japanese International Labor and Working-Class History (1997)
and Chinese in Canada 1941–1967 (2007) Archived April 15, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.

[77] Ruth Roach Pierson,“They're Still Women After All,”The [97] Smith, Howard K. (1942). Last Train from Berlin. Knopf.
Second World War and Canadian Womanhood (McClel- pp. 115–116, 120–131.
land & Stewart, 1986) p 9.
[98] Felscher, Walter (1997-01-27).“Recycling and rationing
[78] Gavin Long, The Six Years War (1973) p. 474. in wartime Germany.”. Memories of the 1940's mailing
list archive. Retrieved 2006-09-28. External link in |pub-
[79] Frank Crowley, ed. A New History Of Australia (1977) pp lisher= (help)
459–503
[99] Bronwyn Rebekah McFarland-Icke, Nurses in Nazi Ger-
many (Princeton University Press, 1999)
[80] Geoffrey Bolton, The Oxford History of Australia: Volume
5: 1942–1995. The Middle Way (2005) [100] Gordon Williamson, World War II German Women's Aux-
iliary Services (2003) pp 34–36
[81] Eli Daniel Potts and A. Potts, Yanks Down Under, 1941–
1945: The American Impact on Australia (1986) [101] William I. Hitchcock, The Bitter Road to Freedom: The
Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe
[82] Walter Yust, Ten Eventful Years: 1937–1946 (1947) 3: (2008), pp 250–56
347–52
[102] Michael R. Marrus, The Unwanted: European Refugees in
[83] J. V. T. Baker War Economy (1965), the official history; the 20th Century (1985) ch 5
and Nancy M. Taylor, The Home Front Volume I NZ of-
ficial history (1986); Volume II [103] Richard Bessell, Germany: 1945 (2009)

[104] Hitchcock, The Bitter Road to Freedom: (2008) pp 160–

[84] Deborah Montgomerie, “The Limitations of Wartime
61; quote p. 161 online
Change: Women War Workers in New Zealand,”New
Zealand Journal of History (1989) 23#1 pp 68–86 [105] Thomas R. H. Havens, Valley of Darkness: The Japanese
People and World War Two (1978) p 108
[85] On the home front see Gwen Parsons,“The New Zealand
Home Front during World War One and World War Two,” [106] Havens (1978), pp 135–37
History Compass (2013) 11#6 pp 419–428, online
[107] Havens (1978), pp 145, 154 161–3, 167
[86] « Making Britain: Second World War (1939–1945) »,
The Open University. [108] Nakamura, Takafusa, et al. eds. Economic History of
Japan 1914–1955: A Dual Structure (vol 3 2003), 326
[87] S. N. Sen, History: Modern India (2006) (online) – 32.

[88] Paul R. Greenough, Prosperity and Misery in Modern Ben- [109] Havens, 125
gal: The Famine of 1943–1944 (1982) [110] Collingham. The Taste of War (2011) pp 228–47
[89] Snow, Philip (2004). The Fall Of Hong Kong: Britain, [111] ""Food Situation,”November 2, 1945, Asahi, In Press
China and the Japanese Occupation. Yale U.P. p. 81. Translations Japan, Social series, No. 1, Item 3, Pages 2-
3, ATIS, G2, SCAP, November 5, 1945.”. Dartmouth
[90] Jung-Fang Tsai,“Wartime Experience, Collective Mem- Digital Library. 2 Nov 1945. Retrieved 26 Oct 2015.
ories and Hong Kong Identity, China Review International
(2005) 12#1 pp 229+ online [112] Cohen, (1949) Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruc-
tion p 368-9
[91] Wei-Bin Zhang (2006). Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of
British Mastery And Chinese Docile-Diligence. Nova Pub- [113] John Dower, “Lessons from Iwo Jima,”Perspectives
lishers. p. 109. (September 2007) 45#6 pp 54–56 at

[92] Richard Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich [114] Havens (1978)
(1994) [115] Nakamura, Takafusa, et al. eds. Economic History of
Japan 1914–1955: A Dual Structure (vol 3 2003), p 291
[93] Adam Tooze, Wages of Destruction: The Making and
Breaking of the Nazi Economy (2006) pp. 429seq. [116] Nakamura, p 298

[94] Edward L. Homze, Foreign Labor in Nazi Germany (1967) [117] Collinham (2011)
 260 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

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• Nakamura, Takafusa, et al. eds. Economic History
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• Dallin, Alexander. Odessa, 1941–1944: A Case used in concentration camps as Kapos to report on other
Study of Soviet Territory under Foreign Rule. Port- prisoners and enforce order. Others governed ghettos
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• Thurston, Robert W., and Bernd Bonwetsch, eds.
into the Italian armed forces. A fascist Albanian Militia
The People's War: Responses to World War II in the
was also formed and in the Yugoslav part of Kosovo they
Soviet Union (2000)
established Vulnetari (or Kosovars) a volunteer militia of
• Vallin, Jacques; Meslé, France; Adamets, Serguei; Albanians from Kosovo. Ethnic Albanian elements of the
and Pyrozhkov, Serhii. “A New Estimate of Italian armed forces participated in the Italian invasion
Ukrainian Population Losses During the Crises of of Greece, and German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia.
the 1930s and 1940s.”Population Studies (2002) After the capitulation of Italy, the Germans stepped in
56(3): 249–264. in JSTOR Reports life expectancy and established more collaborationist units such as po-
at birth fell to a level as low as ten years for females lice volunteer regiments and a national militia. In an-
and seven for males in 1933 and plateaued around 25 nexed Kosovo, the Germans established the Kosovo Reg-
for females and 15 for males in the period 1941–44. iment out of Balli Kombëtar forces. In April 1943, Re-
ichsfuhrer-SS Heinrich Himmler created the 21st Waf-
fen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Alba-
nian) manned by Albanians and Kosovar Albanians. By
5.6 Collaboration with the Axis June 1944, its military value against the Albanian and
Powers during World War II Yugoslav Partisans was considered poor, and by Novem-
ber 1944 it had been disbanded. The remaining cadre,
now called Kampfgruppe Skanderbeg, was transferred to
Within nations occupied by the Axis Powers, some
the Prinz Eugen Division where they successfully partici-
citizens, driven by nationalism, ethnic hatred, anti-
pated in actions against Josip Broz Tito's partisans in De-
Communism, anti-Semitism, or opportunism knowingly
cember 1944.* [5] The emblem of the division was a black
engaged in collaboration with the Axis Powers dur-
Albanian eagle.* [6]
ing World War II. These collaborationists committed
some of the worst war crimes, crimes against humanity
and atrocities of the Holocaust.* [1] Belgium
Collaboration is“a co-operation between elements of the
population of a defeated state and the representatives of Main article: German occupation of Belgium during
the victorious power”.* [2] Stanley Hoffmann subdivided World War II
collaboration into involuntary (reluctant recognition of Belgium was invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940
necessity) and voluntary (exploiting necessity).* [3] Ac-
cording to him, collaborationism can be subdivided into
servile and ideological ; the former is a deliberate ser-
vice to an enemy, whereas the latter is a deliberate ad-
vocacy of co-operation with the foreign force which is
seen as a champion of some desirable domestic transfor-
mations.* [3] In contrast, Bertram Gordon used the terms
“collaborator”and“collaborationist”for non-ideological
and ideological collaborations, respectively.* [4]

5.6.1 Requirements for collaboration

The Nazis did not consider everyone equally fit for coop-

eration. Even people from closely related nations were A Vlaams Nationaal Verbond (VNV) meeting in Ghent in 1941
often valued differently in accordance with Nazi racial
theories. The Jews were considered to be worst of all and remained under German occupation until the end of
races and thus unfit for cooperation, although some were 1944.
266 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Political collaboration took separate forms across the was the Reformed Government of the Republic of China,
Belgian language divide. In Dutch-speaking Flanders, setup in Nanjing in 1938. The Wang Jingwei collabora-
the Vlaams Nationaal Verbond (Flemish National Union tionist government, established in 1940, “consolidated”
or VNV), an authoritarian party and part of the pre-war these regimes, though in reality neither Wang's govern-
Flemish Movement, became a major part of the Ger- ment nor the constituent governments had any auton-
man occupation strategy and VNV politicians were pro- omy, although the military of the Wang Jingwei Govern-
moted to positions in the Belgian civil administration. ment was equipped by the Japanese with planes, cannons,
VNV's comparatively moderate stance meant that it was tanks, boats, and German-style stahlhelm (already widely
increasingly eclipsed later in the war by the more-radical used by the National Revolutionary Army, the “official”
and pro-German DeVlag movement. In French-speaking army of the Republic of China).
Wallonia, Léon Degrelle's Rexist Party, a pre-war author-
The military forces of these puppet regimes, known col-
itarian and Catholic Fascist political party, became the lectively as the Collaborationist Chinese Army, num-
VNV's Walloon equivalent, although Rex's Belgian na-
bered more than a million at their height, with some es-
tionalist stance put it at odds with the Flemish national- timates that the number exceeded 2 million conscripts.
ism of VNV and the German Flamenpolitik. Rex became Great numbers of collaborationist troops were men origi-
increasingly radical after 1941 and declared itself part of nally serving in warlord forces within the National Revo-
the Waffen SS. After the German invasion of the Soviet lutionary Army who had defected when facing both Com-
Union, Rex helped support the creation of a military unit munists and Japanese as enemies. Although its manpower
to fight alongside German troops on the Eastern Front, the was very large, the soldiers were very ineffective com-
Walloon Legion, and a similar Flemish Legion was cre- pared to NRA soldiers due to low morale for being con-
ated in Flanders. Both began as formations in the Ger- sidered as "Hanjian". Although certain collaborationist
man regular army but would eventually become part of forces had limited battlefield presence during the Second
the Waffen SS. Sino-Japanese War, most were relegated to behind-the-
Although the pre-war Belgian government went into ex- line duties.
ile in 1940, the Belgian civil service was left in place for The Wang Jingwei government was disbanded after
much of the occupation. The Committee of Secretaries- Japanese surrender to Allies in 1945, and Manchukuo
General, an administrative panel of civil servants, was and Mengjiang were destroyed by Soviet troops in the
created to coordinate the state's activities and, although invasion of Manchuria.
it was intended to be a purely techocratic institution, has
been accused of helping implement German occupation
policies. The Belgian police have also been accused of Czechoslovakia
collaborating during the occupation, especially in The
Holocaust in Belgium. Main article: German occupation of Czechoslovakia

Burma With the German annexation of Czechoslovakia between

1938–39, the country was divided. Most of the Czech
Main articles: State of Burma and Burma National Army part of pre-war Czechoslovakia was reconstituted into
Bohemia and Moravia, a protectorate of Nazi Germany.
The Protectorate had its own military forces, including a
The Japanese invasion was assisted by Burmese national-
12-battalion 'government army', police and gendamerie.
ists known as Burma Independence Army, who hoped for
The majority of the 'government army' was sent to north-
independence. They were later transformed into Burma
ern Italy in 1944 as labor and guard troops.* [8]
National Army as the armed forces of State of Burma.
Minority groups were also armed by Japanese, such as the The Slovak Republic (Slovenská republika) was a quasi-
Arakan Defense Army and the Chin Defense Army.* [7] independent ethnic-Slovak state which existed from 14
March 1939 to 8 May 1945 as an ally and client state of
Nazi Germany. The Slovak Republic existed on roughly
China the same territory as present-day Slovakia (with the ex-
ception of the southern and eastern parts of present-day
The Japanese set up several puppet regimes in occupied Slovakia). The Republic bordered Germany, the Bo-
Chinese territories. The first of which was Manchukuo hemia and Moravia, Poland, and Hungary.
in 1932, followed by the East Hebei Autonomous Coun-
cil in 1935. Similar to Manchukuo in its supposed eth-
nic identity, Mengjiang (Mengkukuo) was set up in late Denmark
1936. Wang Kemin's collaborationist Provisional Gov-
ernment of the Republic of China was set up in Beijing Main article: German occupation of Denmark
in 1937 following the start of full-scale military opera- At 04:15 on 9 April 1940 (Danish standard time), Ger-
tions between China and Japan, another puppet regime man forces crossed the border into neutral Denmark, in
5.6. COLLABORATION WITH THE AXIS POWERS DURING WORLD WAR II 267

mark) was founded as a corps of Danish volunteers to

fight against the Soviet Union. Frikorps Danmark was
set up at the initiative of the SS and National Socialist
Workers' Party of Denmark (DNSAP) who approached
Lieutenant-Colonel C.P. Kryssing of the Danish army
shortly after the invasion of the USSR had begun. Ac-
cording to Danish law, it was not illegal to join a for-
eign army, but active recruiting on Danish soil was ille-
gal. German authorities disregarded this law and began
recruiting efforts and ultimately 12,000 Danish citizens
volunteered for German army duty of which 6,000 were
approved for service.* [15] After the war it was retroac-
Members of Free Corps Denmark leaving for the East Front from tively made illegal to have served in the German army
Hellerup Station in Copenhagen and many of the returning soldiers given long prison sen-
tences.* [16]
Industrial production and trade was, partly due to geopo-
violation of a German–Danish treaty of non-aggression litical reality and economic necessity, redirected towards
signed the previous year. After two hours the Danish gov- Germany. Many government officials saw expanded
ernment surrendered, believing that resistance was use- trade with Germany as vital to maintaining social order
less and hoping to work out an advantageous agreement in Denmark.* [17] It was feared increased unemployment
with Germany. As a result of the cooperative attitude and poverty could lead to civil unrest which would re-
of the Danish authorities, German officials claimed that sult in a crackdown by the German authorities.* [18] The
they would “respect Danish sovereignty and territorial Danish government and King Christian X repeatedly dis-
integrity, as well as neutrality.”* [9] The German authori- couraged sabotage and encouraged informing on the re-
ties were inclined towards lenient terms with Denmark for sistance movement, an activity some were sentenced to
several reasons which allowed Denmark a favorable rela- death for, after the war.* [19]* [20] The structure of the
tionship with Nazi Germany. The government remained Danish unemployment system meant that unemployment
intact and the parliament continued to function more or benefits could be denied if jobs were available in Ger-
less as it had before, maintaining control over domestic many and this practice was widely followed resulting in
policy.* [10] Danish public opinion generally backed the an average of some 20.000 Danes working in German
new government, particularly after the fall of France in factories through the 5 years of the war.* [21]
June 1940.* [11]
In return for these concessions, the Danish cabinet re-
Prior to, during and after the war Denmark enforced a re- jected German demands for legislation discriminating
strictive refugee policy and handed Jewish refugees that against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands to intro-
managed to get over the border over to German author- duce the death penalty were likewise rebuffed and so were
ities. 21 such incidents are known and 18 of the people German demands to allow German military courts juris-
transferred to German custody later died in concentration diction over Danish citizens and demands for the transfer
camps, including a woman and her three children.* [12] In of Danish army units to German military use.
2005 prime minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen officially
apologized for these policies.* [13]
Estonia
Newspaper articles and news reports“which might jeop-
ardize German-Danish relations”were outlawed.* [14]
See also: Estonian war crimes trials and Estonian Inter-
Following the German assault on the Soviet Union on
national Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against
22 June 1941, German authorities demanded that Danish
Humanity
communists be arrested. The Danish government com- Although the Estonian Self-Administration did not have
plied and directed the police to arrest 339 communists
complete freedom of action, it exercised a significant
using secret registers. Of these, 246, including the three
measure of autonomy, within the framework of German
communist members of the Danish parliament, were im-
policy, political, racial and economic. Thus, the Direc-
prisoned in the Horserød camp, in violation of the Danish
tors exercised their powers pursuant to the laws and reg-
constitution. On 22 August 1941, the Danish parliament
ulations of the Republic of Estonia, but only to the ex-
passed the Communist Law, outlawing the communist tent that these had not been repealed or amended by the
party and communist activities, in another violation of
German military command. The Director's position was
the Danish constitution. In 1943, about half of the im-
voluntary. The Self-Administration's autonomy enabled
prisoned communists were transferred to Stutthof con-
it to maintain police structures that cooperated with the
centration camp, where 22 of them died. On November
Germans in rounding up and killing Jews and Roma and
25, 1941, Denmark joined the Anti-Comintern Pact. in seeking out and killing Estonians deemed to be oppo-
On 29 June 1941 Frikorps Danmark (Free Corps Den- nents of the occupiers, and it was ultimately incorporated
268 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Nazi Estonian Legion Waffen SS recruiting center.

into the Estonian Security Police and SD. It also extended

to the unlawful conscription of Estonians for forced labor
or for military service under German command.* [22]
The Estonian Security Police and SD,* [23] the 286th, Waffen SS recruiting center in Calais, Northern France pho-
287th and 288th Estonian Auxiliary Police Battalions, tographed shortly after liberation by the Allies.
and 2.5–3% of the Estonian Omakaitse (Home Guard)
militia units (approximately between 1,000 and 1,200
men) were directly involved in criminal acts, taking part
in the rounding-up, guarding or killing of 400–1,000
Roma people and 6,000 Jews in the concentration camps
in the Pskov region, Russia and the Jägala, Vaivara, Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, political opponents, etc. Di-
Klooga and Lagedi camps in Estonia. Guarded by the rected by René Bousquet, the French police helped in the
above-listed formations, 15,000 Soviet POWs died in Es- deportation of 76,000 Jews to the extermination camps.
tonia: some through neglect and mistreatment and some In 1995, President Jacques Chirac officially recognized
through execution.* [22] the responsibility of the French state for the deporta-
tion of Jews during the war, in particular the more than
13,000 victims the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup of July 1942, dur-
France ing which Laval decided, of his own volition (and without
being requested by the occupying German authorities), to
deport children along with their parents. Only 2,500 of
the deported Jews survived the war. The 1943 Battle of
Marseille was another event during which the French po-
lice assisted the Gestapo in a massive raid, which included
an urban reshaping plan involving the destruction of a
whole neighbourhood in the popular Old Port. Some few
collaborators were tried in the 1980s for crimes against
humanity (Paul Touvier, etc.), while Maurice Papon, who
had become after the war prefect of police of Paris (a
function in which he illustrated himself during the 1961
Paris massacre) was convicted in 1998 for crimes against
humanity. He had been Budget Minister under President
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. Other collaborators, such as
Nazi French soldiers in Russia, November 1941. Emile Dewoitine, managed to have important functions
after the war (Dewoitine was eventually named head of
See also: Vichy France Aérospatiale, the firm which created the Concorde plane).
Debates concerning state collaboration remain, in 2008,
The Vichy government, headed by Marshall Philippe Pé- very strong in France.
tain and Pierre Laval, actively collaborated in the exter- The French volunteers formed the Legion of French Vol-
mination of the European Jews. It also participated in unteers Against Bolshevism and the Legion Imperiale,
Porrajmos, the extermination of Roma people, and in the in 1945 the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS
extermination of other“undesirables.”Vichy opened up a Charlemagne (1st French), which was among the final de-
series of concentration camps in France where it interned fenders of Berlin.
5.6. COLLABORATION WITH THE AXIS POWERS DURING WORLD WAR II 269

Brittany Main article: Breton nationalism and World Security Battalions and others. Moreover, small but ac-
War II tive Greek National-Socialist parties, like the Greek Na-
tional Socialist Party of Georgios Merkouris, the ESPO
Breton nationists such as Olier Mordrel and François De- organization or openly anti-semitic organisations, like
beauvais had longstanding links with Nazi Germany be- the National Union of Greece, helped German authori-
cause of their fascist and Nordicist ideologies, linked to ties fight
*
the Resistance, and identify and deport Greek
the belief that the Bretons were a “pure”Celtic branch Jews. [28]
of the Aryan-Nordic race. At the outbreak of the war About one thousand Greeks from Greece and more from
they left France and declared support for Germany. After the Soviet Union, ostensibly avenging their ethnic per-
1940, they returned and their supporters such as Célestin secution from Soviet authorities, joined the Waffen-SS,
Lainé and Yann Goulet organized militias that worked in mostly in Ukrainian divisions. A special case was that
collaboration with the Germans. Lainé and Goulet later of the infamous Ukrainian-Greek Sevastianos Foulidis, a
took refuge in Ireland. fanatical anti-communist who had been recruited by the
Abwehr as early as 1938 and became an official of the
Wehrmacht, with extensive action in intelligence and ag-
French Indochina itation work in the Eastern front.* [29]
See also: Cham Albanian collaboration with the Axis
The Japanese occupation forces kept the French In-
dochina under nominal rule of Vichy France until March
1945. After the French colonial administration was During the Axis occupation, a number of Cham Al-
overthrown, the Japanese supported the establishment banians set up their own administration and militia in
of Empire of Vietnam, Kingdom of Kampuchea and Thesprotia, Greece, subservient to the fascist Balli Kom-
Kingdom of Laos as Japanese puppet states. Vietnamese betar organization, and actively collaborated first with the
militia were used to assist Japanese.* [24] In Cambodia, Italian and, subsequently, the German occupation forces,
the ex-colonial Cambodian constabulary was allowed to committing a number of atrocities.* [30] In one incident,
continue its existence, though it was reduced to ineffec- on 29 September 1943, Nuri and Mazzar Dino, Albanian
tuality. A plan to create a Cambodian volunteer force paramilitary leaders, instigated the mass execution of all
was not realized due to Japanese surrender.* [25] In Laos, Greek officials and notables of Paramythia.* [31]
the local administration and ex-colonial Garde Indigene
(Indigenous Guard, a paramilitary police force) were re-
formed by Prince Phetsarath who replaced its Vietnamese British Hong Kong
members with Laotians.* [26]
Hong Kong was a British crown colony before its occupa-
tion by Japanese. During the Japanese rule, former mem-
French North Africa bers of the Hong Kong Police including the Indians and
Chinese were recruited into a reformed police called the
The German Wehrmacht forces in North Africa estab- Kempeitai with new uniforms.* [32]
lished the Kommando Deutsch-Arabische Truppen; which
comprised two battalions of Arab volunteers of Tunisian
origin, an Algerian battalion and a Moroccan battalion. India
The four units made up a total of 3,000 men; with Ger-
man cadres.* [27] Main articles: Indian National Army and Indische Legion
The Legion Freies Indien, or Indische Freiwilligen
Infanterie Regiment 950 (also known as the Indische
Greece
Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS) was created in Au-
gust 1942, chiefly from disaffected Indian soldiers of
Main article: Hellenic State (1941–44) the British Indian Army, captured by the Axis in North
Africa. Many, if not most, of the Indian volunteers
After the German invasion of Greece, a Nazi-held gov- who switched sides to fight with the German Army and
ernment was put in place. All three quisling prime against the British were strongly nationalistic supporters
ministers, (Georgios Tsolakoglou, Konstantinos Logo- of the exiled, anti-British, former president of the Indian
thetopoulos and Ioannis Rallis), cooperated with the Axis National Congress, Netaji (the Leader) Subhas Chandra
authorities. Although their administrations did not di- Bose. The Royal Italian Army formed a similar unit of
rectly assist the occupation forces, they did instigate sup- Indian prisoners of war, the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan.
pressive measures, the most significant of which was A Japanese-supported sovereign and autonomous state̶
the encouragement and, with the consent of the Ger- the Azad Hind (Free India)̶was also established with
man forces, the creation of armed “anti-communist” the Indian National Army as its military force. '(See also
and“anti-gangster”paramilitary organisations such as the Tiger Legion.)
270 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Latvian Auxiliary Police assemble a group of Jews, Liepāja, July

1941.

unteers, and free to leave at any time.* [36] The follow-

ing day on July 2 Arajs learned from Stahlecker during
a conference that the Arajs commando had to unleash a
pogrom that looked spontaneous* [34] and these pogrom-
like disorders were to break out before German occu-
pation authorities had been properly established.* [37]
The Einsatzkommando influenced* [38] mobs of former
members of Pērkonkrusts and other extreme right-wing
groups began mass arrests, pillaging and murders of Jews
Troops of the Legion Freies Indien, France, February 1944. in Riga, which led to death of between 300 and 400
Jews. Killings continued under the supervision of SS
Brigadeführer Walter Stahlecker and ended when more
Indonesia 2,700 Jews had been murdered.* [34]* [37] The activities
of the Einsatzkommando were constrained after the full
Main article: Japanese occupation of Indonesia establishment of the German occupation authority, af-
ter which the SS made use of select units of native re-
Among Indonesians to receive Japanese imperial hon- cruits.* [35] German General Wilhelm Ullersperger and
ours from Hirohito in November 1943 were Sukarno and Voldemar Weiss, a well known Latvian nationalist, ap-
Mohammad Hatta. Sukarno actively recruited and organ- pealed to the population via a radio address to attack“in-
ised Indonesian Romusha forced labour.* [33] They suc- ternal enemies”. During the next few months, activities
ceeded respectively to become the founding President of of the Latvian Auxiliary Security Police was primarily fo-
the Republic of Indonesia and Vice President of the Re- cused on killing Jews, Communists and Red Army strag-
public of Indonesia in August 1945. glers in Latvia as well as in neighboring Belorussia.* [36]
The group alone murdered almost half of Latvia's Jewish
population,* [39] about 26,000 Jews, mainly in Novem-
Latvia ber and December 1941.* [40] The creation of the Arajs
Kommando was “one of the most significant inventions
In the days before the capture of Riga by German forces of the early Holocaust”,* [39] that marked a transition
the deportations and murders of Latvians by the So- from German organised pogroms to systematic killing
viet NKVD had reached their peak.* [34] Those that the of Jews by local volunteers (former army officers, po-
NKVD could not deport in time before the arrival of the licemen, students, Aizargi).* [37] This helped resolve a
Germans were shot in the Central Prison.* [34] RSHA's chronic problem with German personnel shortages, and
instructions to their agents to unleash pogroms fell on fer- provided the Germans with relief from the psychological
tile ground.* [34] After the entry of Einsatzkommando 1a stress of routinely murdering civilians.* [37] By the au-
and part of Einsatzkommando 2 into the Latvian capi- tumn of 1941, the SS deployed Latvian 'Police Battalions'
tal* [35] contact between Viktors Arajs and Brigadeführer to Leningrad, where they were consolidated as Latvian
Walter Stahlecker was established on July 1. Stahlecker Second SS Volunteer Brigade.* [41] In 1943, this brigade,
instructed Arajs on that same day to set up a commando which would later become the Latvian Nineteenth SS
unit that obtained an official name Latvian Auxiliary Se- Volunteer Division, was consolidated with the Latvian
curity Police or Arājs Kommando.* [36] The group was Fifteen SS Volunteer Division to become the Latvian Le-
composed of students and former officers of far-right gion.* [41] Although formally the Latvian Legion (Schutz-
wing orientation; all the members of this group were vol- mannschaft or Schuma) was a volunteer Waffen-SS mili-
5.6. COLLABORATION WITH THE AXIS POWERS DURING WORLD WAR II 271

tary formation; it was voluntary only by name, because In 1941, the Lithuanian Security Police (Lietuvos
approximately 80-85% of personnel were conscripted saugumo policija), subordinate to Nazi Germany's Secu-
into the legion.* [42] rity Police and Nazi Germany's Criminal Police, was cre-
ated.* [52] Of the 26 local police battalions formed, 10
were involved in systematic extermination of Jews known
Lithuania as the Holocaust. The Special SD and German Security
Police Squad in Vilnius killed tens of thousands of Jews
and ethnic Poles in Paneriai (see Ponary massacre) and
other places.* [52] In Minsk, the 2nd Battalion shot about
9,000 Soviet prisoners of war, in Slutsk it massacred
5,000 Jews. In March 1942 in Poland, the 2nd Lithua-
nian Battalion carried out guard duty in the Majdanek
extermination camp.* [53] In July 1942, the 2nd Battalion
participated in the deportation of Jews from the Warsaw
ghetto to a death camp.* [54] In August–October 1942,
the police battalions formed from Lithuanians were in
Ukraine: the 3rd in Molodechno, the 4th in Donetsk,
the 7th-в in Vinnitsa, the 11th in Korosten, the 16th
in Dnepropetrovsk, the 254th in Poltava and the 255th
in Mogilyov (Belarus).* [55] One of the battalions was
also used to put down the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in
Nazi-Lithuanian policeman with Jewish prisoners, Vilnius, 1941 1943.* [53]

Prior to the German invasion, some leaders in Lithuania

and in exile believed Germany would grant the country
autonomy along the lines of the status of the Slovakia
protectorate. German intelligence Abwehr believed it
had control of the Lithuanian Activist Front, a pro- Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force Main article:
German organization based in the Lithuanian embassy Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force
in Berlin. The German Nazis allowed Lithuanians to
form the Provisional Government, but did not recognize it The Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force, composed of
diplomatically and did not allow Lithuanian ambassador volunteers, was formed in 1944. Its leadership was
Kazys Škirpa to become the Prime Minister. Once Ger- Lithuanian, whereas arms were provided by Germans.
man military rule in Lithuania was replaced by a Ger- The purpose of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force
man civil authority, the Provisional Government was dis- was to defend Lithuania against the approaching Soviet
banded. Army and to defend the civilian population in the terri-
Rogue units organised by Algirdas Klimaitis and tory of Lithuania form actions by partisans. In practice,
supervised by SS Brigadeführer Walter Stahlecker it was primarily engaged in suppressing the Polish popu-
started pogroms in and around Kaunas on June 25, lation and the anti-Nazi Polish resistance of Armia Kra-
1941.* [43]* [44] Lithuanian collaborators would become jowa; the LTDF disbanded after it was ordered to act un-
involved in the murders of hundreds of thousands of der Nazi command.* [56] Shortly before it was disbanded,
Jews and Gypsies.* [45]* [46]* [47] Lithuanian-American the LTDF suffered a major defeat from Polish partisans
scholar Saulius Sužiedėlis points to the increasingly anti- in the battle of Murowana Oszmianka.* [53]
semitic atmosphere clouding Lithuanian society, and the The participation of the local populace was a key fac-
presence of antisemitic LAF émigrés who“needed little tor in the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Lithuania* [57]
prodding from 'foreign influences'".* [48] Overall, he con- which resulted in the near total destruction of Lithuanian
cludes that Lithuanian collaboration was “a significant Jews* [a] living in the Nazi-controlled Lithuanian territo-
help in facilitating all phases of the genocidal program ries that would, from July 17, 1941, become the Gener-
. . . [and that] the local administration contributed, at albezirk Litauen of Reichskommissariat Ostland. Out of
times with zeal, to the destruction of Lithuanian Jewry” approximately 210,000* [58] Jews, (208,000 according to
.* [49] Elsewhere, Sužiedėlis has similarly emphasised the Lithuanian pre-war statistical data)* [59] an estimated
that Lithuania's “moral and political leadership failed in 195,000–196,000 perished before the end of World War
1941, and that thousands of Lithuanians participated in II (wider estimates are sometimes published); most from
the Holocaust”,* [50] though warned that, "[u]ntil but- June to December 1941.* [58]* [60] The events that took
tressed by reliable accounts providing time, place and at place in the western regions of the USSR occupied by
least an approximate number of victims, claims of large- Nazi Germany in the first weeks after the German inva-
scale pogroms before the advent of the German forces sion (including Lithuania - see map) marked the sharp
must be treated with caution”.* [51] intensification of The Holocaust.* [61]* [62]* [63]
272 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Luxembourg

Main article: Luxembourgish collaboration with Nazi

Germany

Luxembourg was invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940

and remained under German occupation until early 1945.
Initially, the country was governed as a distinct region as
the Germans prepared to assimulate its Germanic popu-
lation into Germany itself. The Volksdeutsche Bewegung
(VdB) was founded in Luxembourg in 1941 under the
leadership of Damian Kratzenberg, a German teacher at
the Athénée de Luxembourg.* [64] It aimed to encour-
age the population towards a pro-German position, prior
to outright annexation, using the slogan Heim ins Reich.
In August 1942, Luxembourg was annexed and became
a region of Nazi Germany, meaning that Luxembourgers
were given the same legal obligations as German citizens.
Luxembourgish men were conscripted into the German
military.

British Malaya

The invading Japanese reorganized former British colo-

nial police, and created a new auxiliary police. Later a
2000-men strong Malay Volunteer Army and a part-time
Malay Volunteer Corps were created. Local residents SS Recruiting Poster for the Netherlands, urging Dutch people to
were also encouraged to join Japanese Army as auxil- “join the fight against Bolshevism"
iary 'Heiho'. There was a Railway Protection Corps as
well.* [65]

Monaco

During the Nazi occupation of Monaco,the Monaco po- SS-Freiwilligen Legion Niederlande, manned by Dutch
lice arrested and turned over 42 Central European Jewish volunteers and German officers, battled the Soviet army
refugees to the Nazis while also protecting Monaco's own from 1941. In December 1943, it gained brigade status
Jews.* [66] after fighting on the front around Leningrad. It was at
Leningrad that the first European volunteer, a Dutchman,
earned the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross: Gerardus
Netherlands Mooyman. In December 1944, it was transformed into
the 23rd SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Neder-
The Germans reformed pre-war Dutch police and estab- land and fought in Courland and Pomerania.* [6] It found
lished a new Communal Police, which helped Germans its end scattered across Germany. 49. SS-Freiwilligen-
fight resistance and deport Jews. The Dutch Nazi Party Panzergrenadier-Regiment “de Ruyter”fought at the
had its own militia units, whose members were trans- Oder and surrendered on 3 May 1945 to the Americans.
ferred to other Paramilitaries like the Netherlands Land- 48. SS-Freiwilligen-Panzergrenadier-Regiment “General
storm or the Control Commando. Seyffardt”however was split up into two groups. The
first of these fought with Kampfgruppe Vieweger and went
Thousands of Dutch volunteers joined the 11th SS Vol- under in the fighting near Halbe. The few remaining sur-
unteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland (created in vivors were captured by the Soviets. The other half of
February 1943). The division participated in fighting “General Seyffart”fought with Korpsgruppe Tettau and
against the Soviet army and was crushed in the Battle of surrendered to the western Allies. During the war famous
Berlin in April–May 1945. actor and singer Johannes Heesters made his career in
This was also the case for the 5th SS Panzergrenadier Di- Nazi Germany, befriending high-ranking Nazis such as
vision Wiking. It was involved in several major battles Joseph Goebbels and living in houses stolen from wealthy
on the Eastern Front. Jews.* [67]
5.6. COLLABORATION WITH THE AXIS POWERS DURING WORLD WAR II 273

Norway surrendered to the Germans.* [72] Under German occu-

pation, the Polish army continued to fight underground,
In Norway, the national government, headed by Vidkun as Armia Krajowa and forest partisans – Leśni. The
Quisling, was installed by the Germans as a puppet Polish resistance movement in World War II in German-
regime during the occupation, while king Haakon VII and occupied Poland was the largest resistance movement in
the legally elected Norwegian government was in exile. all of occupied Europe.* [73] As a result, Polish citizens
Quisling encouraged Norwegians to volunteer for service were unlikely to be given positions of any significant au-
in the Waffen-SS, collaborated in the deportation of Jews, thority.* [70]* [71] The vast majority of the pre-war citi-
and was responsible for the executions of members of the zenry collaborating with the Nazis was the German mi-
Norwegian resistance movement. nority in Poland which was offered one of several pos-
About 45,000 Norwegian collaborators joined the fascist sible grades of German citizenship.* [74] In 1939, be-
party Nasjonal Samling (National Union), about 8,500 of fore the German invasion of Poland, 800,000 people de-
them being enlisted in the collaborationist paramilitary clared themselves as members of the German minority in
organization Hirden. In addition, Norwegian police units Poland mostly in Pomerania and Western Silesia. Dur-
helped arrest many of Norway's Jews. Nasjonal Samling ing the war there were about 3 million former Polish cit-
had very little support among the population at large and izens of German origin who signed the official list of
Norway was one of few countries where resistance during Volksdeutsche.* [71] People who became Volksdeutsche
World War II was widespread before the turning point of were treated by Poles with special contempt, and the fact
the war in 1942/43. After the war, Quisling and other col- of them having signed the Volksliste constituted high trea-
laborators were imprisoned, fined or executed. Quisling's son according to the Polish underground law.
name has become an international eponym for traitor. There is a general consensus among historians that there
was very little collaboration with the Nazis among the
Polish nation as a whole, compared to other German-
Philippines
occupied countries.* [70]* [71]* [75] Depending on a def-
inition of collaboration (and of a Polish citizen, based
The Second Philippine Republic was a puppet state es-
on ethnicity and minority status), scholars estimate num-
tablished by Japanese invasion forces. The puppet state
ber of“Polish collaborators”at around several thousand
relied on reformed Bureau of Constabulary* [68] and the
in a population of about 35 million (that number is sup-
Makapili militia to fight resistance movement. The pres-
ported by the Israeli War Crimes Commission).* [76] The
ident of the republic, José P. Laurel had his own presi-
estimate is based primarily on the number of death sen-
dential guard unit.* [69]
tences for treason by the Special Courts of the Polish Un-
derground State. Some estimates are higher, counting in
Poland all members of the German minority in Poland and any
former Polish citizens declaring their German ethnicity
(Volksdeutsche), as well as conscripted members of the
Blue Police, low-ranking Polish bureaucrats employed in
German occupational administration, and even workers
in forced labor camps (ex. Zivilarbeiter and Baudienst).
Most of the Blue Police were forcibly drafted into ser-
vice; nevertheless, a significant number acted as spies for
Polish resistance movement Armia Krajowa.* [75] John
Connelly quoted a Polish historian (Leszek Gondek) call-
ing the phenomenon of Polish collaboration “marginal”
and wrote that “only relatively small percentage of Pol-
ish population engaged in activities that may be described
as collaboration when seen against the backdrop of Euro-
pean and world history”.* [75]
German propaganda recruitment poster –“Let's do agricultural
work in Germany! Report immediately to your Vogt.” In October 1939, the Nazis ordered the mobilization of
the pre-war Polish police to the service of the occupa-
Main articles: Occupation of Poland (1939–1945), Blue tional authorities. The policemen were to report for duty
Police, Poles in the Wehrmacht and Jewish Ghetto Police or face the death penalty, thus forming the so-called Blue
Police.* [77] At its peak in 1943, it numbered around
16,000.* [78] Its primary task was to act as a regular
Unlike in most European countries occupied by Nazi Ger- police force and to deal with criminal activities, but were
many̶where the Germans sought and found true col- also used by the Germans in combating smuggling, resis-
laborators among the locals̶in occupied Poland there tance, and in measures against the Polish (and Polish Jew-
was no official collaboration either at the political or at ish) population: for example, it was present in łapankas
the economic level.* [70]* [71] Poland also never officially
274 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

(rounding up random civilians for labor duties) and pa- hats and badges, they were used by the Germans primar-
trolling for Jewish escapees from the ghettos. Nonethe- ily for securing the deportation of other Jews to concen-
less many individuals in the Blue Police followed Ger- tration camps, but their work encompassed all forms of
man orders reluctantly, often disobeyed German orders public order in the Ghetto.* [92] The Polish-Jewish his-
or even risked death acting against them.* [79]* [80]* [81] torian and Warsaw Ghetto archivist Emanuel Ringelblum
Many members of the Blue Police were in fact double described the cruelty of the ghetto police as “at times
agents for the Polish resistance.* [82]* [83] Some of its of-
greater than that of the Germans.”.* [93] The size of each
ficers were ultimately awarded the Righteous among the police outfit inside a ghetto varied greatly, with the War-
Nations awards for saving Jews.* [84]* [85] saw Ghetto having about 2,500 active members, Łódź
Following Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in Ghetto 1,200 and smaller ghettos like that in the city of
Lwów had around 500 Jewish policeman.* [94]
June 1941, German forces quickly overran the territory of
Poland controlled by the Soviets since their joint invasion One partisan unit of Polish right-wing National Armed
of Poland in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Forces, the Holy Cross Mountains Brigade, decided to
Pact. A number of people collaborating with the So- tacitly cooperate with the Germans in late 1944. It ceased
viets before Operation Barbarossa were killed by local hostile actions against the Germans for a few months,
people. Belief in the Żydokomuna stereotype, combined accepted logistic help and withdrew from Poland into
with the German Nazi encouragement for expression of Czechoslovakia with German approval in late stages of
anti-Semitic attitudes, was a principal cause of massacres the war in order to avoid capture by the Soviets. Once in
of Jews by gentile Poles in Poland's northeastern Łomża Czechoslovakia, the unit resumed hostilities against the
province in the summer of 1941, including the massacre Germans and on May 5 liberated the concentration camp
at Jedwabne.* [86]* [87] at Holýšov.* [95]
However, research shows that at least as far as Warsaw is In 1944 Germans clandestinely armed a few regional
concerned, the number of Poles aiding Jews far outnum- Armia Krajowa (AK) units operating in the area of
bered those who sold out their Jewish neighbours to the Vilnius in order to encourage them to act against the
Nazis. According to the studies of historian Gunnar S. Soviet partisans in the region; in Nowogrodek district
Paulsson, during the Nazi occupation of Warsaw 70,000– and to a lesser degree in Vilnius district (AK turned
90,000 Polish Gentiles aided Jews, while 3,000–4,000 these weapons against the Nazis during Operation Ostra
were szmalcowniks, or blackmailers who collaborated Brama).* [52]* [96] Such arrangements were purely tacti-
with the Nazis in persecuting the Jews.* [88] cal and did not evidence the type of ideological collab-
oration as shown by Vichy regime in France or Quisling
regime in Norway.* [79] The Poles main motivation was
to gain intelligence on German morale and preparedness
and to acquire much needed equipment.* [97] There are
no known joint Polish-German actions, and the Germans
were unsuccessful in their attempt to turn the Poles to-
ward fighting exclusively against Soviet partisans.* [79]
Further, most of such collaboration of local comman-
ders with the Germans was condemned by AK headquar-
ters.* [79] Tadeusz Piotrowski quotes Joseph Rothschild
saying “The Polish Home Army was by and large un-
tainted by collaboration”and adds that “the honor of
AK as a whole is beyond reproach”.* [79]
Two members of the Jewish Ghetto Police guarding the gates of
the Warsaw Ghetto, June 1942
Portuguese Timor
The collaboration by some Polish Jews, who belonged
to Żagiew and Group 13 inflicted considerable damage Portugal was neutral during WW2, but its colony Timor
to both Jewish and Polish underground movements, as was occupied by the Japanese. Local militiamen were
members of the collaborationist groups acted as infor- organized into so-called Black Columns to help Japanese
mants for the Germans, revealing the organized efforts forces fight Allies.* [98]
by the resistance to hide Jews,* [89] and engaged in rack-
eteering, blackmail and extortions inside the Warsaw
Ghetto.* [90]* [91] British Somaliland
Also, the Jewish Ghetto Police was recruited form among
Polish Jews living inside the ghettos who could be relied During the Italian conquest of British Somaliland, local
upon to follow German orders. Members of Jüdischer chief Afchar offered his men to fight alongside Italians
Ordnungsdienst were issued batons, identifying armband, against British forces.* [99]
 5.6. COLLABORATION WITH THE AXIS POWERS DURING WORLD WAR II 275

Soviet Union

Commanding officers of the S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A.

(Russian National Liberation Army) during the Warsaw Upris-
ing, where the unit was involved in committing numerous war-
crimes, August 1944

“I live with a German family and feel wonderful” ̶propa-

gandistic recruitment poster for the Eastern worker program in
German occupied Soviet territories
Nazi Russian troops with POA (ROA ̶Russian Liberation
Army) shoulder patches visible, 1944
Following Operation Barbarossa Germany occupied large
areas of western Soviet Union, parts of which remained
under German control until late 1944. Soviet collabora- many German auxiliary police units. Local civilians and
tors included numerous Russians, Ukrainians and mem- Russian POWs, as well as Red Army defectors were en-
bers of other ethnic groups which inhabited the USSR. couraged to join the Wehrmacht as "hilfswillige". Some
The Waffen-SS recruited from many nationalities liv- of them also served in so-called Ost battalions which, in
ing in the Soviet Union and the German government at- particular, defended the French coastline against the ex-
tempted to enroll Soviet citizens voluntarily for the OST- pected Allied invasion.
Arbeiter or Eastern worker program; originally this effort
The Kalmykian Voluntary Cavalry Corps was a unit
worked well, but the news of the terrible conditions they
of about 5,000 Kalmyk Mongol volunteers who chose
faced dried up the flow of new volunteers and the program
to join the Wehrmacht in 1942 rather than remain in
became forcible.* [100]
Kalmykia as the German Army retreated before the Red
Army.
Russia Main articles: Russian collaborationism with In May 1943, German General Helmuth von Pannwitz
the Axis powers, Russian Liberation Army, Russian Lib- was given authorization to create a Cossack Division con-
eration Movement, Lokot Republic, S.S. Sturmbrigade sisting of two brigades primarily from Don and Kuban
R.O.N.A. and Russian Corps Cossacks, including former exiled White Army comman-
In Russia proper, ethnic Russians were allowed to gov- ders such as Pyotr Krasnov and Andrei Shkuro. The
ern the Lokot Republic, an autonomous sector in Nazi- division however was then not sent to fight the Red
occupied Russia. Military groups under Nazi com- Army, but was ordered, in September 1943, to proceed
mand were formed, such as the notorious S.S. Sturmbri- to Yugoslavia and fight Josip Broz Tito's partisans. In the
gade R.O.N.A., infamous because of its involvement in summer of 1944, the two brigades were upgraded to be-
atrocities in Belarus and Poland, and the 30th Waffen come the 1st Cossack Cavalry Division and 2nd Cossack
Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Russian).* [101] Cavalry Division. From the beginning of 1945, these di-
Ethnic Russians also enlisted in large numbers into the visions were combined to become XVth SS Cossack Cav-
 276 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

alry Corps.
Pro-German Russian forces also included the anti-
communist Russian Liberation Army (ROA, Russian:
POA: Русская Освободительная Армия), which saw
action as a part of the Wehrmacht. On May 1, 1945,
however, ROA turned against the SS and fought on the
side of Czech insurgents during the Prague Uprising.

Ukraine Main article: Ukrainian collaborationism

with the Axis powers
Before World War II, the territory of modern Ukraine
Nazi Ukrainian personnel, 1943

was divided primarily between the Ukrainian SSR of

the Soviet Union and the Second Polish Republic.
Smaller regions were administered by Romania and
Czechoslovakia. Only the Soviet Union recognised
Ukrainian autonomy, and large numbers of Ukrainians,
particularly from the East, fought in the Red Army.
The negative impact of Soviet policies implemented in
the 1930s was still fresh in the memory of Ukrainians.
These included the Holodomor of 1933, the Great Terror,
the persecution of intellectuals during the Great Purge of
1937–38, the massacre of Ukrainian intellectuals after
the annexation of Western Ukraine from Poland in 1939,
the introduction and implementation of collectivization.
As a result, the population of whole towns, cities and
villages greeted the Germans as liberators, which helps
explain the unprecedented rapid progress of the German
forces in the occupation of Ukraine.
Even before the German invasion, the Nachtigall and
Roland battalions were set up and trained as Ukrainian
battalions in the Wehrmacht, and were part of the initial
invading force.
With the change in regime ethnic Ukrainians were al-
“Hitler, the Liberator”says this Nazi propaganda poster written lowed and encouraged to work in administrative positions
in Ukrainian, December 1942 with the auxiliary police, post office, and other govern-
ment structures, taking the place of Russians and Jews.
Soviet citizens had a page in their internal passports with
information regarding their ethnicity, party status, mili-
tary rank, service in the Soviet Army reserve, and infor-
mation as to where they were to assemble in case of war.
This document also contained markings regarding a cit-
izens social status and reliability, (i.e., son of a kulak,
party or Komsomol membership). Soviet POWs who
were able to demonstrate Soviet unreliability, i.e., non
membership in the CPSU, Komsomol or be of a discrim-
inated class were quickly released from the POW camps.
Often they were offered administrative and clerical posi-
tions or encouraged to join local police units. Some were
trained as camp guards, while others were encouraged (in
some cases forced) to enlist to fight in anti-Soviet military
German Nazi police ("Orpo") with local Ukrainian collabora-
tionist Schutzmannschaft troops, December 1942 divisions.
During the period of occupation, Nazi-controlled
5.6. COLLABORATION WITH THE AXIS POWERS DURING WORLD WAR II 277

Ukrainian newspaper Volhyn wrote that “The element similar to Sokal, where on June 30, 1941 they arrested
that settled our cities (Jews) ... must disappear completely
and executed 183 Jews. At times the assistance was
more active.* [108] Operational Report 88 informs that
from our cities. The Jewish problem is already in the pro-
cess of being solved.* [102] on September 6, 1941 for example, 1,107 Jewish adults
There is evidence of some Ukrainian participation in the were shot by the German forces while the Ukrainian mili-
Holocaust.* [103] The auxiliary police in Kiev partici- tia unit *assisting them liquidated 561 Jewish children and
pated in rounding up of Jews who were directed to the youths. [109]
Babi Yar massacre. On April 28, 1943 German Command announced the
Ukrainians participated in crushing the Warsaw Ghetto establishment *
of the SS-Freiwilligen-Schützen-Division
*
Uprising of 1943 [104] and the Warsaw Uprising of «Galizien». [110] It has been accounted that approxi-
1944 where a mixed force of German SS troops, Rus- mately 83,000 people volunteered for service in the Divi-
*
sians, Cossacks, Azeris and Ukrainians, backed by Ger- sion. [111] The Division, was used in Anti-partisan oper-
man regular army units ̶killed up to 40,000 civil- ations in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. During
* *
ians. [105] [106] the Brody offensive and Vienna Offensive to fight the So-
viet forces. Those that survived surrendered to the Allies
and the bulk emigrated to the West, primarily England,
Australia and Canada.

Belarus Main articles: Belarusian collaborationism

with the Axis powers and Belarusian Central Rada

Belarusian collaborators participated in various mas-

sacres of Belarusian villagers. Many of these collabora-
tors retreated with German forces in the wake of the Red
Army advance, and in January 1945, formed the 30th
Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Belarussian).

Caucasus Main article: Turkic, Caucasian, Cossack,

and Crimean collaborationism with the Axis powers
Ethnic Armenian, Georgian, Turkic and Caucasian

A badge used by personnel of the Ukrainian Liberation Army

The Ukrainian Liberation Army (Ukrainian: Україн-

ське Визвольне Військо, Ukrayins'ke Vyzvol'ne Viys'ko,
UVV) was formed by the German Army (Wehrmacht
Heer) in 1943 to collect the Ukrainian volunteer units that
came into being during World War II. It was composed of
former Ukrainian Hiwis, Ostbataillonen, and other Soviet
prisoners of war (POWs) or volunteers.
Nazi Azeri troops in combat gear. The unit helped suppress the
Headed by Ukrainian general Mykhailo Omelianovych-
Warsaw Uprising, August 1944
Pavlenko, the unit grew to the size of 50,000 by 1944 and
peaked at some 80,000 towards the end of the war.* [107] forces deployed by the Nazis consisted primarily of So-
The army comprised a collection of units scattered all viet Red Army POWs assembled into ill-trained le-
over Europe. In April 1945, remnants of the UVV were gions. Among these battalions were 18,000 Armenians,
attached to the Ukrainian National Army, commanded by 13,000 Azerbaidjanis, 14,000 Georgians, and 10,000
general Pavlo Shandruk. men from the “North Caucasus.”* [112] American his-
On September 18, 1941 in Zhytomyr 3,145 Jews were torian Alexander Dallin notes that the Armenian Legion
murdered with the assistance of the Ukrainian People's and Georgian battalions were sent to the Netherlands as a
Militia (Operational Report 106). In Korosten Ukrainian result of Hitler's distrust of them, many of which later de-
militia rounded up 238 Jews for liquidation (Operational serted.* [113] According to military historian Christopher
Report 80) and carried out the killings by themselves – Ailsby, the Turkic and Caucasian forces formed by the
278 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

the Kingdom of Yugoslavia without warning on April 6,

1941. Eleven days later Yugoslavia capitulated.

Volunteer freiwillige troops of the Nazi Turkestan Legion in

France, 1943

Chetniks pose with German soldiers

Germans were “poorly armed, trained, and motivated,”
and were “unreliable and next to useless.”* [112] Most Chetniks in Yugoslavia collaborated with the Axis
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (the Dashnaks) occupation to one degree or another in order to fight
were suppressed in Armenia when the Armenian Repub- the rival Partisan resistance, whom they viewed as their
lic was conquered by the Russian Bolsheviks in 1920 and primary enemy, by establishing modus vivendi or oper-
ceased to exist. During World War II, some of the Dash- ating as “legalised”auxiliary forces under Axis con-
* * * *
naks saw an opportunity in collaboration with the Ger- trol. [118] [119] [120] [121] Some units engaged in
*
mans to regain Armenia's independence. The Armenian marginal [122] resistance activities and avoided accom-
* *
Legion under the leadership of Drastamat Kanayan par- modations with the enemy. [118] [123] Over a period of
ticipated in the occupation of the Crimean Peninsula and time, and in different parts of the country, the Chetniks
* *
the Caucasus.* [114]* [115] On December 15, 1942, the were drawn progressively [122] [124] into collaboration
Armenian National Council was granted official recog- agreements: first with the Nedić forces in Serbia, then
nition by Alfred Rosenberg, the Reich Ministry for the with the Italians in occupied Dalmatia and Montenegro,
Occupied Eastern Territories. The president of Coun- with some of the Ustaše forces in northern Bosnia, and
cil was Professor Ardasher Abeghian, its vice-president after the Italian capitulation also with the Germans di-
*
Abraham Guilkhandanian and it numbered among its rectly. [125] While Chetnik collaboration reached “ex-
* *
members Garegin Nzhdeh and Vahan Papazian. Until tensive and systematic” [126] [127] proportions, the
the end of 1944 it published a weekly journal, Arme- Chetniks themselves referred to this policy of collabora-
* *
nian, edited by Viken Shantn who also broadcast on Ra- tion [127] as “using the enemy”. [125]
*
dio Berlin with the aid of Dr. Paul Rohrbach. [116]
Bosnia and Herzegovina The 13th Waffen Mountain
Straits Settlements Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian), manned by
Bosniaks and commanded by German officers,* [128] was
The British territory of Straits Settlements became under created
*
in February 1943 and operated until December
Japanese occupation after the fiasco suffered by Com- 1944. [129] The division participated in anti-guerrilla
monwealth forces in the Battle of Singapore. The Straits operations in Yugoslavia.* [6]
Settlements Police Force came under the control of the
Japanese and all vessels owned by the Marine Police were Croatia Main article: Independent State of Croatia
confiscated.* [117] Ante Pavelić's Croatian puppet state was an ally of Nazi
Germany. The Croatian extreme nationalists, Ustaše,
killed thousands (around 100,000), primarily Serbs, in
Yugoslavia the Jasenovac concentration camp.* [130]* [131]

See also: World War II in Yugoslavia The 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar
(1st Croatian), created in February 1943, and the 23rd
Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama, created in
Prior to being invaded by Nazi Germany, the Yugoslav January 1944, were manned by Croats and Bosniaks as
government was working on forging a pact with Ger- well as local Germans.
many. That pact was rejected by Yugoslav antifascists,
who guided by general Dušan Simović demonstrated on
March 26, 1941, and forced the government to withdraw. Serbia Main article: Government of National Salva-
Angered by what he perceived as treason, Hitler invaded tion
 5.6. COLLABORATION WITH THE AXIS POWERS DURING WORLD WAR II 279

Province of Ljubljana (then a part of Yugoslavia). It func-

tioned like most collaborationist forces in Axis-occupied
Europe during World War II, but had limited autonomy,
and at first functioned as an auxiliary police force that
assisted the Germans in anti-Partisan actions. Later, it
gained more autonomy and conducted most of the anti-
partisan operations in the Province of Ljubljana. Much
of the Guard's equipment was Italian (confiscated when
Italy dropped out of the war in 1943), although Ger-
man weapons and equipment were used as well, especially
later in the war. Similar, but much smaller units were
also formed in Littoral (Primorska) and Upper Carniola
(Gorenjska).
Haj Amin al-Husseini gives the Nazi salute while reviewing a
unit of Bosnian SS volunteers in 1943 with Waffen SS General
Sauberzweig. United Kingdom

Serbian collaborationist organizations the Serbian State

Guard and the Serbian Volunteer Corps (the party militia
of the extreme right-wing Yugoslav National Movement
“Zbor”had over 30,000 members and helped guard and
run concentration camps, and fought the Yugoslav Parti-
sans alongside the Germans.

Montenegro The Italian governorate of Montenegro

was established as an Italian protectorate with the sup-
port of Montenegrin separatists known as Greens. The
Lovćen Brigade was the militia of the Greens who collab-
orated with the Italians. Other collaborationist units in-
cluded local Chetniks, police, gendarmerie and Sandžak
Muslim militia.* [132]

Macedonia In Bulgaria-annexed Yugoslav Macedonia,

the Ohrana was organized by the occupation authority as
auxiliary security forces.

Albanians In April 1943, Heinrich Himmler created

21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg
(1st Albanian) manned by Albanian and Kosovar Al-
banian volunteers. By June 1944, the military value
British Free Corps insignia (based on the Union Jack) visible on
was deemed low in lieu of partisan aggression and by the arm patches of Kenneth Berry and Alfred Minchin, posing in
November 1944 it was disbanded. The remaining cadre, their Waffen-SS uniforms with German officers, 1944
now called Kampfgruppe Skanderbeg, was transferred to
the Prinz Eugen Division where they successfully par- The British Free Corps reached a maximum size of 27
ticipated in actions against Tito's partisans in December troops in 1945.
1944. The emblem of the division was a black Alba-
nian eagle.* [6] Balli Kombëtar was an Albanian nation-
alist and anti-communist organization which collaborated Channel Islands Main article: Living with the enemy
with the Axis Powers during their occupation of Greece in the German-occupied Channel Islands
and Yugoslavia. Their agenda was the creation of "Great
Albania.”
The Channel Islands were the only British territory in
Europe occupied by Nazi Germany during World War
Slovenia The Slovene Home Guard, was a collabora- II. The policy of the Island governments, acting under
tionist force, formed in September 1943 in the area of instructions from the British government communicated
280 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

before the occupation, was one of passive co-operation, composed mostly or entirely of foreign volunteers (note
although this has been criticised,* [133] particularly in the that there were other foreign Waffen SS divisions com-
treatment of the few Jews in the islands. These mea- posed mostly of forced conscripts).
sures were administered by the Bailiff and the Aliens Of-
fice.* [134] One Jew from Jersey died in a Jersey mental
hospital during the war, three who had come to Guernsey
were deported to France and from there were rounded up
and sent to a camp and died.
Following the liberation of 1945 allegations against those
accused of collaborating with the occupying authorities
were investigated. By November 1946, the UK Home
Secretary was in a position to inform the UK House of
Commons* [135] that most of the allegations lacked sub-
stance and only 12 cases of collaboration were consid-
ered for prosecution, but the Director of Public Prosecu-
tions had ruled out prosecutions on insufficient grounds.
In particular, it was decided that there were no legal Deutsch-Arabische Legion (Arab volunteers), 1943
grounds for proceeding against those alleged to have in-
formed to the occupying authorities against their fellow- Apart from frontline units, volunteers also played an im-
citizens.* [136] portant role in the large Schutzmannschaft units in the
* * German-occupied territories in Eastern Europe. Af-
In Jersey and Guernsey, laws [137] [138] were passed to
ter Operation Barbarossa recruitment of local forces be-
retrospectively confiscate the financial gains made by war
gan almost immediately mostly by initiative of Himmler.
profiteers and black marketeers, although these measures
These forces were not members of the regular armed
also affected those who had made legitimate profits dur-
forces and were not intended for frontline duty, but were
ing the years of military occupation.
instead used for rear echelon activities including main-
During the occupation, cases of women fraternising with taining the peace, fighting partisans, acting as police and
German soldiers had aroused indignation among some organizing supplies for the front lines. In the later years
citizens. In the hours following the liberation, members of the war, these units numbered almost 200,000.
of the British liberating forces were obliged to intervene
By the end of World War II, 60% of the Waffen SS was
to prevent revenge attacks.* [139]
made up of non-German volunteers from occupied coun-
tries. The predominantly Scandinavian 11th SS Volunteer
Panzergrenadier Division Nordland division along with
5.6.3 Volunteers remnants of French, Italian, Spanish and Dutch volun-
teers were last defenders of the Reichstag in Berlin.
Main articles: Wehrmacht foreign volunteers and The Nuremberg Trials, in declaring the Waffen SS a crim-
conscripts, Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and con- inal organisation, explicitly excluded conscripts, who had
scripts, Europäische Freiwillige, Schutzmannschaft, committed no crimes.* [140] In 1950, The U.S. High
Selbstschutz, Kapo (concentration camp), Jewish Ghetto Commission in Germany and the U.S. Displaced Persons
Police and Hiwi (volunteer) Commission clarified the U.S. position on the Baltic Waf-
fen SS Units, considering them distinct from the German
Although official Nazi policy barred non-Germans from SS in purpose, ideology, activities and qualifications for
joining the regular German army, the Wehrmacht, volun- membership.
teers from most occupied countries and even a small num-
ber from some Commonwealth countries (British Free
Corps). were permitted to join the ranks of the Waffen 5.6.4 Collaboration of governments
SS and the auxiliary police (Schutzmannschaft). Overall,
nearly 600,000 Waffen-SS members were non-German, The most significant support of Germany came from the
with some countries such as Belgium and the Netherlands European Axis powers of the Balkans. Albania, being
contributing thousands of volunteers. Various collabora- an Italian puppet state, declared war on the Allies along
tionalist parties in occupied France and the unoccupied with the Kingdom of Italy in 1940, although the resis-
Vichy zone assisted in establishing the Légion des volon- tance movements and the peoples were against this. Later
taires français contre le bolchevisme (LVF). This volun- that year Slovakia declared war on Great Britain and the
teer army initially counted some 10,000 volunteers and United States. Slovakian, Croatian and Albanian collab-
would later become the 33rd Waffen SS division, one of orators fought with the German forces against the Soviet
the first SS divisions composed mostly of foreigners. Union on the eastern front throughout the war.
Following is a list of the 18 largest Waffen SS divisions However, significant support was also given by many
5.6. COLLABORATION WITH THE AXIS POWERS DURING WORLD WAR II 281

countries initially at war with Germany but which sub- 1941. Seizing power on 1 April 1941, the nationalist
sequently elected to adopt a policy of co-operation. government of Prime Minister Rashid Ali repudiated the
Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 and demanded that the British
abandon their military bases and withdraw from the coun-
try. Ali sought support from Germany and Italy in ex-
pelling British forces from Iraq.
On 9 May 1941, Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, the
Mufti of Jerusalem and associate of Ali, declared
holy war* [141] against the British and called on Arabs
throughout the Middle East to rise up against British rule.
On 25 May 1941, the Germans stepped up offensive op-
erations.
Hitler issued Order 30: “The Arab Freedom Movement
in the Middle East is our natural ally against England. In
this connection special importance is attached to the lib-
French milice and résistants, in July 1944
eration of Iraq ... I have therefore decided to move for-
ward in the Middle East by supporting Iraq.”* [142]
The Vichy government in France is one of the best known Hostilities between the Iraqi and British forces began on
and most significant examples of collaboration between 2 May 1941, with heavy fighting at the RAF air base in
former enemies of Germany and Germany itself. When Habbaniyah. The Germans and Italians dispatched air-
the French Vichy government emerged at the same time craft and aircrew to Iraq utilizing Vichy French bases in
of the Free French in London there was much confu- Syria, which would later invoke fighting between Allied
sion regarding the loyalty of French overseas colonies and and Vichy French forces in Syria.
more importantly their overseas armies and naval fleet. The Germans planned to coordinate a combined German-
The reluctance of Vichy France to either disarm or sur- Italian offensive against the British in Egypt, Palestine,
render their naval fleet resulted in the British destruction and Iraq. Iraqi military resistance ended by 31 May 1941.
of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir on 3 July 1940. Rashid Ali and the Mufti of Jerusalem fled to Iran, then
Later in the war French colonies were frequently used as Turkey, Italy, and finally Germany, where Ali was wel-
staging areas for invasions or airbases for the Axis powers comed by Hitler as head of the Iraqi government-in-exile
both in Indo China and Syria. This resulted in the inva- in Berlin. In propaganda broadcasts from Berlin, the
sion of Syria and Lebanon with the capture of Damascus Mufti continued to call on Arabs to rise up against the
on 17 June and later the Battle of Madagascar against British and aid German and Italian forces. He also helped
Vichy French forces which lasted for seven months un- recruit Muslim volunteers in the Balkans for the Waffen-
til November the same year. SS.
Many other countries cooperated to some extent and in
different ways. Denmark's government cooperated with
the German occupiers until 1943 and actively helped re- 5.6.5 See also
cruit members for the Nordland and Wiking Waffen SS
divisions and helped organize trade and sale of indus- • Blue Division
trial and agricultural products to Germany. In Greece,
the three quisling prime ministers (Georgios Tsolakoglou,
• Collaborationism
Konstantinos Logothetopoulos and Ioannis Rallis) coop-
erated with the Axis authorities. Agricultural products
• Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in
(especially tobacco) were sent to Germany, Greek “vol-
Wartime China
unteers”were sent to work to German factories, and spe-
cial armed forces (such as the Security Battalions were
• International Commission for the Evaluation of the
created to fight along German soldiers against the Al-
Crimes of the Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes
lies and the Resistance movement. In Norway the gov-
in Lithuania
ernment successfully managed to escape to London but
Vidkun Quisling established a puppet regime in its ab-
sence̶albeit with little support from the local popula- • Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
tion.
• Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
The Kingdom of Iraq was briefly an ally of the Axis, fight-
ing the United Kingdom in the Anglo-Iraqi War of May • Resistance during World War II
1941.
Anti-British sentiments were widespread in Iraq prior to • Responsibility for the Holocaust
282 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

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[82] Paczkowski (op.cit., p.60) cites 10% of policemen and
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[70] Carla Tonini, The Polish underground press and the issue janie - Muzułmanie (in Polish) (Fundacja Kultury Chrześ-
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[71] Klaus-Peter Friedrich. Collaboration in a “Land without
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Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II. Slavic The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present. Univer-
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[72] Adam Galamaga (21 May 2011). Great Britain and the [87] Richard S. Levy (2005). Antisemitism: A Historical En-
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[88] Marci Shore.“Gunnar S. Paulsson Secret City: The Hid-
[73] Norman Davies (28 February 2005). God's Playground: den Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945”. The American Asso-
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[74] Andrzej Slawinski. “Article 26: Collaboration with the [89] Henryk Piecuch, Syndrom tajnych służb: czas pra-
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[77] Hempel, Adam (1987). Policja granatowa w okupacyjnym [93] Collins, Jeanna R. “Am I a Murderer?: Testament of a
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[94] Raul Hilberg: The Destruction of the European Jews, [112] Ailsby, Christopher. Hitler's renegades. 2004, page 123-4
Quadrangle Books, Chicago 1961, p. 310.
[113] Dallin, Alexander. German Rule in Russia: 1941-1945.
[95] Stefan Korbonski,“The Polish Underground State”, pg. Octagon Books: 1990.
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[114] Auron. The Banality of Denial, p. 238.
[96] (Lithuanian) Rimantas Zizas. Armijos Krajovos veikla Li-
etuvoje 1942–1944 metais (Acitivies of Armia Krajowa [115] Yair Auron (2003). The Banality of Denial. Transaction
in Lithuania in 1942–1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, Publishers. p. 238. ISBN 978-1-4128-1784-4. Retrieved
pp. 14–39. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. 16 January 2016.
Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius –
Kaunas, 1995. [116] Christopher J. Walker's “Armenia ̶The Survival of a
Nation,”page 357
[97] Review by John Radzilowski of Yaffa Eliach's There Once
Was a World: A 900-Year Chronicle of the Shtetl of [117] “Remember Singapore - Mata.Mata: History of The Sin-
Eishyshok, Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 1, no. 2 gapore Police”. Remembersingapore.wordpress.com. 10
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[98] Frédéric Durand (6 November 2011). “Three centuries [118] Ramet (2006), p. 147
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[119] Tomasevich (1975), pp. 223-225
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[99] “Guerra Mondiale (1940-8) - Inglesi in fuga - Il tricol- [121] Pavlowitch (2007), pp. 65-67
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the run - The Tricolour in Somaliland] (in Italian). Inilos- [122] Milazzo (1975), p.182
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[123] Milazzo (1975), p. 21
[100] Andrew Gregorovich - World War II in Ukraine
[124] Tomasevich (1975)
[101] “30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Rus-
sian)". panzer-reich.co.uk. Archived from the original on [125] Tomasevich (1975), p.169
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[126] Tomasevich (1975), p.246
[102] Volhyn on September 1, 1941 NAAF Holocaust Timeline
Project 1941 [127] Ramet (2006), p.145
“Both the Chetniks' political program and the extent of
[103] Bauer, Yehuda: The Holocaust in its European Context their collaboration have been amply, even voluminously,
p.14. Accessed January 14, 2006.” documented; it is more than a bit disappointing, thus,
that people can still be found who believe that the Chet-
[104] Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (Encyclopædia Britannica)
niks were doing anything besides attempting to realize
[105] Central Commission for Investigation of German Crimes a vision of an ethnically homogeneous Greater Serbian
in Poland. Excerpts from: German Crimes in Poland. state, which they intended to advance, in the short run,
Howard Fertig, New York, 1982. by a policy of collaboration with the Axis forces. The
Chetniks collaborated extensively and systematically with
[106] Warsaw's failed uprising still divides (BBC) 2 August the Italian occupation forces until the Italian capitulation
2004 in September 1943, and beginning in 1944, portions of
the Chetnik movement of Draža Mihailović collaborated
[107] Ukrainian Liberation Army (Ukrainske Vyzvolne Vijsko
openly with the Germans and Ustaša forces in Serbia and
- UVV)
Croatia.”
[108] Dr. Frank Grelka (2005). Ukrainischen Miliz. Die
ukrainische Nationalbewegung unter deutscher Besatzung- [128] Pavlowitch 2007, p. 177.
sherrschaft 1918 und 1941/42 (Viadrina European Uni- [129] Tomasevich 2001, pp. 498 and 501.
versity: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag). pp. 283–284. ISBN
3447052597. Retrieved 17 July 2015. RSHA von einer [130] “List of Individual Victims of Jasenovac Concentration
begrüßenswerten Aktivitat der ukrainischen Bevolkerung Camp”. Official website of the Jasenovac Memorial Site.
in den ersten Stunden nach dem Abzug der Sowjettrup- Retrieved 10 May 2016.
pen.
[131] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
[109] An Introduction to the Einatzgruppen Accessed January
14, 2006 / [132] War and Revolution in Yugoslavia: 1941 - 1945 by Jozo
Tomasevich. Google Books.
[110] Williamson, G: The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror
[133] Bunting, Madelaine (1995) The Model Occupation: the
[111] Rolf Michaelis: Ukrainer in der Waffen-SS. Die 14. Channel Islands under German rule, 1940-1945, London:
Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS (ukrainische Nr. 1). Harper Collins, ISBN 0-00-255242-6
Winkelried-Verlag, Dresden 2006, ISBN 978-3-938392-
23-2 [134] Jersey Heritage Trust archive*
 286 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

[135] Hansard (Commons), vol. 430, col. 138 • Kitson, Simon (2008). The Hunt for Nazi Spies:
Fighting Espionage in Vichy France. Chicago: Uni-
[136] The German Occupation of the Channel Islands, Cruick- versity of Chicago Press.
shank, London 1975 ISBN 0-19-285087-3
• Klaus-Peter Friedrich Collaboration in a “Land
[137] War Profits Levy (Jersey) Law 1945
without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the
[138] War Profits (Guernsey) Law 1945 Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during
World War II ̶Slavic Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Win-
[139] Occupation Diary, Leslie Sinel, Jersey 1945 ter, 2005), pp. 711–746

[140] Nuremberg Trial Proceedings, Volume 22, September • Williamson, Gordon (1994). The SS: Hitler's Instru-
1946 ment of Terror. Brown Packaging Limited.
[141] Jabārah 1985, p. 183. • Rubenstein, Joshua; Altman, Ilya; Arad, Yitzhak,
eds. (2010). The Unknown Black Book: The
[142] Churchill, Winston (1950). The Second World War, Vol-
Holocaust in the German-Occupied Soviet Territories.
ume III, The Grand Alliance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, p. 234; Kurowski, Franz (2005). The Bran- Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
denburger Commandos: Germany's Elite Warrior Spies in
• Tomasevich, Jozo (1975). War and Revolution in
World War II. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole
Book. ISBN 978-0-8117-3250-5, 10: 0-8117-3250-9. p. Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks. Stanford,
141 California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-8047-0857-9.

• Lidegaard, Bo (2003). Dansk udenrigspolitiks his-

5.6.7 Further reading
torie. Overleveren - 1914-1945. Danmarks Nation-
alleksikon. ISBN 9788777890932.
• Arad, Yitzhak. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka: The Op-
eration Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University • Hoffmann, Frank (2015). Berlin Koreans and Pic-
Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987 tured Koreans (PDF). Koreans and Central Euro-
peans: Informal Contacts up to 1950, vol. 1. Vi-
• Peter Suppli Benson, Bjørn Lamnek and Stig
enna: Praesens. ISBN 978-3-7069-0873-3.
Ørskov: Mærsk manden og magten, Politiken
Bøger, 2004 (“Maersk The Man and Power”, in
Danish) 5.6.8 External links
• Birn, Ruth Bettina, Collaboration with Nazi Ger-
many in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian 5.7 Resistance during World War
Security Police. Contemporary European History
2001, 10.2, 181–198. II
• Christian Jensen, Tomas Kristiansen and Karl Erik Resistance movements during World War II occurred
Nielsen: Krigens købmænd, Gyldendal, 2000 (“The in every occupied country by a variety of means, ranging
Merchants of War”, in Danish) from non-cooperation, disinformation and propaganda,
to hiding crashed pilots and even to outright warfare and
• Chuev, Sergei Gennadevic: Prokliatye soldaty, the recapturing of towns. In many countries, resistance
[Damned soldiers], ĖKSMO, 2004, ISBN 5-699- movements were sometimes also referred to as The Un-
05970-9 derground.
• Gerlach, Christian: Kalkulierte Morde, Hamburger Among the most notable resistance movements were the
Edition, Hamburg, 1999 Polish Resistance, including the Polish Home Army,
Leśni, and the whole Polish Underground State; the
• Goldhagen, Daniel: "Hitler's Willing Executioners", Soviet partisans,* [a], the Italian Resistenza led mainly by
1996 the Italian CLN; the French Resistance, Yugoslav Parti-
sans, the Belgian Resistance, the Norwegian Resistance,
• Hirschfeld, Gerhard: Nazi rule and Dutch collabo- the Greek Resistance, the Dutch Resistance and the
ration: the Netherlands under German occupation, politically persecuted opposition in Germany itself (there
1940-1945 Berg Publishers, 1988 were 16 main resistance groups and at least 27 failed
• Jeffrey W. Jones“Every Family Has Its Freak": Per- attempts to assassinate Hitler with many more planned):
ceptions of Collaboration in Occupied Soviet Russia, in short, across German-occupied Europe.
1943–1948 ̶Slavic Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Win- Many countries had resistance movements dedicated to
ter, 2005), pp. 747–770 fighting the Axis invaders, and Germany itself also had an
5.7. RESISTANCE DURING WORLD WAR II 287

anti-Nazi movement. Although Britain was not occupied • Sabotage – the Arbeitseinsatz (“Work Contri-
during the war, the British made complex preparations bution”) forced locals to work for the Ger-
for a British resistance movement. The main organisa- mans, but work was often done slowly or in-
tion was created by the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS, tentionally badly
aka MI6) and is now known as Section VII.* [1] In addi- • Strikes and demonstrations
tion there was a short-term secret commando force called
the Auxiliary Units.* [2] Various organizations were also • Based on existing organizations, such as the
formed to establish foreign resistance cells or support ex- churches, students, communists and doctors
isting resistance movements, like the British Special Op- (professional resistance)
erations Executive and the American Office of Strate- • Armed
gic Services (the forerunner of the Central Intelligence
Agency). • raids on distribution offices to get food
There were also resistance movements fighting against the coupons or various documents such as
Allied invaders. In Italian East Africa, after the Italian Ausweise or on birth registry offices to get
forces were defeated during the East African Campaign, rid of information about Jews and others the
some Italians participated in a guerrilla war against the Nazis paid special attention to
British (1941–1943). The German Nazi resistance move- • temporary liberation of areas, such as in
ment ("Werwolf") never amounted to much. The "Forest Yugoslavia, Paris, and northern Italy, occa-
Brothers" of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania included many sionally in cooperation with the Allied forces
fighters who operated against the Soviet occupation of the • uprisings such as in Warsaw in 1943 and 1944,
Baltic States into the 1960s. During or after the war, sim- and in extermination camps such as in Sobibor
ilar anti-Soviet resistance rose up in places like Romania, in 1943 and Auschwitz in 1944
Poland, Bulgaria, Ukraine, and Chechnya. While the
Japanese were famous for “fighting to the last man,” • continuing battle and guerrilla warfare, such as
Japanese holdouts tended to be individually motivated the partisans in the USSR and Yugoslavia and
and there is little indication that there was any organized the Maquis in France
Japanese resistance after the war.
• Espionage, including sending reports of military im-
portance (e.g. troop movements, weather reports
5.7.1 Organization etc.)

• Illegal press to counter the Nazi propaganda

After the first shock following the Blitzkrieg, people
slowly started to get organized, both locally and on a • Covert listening to BBC broadcasts for news bul-
larger scale, especially when Jews and other groups were letins and coded messages
starting to be deported and used for the Arbeitseinsatz
(forced labor for the Germans). Organization was dan- • Political resistance to prepare for the reorganization
gerous, so much resistance was done by individuals. The after the war
possibilities depended much on the terrain; where there
• Helping people to go into hiding (e.g., to escape the
were large tracts of uninhabited land, especially hills and
Arbeitseinsatz or deportation)̶this was one of the
forests, resistance could more easily get organised unde-
main activities in the Netherlands, due to the large
tected. This favoured in particular the Soviet partisans
number of Jews and the high level of administration,
in Eastern Europe. In the much more densely populated
which made it easy for the Germans to identify Jews.
Netherlands, the Biesbosch wilderness could be used to
go into hiding. In northern Italy, both the Alps and the • Helping Allied military personnel caught behind
Apennines offered shelter to partisan brigades, though Axis lines
many groups operated directly inside the major cities.
• Helping POWs with illegal supplies, breakouts,
There were many different types of groups, ranging in
communication, etc.
activity from humanitarian aid to armed resistance, and
sometimes cooperating to a varying degree. Resistance • Forgery of documents
usually arose spontaneously, but was encouraged and
helped mainly from London and Moscow.
5.7.3 Resistance operations
5.7.2 Forms of resistance 1939–1940

Various forms of resistance were: In March 1940, a partisan unit of the first guerilla or-
ganization of the Second World War in Europe, led by
• Non-violent Major Henryk Dobrzański (Hubal) completely destroyed
288 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

it was officially formed by Minister of Economic War-

fare Hugh Dalton on 22 July 1940, to conduct espionage,
sabotage and reconnaissance in occupied Europe against
the Axis powers, and to aid local resistance movements.
It was initially also involved in the formation of the
Auxiliary Units, a top secret stay-behind resistance organ-
isation which would have been activated in the event of
a German invasion of Britain. SOE operated in all coun-
tries or former countries occupied by or attacked by the
Axis forces, except where demarcation lines were agreed
with Britain's principal allies (the Soviet Union and the
United States).
After the war, the organisation was officially dissolved on
15 January 1946.
The first partisan of World War II Hubal and his unit - Poland
winter 1939
1941
a battalion of German infantry in a skirmish near the Pol-
ish village of Huciska. A few days later in an ambush near 31 August 1941 town Loznica in Serbia was freed by
the village of Szałasy it inflicted heavy casualties upon an- Draza Mihailovic "Chetniks" from Germans. Several
other German unit. As time progressed, resistance forces Germans were killed and wounded, 93 were captured.
grew in size and number. To counter this threat, the Ger- This was first freed city in occupied Europe. Battle of
man authorities formed a special 1,000 man-strong anti- Loznica (1941)
partisan unit of combined SS-Wehrmacht forces, includ- From April 1941, Bureau of Information and Propa-
ing a Panzer group. Although Dobrzański's unit never ex- ganda of the Union for Armed Struggle started in Poland
ceeded 300 men, the Germans fielded at least 8,000 men Operation N headed by Tadeusz Żenczykowski. Ac-
in the area to secure it.* [3]* [4] tion was complex of sabotage, subversion and black-
In 1940, Witold Pilecki, Polish resistance, presented to propaganda activities carried out by the Polish resistance
against Nazi German occupation forces during World
his superiors a plan to enter Germany's Auschwitz con- *
centration camp, gather intelligence on the camp from War II [8]
the inside, and organize inmate resistance.* [5] The Home Beginning in March 1941, Witold Pilecki's reports were
Army approved this plan, provided him with a false iden- being forwarded via the Polish resistance to the Polish
tity card, and on 19 September 1940, he deliberately went government in exile and through it, to the British gov-
out during a street roundup in Warsaw-łapanka, and was ernment in London and other Allied governments. These
caught by the Germans along with other civilians and reports were the first relation about Holocaust and princi-
sent to Auschwitz. In the camp he organized the un- pal source of intelligence on Auschwitz for the Western
derground organization Związek Organizacji Wojskowej Allies.* [9]
(ZOW).* [6] From October 1940, ZOW sent the first re- In February 1941, the Dutch Communist Party organized
ports about the camp and its genocide to Home Army a general strike in Amsterdam and surrounding cities,
Headquarters in Warsaw through the resistance network known as the February strike, in protest against anti-
organized in Auschwitz.* [7] Jewish measures by the Nazi occupying force and vio-
On the night of January 21–22, 1940, in the Soviet- lence by fascist street fighters against Jews. Several hun-
occupied Podolian town of Czortków, the Czortków Up- dreds of thousands of people participated in the strike.
rising started. It was the first Polish uprising and the first The strike was put down by the Nazis and some partici-
anti-Soviet uprising of World War II. Anti-Soviet Poles, pants were executed.
most of them teenagers from local high schools, stormed In April 1941, the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation
the local Red Army barracks and a prison, in order to was established in the Province of Ljubljana. Its armed
release Polish soldiers kept there. wing were the Slovene Partisans. It represented both the
One of the events that helped the growth of the French working class and the Slovene ethnicity.* [10]
Resistance was the targeting of the French Jews, Com- In May 1941, the Resistance Team “Elevtheria”(Free-
munists, Gypsies, homosexuals, Catholics, and others, dom) was established in Thessaloniki by politicians
forcing many into hiding. This in turn gave the French Paraskevas Barbas, Apostolos Tzanis, Ioannis Passalidis,
Resistance new people to incorporate into their political Simos Kerasidis, Athanasios Fidas, Ioannis Evthimiadis
structures. and military officer Dimitrios Psarros. Its armed wing
The 'Special Operations Executive' SOE was a British concluded two armed forces; Athanasios Diakos with
World War II organisation. Following Cabinet approval, armed action in Kroussia, with Christodoulos Moschos
5.7. RESISTANCE DURING WORLD WAR II 289

(captain “Petros”) as leader, and Odysseas Androut- added to the Federation - Federal People's Republic of
sos with armed action in Visaltia, with Athanasios Genios Yugoslavia (later to be SFRJ).
(captain “Lassanis”) as leader.* [11]* [12]* [13] During the time within which Hitler gave his anti-
The first anti-soviet uprising during World War II began resistance Nacht und Nebel decree - made on the very day
on June 22, 1941 (the start-date of Operation Barbarossa) of the Attack on Pearl Harbor in the Pacific - the plan-
in Lithuania. ning for Britain's Operation Anthropoid was underway,
as a resistance move during World War II to assassinate
Also on June 22, 1941 as a reaction to Nazi invasion
of USSR Sisak People's Liberation Partisan Detachment Reinhard Heydrich, the Nazi “Protector of Protectorate
was formed in Croatia, near the town of Sisak. It was first of Bohemia and Moravia”and the chief of Nazi's final
armed Anti-Fascist partisan detachment in Croatia. solution, by the Czech resistance in Prague. Over fifteen
thousand Czechs were killed in reprisals, with the most
Communist-initiated uprising against Axis started in Ser- infamous incidents being the complete destruction of the
bia on July 7, 1941., and six days later in Montenegro. towns of Lidice and Ležáky.
The Republic of Užice (Ужичка република) was a short-
lived liberated Yugoslav territory, the first part of oc-
cupied Europe to be liberated. Organized as a military
1942
mini-state it existed throughout the autumn of 1941 in
the western part of Serbia. The Republic was established
by the Partisan resistance movement and its administra- The Luxembourgish general strike of 1942 was a pacific
tive center was in the town of Užice. The government was resistance movement organised within a short time period
made of“people's councils”(odbors), and the Commu- to protest against a directive that incorporated the Lux-
nists opened schools and published a newspaper, Borba embourg youth into the Wehrmacht. A national general
(meaning “Struggle”). They even managed to run a strike, originating mainly in Wiltz, paralysed the country
postal system and around 145 km (90 mi) of railway and and forced the occupying German authorities to respond
operated an ammunition factory from the vaults beneath violently by sentencing 21 strikers to death.
the bank in Užice. In September 1942, "The Council to Aid Jews Żegota"
In July 1941 Mieczysław Słowikowski (using the code- was founded by Zofia Kossak-Szczucka and Wanda
name “Rygor”̶Polish for “Rigor”) set up "Agency Krahelska-Filipowicz (“Alinka”) and made up of Polish
Africa,”one of World War II's most successful intelli- Democrats as well as other Catholic activists. Poland was
gence organizations.* [14] His Polish allies in these en- the only country in occupied Europe where there existed
deavors included Lt. Col. Gwido Langer and Ma- such a dedicated secret organization. Half of the Jews
jor Maksymilian Ciężki. The information gathered by who survived the war (thus over *
50,000) were aided in
the Agency was used by the Americans and British some shape or form by Żegota. [17] The most known ac-
in planning the amphibious November 1942 Operation tivist of Żegota was Irena Sendler head of the children's
Torch* [15]* [16] landings in North Africa. division who saved 2,500 Jewish children by smuggling
them out of the Warsaw Ghetto, providing them false
On 13 July 1941, in Italian-occupied Montenegro, Mon- documents, and sheltering them in individual and group
tenegrin separatist Sekula Drljević proclaimed an In- children's homes outside the Ghetto.* [18]
dependent State of Montenegro under Italian protec-
torate, upon which a nationwide rebellion escalated raised On the night of 7–8 October 1942, Operation Wieniec
by Partisans, Yugoslav Royal officers and various other started. It targeted rail infrastructure near Warsaw. Sim-
armed personnel. It was the first organized armed upris- ilar operations aimed at disrupting German transport and
ing in then occupied Europe, and involved 32,000 people. communication in occupied Poland occurred in the com-
Most of Montenegro was quickly liberated, except major ing months and years. It targeted railroads, bridges and
cities where Italian forces were well fortified. On 12 Au- supply depots, primarily near transport hubs such as War-
gust ̶after a major Italian offensive involving 5 divisions saw and Lublin.
and 30,000 soldiers ̶the uprising collapsed as units were On 25 November, Greek guerrillas with the help of
disintegrating; poor leadership occurred as well as collab- twelve British saboteurs* [19] carried out a successful op-
oration. The final toll of July 13 uprising in Montenegro eration which disrupted the German ammunition trans-
was 735 dead, 1120 wounded and 2070 captured Italians portation to the German Africa Corps under Rommel̶
and 72 dead and 53 wounded Montenegrins. the destruction of Gorgopotamos bridge (Operation Har-
* *
On 11 October 1941, in Bulgarian-occupied Prilep, ling). [20] [21]
Macedonians attacked post of the Bulgarian occupation On 20 June 1942, the most spectacular escape from
police, which was the start of Macedonian resistance Auschwitz concentration camp took place. Four
against the fascists who occupied Macedonia: Germans, Poles, Eugeniusz Bendera,* [22] Kazimierz Piechowski,
Italians, Bulgarians and Albanians. The resistance fin- Stanisław Gustaw Jaster and Józef Lempart made a dar-
ished successfully in August–November 1944 when in- ing escape.* [23] The escapees were dressed as members
dependent Macedonian state was formed, and later it was of the SS-Totenkopfverbände, fully armed and in an SS
290 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

staff car. They drove out the main gate in a stolen Rudolf
Hoss automobile Steyr 220 with a smuggled report from
Witold Pilecki about the Holocaust. The Germans never
recaptured any of them.* [24]
The Zamość Uprising was an armed uprising of Armia
Krajowa and Bataliony Chłopskie) against the forced
expulsion of Poles from the Zamość region (Zamość
Lands, Zamojszczyzna) under the Nazi Generalplan Ost.
Nazi Germans attempting to remove the local Poles from
the Greater Zamosc area (through forced removal, trans-
fer to forced labor camps, or, in rare cases, mass murder)
to get it ready for German colonization. It lasted from
1942–1944, and despite heavy casualties suffered by the Soviet partisan fighters behind German front lines in Belarus,
Underground, the Germans failed. 1943.

1943
The goal was to destroy the Partisan HQ and main field
By the middle of 1943 partisan resistance hospital (all Partisan wounded and prisoners faced cer-
to the Germans and their allies had grown tain execution), but this was thwarted by the diversion and
from the dimensions of a mere nuisance to retreat across the Neretva river, planned by the Partisan
those of a major factor in the general situation. supreme command led by Marshal Josip Broz Tito. The
In many parts of occupied Europe Germany main Partisan force escaped into Serbia where it immedi-
was suffering losses at the hands of partisans ately took the offensive and succeeded in eliminating the
that he could ill afford. Nowhere were these Chetnik movement as a fighting force.
losses heavier than in Yugoslavia.* [25]
On 19 April 1943, three members of the Belgian resis-
̶Basil Davidson
tance movement were able to stop the Twentieth con-
voy, which was the 20th prisoner transport in Belgium
organised by the Germans during World War II. The ex-
ceptional action by members of the Belgian resistance
occurred to free Jewish and Romani (“gypsy”) civil-
ians who were being transported by train from the Dossin
army base located in Mechelen, Belgium to the concen-
tration camp Auschwitz. The 20th train convoy trans-
ported 1,631 Jews (men, women and children). Some
of the prisoners were able to escape and marked this
particular kind of liberation action by the Belgian resis-
tance movement as unique in the European history of the
Holocaust.
In October 1943, the rescue of the Danish Jews meant
that nearly all of the Danish Jews were saved from KZ
camps by the Danish resistance. This action is considered
one of the bravest and most significant displays of pub-
lic defiance against the Nazis. However, the action was
largely due to the personal intervention of German diplo-
Belorussia, 1943. A Jewish partisan group of the Chkalov mat Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz, who both leaked news
Brigade.
of the intended round up of the Jews to both the Dan-
ish opposition and Jewish groups and negotiated with the
In early January 1943, the 20,000 strong main oper- Swedes to ensure Danish Jews would be accepted in Swe-
ational group of the Yugoslav Partisans, stationed in den.
western Bosnia, came under ferocious attack by over
150,000 German and Axis troops, supported by about On 26 March 1943 in Warsaw, Operation Arsenal was
200 Luftwaffe aircraft in what became known as the conducted by the Szare Szeregi (Gray Ranks) Polish Un-
Battle of the Neretva (the German codename was “Fall derground formation and led to the release of arrested
troop leader Jan Bytnar “Rudy”. In an attack on the
Weiss”or“Case White”).* [26] The Axis rallied eleven di- *
visions, six German, three Italian, and two divisions of the prison, Bytnar and 24 other prisoners were set free. [28]
Independent State of Croatia (supported by Ustaše for- The Battle of Sutjeska from 15 May-16 June 1943 was
mations) as well as a number of Chetnik brigades.* [27] a joint attack of the Axis forces that once again at-
 5.7. RESISTANCE DURING WORLD WAR II 291

the Jesselton Revolt against the Japanese occupation of

British Borneo.
From November 1943, Operation Most III started. The
Armia Krajowa provided the Allies with crucial intelli-
gence on the German V-2 rocket. In effect, some 50 kg
(110 lb) of the most important parts of the captured V-2,
as well as the final report, analyses, sketches and photos,
were transported to Brindisi by a Royal Air Force Douglas
Dakota aircraft. In late July 1944, the V-2 parts were de-
livered to London.* [30]
“Germany is broken” (German: Deutschland kaput): defeatist
poster disseminated in the General Government by Operation N 1944
after the battle of Stalingrad, 1943.

tempted to destroy the main Yugoslav Partisan force,

near the Sutjeska river in southeastern Bosnia. The Axis
rallied 127,000 troops for the offensive, including Ger-
man, Italian, NDH, Bulgarian and Cossack units, as well
as over 300 airplanes (under German operational com-
mand), against 18,000 soldiers of the primary Yugoslav
Partisans operational group organised in 16 brigades.
Facing almost exclusively German troops in the final en-
circlement, the Yugoslav Partisans finally succeeded in
breaking out across the Sutjeska river through the lines
of the German 118th Jäger Division, 104th Jäger Division
and 369th (Croatian) Infantry Division in the northwest-
ern direction, towards eastern Bosnia. Three brigades Member of the Polish Home Army defending a barricade in
and the central hospital with over 2,000 wounded re- Warsaw's Powiśle district during the Warsaw Uprising, August
mained surrounded and, following Hitler's instructions, 1944
German commander-in-chief General Alexander Löhr
ordered and carried out their annihilation, including the
wounded and unarmed medical personnel. In addition,
Partisan troops suffered from a severe lack of food and
medical supplies, and many were struck down by typhoid.
However, the failure of the offensive marked a turning
point for Yugoslavia during World War II.
Operation Heads started ̶an action of serial
assassinations of the Nazi personnel sentenced to
death by the Special Courts for crimes against Polish
citizens in occupied Poland. The Resistance fighters
of Polish Home Army's unit Agat kill Franz Bürkl
during Operation Bürkl in 1943, and Franz Kutschera
during Operation Kutschera in 1944. Both men were
high-ranking Nazi German SS and secret police officers
responsible for the murder and brutal interrogation of Members of the French resistance group Maquis in La Tresorerie,
thousands of Polish Jews and Polish resistance fighters 14 September 1944, Boulogne
and supporters.
On 11 February 1944, the Resistance fighters of Polish
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising lasted from 19 April-16 Home Army's unit Agat executed Franz Kutschera, SS
May, and cost the Nazi forces 17 dead and 93 wounded. and Reich's Police Chief in Warsaw in action known as
On 30 September the German forces occupying the Operation Kutschera.* [31]* [32]
Italian city of Naples were forced out by the townsfolk In the spring of 1944, a plan was laid out by the Allies
and the Italian Resistance before the arrival of the first to kidnap General Müller, whose harsh repressive mea-
Allied forces in the city on 1 October. This popular up- sures had earned him the nickname “the Butcher of
rising is known as the Four days of Naples.* [29] Crete". The operation was led by Major Patrick Leigh
On October 9, 1943, the Kinabalu guerillas launched Fermor, together with Captain W. Stanley Moss, Greek
292 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

Members of the Dutch Eindhoven Resistance with troops of the

US 101st Airborne Division in front of Eindhoven cathedral dur-
ing Operation Market Garden, September 1944

Polish resistance soldiers during 1944 Warsaw Uprising.

The Vemork hydroelectric plant in Norway, site of the heavy

water production, and a part of the German nuclear program,
sabotaged by Norwegians between 1942 and 1944

SOE agents and Cretan resistance fighters. However,

Müller left the island before the plan could be carried out.
Undeterred, Fermor decided to abduct General Heinrich
Kreipe instead.
On the night of 26 April, General Kreipe left his head-
quarters in Archanes and headed without escort to his
well-guarded residence,“Villa Ariadni”, approximately
50 ft 6 in (15.39 m)25 km outside Heraklion. Major
Fermor and Captain Moss, dressed as German military
policemen, waited for him 1 km (0.62 mi) before his
residence. They asked the driver to stop and asked for
their papers. As soon as the car stopped, Fermor quickly
opened Kreipe's door, rushed in and threatened him with
his gun while Moss took the driver's seat. After driving
some distance the British left the car, with suitable decoy
material being planted that suggesting an escape off the Yugoslav Partisan fighter Stjepan “Stevo”Filipović shouting
“Smrt fašizmu sloboda narodu!" (“Death to fascism, freedom
island had been made by submarine, and with the General
to the people!") (the Partisan slogan) seconds before plunging to
began a cross-country march. Hunted by German patrols, his death.
the group moved across the mountains to reach the south-
ern side of the island, where a British Motor Launch (ML
842, commanded by Brian Coleman) was to pick them
5.7. RESISTANCE DURING WORLD WAR II 293

monotone”(wound my heart with a monotonous langour)

was heard, the Resistance knew that the invasion would
take place within the next 48 hours. They then knew it
was time to go about their respective pre-assigned mis-
sions. All over France resistance groups had been coor-
dinated, and various groups throughout the country in-
creased their sabotage. Communications were cut, trains
derailed, roads, water towers and ammunition depots
destroyed and German garrisons were attacked. Some
relayed info about German defensive positions on the
beaches of Normandy to American and British comman-
ders by radio, just prior to 6 June. Victory did not come
easily; in June and July, in the Vercors plateau a newly
reinforced maquis group fought more than 10,000 Ger-
Berlin memorial plaque, Ruth Andreas-Friedrich (Uncle Emile man soldiers (no Waffen-SS) under General Karl Pflaum
group) and was defeated, with 840 casualties (639 fighters and
201 civilians). Following the Tulle Murders, Major Otto
Diekmann's Waffen-SS company wiped out the village
of Oradour-sur-Glane on 10 June. The resistance also
up. Eventually, on 14 May 1944, they were picked up assisted the later Allied invasion in the south of France
(from Peristeres beach near Rhodakino) and transferred (Operation Dragoon). They started insurrections in cities
to Egypt. such as Paris when allied forces came close.
In April–May 1944, the SS launched the daring airborne Operation Tempest launched in Poland in 1944 would
Raid on Drvar aimed at capturing Marshal Josip Broz lead to several major actions by Armia Krajowa, most no-
Tito, the commander-in-chief of the Yugoslav Partisans, table of them being the Warsaw Uprising that took place
as well as disrupting their leadership and command struc- in between August 1 and October 2, and failed due to
ture. The Partisan headquarters were in the hills near the Soviet refusal, due to differences in ideology, to help;
Drvar, Bosnia at the time. The representatives of the another one was Operation Ostra Brama: the Armia Kra-
Allies, Britain's Randolph Churchill and Evelyn Waugh, jowa or Home Army turned the weapons given to them
were also present. Elite German SS parachute commando by the Nazi Germans (in hope that they would fight the
units fought their way to Tito's cave headquarters and ex- incoming Soviets) against the nazi Germans̶in the end
changed heavy gunfire resulting in numerous casualties the Home Army together with the Soviet troops took over
on both sides.* [33] Interestingly, Chetniks under Draža the Greater Vilnius area to the dismay of the Lithuanians.
Mihailović also flocked to the firefight in their own at-
tempt to capture Tito. By the time German forces had On 25 June 1944, the Battle of Osuchy started̶one of
penetrated to the cave, however, Tito had already fled the the largest battles between the Polish resistance and Nazi
scene. He had a train waiting for him that took him to Germany in occupied Poland during World War *
II, essen-
the town of Jajce. It would appear that Tito and his staff tially a continuation of the Zamosc Uprising. [34] During
were well prepared for emergencies. The commandos Operation Most III, in 1944, the Polish Home Army or
were only able to retrieve Titoʼ s marshal's uniform, which Armia Krajowa provided the British with the parts of the
was later displayed in Vienna. After fierce fighting in and V-2 rocket.
around the village cemetery, the Germans were able to Norwegian sabotages of the German nuclear program
link up with mountain troops. By that time, Tito, his drew to a close after three years on 20 February 1944,
British guests and Partisan survivors were fêted aboard with the saboteur bombing of the ferry SF Hydro. The
the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Blackmore and her cap- ferry was to carry railway cars with heavy water drums
tain Lt. Carson, RN. from the Vemork hydroelectric plant, where they were
An intricate series of resistance operations were launched produced, across Lake Tinnsjø so they could be shipped
in France prior to, and during, Operation Overlord. On to Germany. Its sinking effectively ended Nazi nuclear
June 5, 1944, the BBC broadcast a group of unusual sen- ambitions. The series of raids on the plant was later
tences, which the Germans knew were code words̶pos- dubbed by the British SOE as the most successful act of
sibly for the invasion of Normandy. The BBC would reg- sabotage in all of World War II, and was used as a basis
ularly transmit hundreds of personal messages, of which for the US war movie The Heroes of Telemark.
only a few were really significant. A few days before D- As an initiation of their uprising, Slovakian rebels entered
Day, the commanding officers of the Resistance heard the Banská Bystrica on the morning of 30 August 1944, the
first line of Verlaine's poem, "Chanson d'automne",“Les second day of the rebellion, and made it their headquar-
sanglots longs des violons de l'automne”(Long sobs of au- ters. By 10 September, the insurgents gained control of
tumn violins) which meant that the“day”was imminent. large areas of central and eastern Slovakia. That included
When the second line“Blessent mon cœur d'une langueur
294 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

two captured airfields, and as a result of the two-week-old • Bulgarian resistance movement
insurgency, the Soviet Air Force were able to begin flying
in equipment to Slovakian and Soviet partisans. • Goryani - Bulgarian anti-communist resis-
tance from 1944

• Burmese resistance movement (AFPFL – Anti-

5.7.4 Resistance movements during World
Fascist People's Freedom League)
War II
• Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian anti-Soviet resis-
• British resistance movements * [2]* [35] tance movements ("Forest Brothers")
• SIS Section D and Section VII (planned Resis- • Chechen resistance (anti-Soviet)
tance organisations)
• Czech resistance movement
• Auxiliary Units (planned hidden commando
force to operate during military anti-invasion • Danish resistance movement
campaign)
• Dutch resistance movement
• Resistance to German occupation of the Chan-
nel Islands • Valkenburg resistance
• Albanian resistance movement • Estonian resistance movement
• National Liberation Movement • French resistance movement
• Balli Kombëtar (anti-Italian and later anti-
• Maquis
communist and anti-Yugoslav resistance
movement) • Francs-tireurs et Partisans (FTP)
• French Forces of the Interior (FFI)
• Austrian resistance movement, e.g. O5
• Conseil National de la Résistance (CNR)
• Belarusian resistance movement
• Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action
• Chorny Kot (anti-communist) (BCRA)
• Free French Forces (FFL)
• Belgian Resistance
• German anti-Nazi resistance movement
• Armée secrète (AS)
• Front de l'Indépendance (FI) • White Rose
• Mouvement National Belge (MNB) • Red Orchestra
• Groupe G • Edelweiss Pirates
• Organisation Militaire Belge de Résistance • European Union
(OMBR) • Bästlein-Jacob-Abshagen Group
• Partisans Armés (PA) • Saefkow-Jacob-Bästlein Organization
• Witte Brigade • Kreisau Circle
• Mouvement National Royaliste (MNR-NKB) • Solf Circle
• Légion Belge • Confessing Church
• Armée Belge Reconstituée (ABR) • Robert Uhrig Group
• Comité de Défense des Juifs (CDJ) • Neu Beginnen
• Österreichische Freiheitsfront • Ehrenfeld Group
• Milices Patriotiques (MP-PM) • Vierergruppen in Hamburg, Munich and Vi-
• Service D enna
• Les Affranchis • Uncle Emil group* [36]
• Insoumis • The Stijkel Group, a Dutch resistance movement,
• Kempische Legioen (KL) which mainly operated around the S-Gravenhage
area.
• Borneo resistance movement
• Werwolf, the Nazi resistance against the Allied oc-
• Kinabalu Guerillas cupation
5.7. RESISTANCE DURING WORLD WAR II 295

• Greek Resistance • Italian Socialist Party (PSI)

• List of Greek Resistance organizations • Democrazia Cristiana
• Cretan resistance • Partito d'Azione
• National Liberation Front (EAM) and the • Labour Democratic Party (PDL)
Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), • Giustizia e Libertà
EAM's guerrilla forces
• Arditi del Popolo
• National Republican Greek League (EDES)
• DELASEM
• National and Social Liberation (EKKA)
• Assisi Network
• Chinese resistance movements • Italian Co-Belligerent Army, Navy, and Air
• Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army Force

• Anti-Japanese Army For The Salvation Of • Italian Partisan Republics

The Country • Brigate Fiamme Verdi
• Chinese People's National Salvation Army • Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana
• Heilungkiang National Salvation Army • Movimento Comunista d'Italia
• Jilin Self-Defence Army • Scintilla
• Northeast Anti-Japanese National Salvation
• Italian resistance against the Allies in East-Africa
Army
• Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army • Japanese dissidence during the Shōwa period
• Northeast People's Anti-Japanese Volunteer • Japanese People's Emancipation League
Army
• Japanese People's Anti-war Alliance
• Northeastern Loyal and Brave Army
• The Nihon Heishi Kakusei Domei (League to
• Northeastern People's Revolutionary Army Raise the Political Consciousness of Japanese
• Northeastern Volunteer Righteous & Brave Troops)
Fighters
• Jewish resistance under Nazi rule
• Islamic resistance movement against
Japan • Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ZOB, the
• Muslim Detachment (回 ⺠ 義 勇 隊 Jewish Fighting Organisation, in Poland)
Huimin Zhidui) • Zydowski Zwiazek Walki (ZZW, the Jewish
• Muslim corps Fighting Union, in Poland)
• Hong Kong resistance movements • Korea resistance movement
• Gangjiu dadui (Hong Kong-Kowloon Brigade) • Korean Liberation Army
• Dongjiang Guerrillas (East River Guerrillas, • Korean Volunteer Army
Southern China and Hong Kong organisation)
• Latvian resistance movement
• Indian resistance movements:
• Libyan resistance movement
• Quit India Movement, largely non-violent anti-
British resistance within Indian territory • Lithuanian resistance during World War II
• Indian National Army, pro-Japanese force • Lithuanian Activist Front
fighting against Allied forces in SE Asia and
along India's eastern-most borderlands • Lithuanian Freedom Army

• Italian resistance movement • Luxembourgish resistance during World War II

• Italian Civil War • Malayan resistance movemment

• Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale • Moro Muslim resistance movement
• Four days of Naples
• Moro-Bolo Battalion
• National Liberation Committee for Northern
Italy • Maranao Militia

• Italian Communist Party (PCI) • Norwegian resistance movement

296 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

• Milorg • Viet Minh (Vietnamese resistance organization that

• XU fought Vichy France and the Japanese, and later
against the French attempt to re-occupy Vietnam)
• Norwegian Independent Company 1 (Kom-
pani Linge)
• Yugoslavia
• Nortraship
• Osvald Group • Chetniks: Serbian nationalist and royalist re-
sistance and the first organized resistance
• Philippine resistance movement movement in Europe, originally formed in
• Allied guerrillas ( composed of unsurrendered 1904. They initially engaged in some marginal
USAFFE troops including Filipino civilians resistance activities for limited periods, par-
).* [37] ticularly early in the war, which started on
Yugoslav soil in April 1941. However, par-
• Hukbalahap tially as a result of German reprisals (German
policy, as in Eastern Europe, called for the
• Polish resistance movement
killing of 100 Serbs for every 1 German sol-
• Armia Krajowa (the Home Army ̶main- dier killed,* [38]) and partially out of a desire
stream: Authoritarian/Western Democracy) to create an ethnically homogeneous "Greater
Serbia", the Chetniks remained mostly inac-
• Cursed soldiers (anti-communist)
tive against the occupiers and gradually en-
• Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (National Armed tered into collaboration agreements with them.
Forces - Anti-Nazi, Anti-Communist) This collaboration occurred firstly with the
• Bataliony Chłopskie (Farmers' Battalions ̶ Nazi quisling Government of National Salva-
mainstream, apolitical, stress on private prop- tion and with Fascist Italy. After the capitu-
erty) lation of Italy in September 1943, many Chet-
nik units began to collaborate directly with the
• Armia Ludowa (the Peoples' Army ̶Soviet Germans, and some units even collaborated
Proxies) with the Ustashe. The level of collaboration
• Gwardia Ludowa (the Peoples' Guard̶Soviet between the Chetniks and the occupying pow-
Proxies) ers reached “extensive and systematic”pro-
• Gwardia Ludowa WRN (The Peoples' Guard portions.
Freedom Equailty Independence ̶main- • Yugoslav Partisans (communist-led resis-
stream; Polish Socialist Party's underground; tance) fought throughout the war against
progressive, anti ̶nazi and anti ̶Soviet; fascists (German, Italian, Hungarian, Ustasha,
believed firmly in private property; believed Chetnik troops)
in Marx's critique of the capitalist system, but
rejected his solution)
• Leśni (Forest People̶various) 5.7.5 Notable individuals
• Polish Secret State

• Romanian resistance movement (anti-communist) 5.7.6 Documentaries

• Singaporean resistance movement • Confusion was their business (from the BBC series
Secrets of World War II is a documentary about the
• Dalforce
SOE (Special Operations Executive) and its opera-
• Force 136 tions
• Slovak resistance movement
• The Real Heroes of Telemark is a book and doc-
• Soviet resistance movement umentary by survival expert Ray Mears about the
Norwegian sabotage of the German nuclear pro-
• Thai resistance movement gram (Norwegian heavy water sabotage)
• Ukrainian Insurgent Army (anti-German, anti-
Soviet and anti-Polish resistance movement) • Making Choices: The Dutch Resistance during World
War II (2005) This award-winning, hour-long doc-
• Ukrainian People's Revolutionary Army (anti- umentary tells the stories of four participants in the
German, anti-Soviet and anti-Polish resistance Dutch Resistance and the miracles that saved them
movement) from certain death at the hands of the Nazis.
5.7. RESISTANCE DURING WORLD WAR II 297

5.7.7 Dramatisations • Massacre in Rome (1973) is based on a true story

about Nazi retaliation after a resistance attack in
• 'Allo 'Allo! (1982–1992) a situation comedy about Rome
the French resistance movement (a parody of Secret
Army) • My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner
(2007) is a Canadian film about Justice Inspector
• LʼArmée des ombres (1969) internal and external Friedrich Kellner of Laubach who challenged the
battles of the French resistance. Directed by Jean- Nazis before and during the war
Pierre Melville
• Secret Army (1977) a television series about the Bel-
• Battle of Neretva (film) (1969) is a movie depict- gian resistance movement, based on real events
ing events that took place during the Fourth anti-
Partisan Offensive (Fall Weiss), also known as The • Soldaat van Oranje (1977) (Dutch) is about some
Battle for the Wounded Dutch students who enter the resistance in coopera-
tion with England
• Black Book (film) (2006) depicts double and triple
crosses amongst the Dutch Resistance • Sophie Scholl – Die letzten Tage (2005) is about the
last days in the life of Sophie Scholl
• Bonhoeffer (2004 premier at the Acacia Theatre) is
a play about Dietrich Bonhoeffer, a pastor in the • Stärker als die Nacht (1954) (East German) follows
Confessing Church executed for his participation in the story of a group of German Communist resis-
the German resistance. tance fighters
• Boško Buha (1978) tells the tale of a boy who conned • The Battle of Sutjeska (1973) is a movie based on the
his way into partisan ranks at age of 15 and became events that took place during the Fifth anti-Partisan
legendary for his talent of destroying enemy bunkers Offensive (Fall Schwartz)
• Charlotte Gray (2001) – thought to be based on
Nancy Wake
5.7.8 Notes
• Come and See (1985) is a Soviet made film about
*
partisans in Belarus, as well as war crimes commit- a ^ Sources vary with regard to what was the largest re-
ted by the war's various factions. sistance movement during World War II. The confusion
often stems from the fact that as war progressed, some re-
• Defiance (2008) tells the story of the Bielski parti- sistance movements grew larger - and other diminished.
sans, a group of Jewish resistance fighters operating In particular, Polish and Soviet territories were mostly
in Belorussia. freed from Nazi German control in the years 1944-1945,
eliminating the need for their respective (anti-Nazi) par-
• Flame & Citron (2008) is a movie based on two tisan forces (in Poland, cursed soldiers continued to
Danish resistance fighters who were in the Holger fight against the Soviets). Fighting in Yugoslavia, how-
Danske (resistance group). ever, with Yugoslavian partisans fighting German units,
continued till the end of the war. The numbers for each
• The Four Days of Naples (1962) is a movie based
of those three movements can be roughly estimated as
on the popular uprising against the German forces
approaching 100,000 in 1941, and 200,000 in 1942, with
occupying the Italian city of Naples.
Polish and Soviet partisan numbers peaking around 1944
• A Generation (1955) (Polish) two young men in- at 350,000-400,000, and Yugoslavian,* growing * *
till the
volved in resistance by GL very end till they reached the 800,000. [39] [39] [40]
Several sources note that Polish Armia Krajowa was the
• The Heroes of Telemark (1965) is very loosely based largest resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe.
on the Norwegian sabotage of the German nuclear For example, Norman Davies wrote “Armia Krajowa
program (the later Real Heroes of Telemark is more (Home Army), the AK, which could fairly claim to be
accurate) the largest of European resistance";* [41] Gregor Dallas
wrote “Home Army (Armia Krajowa or AK) in late
• Het Meisje met het Rode Haar (1982) (Dutch) is
1943 numbered around 400,000, making it the largest
about Dutch resistance fighter Hannie Schaft
resistance organization in Europe";* [42] Mark Wyman
• Kanał (1956) (Polish) first film ever to depict wrote “Armia Krajowa was considered the largest un-
Warsaw Uprising derground resistance unit in wartime Europe”.* [43] Cer-
tainly, Polish resistance was the largest resistance till Ger-
• The Longest Day (1962) features scenes of the resis- man invasion of Yugoslavia and invasion of the Soviet
tance operations during Operation Overlord Union in 1941.
298 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

After that point, the numbers of Soviet partisans and [12] newspaper Πρώτη Σελίδα (Proti Selida), article: 11th Re-
Yugoslav partisans begun growing rapidly. The numbers union of Kilkisiotes, The Kilkisiotes of Athens honored
of Soviet partisans quickly caught up and were very simi- the Holocaust of Kroussia
lar to that of the Polish resistance (a graph is also available [13] newspaper Ριζοσπάστης (Rizospastis), article: The mur-
here).* [39]* [44] der of the members of the Macedonian Bureau of the
The numbers of Tito's Yugoslav partisans were roughly Communist Party of Greece
similar to those of the Polish and Soviet partisans in the [14] Tessa Stirling et al., Intelligence Co-operation between
first years of the war (1941–1942), but grew rapidly in the Poland and Great Britain during World War II, vol. I: The
latter years, outnumbering the Polish and Soviet partisans Report of the Anglo-Polish Historical Committee, London,
by 2:1 or more (estimates give Yugoslavian forces about Vallentine Mitchell, 2005
800,000 in 1945, to Polish and Soviet forces of 400,000
in 1944).* [39]* [40] Some authors also call it the largest [15] Churchill, Winston Spencer (1951). The Second World
resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe, for exam- War: Closing the Ring. Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston. p. 643.
ple, Kathleen Malley-Morrison wrote: “The Yugoslav
partisan guerrilla campaign, which developed into the [16] Major General Rygor Slowikowski,“In the secret service -
largest resistance army in occupied Western and Central The lightning of the Torch”, The Windrush Press, London
Europe...”.* [45] 1988, s. 285
The numbers of French resistance were smaller, around [17] Tadeusz Piotrowski (1997). “Assistance to Jews”.
10,000 in 1942, and swelling to 200,000 by 1944.* [46] Poland's Holocaust. McFarland & Company. p. 118.
ISBN 978-0-7864-0371-4.

5.7.9 References [18] Baczynska, Gabriela; JonBoyle (2008-05-12). “Sendler,

savior of Warsaw Ghetto children, dies”. Washington Post
[1] Atkin, Malcolm (2015). Fighting Nazi Occupation: British (The Washington Post Company). Retrieved 2008-05-12.
Resistance 1939-1945. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. pp. [19] Christopher M. Woodhouse, “The struggle for Greece,
Chapter 11. ISBN 978-1-47383-377-7. 1941–1949”, Hart-Davis Mc-Gibbon, 1977, Google
print, p.37
[2] coleshillhouse.com
[20] Richard Clogg, “A Short History of Modern Greece”,
[3] • Marek Szymanski: Oddzial majora Hubala,
Cambridge University Press, 1979 Google print, pp.142-
Warszawa 1999, ISBN 978-83-912237-0-3
143
[4] • Aleksandra Ziolkowska-Boehm: Polish Hero Ro- [21] Procopis Papastratis,“British policy towards Greece dur-
man Rodziewicz Fate of a Hubal Soldier in ing the Second World War, 1941-1944”, Cambridge Uni-
Auschwitz, Buchenwald and Postwar England, Lex- versity Press, 1984 Google print, p.129
ington Books, 2013, ISBN 978-0-7391-8535-3
[22] Wojciech Zawadzki (2012), Eugeniusz Bendera (1906-
[5] Jozef Garlinski, Fighting Auschwitz: the Resistance po 1970). Przedborski Słownik Biograficzny, via Internet
Movement in the Concentration Camp, Fawcett, 1975, Archive.
ISBN 978-0-449-22599-8, reprinted by Time Life Edu-
cation, 1993. ISBN 978-0-8094-8925-1 [23]“Byłem Numerem: swiadectwa Z Auschwitz”by Kaz-
imierz Piechowski, Eugenia Bozena Kodecka-Kaczynska,
[6] Hershel Edelheit, History of the Holocaust: A Hand- Michal Ziokowski, Hardcover, Wydawn. Siostr Lore-
book and Dictionary, Westview Press, 1994, ISBN 978- tanek, ISBN 83-7257-122-8
0-8133-2240-7, Google Print, p.413
[24] En.auschwitz.org
[7] Adam Cyra, Ochotnik do Auschwitz - Witold Pilecki
1901–1948 [Volunteer for Auschwitz], Oświęcim 2000. [25] Basil Davidson: PARTISAN PICTURE
ISBN 978-83-912000-3-2
[26] Operation WEISS - The Battle of Neretva
[8] Halina Auderska, Zygmunt Ziółek, Akcja N. Wspom-
[27] Battles & Campaigns during World War 2 in Yugoslavia
nienia 1939–1945 (Action N. Memoirs 1939–1945),
Wydawnictwo Czytelnik, Warszawa, 1972 (Polish) [28] Meksyk II Archived June 20, 2008, at the Wayback Ma-
chine.
[9] Norman Davies, Europe: A History, Oxford University
Press, 1996, ISBN [29] Barbagallo, Corrado, Napoli contro il terrore nazista.
Maone, Naples.
[10] Hribar, Tine (2004). Euroslovenstvo [European Slovene-
hood] (in Slovenian). Slovenska matica. ISBN 961-213- [30] Ordway, Frederick I., III. The Rocket Team. Apogee
129-5. Books Space Series 36 (pp. 158, 173)

[11] newspaper Αυγή (Avgi), article: 68 years from the liber- [31] Piotr Stachniewicz, “Akcja”“Kutschera”, Książka i
ation of Thessaloniki from the nazis Wiedza, Warszawa 1982,
5.8. GERMAN-OCCUPIED EUROPE 299

[32] Joachim Lilla (Bearb.): Die Stellvertretenden Gauleiter • Interviews from the Underground Eyewitness ac-
und die Vertretung der Gauleiter der NSDAP im „Dritten counts of Russia's Jewish resistance during World
Reich“, Koblenz 2003, S. 52-3 (Materialien aus dem Bun- War II; website & documentary film.
desarchiv, Heft 13) ISBN 978-3-86509-020-1

[33] pp. 343-376, Eyre • Serials and Miscellaneous Publications of the Un-
derground Movements in Europe During World War
[34] Martin Gilbert, Second World War A Complete His- II, 1936-1945 From the Rare Book and Special Col-
tory, Holt Paperbacks, 2004, ISBN 978-0-8050-7623-3, lections Division at the Library of Congress
Google Print, p.542
• Underground Movement Collection From the Rare
[35] Atkin, Malcolm (2015). Fighting Nazi Occupation: British
Resistance 1939 - 1945. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. pp. Book and Special Collections Division at the Library
Chapters 4 and 11. ISBN 978-1-47383-377-7. of Congress

[36] de:Onkel Emil • “British Resistance in WW2”. 2015.

[37] US Army in WWII : Triumph in the Philippines

[38] Bailey, Ronald H. (1980) [1978]. Partisans and guerril-

las (World War II; v. 12). Chicago, Illinois: Time-Life
5.8 German-occupied Europe
Books. p. 80.

[39] Velimir Vukšić (23 July 2003). Tito's partisans 1941-45. Europe at the height of
German expansion, 1941-1942

Osprey Publishing. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-1-84176-675-1. Nazi Germany*

Areas under German
occupation
Retrieved 1 March 2011. Finland
German allies*, co-belligerents,
and puppet states*
Iceland
(British occupied) Finnish Nominally unoccupied
Military

[40] Anna M. Cienciala, The coming of the War and Eastern Admin. Allied-held areas

Retaken during Soviet 1941-

1942 winter-offensive
Europe in World War II., History 557 Lecture Notes Faroe Islands
(British occupied) Reichs- Neutral countries
kommissariat * Including annexed and
Norwegen occupied territories
Sweden

[41] Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, Soviet Union

Reichs-
Columbia University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-231-12819-3, Denmark
kommissariat
Ostland

Google Print p.344 Ireland

United
RK
Under Military
Administration
Nieder-
Kingdom lande Reichs-
German Reich kommissariat
Under Ukraine
[42] Gregor Dallas, 1945: The War That Never Ended, Yale Military
Admin. Bohemia
Moravia
General
Goverment
Slovakia
University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10980-6, Google Zone occupée
(Under Military Admin.)
Hungary
Vichy
Print, p.79 France
Inde-
Under
Romania

pendent
Zone libre San State of Military
Marino Croatia Admin. Bulgaria Turkey
Monaco
Portugal
[43] Mark Wyman, DPs: Europe's Displaced Persons, 1945- Andorra Vatican
City
Albania
(Italy)
Italy Syria
1951, Cornell University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-8014- Spain Italian
Military
(Free France)
(From July 1941)
Dodecanese Iraq
8542-8, Google Print, p.34 Tangier Morocco
Admin.

Montenegro
(Italy)
Cyprus
(Br.-oc.)
(Spain) Tunisia Trans-
Morocco (Vichy Malta (Italy) (Britain) Jordan Saudi
(Vichy France) Algeria (Vichy France) (Britain) Arabia
France) (Britain)
[44] See for example: Leonid D. Grenkevich in The Soviet
Partisan Movement, 1941-44: A Critical Historiograph- Map of Europe at the height of German control in 1942
ical Analysis, p.229 or Walter Laqueur in The Guerilla
Reader: A Historical Anthology, (New York, Charles
Scribiner, 1990, p.233. German–occupied Europe refers to the sovereign coun-
tries of Europe which were occupied by the military
[45] Kathleen Malley-Morrison (30 October 2009). State Vi- forces of Nazi Germany at various times between 1939
olence and the Right to Peace: Western Europe and North and 1945 and administered by the Nazi regime.* [1]
America. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-275-99651-
2. Retrieved 1 March 2011.

[46] Jean-Benoît Nadeau; Julie Barlow (2003). Sixty million 5.8.1 Background
Frenchmen can't be wrong: why we love France but not
the French. Sourcebooks, Inc. pp. 89–. ISBN 978-1-
Several German occupied countries entered World War
4022-0045-8. Retrieved 6 March 2011. II as Allies of the United Kingdom or the Soviet Union.
Some were forced to surrender such as Czechoslovakia;
others like Poland (invaded on 1 September 1939)* [1]
5.7.10 External links were conquered in battle and then occupied. In some
cases, the legitimate governments went into exile, in other
• Jewish Armed Resistance and Rebellions on the Yad cases the governments-in-exile were formed by their cit-
Vashem website izens in other Allied countries. Selected countries oc-
• Home of the British Resistance Movement cupied by Nazi Germany were officially neutral. Others
were former members of the Axis powers that were oc-
• European Resistance Archive cupied by German forces at a later stage of the war.
300 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

5.8.2 Occupied countries

The countries occupied included all, or most of the fol-
lowing:

5.8.3 See also

• Drang nach Osten (“The Drive Eastward”)

• Lebensraum (“Living Space”)

• Neuordnung (“New Order”)

• Areas annexed by Nazi Germany

• Pan-Germanism

• Greater Germanic Reich

• Reorganization of occupied dioceses during World

War II

• Atlantic Wall

• European Theatre of World War II

• List of Nazi-German concentration camps The Trinity explosion, which took place at New Mexico's White
Sands Proving Ground on July 16, 1945, marked the beginning
of the Atomic Age.* [1]
5.8.4 References
[1] Encyclopædia Britannica, German occupied Europe. Many types of technology were customized for military
World War II. Retrieved 1 September 2015 from the use, and major developments occurred across several
Internet Archive. fields including:

• Map of Europe in 1942 • Weaponry: ships, vehicles, aircraft, artillery, small

• http://www.worldwar2history.info/war/Allies.html arms; and biological, chemical, and atomic weapons

• http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/events/germany_ • Logistical support: vehicles necessary for transport-

advances_through_europe ing soldiers and supplies, such as trains, trucks,
ships, and aircraft
• http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/
nazioccupation/ • Communications and intelligence: devices used for
navigation, communication, remote sensing, and es-
pionage
5.9 Technology during World War • Medicine: surgical innovations, chemical
II medicines, and techniques

• Rocketry: atomic bombs and automatic aircraft

Technology played a significant role in World War II.
Some of the technologies used during the war were devel-
oped during the interwar years of the 1920s and 1930s, World War II was the first war where military operations
much was developed in response to needs and lessons widely targeted the research efforts of the enemy. This
learned during the war, while others were beginning to included the exfiltration of Niels Bohr from German-
be developed as the war ended. Many wars had major occupied Denmark to Britain in 1943; the sabotage of
effects on the technologies that we use in our daily lives. Norwegian heavy water production; and the bombing of
However, compared to previous wars, World War II had Peenemunde.
the greatest effect on the technology and devices that are Military operations were also conducted to obtain in-
used today. Technology also played a greater role in the telligence on the enemy's technology; for example, the
conduct of WWII than in any other war in history, and Bruneval Raid for German radar and Operation Most III
had a critical role in its final outcome. for the German V-2.
5.9. TECHNOLOGY DURING WORLD WAR II 301

5.9.1 Between the wars tion engine development. Göttingen was the world center
of aerodynamics and fluid dynamics in general, at least up
to the time when the highly dogmatic Nazi party came to
In Britain there was the Ten Year Rule (adapted in Au- power. This contributed to the German development of
gust 1919), which declared the government should not jet aircraft and of submarines with improved under-water
expect another war within ten years. Consequently, they performance.
conducted very little military R & D. On the other hand,
Induced nuclear fission was discovered in Germany in
Germany and the Soviet Union were dissatisfied powers
1939 by Otto Hahn (and expatriate Jews in Sweden),
that for different reasons cooperated with each other on
but many of the scientists needed to develop nuclear
military R & D. The Soviets offered Weimar Germany
power had already been lost, due to anti-Jewish and anti-
facilities deep inside the USSR for building and testing
intellectual policies.
arms and for military training, well away from Treaty in-
spectors' eyes. In return, they asked for access to German Scientists have been at the heart of warfare and their
technical developments, and for assistance in creating a contributions have often been decisive. As Ian Jacob,
Red Army General Staff. the wartime military secretary of Winston Churchill, fa-
mously remarked on the influx of refugee scientists (in-
The great artillery manufacturer Krupp was soon active
cluding 19 Nobel laureates),“the Allies won the [Second
in the south of the USSR, near Rostov-on-Don. In 1925,
World] War because our German scientists were better
a flying school was established at Vivupal, near Lipetsk,
than their German scientists”.* [2]
to train the first pilots for the future Luftwaffe. Since
1926, the Reichswehr had been able to use a tank school
at Kazan (codenamed Kama) and a chemical weapons fa- 5.9.2 Allied cooperation
cility in Samara Oblast (codenamed Tomka). In turn, the
Red Army gained access to these training facilities, as Main article: Allied technological cooperation during
well as military technology and theory from Weimar Ger- World War II
many.
In the late 1920s, Germany helped Soviet industry be- The Allies of World War II cooperated extensively in
gin to modernize, and to assist in the establishment of the development and manufacture of new and existing
tank production facilities at the Leningrad Bolshevik Fac- technologies to support military operations and intelli-
tory and the Kharkov Locomotive Factory. This coop- gence gathering during the Second World War. There
eration would break down when Hitler rose to power in are various ways in which the allies cooperated, including
1933. The failure of the World Disarmament Conference the American Lend-Lease scheme and hybrid weapons
marked the beginnings of the arms race leading to war. such as the Sherman Firefly as well as the American-
In France the lesson of World War I was translated into led Manhattan Project. Several technologies invented in
the Maginot Line which was supposed to hold a line at the Britain proved critical to the military and were widely
border with Germany. The Maginot Line did achieve its manufactured by the Allies during the Second World
political objective of ensuring that any German invasion War.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]
had to go through Belgium ensuring that France would The origin of the cooperation stemmed from a 1940
have Britain as a military ally. France and Russia had visit by the Aeronautical Research Committee chairman
more, and much better, tanks than Germany as of the Henry Tizard that arranged to transfer U.K. military tech-
outbreak of their hostilities in 1940. As in World War I, nology to the U.S. in case of the successful invasion of the
the French generals expected that armour would mostly U.K. that Hitler was planning as Operation Sea Lion. Ti-
serve to help infantry break the static trench lines and zard led a British technical mission, known as the Tizard
storm machine gun nests. They thus spread the armour Mission, containing details and examples of British tech-
among their infantry divisions, ignoring the new German nological developments in fields such as radar, jet propul-
doctrine of blitzkrieg based on the fast movement us- sion and also the early British research into the atomic
ing concentrated armour attacks, against which there was bomb. One of the devices brought to the U.S. by the Mis-
no effective defense but mobile anti-tank guns - infantry sion, the resonant cavity magnetron, was later described
Antitank rifles not being effective against medium and as “the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores”
heavy tanks. .* [7]
Air power was a major concern of Germany and Britain
between the wars. Trade in aircraft engines continued,
with Britain selling hundreds of its best to German firms 5.9.3 Weaponry
- which used them in a first generation of aircraft, and
then improved on them much for use in German aircraft. Main article: List of World War II weapons
These new inventions lead way to major success for the
Germans in World War II. Germany had always been and Military weapons technology experienced rapid advances
has continued to be in the forefront of internal combus- during World War II, and over six years there was a dis-
302 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

orientating rate of change in combat in everything from dom possessed some very advanced fighter planes, such
aircraft to small arms. Indeed, the war began with most as Spitfires and Hurricanes, but these were not useful for
armies utilizing technology that had changed little from attacking ground troops on a battlefield, and the small
World War I, and in some cases, had remained unchanged number of planes dispatched to France with the British
since the 19th century. For instance cavalry, trenches, Expeditionary Force were destroyed fairly quickly. Sub-
and World War I-era battleships were normal in 1940, sequently, the Luftwaffe was able to achieve air superior-
however within only six years, armies around the world ity over France in 1940, giving the German military an
had developed jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, and even immense advantage in terms of reconnaissance and intel-
atomic weapons in the case of the United States. ligence.
The best jet fighters at the end of the war easily outflew German aircraft rapidly achieved air superiority over
any of the leading aircraft of 1939, such as the Spitfire France in early 1940, allowing the Luftwaffe to begin a
Mark I. The early war bombers that caused such carnage campaign of strategic bombing against British cities. Uti-
would almost all have been shot down in 1945, many by lizing France's airfields near the English Channel the Ger-
radar-aimed, proximity fuse-detonated anti-aircraft fire, mans were able to launch raids on London and other cities
just as the 1941 “invincible fighter”, the Zero, had by during the Blitz, with varying degrees of success.
1944 become the “turkey”of the “Marianas Turkey After World War I, the concept of massed aerial bombing
Shoot”. The best late-war tanks, such as the Soviet JS-3 ̶"The bomber will always get through"̶had become
heavy tank or the German Panther medium tank, hand- very popular with politicians and military leaders seeking
ily outclassed the best tanks of 1939 such as Panzer IIIs. an alternative to the carnage of trench warfare, and as a
In the navy the battleship, long seen as the dominant el- result, the air forces of Britain, France, and Germany had
ement of sea power, was displaced by the greater range developed fleets of bomber planes to enable this (France's
and striking power of the aircraft carrier. The chaotic bomber wing was severely neglected, whilst Germany's
importance of amphibious landings stimulated the West- bombers were developed in secret as they were explicitly
ern Allies to develop the Higgins boat, a primary troop forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles).
landing craft; the DUKW, a six-wheel-drive amphibi-
ous truck, amphibious tanks to enable beach landing at- The bombing of Shanghai by the Imperial Japanese Navy
tacks and Landing Ship, Tanks to land tanks on beaches. on January 28, 1932, and August 1937 and the bombings
Increased organization and coordination of amphibious during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), had demon-
assaults coupled with the resources necessary to sustain strated the power of strategic bombing, and so air forces
them caused the complexity of planning to increase by or- in Europe and the United States came to view bomber
ders of magnitude, thus requiring formal systematization aircraft as extremely powerful weapons which, in theory,
giving rise to what has become the modern management could bomb an enemy nation into submission on their
methodology of project management by which almost all own. As a result, the fear of bombers triggered major
modern engineering, construction and software develop- developments in aircraft technology.
ments are organized. Nazi Germany had put only one large, long-range strate-
gic bomber (the Heinkel He 177 Greif, with many de-
lays and problems) into production, while the America
Aircraft Bomber concept resulted only in prototypes. The Span-
ish Civil War had proved that tactical dive-bombing us-
In the Western European Theatre of World War II, air ing Stukas was a very efficient way of destroying en-
power became crucial throughout the war, both in tacti- emy troops concentrations, and so resources and money
cal and strategic operations (respectively, battlefield and had been devoted to the development of smaller bomber
long-range). Superior German aircraft, aided by ongo- craft. As a result, the Luftwaffe was forced to attack Lon-
ing introduction of design and technology innovations, don in 1940 with heavily overloaded Heinkel and Dornier
allowed the German armies to overrun Western Europe medium bombers, and even with the unsuitable Junkers
with great speed in 1940, largely assisted by lack of Al- Ju 87. These bombers were painfully slow̶Italian engi-
lied aircraft, which in any case lagged in design and tech- neers had been unable to develop sufficiently large piston
nical development during the slump in research invest- aircraft engines (those that were produced tended to ex-
ment after the Great Depression. Since the end of World plode through extreme overheating), and so the bombers
War I, the French Air Force had been badly neglected, used for the Battle of Britain were woefully undersized.
as military leaders preferred to spend money on ground As German bombers had not been designed for long-
armies and static fortifications to fight another World range strategic missions, they lacked sufficient defenses.
War I-style war. As a result, by 1940, the French Air The Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter escorts had not been
Force had only 1562 planes and was together with 1070 equipped to carry enough fuel to guard the bombers on
RAF planes facing 5,638 Luftwaffe fighters and fighter- both the outbound and return journeys, and the longer-
bombers. Most French airfields were located in north-east range Bf 110s could be outmanoeuvred by the short-
France, and were quickly overrun in the early stages of range British fighters. (A bizarre feature of the war was
the campaign. The Royal Air Force of the United King-
5.9. TECHNOLOGY DURING WORLD WAR II 303

how long it took to conceive of the Drop tank.) The man U-Boats, by the Germans to mine shipping lanes
air defense was well organized and equipped with effec- and by the Japanese against previously formidable Royal
tive radar that survived the bombing. As a result, Ger- Navy battleships such as HMS Prince of Wales (53).
man bombers were shot down in large numbers, and were During the war the Germans produced various Glide
unable to inflict enough damage on cities and military- bomb weapons, which were the first smart bombs; the V-
industrial targets to force Britain out of the war in 1940 1 flying bomb, which was the first cruise missile weapon;
or to prepare for the planned invasion. and the V-2 rocket, the first ballistic missile weapon. The
British long-range bomber planes such as the Short last of these was the first step into the space age as its tra-
Stirling had been designed before 1939 for strategic jectory took it through the stratosphere, higher and faster
flights and given a large armament, but their technol- than any aircraft. This later led to the development of the
ogy still suffered from numerous flaws. The smaller and Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). Wernher Von
shorter ranged Bristol Blenheim, the RAF's most-used Braun led the V-2 development team and later emigrated
bomber, was defended by only one hydraulically operated to the United States where he contributed to the develop-
machine-gun turret, and whilst this appeared sufficient, ment of the Saturn V rocket, which took men to the moon
it was soon revealed that the turret was a pathetic de- in 1969.
fence against squadrons of German fighter planes. Amer-
ican bomber planes such as the B-17 Flying Fortress had
been built before the war as the only adequate long-range Theoretical foundation The laboratory of Ludwig
bombers in the world, designed to patrol the long Ameri- Prandtl at University of Göttingen was the main center
can coastlines. Defended by as many as six machine-gun of theoretical and mathematical aerodynamics and fluid
turrets providing 360° cover, the B-17s were still vulner- dynamics research from soon after 1904 to the end of
able without fighter protection even when used in large World War II. Prandtl coined the term boundary layer
formations. and founded modern (mathematical) aerodynamics. The
laboratory lost its dominance when the researchers were
Despite the abilities of Allied bombers, though, Germany dispersed after the war.
was not quickly crippled by Allied air raids. At the start
of the war the vast majority of bombs fell miles from their
targets, as poor navigation technology ensured that Allied Fuel The Axis countries had serious shortages of
airmen frequently could not find their targets at night. The petroleum from which to make liquid fuel. The Allies had
bombs used by the Allies were very high-tech devices, much more petroleum production. Germany, long before
and mass production meant that the precision bombs were the war, developed a process to make synthetic fuel from
often made sloppily and so failed to explode. German in- coal. Synthesis factories were principal targets of the Oil
dustrial production actually rose continuously from 1940 Campaign of World War II.
to 1945, despite the best efforts of the Allied air forces
The USA added tetra ethyl lead to its aviation fuel, with
to cripple industry.
which it supplied Britain and other Allies. This octane
Significantly, the bomber offensive kept the revolutionary enhancing additive allowed higher compression ratios, al-
Type XXI U-Boat from entering service during the war. lowing higher efficiency, giving more speed and range to
Moreover, Allied air raids had a serious propaganda im- Allied Airplanes, and reducing the cooling load.
pact on the German government, all prompting Germany
to begin serious development on air defence technology
̶in the form of fighter planes. Vehicles
The jet aircraft age began during the war with the de-
The Treaty of Versailles had imposed severe restrictions
velopment of the Heinkel He 178, the first true turbojet.
upon Germany constructing vehicles for military pur-
Late in the war the Germans brought in the first opera-
poses, and so throughout the 1920s and 1930s, German
tional Jet fighter, the Messerschmitt Me 262. However,
arms manufacturers and the Wehrmacht had begun se-
despite their technological edge, German jets were over-
cretly developing tanks. As these vehicles were produced
whelmed by Allied air superiority, frequently being de-
in secret, their technical specifications and battlefield po-
stroyed on or near the airstrip. Other jet aircraft, such as
tentials were largely unknown to the European Allies un-
the British Gloster Meteor, which flew missions but never
til the war actually began. When German troops invaded
saw combat, did not significantly distinguish themselves
the Benelux nations and France in May 1940, German
from top-line piston-driven aircraft.
weapons technology proved to be immeasurably superior
Aircraft saw rapid and broad development during the war to that of the Allies.
to meet the demands of aerial combat and address lessons
The French Army suffered from serious technical defi-
learned from combat experience. From the open cockpit
ciencies with its tanks. In 1918, France's Renault FT had
airplane to the sleek jet fighter, many different types were
been the most advanced in the world; although small, ca-
employed, often designed for very specific missions. Air-
pable of far outperforming their slow and clumsy British,
craft were used in anti-submarine warfare against Ger-
German, or American counterparts. However, this su-
304 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

periority resulted in tank development stagnating after much a matter of limited troops, but instead a strong in-
World War I. By 1939, French tanks were virtually un- dustrial base that could afford such equipment on a great
changed from 1918. French and British Generals be- scale.
lieved that a future war with Germany would be fought The most visible vehicles of the war were the tanks, form-
under very similar conditions as those of 1914–1918. ing the armored spearhead of mechanized warfare. Their
Both invested in thickly armoured, heavily armed vehi- impressive firepower and armor made them the premier
cles designed to cross shell-damaged ground and trenches fighting machine of ground warfare. However, the large
under fire. At the same time the British also developed number of trucks and lighter vehicles that kept the in-
faster but lightly armoured Cruiser tanks to range behind
fantry, artillery, and others moving were massive under-
the enemy lines. takings also.
In contrast, the Wehrmacht invested in fast, light tanks
designed to overtake infantry. These vehicles would
vastly outperform British and French tanks in mechanized Ships
battles. German tanks followed the design of France's
1918 Renault versions̶a moderately armoured hull with
Naval warfare changed dramatically during World War
a rotating turret on top mounting a cannon. This gave ev-
II, with the ascent of the aircraft carrier to the premier
ery German tank the potential to engage other armoured
vessel of the fleet, and the impact of increasingly capable
vehicles. In contrast, around 35% of French tanks were
submarines on the course of the war. The development of
simply equipped with machine guns (again designed for
new ships during the war was somewhat limited due to the
trench warfare), meaning that when French and German
protracted time period needed for production, but impor-
met in battle, a third of the French assault vehicles would
tant developments were often retrofitted to older vessels.
not be able to engage enemy tanks, their machine-gun
Advanced German submarine types came into service too
fire only ricocheting off German armour plates. Only a
late and after nearly all the experienced crews had been
handful of French tanks had radios, and these often broke
lost.
as the tank lurched over uneven ground. German tanks
were, on the contrary, all equipped with radios, allowing In addition to aircraft carriers, it's assisting counterpart
them to communicate with one another throughout bat- of destroyers were advanced as well. From the Imperial
tles, whilst French tank commanders could rarely contact Japanese Navy, the Fubuki-class destroyer was intro-
other vehicles. duced. The Fubuki class set a new standard not only
for Japanese vessels, but for destroyers around the world.
The Matilda Mk I tanks of the British Army were also
At a time when British and American destroyers had
designed for infantry support and were protected by thick
changed little from their un-turreted, single-gun mounts
armour. This was ideal for trench warfare, but made
and light weaponry, the Japanese destroyers were bigger,
the tanks painfully slow in open battles. Their light can-
more powerfully armed, and faster than any similar class
nons and machine-guns were usually unable to inflict se-
of vessel in the other fleets. The Japanese destroyers of
rious damage on German vehicles. The exposed caterpil-
World War II are said to be the world's first modern de-
lar tracks were easily broken by gunfire, and the Matilda
stroyer.* [8]
tanks had a tendency to incinerate their crews if hit, as
the petrol tanks were located on the top of the hull. By The German U-boats were used primarily for stop-
ping/destroying the resources from the United States and
contrast the Infantry tank Matilda II fielded in lesser num-
bers was largely invulnerable to German gunfire and its Canada coming across the Atlantic. Submarines were
gun was able to punch through the German tanks. How- critical in the Pacific Ocean as well as in the Atlantic
ever French and British tanks were at a disadvantage com-Ocean. Advances in submarine technology included the
pared to the air supported German armoured assaults, and snorkel. Japanese defenses against Allied submarines
a lack of armoured support contributed significantly to were ineffective. Much of the merchant fleet of the
the rapid Allied collapse in 1940. Empire of Japan, needed to supply its scattered forces
and bring supplies such as petroleum and food back to
World War II marked the first full-scale war where
the Japanese Archipelago, was sunk. Among the war-
mechanization played a significant role. Most nations did
ships sunk by submarines was the war's largest aircraft
not begin the war equipped for this. Even the vaunted
carrier, the Shinano.
German Panzer forces relied heavily on non-motorised
support and flank units in large operations. While Ger- The Kriegsmarine introduced the pocket battleship to
many recognized and demonstrated the value of concen- get around constraints imposed by the Treaty of Ver-
trated use of mechanized forces, they never had these sailes. Innovations included the use of diesel engines, and
units in enough quantity to supplant traditional units. welded rather than riveted hulls.
However, the British also saw the value in mechaniza- The most important shipboard advances were in the field
tion. For them it was a way to enhance an otherwise lim- of anti-submarine warfare. Driven by the desperate ne-
ited manpower reserve. America as well sought to create cessity of keeping Britain supplied, technologies for the
a mechanized army. For the United States, it was not so detection and destruction of submarines was advanced
5.9. TECHNOLOGY DURING WORLD WAR II 305

at high priority. The use of ASDIC (SONAR) became • The first generation of nerve agents was invented and
widespread and so did the installation of shipboard and produced in Germany, but wasn't used as a weapon
airborne radar. The Allies Ultra code breaking allowed
convoys to be steered around German U-Boat wolfpacks. • Napalm was developed, but did not see wide use un-
til the Korean War

5.9.4 Weapons • Plastic explosives like Nobel 808, Hexoplast 75,

Compositions C and C2
The actual weapons; the guns, mortars, artillery, bombs,
and other devices, were as diverse as the participants and
objectives. A large array were developed during the war
Small arms development
to meet specific needs that arose, but many traced their
early development to prior to World War II. Torpedoes
New production methods for weapons such as stamping,
began to use magnetic detonators; compass-directed, pro-
riveting, and welding came into being to produce the
grammed and even acoustic guidance systems; and im-
number of arms needed. Design and production meth-
proved propulsion. Fire-control systems continued to de-
ods had advanced enough to manufacture weapons of rea-
velop for ships' guns and came into use for torpedoes and
sonable reliability such as the PPSh-41, PPS-42, Sten,
anti-aircraft fire. Human torpedoes and the Hedgehog
Beretta Model 38, MP 40, M3 Grease Gun, Gewehr 43,
were also developed.
Thompson submachine gun and the M1 Garand rifle.
Other Weapons commonly found During World War II
• Armour weapons: The Tank destroyer, Specialist
include the American, Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR),
Tanks for Combat engineering including mine clear-
M1 Carbine Rifle, as well as the Colt M1911 A-1; The
ing Flail tanks, Flame tank, and amphibious designs
Japanese Type 11 the Type 96 machine gun, and the
• Aircraft: Glide bombs - the first “smart bombs” Arisaka bolt-action rifles all were significant weapons
, such as the Fritz X anti-shipping missile, had used during the war.
wire or radio remote control; the world's first jet World War II saw the establishment of the reliable semi-
fighter (Messerschmitt 262) and jet bomber (Arado automatic rifle, such as the American M1 Garand and,
234), the world's first operational military heli- more importantly, of the first widely used assault rifles,
copters (Flettner Fl 282), the world's first rocket- named after the German sturmgewehrs of the late war.
powered fighter (Messerschmitt 163) Earlier renditions that hinted at this idea were that of
• Missiles: The Pulse jet-powered V-1 flying bomb the employment of the Browning Automatic Rifle and
was the world's first cruise missile, Rockets pro- 1916 Fedorov Avtomat in a walking fire tactic in which
gressed enormously: V-2 rocket, Katyusha rocket men would advance on the enemy position showering it
artillery and air-launched rockets. with a hail of lead. The Germans first developed the
FG 42 for its paratroopers in the assault and later the
• Specialised bombs: cluster bombs, blockbuster Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44), the world's first assault rifle,
bombs, drum bombs and bunker busters. firing an intermediate cartridge; the FG 42's use of a full-
powered rifle cartridge made it difficult to control.
• HEAT, and HESH anti-armour warheads.
Developments in machine gun technology culminated in
• Proximity fuze for shells, bombs and rockets. This the Maschinengewehr 42 (MG42) which was of an ad-
fuze is designed to detonate an explosive automati- vanced design unmatched at the time. It spurred post-war
cally when close enough to the target to destroy it, so
development on both sides of the upcoming Cold War and
a direct hit is not required and time/place of closest
is still used by some armies to this day including the Ger-
approach does not need to be estimated. Magnetic man Bundeswehr's MG 3. The Heckler & Koch G3, and
torpedoes and mines also had a sort of proximity many other Heckler & Koch designs, came from its sys-
fuse. tem of operation. The United States military meshed the
• Guided weapons (by radio or trailing wires): glide operating system of the FG 42 with the belt feed system
bombs, crawling bombs, rockets. of the MG42 to create the M60 machine gun used in the
Vietnam War.
• Self-guiding weapons: torpedoes (sound-seeking,
compass-guided and looping), V1 missile (compass- Despite being overshadowed by self-loading/automatic
and timer-guided) rifles and sub-machine guns, bolt-action rifles remained
the mainstay infantry weapon of many nations during
• Aiming devices for bombs, torpedoes, artillery and World War II. When the United States entered World War
machine guns, using special purpose mechanical and II, there were not enough M1 Garand rifles available to
electronic analog and (perhaps) digital“computers”. American forces which forced the US to start producing
The mechanical analog Norden bomb sight is a well- more M1903 rifles in order to act as a“stop gap”measure
known example. until sufficient quantities of M1 Garands were produced.
306 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

During the conflict, many new models of bolt-action ri- mainland Japan.
fles were produced as a result of lessons learned from the The strategic importance of the bomb, and its even more
First World War with the designs of a number of bolt- powerful fusion-based successors, did not become fully
action infantry rifles being modified in order to speed apparent until the United States lost its monopoly on the
up production as well as to make the rifles more com- weapon in the post-war era. The Soviet Union developed
pact and easier to handle. Examples of bolt-action ri- and tested their first nuclear weapon in 1949, based par-
fles that were used during World War II include the Ger- tially on information obtained from Soviet espionage in
man Mauser Kar98k, the British Lee–Enfield No.4, and the United States. Nuclear competition between the two
the Springfield M1903A3. During the course of World
superpowers played a large part in the development of the
War II, bolt-action rifles and carbines were modified even Cold War. The strategic implications of such a massively
further to meet new forms of warfare the armies of cer-
destructive weapon still reverberate in the 21st century.
tain nations faced e.g. urban warfare and jungle warfare.
Examples include the Soviet Mosin–Nagant M1944 car- There was also a German nuclear energy project, includ-
bine, which were developed by the Soviets as a result of ing talk of an atomic weapon. This failed for a variety
the Red Army's experiences with urban warfare e.g. the of reasons, most notably German Antisemitism. Half
Battle of Stalingrad, and the British Lee–Enfield No.5 of continental theoretical physicists including (Einstein,
carbine, that were developed for British and Common- Bohr, Enrico Fermi, and Oppenheimer) who did much
wealth forces fighting the Japanese in South-East Asia and of their early study and research in Germany, were either
the Pacific. Jewish or, in the case of Enrico Fermi, married to a Jew.
Erwin Schrödinger had also left Germany for political
When World War II ended in 1945, the small arms that reasons. When they left Germany, the only leading nu-
were used in the conflict still saw action in the hands of clear physicist left in Germany was Heisenberg, who ap-
the armed forces of various nations and guerrilla move- parently dragged his feet on the project, or at best lacked
ments during and after the Cold War era. Nations like the high morale that characterized the Los Alamos work.
the Soviet Union and the United States provided many He made some faulty calculations suggesting that the Ger-
surplus, World War II-era small arms to a number of na- mans would need significantly more heavy water than was
tions and political movements during the Cold War era as necessary. Otto Hahn, the physical chemist who had the
a pretext to providing more modern infantry weapons. central part in the original discovery of fission, was an-
other key figure in the project. The project was doomed
due to insufficient resources.
The atomic bomb
The Empire of Japan was also developing an atomic
Main article: Manhattan Project Bomb, however, it floundered due to lack of resources
despite gaining interest from the government.
The massive research and development demands of the The collaboration between the British and the Ameri-
war included the Manhattan Project, the effort to quickly cans led to the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agree-
develop an atomic bomb, or nuclear fission warhead. It ment between the two nations, whereby American nu-
was perhaps the most profound military development of clear weapons technology was adapted for British use.
the war, and had a great impact on the scientific commu-
nity, among other things creating a network of national
laboratories in the United States. 5.9.5 Electronics, communications and in-
telligence
In 1942, and with the threat of invasion by Germany
still apparent, the United Kingdom dispatched around 20 Electronics rose to prominence quickly in World War II.
British scientists and technical staff to America, along The British developed and progressed electronic comput-
with their work, which had been carried out under the ers which were primarily used for breaking the“Enigma”
codename Tube Alloys, to prevent the potential for vi- codes, which were Nazi secret codes. These codes for ra-
tal information falling into enemy hands. The scientists dio messages were indecipherable to the Allies. However,
formed the British contribution to the Manhattan Project, the meticulous work of code breakers based at Britainʼs
where their work on uranium enrichment was instrumen- Bletchley Park cracked the secrets of German wartime
tal in jump-starting the project. communication, and played a crucial role in the final de-
The invention an atomic bomb meant that a single air- feat of Germany. Americans also used electronic com-
craft could carry a weapon sufficiently powerful to dev- puters for equations, such as battlefield equations, ballis-
astate entire cities, making conventional warfare against tics, and more. Numerous small digital computers were
a nation with an arsenal of them suicidal. Following the also used. From calculating tables, to mechanical trajec-
conclusion of the European Theater in May 1945, two tory calculators, to some of the most advanced electronic
atomic bombs were then employed against the Empire of computers. Soldiers would usually carry most of the elec-
Japan in August during the Pacific Theater, effectively tronic devices in their pockets, but since technology has
terminating the war, which averted the need for invading developed, digital computers started to increase in size,
5.9. TECHNOLOGY DURING WORLD WAR II 307

Center by the Nazi German Luftwaffe during the Second

World War. During initial development it was known by
the codename“Cherry Stone”. The first of the so-called
Vergeltungswaffen series designed for terror bombing of
London, the V-1 was fired from launch facilities along the
French (Pas-de-Calais) and Dutch coasts. The first V-1
was launched at London on 13 June 1944), one week af-
ter (and prompted by) the successful Allied landings in
Europe. At its peak, more than one hundred V-1s a day
were fired at south-east England, 9,521 in total, decreas-
ing in number as sites were overrun until October 1944,
when the last V-1 site in range of Britain was overrun by
Allied forces. After this, the V-1s were directed at the
port of Antwerp and other targets in Belgium, with 2,448
V-1s being launched. The attacks stopped when the last
launch site was overrun on 29 March 1945.
The V-2 (German: Vergeltungswaffe 2, “Retribution
Weapon 2”), technical name Aggregat-4 (A-4), was
the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile. The
missile with liquid-propellant rocket engine was devel-
oped during the Second World War in Germany as a
"vengeance weapon", designed to attack Allied cities as
retaliation for the Allied bombings against German cities.
The V-2 rocket was also the first artificial object to cross
German Enigma encryption machine. the boundary of space.
These two rocketry advances took the lives of many civil-
which spacious command and control centres would have. ians in London during the years 1944 and 1945.
Initial control centers that were embarked on ships and
aircraft that established the networked computing, is so
essential to our daily lives. While prior to the war few 5.9.7 Consumer Goods
electronic devices were seen as important pieces of equip-
ment, by the middle of the war instruments such as radar After the war, many of the inventions created during
and ASDIC (sonar) had become invaluable. Germany World War II that were invented for the troops were later
started the war ahead in some aspects of radar, but lost sold to the civilian population.
ground to work in England and to physicists and engi-
neers at the "Radiation Laboratory" of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Half of the German theoretical
M&M's
physicists were Jewish and had emigrated or otherwise
been lost to Germany long before WW II started.
During 1932, the creator of M&M's, Forrest Mars Sr.
Equipment designed for communications and the moved to England, after clashing enough times with his
interception of those communications became critical. father, and began manufacturing Mars Bars for troops in
The Germans widely relied on the Enigma coding the UK. It wasn't until the Spanish War where Forrest pur-
machine for encrypting communications. The British portedly encountered troops eating small beads of choco-
developed a new method for decoding Enigma benefiting late that were encased in hard sugar shells, as Forrest was
from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher thrilled to share this new treat as most chocolate treats
Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of sold poorly during the summer. When he returned to the
Enigma before the war.* [9] US, he approached Bernie Murrie, the son of a Hersey's
executive, to join him in his business venture as he antic-
ipated a demand of chocolate and sugar during the war.
5.9.6 Rocketry In March 1945, Forrest was granted a patent for the man-
ufacturing process and production in Newark, New Jer-
Rocketry was used greatly in World War II. There were sey. The candies were sold exclusively to the military
many different inventions and advances in rocketry, such when the US joined the war and were used as an easy
as: way to provide the troops with chocolate on the battle-
The V-1, which is also known as the buzz bomb. This field without it melting so easily. After the war, many
automatic aircraft is today known as a“cruise missile”. troops were hooked on the candies provided and soon the
The V-1 was developed at Peenemünde Army Research candies were mass-produced for the civilian population.
308 CHAPTER 5. IMPACT OF THE WAR

5.9.8 See also

• Military invention
• Military funding of science

• Military production during World War II

• Technology during World War I

• List of equipment used in World War II

• Secret and special weapons in Showa Japan

5.9.9 References
[1] Roberts, Susan A.; Calvin A. Roberts (2006). New
Mexico. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN
9780826340030.

[2] Dominic Selwood (29 January 2014). “The man who in-
vented poison gas”. The Telegraph. Retrieved 29 January
2014.

[3] Roberts, Eric (16 March 2004).“British Technology and

the Second World War”. Stanford University. Retrieved
26 April 2015.

[4] Paul Kennedy, Engineers of Victory: The Problem Solvers

Who Turned The Tide in the Second World War (2013)

[5] James W. Brennan,“The Proximity Fuze: Whose Brain-

child?,”U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings (1968) 94#9 pp
72–78.

[6] Septimus H. Paul (2000). Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-

American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952. Ohio State U.P.
pp. 1–5.

[7] James Phinney Baxter III (Official Historian of the Of-

fice of Scientific Research and Development), Scientists
Against Time (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1946),
page 142.

[8] Parshall and Tully, Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of

the Battle of Midway. p. 336.

[9] Macintyre, Ben (10 December 2010). “Bravery of thou-

sands of Poles was vital in securing victory”. The Times
(London). p. 27.

• Anderson, J. (2005). Ludwig Prandtl's boundary

layer. Physics Today.
Chapter 6

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Weyes, Oregon Bear, Angr, Velho, Kelly Martin, Simetrical, Rorschach, Mel Etitis, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mwmonk, Jannex, TigerShark,
Anilocra, Camw, LOL, Webdinger, Nuggetboy, John-1107, Yansa, Ylem, PoccilScript, A.K.A.47, Guy M, Josephf, FrankA, Eolsson,
Kurzon, Madchester, Smguy, Zealander, Admrboltz, Before My Ken, BoLingua, Commander Keane, Polycarp, Richardrut, M4c~enwiki,
Jeff3000, MONGO, Exxolon, Ropcat, UbiquitousUK, Xaliqen, Nfras, Eleassar777, Jok2000, Tabletop, Hyung5kim, Kelisi, Uris, We-
wonk, Tomlillis, Schzmo, NormanEinstein, Jleon, Bhound89, Bbatsell, Terence, Paul Carpenter, KevinOKeeffe, Bluemoose, Steinbach,
KFan II, GregorB, Vanished user 05, Randy2063, Karmosin, Jergen, Mb1000, Studio34, Zeerus, Zzyzx11, EvilOverlordX, JohnC, Elvarg,
Haunti, Tmrobertson, Brendanconway, Wayward, とある⽩い猫, Jon Harald Søby, MechBrowman, Gimboid13, Jacj, Nobbie, Justinmo,
Jno, Palica, Pfalstad, Scratchy, Gerbrant, Marvelvsdc, CronoDAS, PET, Paxsimius, LeoO3, Mandarax, Matturn, Gettingtoit, Plushpuffin,
Stefan de Weger, Graham87, Marskell, KyuuA4, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Cuchullain, Ilya, BD2412, Monk, Tradnor, Dead-
corpse, PenguinX, MC MasterChef, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Dataxpress, The Disco King, RxS, Miq, Wigglestheclown, Fox Mccloud,
BorgHunter, Beethoven~enwiki, Canderson7, Crzrussian, SteveW, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Buldri, Seidenstud, Tim!, Poul818,
P3Pp3r, Koavf, Jaybeeunix, Zbxgscqf, Skaterdude182, Gryffindor, Wikibofh, Panoptical, Jivecat, Commander, EatAlbertaBeef, Vary,
Ikh, PinchasC, Biederman, Quiddity, Dennis Estenson II, Carbonite, JHMM13, Tangotango, Sdornan, Harro5, ZidaneTribal13, Colin
Hill, TheRingess, Feydey, MZMcBride, Tawker, SpNeo, Lordkinbote, Dstudent, Habap, Ccson, Oblivious, Ligulem, Tstockma, Stubedoo,
ElKevbo, DouglasGreen~enwiki, CalPaterson, Ghepeu, Zanturaeon, Durin, Brighterorange, Gadig, The wub, Bhadani, Aakashraj1990kash,
DuKot, Ucucha, GregAsche, AySz88, Sango123, Lotu, Ptdecker, Oo64eva, DirkvdM, Antimatt, Nick mallory, Yamamoto Ichiro, MWAK,
Leithp, Algebra, Heptor, Andrew Camilleri, Wikiprojryan, Dyolf Knip, FayssalF, RCBot~enwiki, Franzeska, Bcwright, FuelWagon,
Titoxd, Boblord, FlaBot, Moskvax, Bobstay, Duagloth, Ian Pitchford, Markyen, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Ground Zero, DLMahnken,
Doc glasgow, Winhunter, Trivial, Nihiltres, Merecat, Crazycomputers, Hiding, Harmil, Clintox, Dogbertd, Winstonho0805, Garyvdm,
Jelzinga, Jmw0000, AI, Mark83, SuperDude115, Gparker, CraigWyllie, Kuzzer, Celestianpower, Tuxthepenguin6, Flowerparty, RexNL,
Gurch, Str1977, President Rhapsody, Philomax 2, KFP, OrbitOne, Sgrayban, R Lee E, Fisenko, Natalina smpf, Atrix20, Rantori, Trap-
per, Lifesayko, Preslethe, EronMain, Thefourdotelipsis, Simishag, Alphachimp, NorkNork, Consumed Crustacean, Zayani, Spikebrennan,
Broken Segue, Cause of death, Phoenix2~enwiki, JimMorris, Toi, Butros, Lamrock, Psantora, MoRsE, King of Hearts, Mister Farkas, No-
madtales, Chobot, Montemurro~enwiki, Scoops, Copperchair, Js-js2, DTOx, Jdhowens90, Gregorik, Celebere, Karch, Bornhj, Soyweiser,
Kanfer, Volunteer Marek, Igordebraga, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Scoo, Jpkotta, Cactus.man, NSR, EvilZak, Gwernol, Wjfox2005, Al-
gebraist, Wasted Time R, Grubb, The Rambling Man, Siddhant, Cjs56, YurikBot, Noclador, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Aufregende,
Col. O'Hara, Angus Lepper, RobotE, Tommyt, Crotalus horridus, Coltius, Splintercellguy, Sceptre, Blightsoot, TSO1D, Jachin, Marqus,
Huw Powell, Jimp, Kafziel, Brandmeister (old), Wolfmankurd, Phantomsteve, Bobby1011, RussBot, UnknownJohn, Open4D, Crazy-
tales, Fabartus, Red Slash, Jtkiefer, Madrone, John Quincy Adding Machine, Junky, Tnova4, Anonymous editor, Briaboru, Witan, Pimp-
master, Splash, Pigman, CesarB's unpriviledged account, Green Tentacle, Kurt Leyman, Sasuke Sarutobi, Eggman183, Gardar Rurak,
SpuriousQ, Curuinor, Fabricationary, IByte, CanadianCaesar, Kirill Lokshin, Akamad, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Cate, Flo98, Shell Kin-
ney, Gaius Cornelius, Mike Young, Ksyrie, CambridgeBayWeather, Alex Bakharev, Pseudomonas, Moocreature, Kimchi.sg, Wimt, Brian
Sisco, Ugur Basak, Snow8261, Draeco, Manxruler, TheGrappler, Antidrugue, David R. Ingham, Magnoliasouth, Arcblade, Fnorp, Paul-
Garner, PurpleHaze, Shanel, NawlinWiki, ENeville, Hawkeye7, Raycal, KissL, Tgsh2005, Wiki alf, -OOPSIE-, Zulu, King Of The Dwarf
People, Waxpancake, Spike Wilbury, Robertvan1, RattleMan, Spot87, Janke, Test-tools~enwiki, Voyevoda, Thatdog, Cquan, Jaxl, Jo-
hann Wolfgang, Fabulous Creature, Zarel, Exir Kamalabadi, Mhartl, Clam0p, CJK, Terfili, Megapixie, Justin Eiler, Rjensen, Kevrotti,
Howcheng, Suva, Uberjivy, Toya, Kowalski66, LiamE, Cleared as filed, Adamrush, Nick, Retired username, Aaron Brenneman, Robdur-
bar, Wonglokking, D. F. Schmidt, Banes, Dppowell, HeroicJay, Szalas, Pyroclastic, Desk Jockey, Raven4x4x, Moe Epsilon, MiceHead,
Thejester, Molobo, Misza13, Plk, Delxx, Nick C, Killdevil, R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine), Tony1, Alex43223, MakeChooChooGoNow,
Sir Edgar, Syrthiss, DGJM, Aaron Schulz, Rogueagle, FluxFuser, Lockesdonkey, Kyle Barbour, Mieciu K, BOT-Superzerocool, Figaro,
Gadget850, Rwalker, Karl Meier, Psy guy, Bota47, FiggyBee, Barnabypage, Private Butcher, Rallette, Essexmutant, Thestegasarus, Bus-
terD, CLW, Acetic Acid, Jpeob, Greed, Rob117, Brisvegas, Nlu, Dna-webmaster, HLGallon, David Underdown, Nick123, Wknight94,
Yummy123, Searchme, Xabian40409, FF2010, Norvo, Georgewilliamherbert, Light current, Doldrums, Sorrow242434, Bdell555, Capt
Jim, Pastricide, Canadia, Emijrp, Deepee, SilentC, Matt107bghs, Lt-wiki-bot, Encephalon, Sharkb, Silverhorse, Nikkimaria, Chase me
ladies, I'm the Cavalry, NBS525, Rickpower, Theda, Closedmouth, Jwissick, Spondoolicks, Keithd, Malcolmturnbull, Fang Aili, En-
domion, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Abune, Xaxafrad, Dspradau, Canley, De Administrando Imperio, Mercenary2k, Wsiegmund, Jake
Spooky, Empion, JonRoma, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, Cicero83, JoanneB, Barbatus, Red Jay, Shawnc, Wechselstrom, LeonardoRob0t,
Fram, Smurrayinchester, Peter, QmunkE, HereToHelp, Tyrenius, JimmyTheOne, El T, JLaTondre, Wilsynet, Spaltavian, RenamedUser
jaskldjslak904, Spliffy, Easter Monkey, Nimrauko, Miguelin, Curpsbot-unicodify, Nixer, Gorgan almighty, Johnpseudo, Smurfy, Ajuk,
Eaefremov, Che829, Demogorgon's Soup-taster, Les paulrouge, DisambigBot, Listowy, Kungfuadam, Jonathan.s.kt, RG2, Ramanpoten-
6.1. TEXT 311

tial, Tyrhinis, Purple Sheep, Benandorsqueaks, Maxamegalon2000, Scientz, Teryx, GrinBot~enwiki, Auroranorth, Hgootzen, Draicone,
Nick-D, Wallie, Amberrock, DVD R W, Soir, Saikiri, Victor falk, Jinxs, Tobyk777, That Guy, From That Show!, Matt Heard, Nark-
straws, Prvc, Luk, Mlibby, Blastwizard, Dc45, Attilios, Phinnaeus, Sintonak.X, MacsBug, Drcwright, Joshbuddy, SmackBot, Amcbride,
YellowMonkey, Aim Here, Elonka, Kuban kazak, Historian932, Aquilla, Damis, David Kernow, Bobet, Babel~enwiki, Reedy, Tarret,
Joeljoslin, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Olorin28, Jonyyeh, Grazon, CSZero, Stretch 135, Bigbluefish, Pavlovič, Revolve-
rOcelot~enwiki, Toofast, DMorpheus, Pgk, CyclePat, Jblister, Yamaplos, Jacek Kendysz, Petercorless, Jagged 85, Patrickneil, Esaborio,
Chairman S., Finavon, Fractions, Scifiintel, Yelgrun, Anastrophe, Jgranatowski, Michael Dorosh, Delldot, Alephh, Cla68, Mdd4696, Flying
Canuck, PJM, Thunder8, Arniep, Sansvoix, Vilerage, TheDoctor10, As5680, Eraserhead72, Kris12, Elk Salmon, TheFourthWay, Jpvinall,
Flamarande, HeartofaDog, Alsandro, Srnec, Tommstein, Robsomebody, Gaff, TeamUSA, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Aksi great, Pe-
ter Isotalo, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Jazzdude00021, Skizzik, ERcheck, Barimen, A Sunshade Lust, Cowman109,
The monkeyhate, Vincent Vecera, Saros136, Izehar, Chris the speller, Happywaffle, Kurykh, BrownBean, KaragouniS, Keegan, Audacity,
Payam81, Bittner56, Persian Poet Gal, Frederick12, Rex Germanus, Telempe, NCurse, KiloByte, Ian13, Jprg1966, Oli Filth, PSPone, No-
rum, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Wuapinmon, ViolinGirl, MalafayaBot, Owlkeeper, CrazySexyCool, Greatgavini, Silly rabbit, Apeloverage,
Malenien, Hollow Wilerding, Hibernian, Lioncougar, Xx236, Deli nk, Jerome Charles Potts, Dlohcierekim's sock, Pitt steelers81, Leoni2,
Dustimagic, Viewfinder, HubHikari, LV, JONJONAUG, Whispering, James Anthony Knight, Paulfp, Robth, Jxm, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Maaajid, Sbharris, Terraguy, Arsonal, Hongooi, Rcbutcher, Spellcheck8, Antonrojo, Darth Panda, Blueshirts, Verrai, Answar, Emur-
phy42, Mexcellent, Osmon~enwiki, John Reaves, Joiful77, Hgrosser, Alphatyrone, Scwlong, Simpsons contributor, RussellMcKenzie,
Yid613, Zsinj, Stephen Hui, Rvcx, Jonatan Swift, Trekphiler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Hanchen, Tswold@msn.com, Ajaxkroon,
Mitsuhirato, Jorvik, Lailaiboy, SuperDeng, Jaro.p~enwiki, AP1787, Homerandflanders, Mein john, Bennyman, Chlewbot, Ahudson, Jer-
ram, OrphanBot, Onorem, Vanished User 0001, Jennica, Squalla, OOODDD, MJCdetroit, HighPriest15, Labattblueboy, W377!M, Darth-
griz98, MarshallBagramyan, Whatthree16, Kkristian, TheKMan, EvelinaB, R.F.La Fontaine, Moonaperuna, Run!, Homestarmy, Mr.KISS
66, Claire van der Meer, Britmax, Hippo43, Johnottr, Higuy, Andy120290, Addshore, Chris blair, Flubbit, Bolivian Unicyclist, Alex
Monahov, Edivorce, Percommode, Psywar, Baselthe2nd, Zade~enwiki, Ghettor0cker, ChaosSorcerer91, Bukkia, Grover cleveland, The
tooth, Stevenmitchell, Nameuser, Gogafax, Ctifumdope, Dharmabum420, Jmlk17, Pepsidrinka, Sleeper99999, Krich, Masalai, Gohst,
Zrulli, Icweiner, NoIdeaNick, PrometheusX303, BostonMA, Theonlyedge, Irish Souffle, Khukri, Nibuod, BaseTurnComplete, Peidu,
NorseOdin, Daler, Nakon, Soorej, Savidan, Johncmullen1960, Akulkis, Valenciano, TedE, Sparhawk08, Jiddisch~enwiki, TML 1988,
StephenMacmanus, RJN, Zen611, Legaleagle86, Nick125, Mr. Worm, Witchbaby, Knut@56, Leonard Dickens, Articuno~enwiki, Trog-
dorPolitiks, Son of Osiris, Allansteel, Lost in space, Yulia Romero, Mangojesussuperstar, Loughlin, Nxghost, Bmgoau, Mazurd, Parox-
ysm, Mmercede, Badgerpatrol, Occam11, Wisco, The PIPE, Jklin, Arkannis, Wizardman, Phrique, Smerus, Maelnuneb, Kotjze, Ericl,
Filpaul, AndyBQ, Vladimir1452, FreeMorpheme, -Marcus-, Petrichor, Andeggs, Jfingers88, Mitchumch, Daniel.Cardenas, Nmpenguin,
Stor stark7, Nelamm, Sayden, UncleFester, John Bentley, Ilvar, DDima, ElizabethFong, Risker, Atlantas, Igilli, Pilotguy, Wikipedical,
FelisLeo, Kukini, Skinnyweed, Drunken Pirate, J2THAROME, Ace ETP, Ohconfucius, IGod, Will Beback, Cyberevil, SashatoBot, Flip-
topsean, Jombo, Devronp, Vildricianus, Wdsailors, -Ilhador-, Arnoutf, Him rulez you, Tymek, Rory096, Saccerzd, Serein (renamed be-
cause of SUL), MAG, Natebailey, IgWannA, AThing, Swatjester, Doug Bell, Paat, Rklawton, Kirkharry, Minaker, Paaerduag, Cberejik,
Dbtfz, Kuru, John, Coricus, Ergative rlt, AmiDaniel, Woogums, 5p33dy, Der MW, UberCryxic, WhiteCat, Iykeman, Vgy7ujm, Buchanan-
Hermit, Chumba1, Mcshadypl, Jaffer, Heimstern, SilkTork, LWF, Stahan~enwiki, Latron, Pat Payne, Cyclopaedic, NewTestLeper79,
Noodle123, Petrie dish, JohnI, Ledmonkey, Gaiusknight, Mr.Me, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, BlisteringFreakachu, This user has
left wikipedia, Edwy, Chili on circuit court of appeals, JorisvS, Superclarkie, Coredesat, Bobdole2, Basser g, Minna Sora no Shita, Hadri-
ans, Cardshark04, Mgiganteus1, CaptainVindaloo, Diverman, Jp4268, Mr MillA, JohnWittle, Lancslad, Hyperdaiper7, Sagafg65675673,
Mr. Lefty, Bssc81, Cielomobile, Fredwords, Stanny~enwiki, Theallpowerfulma, Thegreatdr, Nobunaga24, Ckatz, Lawyer15n, Lancast-
erII, FreshBulletTime, The Man in Question, ZincOrbie, Azate, Dlazzaro, CylonCAG, Nbatra, David Cohen, Illythr, Ognolman, Slakr,
DarthWookiee, Anto475, Shangrilaista, Volker89, Sailor for life, Tasc, Adamc007, Beetstra, Gators222, Conchuir, Martinp23, Lao-
geodritt, Yvesnimmo, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, Jpetersen46321, Emurph, Fedallah, PRRfan, Jhamez84, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Ka34,
Mets501, CaptQ, Neddyseagoon, Cbruno, Denor, E-Kartoffel, Arctic-Editor, MAG1, Ryulong, Sijo Ripa, JdH, Cheezerman, KurtRaschke,
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Iamthejenk, Tonster, Darry2385, Kornundmoeller, El magnifico, MrDolomite, Opal-kadett, Sifaka, Pastepicantelover, Dl2000, Christian
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ork, Siebrand, OnBeyondZebrax, Nonexistant User, Ashlynn, Me9292, Seqsea, ILovePlankton, Aaronp808, Iridescent, JMK, Timladd,
NEMT, WGee, Laddiebuck, Fjbex, The Giant Puffin, Nakis g, Clarityfiend, Hamdy.khalil, Laurens-af, Tgbyhn, Colonel Warden, Van-
ished user 90345uifj983j4toi234k, Swang, Lakers, Joseph Solis in Australia, KnowledgeIsPower, JoeBot, Warpfactor, Tophtucker, Pega-
sus1138, Evgenikovalev, Madmexican, Parthsaraiya, B.T.A. Inc., Pototot, Wickedpediadude, Haus, Twas Now, Cbrown1023, Saturday,
GaborKiraly, Dionysos1~enwiki, JSoules, Dp462090, Richard75, Drogo Underburrow, Xxxiv34, Thedontrainwrek, Whaiaun, Cowdog,
Maelor, Civil Engineer III, Supertigerman, Mulder416sBot, Az1568, Túrelio, Anger22, Rokstr, Adam sk, Ownager, Feelfreetoblameme,
Eluchil404, Floatingjew, Fdp, Oshah, Piceainfo, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Vampain, Raikks, Dlohcierekim, Magus626, Pudeo, Joshua-
gross, Filelakeshoe, Jäger, PinOi32, Jonathan W, Oxylus, Plasma Twa 2, Flubeca, Prometheus1992, IronChris, Aristotle1990, Bruce-
Grubb, Extratooth2, Orangutan, Ryanhoff, Eastlaw, Omfg, Conn, Kit, Devourer09, Alice Mudgarden, WolfgangFaber, C-to-the-G-wicki,
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Hotcakes111, DyolFkniP, Neodammerung, BeenAroundAWhile, EGIII, Willway~enwiki, Nebs05, TGF~enwiki, Mezacc, Beast01659,
SatanxSucks, Flyty5061, DarthChucks, Eadmer, R9tgokunks, Headband10, Alexq, Nebs06, Skewlsux4257, Brennon, GHe, KnightLago,
KennyKing, Kylu, Maximilli, TRS~enwiki, Seriocomic, Vreuter, Jesse Viviano, Green caterpillar, Jimmydoerre3, AshLin, Mathsgeek,
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James, Peachsncream, Brunodam, Glen, Kelstonian, Chris G, DerHexer, Saburny, 12mollydog, Lijnema, Stuyhigh77, Tinmanic, Yeah-
soo~enwiki, Johnbrownsbody, Daemonic Kangaroo, Arnold Reisman, Lukewalsh1234, Jab03, Caranorn, Pazzaj, Bobblehead81, Coniosis,
Halibott, White Guard, TLinden, Bellemare, Jpo51, IvoShandor, SwedishPsycho, Wikianon, BigRicky, PureME, Bigsprinta, Januszewicz,
Bertho, SquidSK, Jfrenchy, NatureA16, Rickterp, Stephenchou0722, Sparkface, Jniech, Myszkin, Raoulduke47, Goober223, Marvicat,
Hdt83, MartinBot, Opiner, FlieGerFaUstMe262, PAK Man, Grandia01, EyeSerene, Big Iron, Sam2031, Roger Mexico, M Van Houten,
Filipore, Mpking52, Theredbanana, Bluechipser, Greekorangere, Pinkbluty, 5618, Ellibob, Dinogamer04, Rettetast, Assassin06, Ultravi-
olet scissor flame, Meatwad12, Sm8900, Dorvaq, Stealthzombie007, Wyrdlight, Rskellner, Samjamran, R'n'B, Soccerpro, Purcto, Com-
monsDelinker, 123456abcd, Hipvicar, Steve98052, KTo288, Retoi, Surowiak~enwiki, Jfournier, Snozzer, Lifeisagame247, Feigenbaum13,
Panda lover001, Paulmcdonald, LittleOldMe old, PrestonH, Staijk, Puddywuddy1192, Lokqs, Mbhiii, MnM2324, Vhhs, Wiki Raja, Sport-
snut1350, Cubfan2522, Wikipediausernumber1, RaccoonFox, Riogkol, Ahier, RockMFR, Periklis*, Slash, Sam Golden, Zzmaj, Etaicq,
J.delanoy, Ninja fan, MITBeaverRocks, CBS13, Karstedt d, Funny4life, Rrostrom, Bogey97, UBeR, Numbo3, Theinternetsoify, Chuck
444, BillWSmithJr, Hans Dunkelberg, Stankleberry, Lucky Phil, Andyputerkid, Tikiwont, Cthia, Isaac is da bomb, Uncle Dick, Ajonsey,
Nigholith, Kmcd151, Colincbn, Spaininrain, Bunkerpictures, Ms408, Rickydavis0012, TrueCRaysball, Eraye1, A Nobody, Shucks999,
Amzon, Merlot70, Hodja Nasreddin, England999, Wabba506, George415, Icseaturtles, Flubber555, Pstoric, Jpisqma, Mockingbird83,
WikiBone, Froggyjumpoverlog, Nick683, Bot-Schafter, Homer slips., Chaser676, Bad Night, Sexymanbearpig, Dreko, DarkFalls, Buxley
Hall, Gman124, Tron175, Bastardpoopshoot, DarkGhost08, McSly, Adrian M. H., Enter the chicken, Gipornm, ASDFGYUIOP, Wdemers,
Ryan Postlethwaite, Trumpet marietta 45750, Bandeapart, Skier Dude, Redflagflying, Tony360X, Pyrohair, Jackglerum, Mafia godfather,
Ash sul, Ancient Land of Bosoni, Tommy Nakashima, Mrg3105, AntiSpamBot, MrBungle79, Theknightofdarkness, Edieschuermann,
Spinach Dip, Beenhj, RenniePet, Floaterfluss, Warrior on Terrorism, Jetsnake, Wiki1609, Alexb102072, Walrusboy91, NewEnglandYan-
kee, Assassin3577, Aar, Some enraged farm animal, Lman1987, Ko Soi IX, Pb12, Xgmx, Karl2025, Rowenji, Theodorel, T3hllama, Pi-
rateogta, Intermisun, Mufka, Tascha96, Christopher Kraus, Joemale-malesign, Olegwiki, Mikeonatrike, Aka-miki~enwiki, 2812, Smitty,
Jrcla2, Tstarnes, Sidnokid, Jpm9880, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Vamsilly, MahiMahi, Bogdan~enwiki, The slave to reality, Bu2m5dgw,
DeathOfBlades, Tyzwain, Phelix06, Angel Uriel, DH85868993, Andrewcmcardle, Jjhcap99, Socialismo01, Rohitht, Potaaatos, Vassos-
man, Tiwonk, King Toadsworth, Murphyg001, Eliteagents, Trip Johnson, Dpesikan, WinterSpw, Julianhayda, Andy Marchbanks, Inwind,
Henstep1313, Alex:D, Kimdime, Jeremiahburt, ThatGUY33, Xiahou, Dj Luca, Idioma-bot, Nintendo316, Warshark, Omegacc, Xnuala,
Bobsmithbob1, Armorhead, TNTfan101, Dagedude, Histo ed, ACSE, Chromancer, Zazzer, Eater of tin, Caribbean H.Q., Carlsbadder,
G2bambino, Sam Blacketer, ChaosNil, Mike Fields, Kenckar, PeaceNT, Chinneeb, Mwskull, UnicornTapestry, Denwatts, Nanosoldier,
VolkovBot, Lostlove, Drakonice, Aledevries, Hadigonzalez25, Abcdefghayden, Jbill007, Drakheim, Harveyqs, Dragoonkain, Roger M.E.
Lightly, Pan Wikipedia, Kommodorekerz, Factual80man, Nug, Bry9000, Butwhatdoiknow, Lord Collettus, AlnoktaBOT, TobyTheRobot,
Powered, Majoreditor, HJ32, Embokias, Ilya1166, Sleeper chevelle, Stagyar Zil Doggo, WED Imagineer, Godefroy, Vulgarkid, Taraborn,
RPlunk2853, Hollerbackgril, Martinevans123, Director, ESommers, Kennyr04, TXiKiBoT, FleeingHomework, XavierGreen, Jakedaniel,
Deadfish820, Genyusz, Jjanczy, Huang7776, Dereksanders, Minger125, Cnajer, Herb45, Stupid1991, Tatertot37, Colton123g, Pellande12,
Mahal11, Gmialtft, Asarlaí, Jeremy221, SilentOne17, Comrade Graham, Chuddy32, Nxavar, Rei-bot, A23259789, BlkRvr702, Anony-
mous Dissident, Stevesmith1789, ElinorD, Detroit4, Gerrish, 18Fox, Ray-Ginsay, Qxz, Lincolnshep, WikiReaderer, Vanished user iki-
jeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Kcblu, Cobosvictor, Sauronthegreat, Ultrabeater, Adityakistampally, John Carter, Nazgul02, Revizionist, KTFCdan,
Mjs072, Beyond silence, Cream10152, Aaron Bowen, Jman2213, Ansset, TedColes, Robo man 1, Hburg, Triplesb, Zhalcyon29, Bdot.01,
Andy swann, Manchurian candidate, Mazzelino, Mkpumphrey, MercuryBot, Seb az86556, Domitius, Casting shadows, AuthorDionysos,
Smchase, Robust45, Shadowlapis, StillTrill, Lunest, Jack Naven Rulez, Wokelly, Luuva, Oblivion801, PaladinWhite, Brianna11, Jimblack,
Themat21III, Lumbering Buffalo, Micha851, Tom MacPherson, Mr.NorCal55, Thomasmclennan, TheCoachZ11, Tomer.benv, Tode353,
Jonnyf88, Dave00327, NachtLink, Flaw600, Tectonic042, Usergreatpower, Tribulation725, BobTheTomato, Happyme22, Eternauta3k,
Stirfryking, Eskovan, Billybobjr, Wassamatta, Synthebot, Peace237, Zumbunny, Zach higgins, Jason Leach, Fleurstigter, El Hobo24,
Gatkinso, Panadude, Hughstew, Ghost321, AjitPD, Paulthewhale, Cuntexploder, Lotrtkdchic, Eurocopter, Jublimontoto, ThirdCross, Raz-
griz 10000, Mohamad hossary, Miamiu11, Frenty456, Kjun1 3, Vchimpanzee, Grahamboat, Lmessenger, Person777, Spinningspark,
Karlrobbo, Justmeherenow, Master of the Oríchalcos, Xxhellmanxx, Melyn, Doeric96, Entirelybs, July4th, K10wnsta, SaltyseabASS,
6.1. TEXT 313

John6712, Wikipedian64, Thidr0, AlleborgoBot, Camthetoaster93, Co1dLP1anet, Littledarknite, Dchance, Carrothippy, Billymadison21,
12 Centuries, Jim Furtado, Pyro4122, Redmrkt, Kewlkyle64, Dominicwhiteman, Roland zh, Chipsmcgee36, Benoit Rochon, Ma fa-
milia, Signsolid, EmxBot, Uncle Scrooge, Carharttjimmy, Hokie92, Camsco123, Matt Gerber, D. Recorder, Lorangriel, Demmy, Smarty-
pants2013, Garrison628, Методије, Putmalk, Rolltide3738, Darkieboy236, Romuald Wróblewski, Enkyo2, DionysiusThrax, Jerseycam,
M.V.E.i., Warnerrr, SieBot, Asddxz, Cvbear, Tom.fenton7, Redbonefootball42, Kfc1864, ShiftFn, Politics rule, Calliopejen1, Fallinboy,
Ajw18, SpencerCS, Giladbr, YonaBot, Tiddly Tom, Dreamafter, Porky149, Xenus, Invmog, LtWinters, BonesBrigade, Marvelfett2,
Bachcell, Oldag07, MosesMaster, VVVBot, Avargasm, Hiens, Pengyanan, Parhamr, Broopster, SE7, Nick124020, Homerofwar2007,
Hcijesse, This, that and the other, Whittcal, Alex visa, Pkgx, Murlock, BossAdam552, Michfg, Albanman, Rickjames69er, Wcdune1,
Whichtrial, Barliner, Brandonrock, Andersmusician, Dadrker, Hakutou, Purbo T, PangkatKawayan, Jimmip, Digwuren, Un4v41l48l3,
Radon210, The Evil Spartan, CheeseyPuff, Arbor to SJ, Ventur, Thesaam, Kellsj, Gherkinmad, Bbboy657, Jenx54, G-H-7-28-07, Surfin-
gMaui540, Jc-S0CO, Mimihitam, Redmarkviolinist, Ss11311086, DD101, Dominik92, Mattmeskill, Fuk0005, Randomwiki, Pika ten10,
AceMagic5, Baseball Bugs, Lourakis, Gangsterls, Pretty Green, Lightmouse, Happyguy49, Johnnyrobison, Skinny87, RSStockdale, Tiger-
tank18, Amcwis, Int21h, Ntkarr, Rupert Horn, BenoniBot~enwiki, Jakobako, Musse-kloge, Kumioko (renamed), Onopearls, Gorran,
Bweg2, Dravecky, Belligero, Aumnamahashiva, Presidentman, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Bcdm, David30th,
Behtis, Jaan, Hamiltondaniel, Basand, Kieraf~enwiki, Faulknerfan, Geoff Plourde, Moffitma, Sterlingmelcher, Ak3786, Redwingfan04,
Code Monkey2976, Finetooth, Randy Kryn, Jimmy Slade, Staylor71, Cngoulimis, Miyokan, Hadseys, Hibsch, Explicit, TSRL, Mistyka-
sumi, Benkenobi18, Gosciu555, Michel Tavir, WikipedianMarlith, Janus8463, Martarius, MBK004, ClueBot, JurSchagen, Pixel2metal,
Bwfrank, Andriy155, Brokenarch, Ilyusha V. Novikov, Deviator13, Chrisbreseman, Binksternet, Jordc1991, Hutcher, Boodlesthecat,
PipepBot, DePury, Amritpaul.singh, WikiSkeptic, Whazzup17, Team Poland, Lizhia, BlueFlame78504, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Vengeance900, Xav71176, Brendan44, Plastikspork, Slowthy, Adyfroggatt, Meesis, Shaskouri, Draken36, Hult041956, Repolho~enwiki,
Nnemo, Supertouch, Unbuttered Parsnip, Grawp~enwiki, Grawp the Giant~enwiki, HAGGGER?, Gregcaletta, Saddhiyama, Dingiswayo,
Senzangakhona, Drmies, AlasdairGreen27, Skatedave711, Jacurek, Mild Bill Hiccup, Ranger Steve, Heartagram3200, Mlazenby, James-
sully, JTBX, Yeoldirishman, Niceguyedc, Ahmad.ibn.as.Sayyid, Peanut4, Harland1, Redhead911, Shovon76, Shannon bohle, Yaki-gaijin,
Bob bobato, Grandgrawper~enwiki, Giantgrawp, Giantcalledgrawp, Trivialist, RenamedUser jaskldjslak903, Piepiepiepie2, Cannonade,
Masterpiece2000, DragonBot, Duck of Luke, EnigmaMcmxc, *TPC* Clan, Ktr101, Tribe12, RainMan002, Electrobe, Charliebsmith, Iron-
man0392, Sunil060902, Jack.Hartford, EeepEeep, Sushix1, Tylerdmace, Dertwev, Bayard123, Nercromancy?, Jesse.kelly, Fallabrine1995,
Pikachuthesquirtle, Bartandrews, Kingdavidek, Lewa226, Masonbrownplayer, Readin, Sun Creator, Daner0six, NuclearWarfare, Lipsatom,
Arjayay, AndyFielding, Jotterbot, Qampunen, MrWhich, Unbanned, HiEverybodyHiDoctorNick, Hellman4710, Dim386, M.O.X, Cow-
boySpartan, Kevoreilly, ChrisWerner, Wikimaster10117, Royalmate1, Redthoreau, Amrafifi264, History13, Chrispy5, Teutonic Tamer,
Doprendek, Polly Hedra, Joao 11 1996, Werson, Audaciter, Cybershore, Frank Geerlings, JasonAQuest, BOTarate, Kakofonous, Mlaffs,
EgraS, Antigravityece, Boowah59, Thingg, Lindberg, Aitias, Dank, Jonamatt, Rjbesquire, Followship, Simply sammie, Versus22, XTil-
dax, Lx 121, Hwalee76, IJA, Berean Hunter, JarTa~enwiki, Justie1220, MaxSem on AWB wheels, Ostinato2, Sockpuppet872, Jaaches,
Erick808, DumZiBoT, Doopdoop, Innes & Stephen Pictures, Iggy Ax, YXN, InternetMeme, Gamewizard546, Burningview, Bodhisattv-
aBot, GordonUS, Winston2~enwiki, Ningnangnong, Bigshotje, GuitarHeroTom, Laser brain, Brettstout, PaulEeNjInkSon, Hackser, Sil-
vonenBot, Mitchell n beard, 68Kustom, Ricebowl09, Petrescu3, Scruffy4903, Tbug44, Jhawker417, Mm40, JinJian, Sleptrip, Japanand-
chinaoftheeast, Feierabend, Fabrigo, Mlsguy0037, Belfunk, Econnor2, JAHL14, Cbrown285, Dave1185, Palindrome, Draconius14, Ap-
pleofWiki, Spartan15DEMO, Kajabla, Drlight11, Prowikipedians, Vero.Verite, Mortense, WWII21, Caden, Beijing goalie, Ljr180,
2k6168, Latevardanig, Youngla0450, Bambaab, Jokerdude42, Hi237, Bleekis88, Beamathan, Nortonius, Fultzsie11, Lithoderm, B-radical
1522, Magus732, Qweqwewe, Trasman, Sadda45, Xxferrarisxx, Powercurvefor, Tanhabot, One cookie, DARKDOOM9999, Laurinavi-
cius, Yelizandpaul, Chris who reads books for a living, Fothergill Volkensniff IV, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Ace Mendi-
ola, Cityvalyu, Mishadeon, MrOllie, Alexbritcher, CarsracBot, Zhabeiqu, 37ophiuchi, Scottyferguson, DFS454, Secretdude97, Bahamut
Star, Mosedschurte, Jgrosay~enwiki, ChenzwBot, Xoffie, Aunva6, LinkFA-Bot, Realmofintrigue, Blaylockjam10, Patton123, Setanta747,
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van53, Mr T (Based), Paul Siebert, Intercalate, KamikazeBot, Ayrton Prost, , Sachein91, Palamabron, BeBoldInEdits, Bbb23,
SiberianPrincess, AnomieBOT, Momoricks, John Holmes II, FeelSunny, Metalhead94, Floquenbeam, JEdgarFreeman, 1exec1, Yeshua-
David, Grey Fox-9589, Gnomeselby, Jim1138, Tavrian, Abstruce, Galoubet, Innab, StevenWT, Blackknight12, 13seb, Phyrros, Roessel-
sprung, MtBell, Krause01, Stroganoff, Tlrmq, Materialscientist, Bukubku, Lukee1234, Phoenix of9, Citation bot, Mkustel, Digitaldomain,
Kasaalan, Barriodude, HistoricWarrior007, ArthurBot, DirlBot, DannyAsher, Andyso, Aidan Jennings, Quebec99, Cliftonian, Potočnik,
Sole Flounder, Madalibi, Xqbot, Kleiner, Theroflman, Capricorn42, Poetaris, Wüstenfuchs, TechBot, Jaltcoh, ITSENJOYABLE, Child-
ofMidnight, GenQuest, Ulf Heinsohn, Krishanpatel, Nate5446, 每⽇ , Locos epraix, Skiboarder6730, Loveless, Mlpearc, Isheden,
Robbieboulton1234, Srich32977, Barelistido, Fishmandgb, Hz7qnf, Filyo79, J04n, Nasa-verve, GrouchoBot, Mr. Military, Miesianiacal,
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Cod1337, Chongkian, Richard BB, ASOTMKX, Davido488, Fredy.00, Bluehotel, Thehelpfulbot, Haldraper, Spongefrog, Alexey Golubev,
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White Shadows, Cnwilliams, VOAconstrictor, CrowzRSA, Lightlowemon, Willdasmiffking, FoxBot, TobeBot, VxOsx, Trappist the monk,
Clickpop, Retired user 0001, Jade Harley, Fama Clamosa, Communicat, Lotje, PawkaLukasz, Dgthegoel, ManfromButtonwillow, Quang-
minhc, Vanished user lkdofiqw39ru239jwionwcihu8wt4ihjsf, Dinamik-bot, Gulbenk, James0702me, Begoon, Anthony Winward, Bertyrex,
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brichdj, Oddrobb, Between My Ken, Willdow, Bento00, DexDor, Ripchip Bot, Bhawani Gautam, Bossanoven, Gwen Novak, RemTar,
Myownworst, Buggie111, DragonShiryu2, NerdyScienceDude, Hgcai3456, Nascarking, Salvio giuliano, Billare, Samdacruel, Glen1995,
Steve03Mills, Bernd Schwabe in Hannover, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, HTBrooks, Carlotm, Ubergeekpi,
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Bull Market, 89funtime, Huckamike, ZxxZxxZ, Wikiturrican, Passionless, NorthernKnightNo1, Ledfrog, MrGRA, ChoraPete, Chiton
magnificus, Addyman11, Ecko1o1, Kunetskiy, HenryXVII, Werieth, ZéroBot, Cogiati, Illegitimate Barrister, Ali55te, Josve05a, Tulan-
dro, Jenks24, Natalia O., Michael Essmeyer, Wojgniew, Space25689, NinjaFishy, Saint Lucy, SkinnedAardvark093, Wurzeln und Flügel,
AvicAWB, Pan Brerus, Zloyvolsheb, IIIraute, Mcvicyc, AutoGeek, Vanished user fois8fhow3iqf9hsrlgkjw4tus, Lorde Chainsaw, Broke-
314 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Methegreat, Alansohn, Gary, Walter Görlitz, Arthena, ArbiterOne, Philosophistry, Andrew Gray, Fritz Saalfeld, Sugaar, WhiteC, Mac
Davis, Mailer diablo, Snowolf, Velella, XB-70, RPH, Grenavitar, Mikeo, Shigernafy, LFaraone, Kusma, BDD, Dan100, Googleaseerch,
Boothy443, OwenX, Woohookitty, CWH, Camw, Ylem, Carcharoth, Kill~enwiki, WadeSimMiser, MONGO, Technochocolate, Kelisi,
Plrk, J M Rice, Wayward, Prashanthns, Stefanomione, Justinmo, GraemeLeggett, Gerbrant, Kimun, Deltabeignet, Cuchullain, Kbdank71,
Rjwilmsi, Bruce1ee, Nneonneo, Oblivious, Ligulem, Taboo Tongue, Bhadani, Emarsee, Ground Zero, KarlFrei, NekoDaemon, Gparker,
Flowerparty, Pathoschild, RexNL, Gurch, Trapper, Spikebrennan, King of Hearts, Gwernol, Noclador, Wavelength, Sceptre, A.S. Brown,
Deeptrivia, TSO1D, RussBot, Arado, Hornandsoccer, Ivirivi00, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Wimt, Thane, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf,
RattleMan, Grafen, Rjensen, Barberio, Banes, Davemck, Molobo, Xompanthy, M3taphysical, Gadget850, Cinik, Davidpatrick, Dna-
webmaster, Blacksand, FF2010, Norvo, Bdell555, Capt Jim, 21655, Veridis, Graphic, Elistoughton, Closedmouth, GraemeL, JoanneB, Red
Jay, Peter, Allens, Katieh5584, Listowy, Ozkaplan, Nick-D, Victor falk, Teo64x, Yvwv, SmackBot, Britannicus, Hux, InverseHypercube,
Melchoir, DMorpheus, Vald, Davewild, Cla68, Jab843, Kintetsubuffalo, HeartofaDog, HalfShadow, Coolian, Gaff, Commander Keane
bot, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Andy M. Wang, Squiddy, Qtoktok, Gonzalo84, Maximegousse, Snori, SchfiftyThree, Hi-
bernian, Brian Kurtz, Geo android, Darth Panda, Verrai, Veggies, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Милан Јелисавчић, Onorem, Jaybenad,
TheKMan, Rrburke, Phaedriel, Kyle sb, Cameron Nedland, Savidan, Dreadstar, Zero Gravity, The PIPE, Ericl, Nmpenguin, Panchitaville,
Stor stark7, Kukini, SashatoBot, Zchenyu, Lambiam, Nishkid64, Mouse Nightshirt, John, Coricus, AmiDaniel, Ocee, Tennis Dynamite,
JorisvS, CaptainVindaloo, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, Classical 2006, Stupid Corn, SkippyNZ, Tasc, Mr Stephen, Darry2385, Joeedwards,
Nehrams2020, Iridescent, JayZ, Hvatum, CzarB, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Igoldste, Losangelino, Drogo Underburrow, Ewulp,
Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, D'lin, Scottmanning13, Tawkerbot2, Valoem, Plasma Twa 2, CalebNoble, Devourer09, Hohns3, Porter-
joh, Triage, Superesto, DSachan, Nunquam Dormio, CWY2190, Sstearns, Avillia, Gran2, Slazenger, MC10, Alfirin, SyntaxError55, Nick
Wilson, Red Director, JFreeman, Tawkerbot4, Chrislk02, Lothar1976, Asiaticus, Robert.Allen, Nishidani, Aldis90, Hrodulf, FrancoGG,
Epbr123, Biruitorul, Bksicoo3, Olahus, Kablammo, Wxstorm, S Marshall, Andyjsmith, Leedeth, Staberinde, Sopranosmob781, Nonago-
nal Spider, Vertium, John254, A3RO, Esemono, Hoonoseme, Fenrisulfr, Inferna, Asdfj, Mentifisto, Tacostick, AntiVandalBot, BokicaK,
QuiteUnusual, ArchDaemon, Smith2006, Jj137, Zappernapper, MarvinCZ, Pt314156, Haber, Gdo01, Spencer, Cbrodersen, Davewho2,
MER-C, Nthep, Ericoides, Instinct, Bulletproofx, Andonic, Flying tiger, Kipholbeck, .anacondabot, Acroterion, FaerieInGrey, Parsecboy,
VoABot II, MartinDK, Transcendence, Pixydust91, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Faizhaider, Buckshot06, CTF83!, Marhadiasa, 20coconuts,
Muhvi, Sophie-hargreaves, BrianGV, Catgut, DerHexer, JaGa, 10skn, White Guard, Gun Powder Ma, SPD, Greenguy1090, Imaginos,
Helwerda, MartinBot, NochnoiDozor, Brickie, Jim.henderson, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, ArcAngel, Tulkolahten, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of
the Wizards, Trusilver, Peter Chastain, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, Pavelegorov~enwiki, Hodja Nasreddin, Antjames29, It Is Me
Here, Austin512, Gurchzilla, Mrg3105, NobleHelium, NewEnglandYankee, Blueshifter, Robert06907, SJP, MetsFan76, Air quasi, Jame-
sofur, GS3, Vanished user 39948282, Joebobs, Jeremy99, Inter16, Ja 62, Dorftrottel, CA387, JohnDoe0007, Wikieditor06, Hugo999,
X!, HamatoKameko, CWii, Brando130, Lear's Fool, Daw37, HKFlash, Philip Trueman, Anynobody, Oshwah, EricSerge, Gwib, Cave
cattum, NPrice, Walor, Crohnie, Sean D Martin, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Anna Lincoln, Sintaku, Martin451, Jackfork,
LeaveSleaves, Mkpumphrey, SGT141, Raymondwinn, BotKung, SpecMode, Madhero88, Wenli, Tode353, Vladsinger, Michelle192837,
Falcon8765, Turgan, Nukedoom, Mallerd, !dea4u, Vogonvor, Justmeherenow, Master of the Oríchalcos, Monty845, Qworty, Logan,
PGWG, Kewlkyle64, ZBrannigan, Enkyo2, SieBot, StAnselm, Nihil novi, Dreamafter, Invmog, Pawebster, Dawn Bard, Phyllis413,
Shortcody8022, Keilana, Bentogoa, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Grimey109, Prestonmag, Faradayplank, Avnjay, Hobartimus, Macy,
Mingster8888, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Yaluen, Sean.hoyland, Denisarona, Patillotes, WikipedianMarlith,
6.1. TEXT 315

Church, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Binksternet, Snigbrook, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, 3toe, Plastikspork, Drmies, Polyamorph,
LizardJr8, Auntof6, EnigmaMcmxc, Excirial, Turnpoems99, Jusdafax, Erebus Morgaine, NuclearWarfare, Aaron333000, Iohannes An-
imosus, Rohanjuneja, Razorflame, Audaciter, Ottawa4ever, Polly, Thingg, Aitias, 7, Gregvr, Followship, Versus22, Doriftu, Ubardak,
Egmontaz, Jurras, Runefrost, XLinkBot, Fastily, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Stickee, Jovianeye, Dthomsen8, Avoided, Destiney7,
CalumH93, Jim Sweeney, Addbot, ERK, Matt9310, Some jerk on the Internet, Jojhutton, Landon1980, Startstop123, Yelizandpaul, Cana-
dianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Morning277, 1997sub, Favonian, Bouvierjr, West.andrew.g, Fsufan103, History Today Magazine, Tide
rolls, Lightbot, ‫דוד‬55, Mjquinn id, Yobot, Acclark, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Bigtophat, Reject675, Kropotkin Kronfeld, Paul Siebert,
SwisterTwister, AnomieBOT, Floorhugger, Kristen Eriksen, VX, Jim1138, StevenWT, Kingpin13, Phyrros, Materialscientist, Spirit469,
RobertEves92, Crécerelle, Citation bot, ChristianH, LilHelpa, IceGlacial, Xqbot, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Sparrowmahoney, Chilly096,
Maddie!, Trivelt, 12345gay, Hi878, J04n, GrouchoBot, Brandon5485, Anotherclown, Kursis, Fabian Oseguera, Bushmechanic13, Dou-
los Christos, Schmonyon, MerlLinkBot, AustralianRupert, Shadowjams, Calvin1211, Alexander.Meier, Erik9, A.amitkumar, Spongefrog,
Griffinofwales, Darrylg0720, BoomerAB, Prari, FrescoBot, Skateguy747, Kierzek, Tobby72, Pepper, Recognizance, JMS Old Al, La-
zowik, AndresHerutJaim, Brandjmon, Tyang34, HamburgerRadio, Shadow At Dawn, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, PrincessofLlyr,
LinDrug, Hamtechperson, A8UDI, Bumcrak1, Serols, Σ, RandomStringOfCharacters, WVRMad, Full-date unlinking bot, Max Duchess,
Javanx3d, Tim1357, 3centsoap, Wolsey01, Zairatool, Aksiram, Sumone10154, Rpt0, Daniel417, Reaper Eternal, Edaen, Jeffrd10, Dian-
naa, Suffusion of Yellow, MyMoloboaccount, Red Wolf Goat, Elazoteescriba, Onel5969, Journeyfan1972, Myownworst, Slon02, Sam-
dacruel, John of Reading, Stf8907, Gfoley4, Sophie, Ajraddatz, ScottyBerg, Dewritech, DW Adnimistrator, Slightsmile, Tommy2010,
Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Josve05a, Askedonty, Akerans, Wackywace, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Makecat, Tolly4bolly, Wagino 20100516,
RaptureBot, Phooey108, L Kensington, Donner60, Kuragin, ChuispastonBot, Terraflorin, Wikiwind, Petrb, Xanchester, ClueBot NG,
Bowmerang, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Gilderien, Satellizer, Tomsthings, Vacation9, Feedintm, Trojansplayer46, Ace4848, O.Koslowski,
ScottSteiner, Widr, WikiPuppies, Epic77777, Jorgenev, Helpful Pixie Bot, Electriccatfish2, Gob Lofa, DBigXray, Shubho C, AROUND-
NASCAR, Kazarian21, BG19bot, Wasbeer, Alexhay1, ISTB351, Lowercase Sigma, MusikAnimal, Frze, SanAnMan, Piguy101, Mark
Arsten, RaulRavndra, CimanyD, Alvin Lee, Crh23, Pixitrix, Amber-Vagas, Glacialfox, Biaggio8642, Klilidiplomus, Engl101migliara,
Ukilabcd, David.moreno72, ~riley, Mrt3366, The Illusive Man, Rinkle gorge, JakeDowell, EagerToddler39, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG),
ATomS.2012, Nguoibattudocco, Thewildatheart, Ekips39, Hunterlowe, Colecates, Hannah j a, Camyoung54, Tentinator, EvergreenFir,
DavidLeighEllis, Babitaarora, Cokeboy76, Amlaera, Bionisam, JustBerry, Ginsuloft, Quenhitran, TCMemoire, Rev O'Brian, Cheesey-
cheesecheese, Sphere1994, ThatRusskiiGuy, Robertvincentswain, Vieque, Christopher Barrera, 3primetime3, Ees372, Lolimfunny222,
Starblack392, Cjgkp, Elmeter, TheDovid, Mohib Siddiq, Tabeeb123, Amccann421, Kdeerjeon, Parkertheparkster, JeremiahY, Aardwolf
A380, Trollzilla S2, Workinghard12345, JC tomandjerry, Buddhanet, CyberWarfare, Jacobalbertgardner, Doohickyman2, Emmet6251,
Qzd and Anonymous: 1402
• Timeline of events preceding World War II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_events_preceding_World_War_II?
oldid=719464021 Contributors: The Anome, William Avery, Dcljr, Docu, Kingturtle, Topbanana, DocWatson42, Fjarlq, Matthead, D6,
Xezbeth, Jnestorius, Richard Cane, Bobo192, Joshbaumgartner, Lord Pistachio, Nilloc, Bastin, Woohookitty, Jeff3000, Prashanthns, Sus
scrofa, YurikBot, Quentin X, A.S. Brown, RussBot, Grafen, Welsh, Renata3, Resigua, Jack Upland, Serendipodous, SmackBot, Samobot5,
Jab843, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Bluebot, Orwellson, MonkeyMumford, Ericl, Ma11achy, MrDolomite, PKT, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Asdfj,
Golgofrinchian, Acroterion, Nyttend, Catgut, R'n'B, Tulkolahten, J.delanoy, Dr.crawboney, Mrg3105, KCinDC, AndreasJSbot, Bottob-
bot, TreasuryTag, Philip Trueman, Imasleepviking, Mkpumphrey, Skunyote, B.L.A.Z.E, Justmeherenow, AlleborgoBot, Bfpage, SieBot,
JohnSawyer, WikiLaurent, ClueBot, Plastikspork, FieldMarine, Mild Bill Hiccup, Excirial, Iohannes Animosus, Winston2~enwiki, Ad-
dbot, Chzz, Fireaxe888, Tide rolls, NHJG2, AnomieBOT, IRP, Law, ImperatorExercitus, Frankenpuppy, Adel.M.Radwan, Crashdoom,
JayLeno175, FrescoBot, Abani79, Daclyff, Akkida, WardMuylaert, Stroppolo, BandBHawks, EmausBot, Az29, Wikipelli, K6ka, Cogiati,
AvicAWB, Wptoler, ClueBot NG, Goldblooded, NBA Fan44, Millennium bug, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, The Illusive Man, Aristokitty,
ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Illia Connell, TwoTwoHello, Profezzional, Blaue Max, Akuradani, The Jim Kidd, WillemienH, Sidyla Se T. L.
and Anonymous: 165
• Timeline of World War II (1939) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)?oldid=711588491 Con-
tributors: Dcljr, Topbanana, Jooler, Nkocharh, BigBen212, Gyrofrog, Nutmegger, Bender235, Jnestorius, JustPhil, Stesmo, Smalljim,
Arthena, Mc6809e, Wtmitchell, Woohookitty, Bellhalla, Marasama, Chobot, Noclador, Rsrikanth05, Renata3, Courascrap, Capt Jim,
Open2universe, KGasso, Josh3580, Katieh5584, Wallie, SmackBot, Hux, Hmains, H2ppyme, Jxm, Colonies Chris, AMK152, Ericl, Ar-
glebargleIV, Majora4, Jimknut, Leujohn, Epbr123, Hawk19, Mareoftenebrae, Jofishtrick, Asdfj, Arch dude, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, R'n'B,
CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Massau, Mrg3105, Sparkyingva, Philip Trueman, Imasleepviking, Mkpumphrey, Tomaxer, Just-
meherenow, The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick, Lylefor, SieBot, WacoJacko, Cyfal, ClueBot, CorenSearchBot, Plastikspork, Enerelt, MacGod,
Tarlneustaedter, Winston2~enwiki, Facts707, Skarebo, MystBot, Addbot, Tcncv, Astrz, LightSpectra, Mac Dreamstate, Cambalachero,
Fireaxe888, Tide rolls, Camdrew, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, Topgearon2, Drilnoth, 1ironslab1, Chaheel Riens,
Erik9, Sweet child v5.0, Carpeaux, JayLeno175, DrilBot, Vicenarian, Quest666, 101stab, Sznax, Corpwell, John of Reading, Wikipelli,
Josve05a, H3llBot, A Texas Historian, Kill me when i die, Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, Dreth, Godwhale, BG19bot, Murry1975, Kalten-
meyer, Kagundu, Mark Arsten, AdventurousSquirrel, Tutelary, DoctorKubla, Mediran, ÄDA - DÄP, Lugia2453, Blaue Max, Epicgenius,
Sector101, Xcreeper, Xcreeper5, Froaky123, Wikifayem, Sidyla Se T. L., Krokodileman1337, Liamcog3982 and Anonymous: 107
• Timeline of World War II (1940) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)?oldid=719824132 Contrib-
utors: Paul Barlow, CORNELIUSSEON, Dcljr, Topbanana, Jooler, Davidcannon, Wolfe, Klemen Kocjancic, Mzabaluev, Rich Farmbrough,
YUL89YYZ, Andrew Gray, Kitch, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, Cmulgrew, Chobot, Sus scrofa, Noclador, Wavelength, Quentin
X, Robert A West, Manxruler, Renata3, Capt Jim, Pedron, David Biddulph, Allens, Serendipodous, Burnwelk, SmackBot, Alexandros.c,
Hmains, Marc Kupper, Chris the speller, H2ppyme, Colonies Chris, Cplakidas, AMK152, Rrburke, Stefan2, Ben Moore, DagErlingSmør-
grav, Helensq, Igoldste, FairuseBot, Ehistory, Mathew5000, Hawk19, James086, Asdfj, Isilanes, Solomon122, Arch dude, Kirrages,
MerryXIV, J.delanoy, Silverxxx, Mrg3105, Sparkyingva, Jeff G., Nug, Vince Navarro, Toddy1, Oshwah, Tavix, Oxfordwang, Imasleep-
viking, Reginald Maulding, LeaveSleaves, Mkpumphrey, BotKung, Dirkbb, Justmeherenow, Lylefor, Dusti, Hello71, ImageRemoval-
Bot, Loren.wilton, Plastikspork, Tnxman307, Audaciter, MacGod, Tarlneustaedter, Avoided, Alansplodge, MystBot, Foshaug, Addbot,
Fireaxe888, RudyReis, AnomieBOT, Camponez, LilHelpa, Addihockey10, TechBot, 1ironslab1, Bb237681, N419BH, E0steven, Fres-
coBot, ErnieTheMighty, Ulyanov322, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, LittleWink, RjwilmsiBot, Buggie111, Wikipelli, Kill me when i die, BookDen,
Geoff Le Noury, Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, ServantOfRaphael, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, ÄDA - DÄP, FoCuSandLeArN,
Gre regiment, TortoiseWrath, Marquellalston456, MaggieLongshore, Shenninger, YoSoyUnHamster, Eat me, I'm an azuki, Sidyla Se T.
L., Sharpie2000000, Gunnnerrr and Anonymous: 87
• Timeline of World War II (1941) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)?oldid=716390464 Con-
tributors: CORNELIUSSEON, Dcljr, P.T. Aufrette, Pashute, Varlaam, Grant65, JustPhil, Huntster, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Marasama,
316 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Ground Zero, King of Hearts, Chobot, Wjfox2005, Noclador, RussBot, Fnorp, Welsh, Renata3, Tony1, Fram, John Broughton,
Serendipodous, Wallie, Attilios, SmackBot, Superfreaky56, H2ppyme, Colonies Chris, Derekbridges, Cplakidas, AMK152, Drunken Pi-
rate, Helensq, Makeemlighter, Poeticbent, SchaiDog, Asdfj, Mack2, Arch dude, Kirrages, JNW, Fallschirmjäger, JaGa, Mrg3105, Mis-
terBee1966, Imasleepviking, Mkpumphrey, BotKung, Madhero88, Justmeherenow, Finalyzer, Lylefor, SieBot, Hello71, Benea, Tomsv
98, Loren.wilton, Timeineurope, Plastikspork, PRANKSter1977, Aitias, Smarkflea, DJ Sturm, Tarlneustaedter, SilverbackRon, Addbot,
Ronhjones, Llakais, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, QueenCake, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, War.dog, Eumolpo, FrescoBot, Pepper, Ma-
her27777, Damn cookies!, Climberat, Swalgal, Orenburg1, Trappist the monk, Bossanoven, Antidiskriminator, John of Reading, Doles-
cum, Winner 42, Kill me when i die, Steve24701958, Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, ServantOfRaphael, FJS15, Portorange01, Jeancey,
Peacemaker67, BattyBot, ÄDA - DÄP, Voicey99, Sidyla Se T. L., Rexagu2, Lyndaship and Anonymous: 85
• Timeline of World War II (1942) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)?oldid=719566444 Con-
tributors: CORNELIUSSEON, Dcljr, Ianml, Pashute, Andrejj, JustPhil, Alansohn, Tabletop, BD2412, Marasama, Ground Zero, Chobot,
RussBot, Welsh, Renata3, Hirudo, Serendipodous, タチコマ robot, SmackBot, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, Derek-
bridges, Cplakidas, Mnw2000, The PIPE, Androl, Helensq, Ehistory, Charvex, Delaraha, SchaiDog, Asdfj, Escarbot, BTillman, Stonnman,
Jpcroom, JNW, KConWiki, Cardamon, R'n'B, Think777, Alexdan loghin, Mrg3105, Jarry1250, Signalhead, Imasleepviking, Robert1947,
Justmeherenow, Lylefor, SieBot, StAnselm, Giladbr, Int21h, Denisarona, ClueBot, Plastikspork, EoGuy, FieldMarine, Mild Bill Hiccup,
Smarkflea, SoxBot III, Tarlneustaedter, MystBot, Addbot, Blethering Scot, Epicadam, Favonian, Fireaxe888, Tassedethe, Yobot, Queen-
Cake, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, LilHelpa, 1ironslab1, E0steven, Erik9, FrescoBot, Nimloth250, Maher27777, Swalgal,
Orenburg1, Doc Quintana, Suffusion of Yellow, John of Reading, Racerx11, Slightsmile, Kill me when i die, Brigade Piron, ClueBot
NG, Widr, SzMithrandir, Jeancey, Lilceez, Oliver Puertogallera, Davidcpearce, Khazar2, ÄDA - DÄP, WayneyP, Epicgenius, Ginsuloft,
WPGA2345, Ryan115, StjJackson, Sidyla Se T. L. and Anonymous: 87
• Timeline of World War II (1943) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)?oldid=717486494 Con-
tributors: CORNELIUSSEON, Dcljr, Brigman, Timrollpickering, Folks at 137, JustPhil, Giraffedata, Bart133, Bsadowski1, Woohookitty,
Koavf, Pleiotrop3, Marasama, Ground Zero, Gareth E. Kegg, Bgwhite, Alex Bakharev, Renata3, Serendipodous, Mhardcastle, Smack-
Bot, Alexandros.c, Chris the speller, Cplakidas, AMK152, Jmlk17, Karny, Drunken Pirate, Helensq, ShelfSkewed, Neelix, Monkeybait,
Nick Number, Asdfj, Stonnman, Magioladitis, JNW, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Mrg3105, DH85868993, Squids and Chips, Toddy1, BotKung, Soft-
lavender, Justmeherenow, Andreas Carter, Mugs2109, Lylefor, SieBot, DerbyCountyinNZ, Lourakis, Int21h, Cyfal, ClueBot, Plastikspork,
Hongthay, Niceguyedc, Iohannes Animosus, Tnxman307, Audaciter, Thewellman, Thingg, Smarkflea, XLinkBot, Tarlneustaedter, Little
Mountain 5, MystBot, Addbot, Weaseal, SENIRAM, Fireaxe888, CountryBot, QueenCake, Human4321, Srich32977, J04n, E0steven,
Erik9, JayLeno175, FrescoBot, Rastko Pocesta, Damn cookies!, Swalgal, Samuel Salzman, Extra999, Tyrker, WildBot, Mmcdouga, Su-
per48paul, Emdelrio, Kill me when i die, Geoff Le Noury, Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, LutherVinci, Widr, ServantOfRaphael, JLUKACS1,
BG19bot, PhnomPencil, MusikAnimal, Phammonds41, Dexbot, Saehry, Happyseeu, Henry chianski, FoxyOrange, AddWittyNameHere,
Filedelinkerbot, Nipples696969, Cthefirst, Sidyla Se T. L., Jobro12104 and Anonymous: 49
• Timeline of World War II (1944) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)?oldid=718079672 Con-
tributors: CORNELIUSSEON, Dcljr, Bender235, Jnestorius, JustPhil, Giraffedata, LtNOWIS, Woohookitty, Pol098, BD2412, Rjwilmsi,
Ground Zero, Bgwhite, Wavelength, RussBot, ExRat, Renata3, Serendipodous, Nick-D, Wallie, Alexandros.c, H2ppyme, Leoni2,
Cplakidas, Decltype, Valenciano, The PIPE, Stefan2, Helensq, Dl2000, The ed17, PDTantisocial, SchaiDog, Jd2718, Asdfj, KCon-
Wiki, Mrg3105, M-le-mot-dit, Bogdan~enwiki, DH85868993, BotKung, Justmeherenow, SieBot, Peterbruce01, Benea, Int21h, Jaan,
ClueBot, Plastikspork, Farras Octara, Spy007au, Niceguyedc, Arunsingh16, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Audaciter, Thewellman, Sub-
ash.chandran007, Smarkflea, Sunquanliangxiuhao, Ruthie121, Tarlneustaedter, MystBot, Addbot, Fireaxe888, Yobot, Human4321, Me-
chanic1c, J04n, Amaury, FrescoBot, Pgdashel, Invertking, ErnieTheMighty, Abductive, Swalgal, Tyrker, Desfa, Mmcdouga, Christoph
Braun, John of Reading, Kill me when i die, Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, Alain245, MusikAnimal, Davidcpearce, Cassinate, Saehry,
Abattoir666, Studebayker, Sidyla Se T. L. and Anonymous: 62
• Timeline of World War II (1945) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945)?oldid=712840510 Con-
tributors: CORNELIUSSEON, Dcljr, PBS, GreatWhiteNortherner, Brecchie, BigBen212, Scottperry, JustPhil, Rodii, Kelisi, Chobot, Bg-
white, CodeGeneratR, Eleassar, Renata3, Silverhorse, Serendipodous, Mhardcastle, SmackBot, Exukvera, Kintetsubuffalo, Yopie, Kudzu1,
Gilliam, Betacommand, Bazonka, Colonies Chris, Cplakidas, Icuc2, The PIPE, Stor stark7, Sailko, Albertod4, JForget, Ludwig Boltz-
mann, Edward Vielmetti, PDTantisocial, ShaunONeil, Asdfj, Stonnman, Greensburger, JNW, KConWiki, CommonsDelinker, Mrg3105,
AndreasJSbot, Kimdime, Wilhelm meis, Squids and Chips, CardinalDan, Signalhead, Jahoon5881, Dromio05, Tomaxer, Justmeherenow,
Benoit Rochon, ClueBot, Geahanse, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Hongthay, Versus22, Smarkflea, Tarlneustaedter, Zoo-
Fari, Shoemaker's Holiday, Addbot, Sebastian scha., Uncia, Fireaxe888, Luckas-bot, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, Qajar, Chuck-
iesdad, Human4321, Bschermerhorn, Eumolpo, Srich32977, Beaverpelt, JayLeno175, NSH002, Artanis64, Abductive, ObersterGenosse,
Swalgal, EliteRussian, RjwilmsiBot, Orphan Wiki, Somebody500, Wikipelli, Sundostund, Shuipzv3, Pakiko82, Pankajkulkarni34, Kill me
when i die, ClamDip, Targaryen, Whoop whoop pull up, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Sherlock701, Andrew Gwilliam, PhnomPencil, Hamish59,
Davidcpearce, David.moreno72, Purdygb, Khazar2, Saehry, Andrewmhhs, Scarlettail, Seth Dandridge, Acmsoccer39, Sidyla Se T. L. and
Anonymous: 95
• Aftermath of World War II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II?oldid=719608354 Contributors: Shii,
Edward, Llywrch, Tpbradbury, Joy, Bearcat, Nufy8, Caknuck, Alan Liefting, MaGioZal, Oberiko, Alexf, ConradPino, Billposer, Neu-
trality, Johan Elisson, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Neko-chan, Kwamikagami, Vecrumba, Alansohn, Arthena, Andrewpmk, Hohum,
Wtmitchell, Bsadowski1, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacifist, Macaddct1984, GraemeLeggett, Mandarax, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Habap,
Crazynas, Ghepeu, Akihabara, NoSeptember, Zoffdino, Sus scrofa, RussBot, Kirill Lokshin, Nutiketaiel, Dureo, Thiseye, Moe Epsilon,
Bronks, Jezzabr, Petri Krohn, Allens, Listowy, Bubblegumbobby, Nick-D, Yvwv, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Gilliam,
Hmains, H2ppyme, Bazonka, Nbarth, Rcbutcher, Blueshirts, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, The PIPE, Stor stark7, SashatoBot, Techgeist,
Sinistrum, Aarktica, Phuzion, Civil Engineer III, Valoem, Woogie10w, Xcentaur, Kevin j, BeenAroundAWhile, Richard Keatinge, Cy-
debot, Gogo Dodo, Flowerpotman, DumbBOT, JamesAM, Tabisu, Escarbot, Bigglesjames, Jj137, Haber, MER-C, RebelRobot, VoABot
II, Edward321, MartinBot, Vigyani, Roastytoast, R'n'B, Hipvicar, Mbhiii, Tgeairn, DrFrench, J.delanoy, Trusilver, JoDonHo, JC Laser,
It Is Me Here, Katalaveno, Lordtopcat, Ahuskay, Pandasandpenguins, Hugo999, Iosef, Classical geographer, Cloud20390, Afluent Rider,
Someguy1221, Jackfork, Madhero88, Lerdthenerd, Falcon8765, Justmeherenow, Ohiostandard, SieBot, Yintan, Sabresfan303, WRK, Ben-
togoa, Lagrange613, Csloomis, Alphablast, Ks0stm, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, StaticGull, Wilhelmina Will,
ClueBot, Plastikspork, EoGuy, XPTO, Arakunem, Jacurek, Mild Bill Hiccup, Boing! said Zebedee, Brinlong, Excirial, Rhododendrites,
NuclearWarfare, Acabashi, Dana boomer, DumZiBoT, Fastily, Rehsok, WikHead, Reptillo~enwiki, Jbeans, Thebestofall007, Addbot, Non-
dropframe, Blethering Scot, Fluffernutter, Repdetect117, Glane23, West.andrew.g, CountryBot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Hairhorn, Jim1138,
6.1. TEXT 317

Materialscientist, Phoenix of9, Ckruschke, LilHelpa, StewartNetAddict, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Minhhale, Equata32, Wilsonchas, Jean-
Jacques Georges, E0steven, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Mrcuddlesworth, Lawrieeilola, Serols, Continue-
WithCaution, White Shadows, Crusoe8181, Da2956hero, Communicat, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, TheLongTone, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Strop-
polo, CuboneKing, Erntab72, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Gyui43, Dewritech, GoingBatty, RA0808, Chup1233, Smallchief,
Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Gaga654321, Mz7, Historymagicianbuff, ZéroBot, Donner60, OnAzaleaPath, Puffin, Saebvn, ClueBot NG, Gareth
Griffith-Jones, Goofgoof1000, This lousy T-shirt, Sleddog116, YaltaExpert1945, DeeYay, Starbuck2015, Widr, WikiPuppies, RafikiSykes,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Calidum, DBigXray, Koertefa, Wasbeer, Lentils151, Steveman1994, Hallows AG, Adogg102, Dazzaboy12, HIDEC-
CHI001, Wiki13, Rhowayer20, Frze, Thewhithouse36, Sni1001per, Robosapiun43, Crazygirl10998, Condatis, Long Ben Every, Buyjer-
seys, Identityis, Milkyant, Thetruthrevealed778, Tehya14, Domylife, Cheddarbob71, Codeman67, Lanylove113, Spotnic10, Not a Person,
Willare, Jillybillysilly, Joebarry123, Xilisam, Wolflord345, Nlinton123454, Brenan36, Hjweghfgefgjewgry, Davidtire, Aawwssoommee,
Edipoika, Missy Khan, Osleydholy1, Mrrogue2018, XXxprovenxXx, Pookie12345678910, Hefnerfootball44, Snow Blizzard, Joshcarruth,
Bones67, Randybessent, Stevewilson1996, Blacknoire666, Reiss12345, Qwertyfhgjhkgf, Drinkhappy88990, Klilidiplomus, Tangerine99,
Unigirl 101, Qwertyinthebumhole, Jeffeldman, Gauzeandchess, Derek willette, Calebv18, Pratyya Ghosh, Hghyux, CaughtYouSlipping,
Lipper21, Jboogie1011, Harry1307, The Illusive Man, Khazar2, Katearch, Darfdarf, ButterflyCacher, CODILICIOUS57, PoopThrower,
Fecalpro123, Bigmactillidie25, Cconley1, Downstairs cafe, Bigcheese1234, WikiFolks, Forg-dog, Greg.lemire, Pacmansaav, Mecheryl,
BAOF, Jaynuna123, Flyersfan11267, Rhakiyah, Dilipdeep, Supersonicspeed32, Bookman6, Adrija chattopadhyay, Pruchnickman, Aeon-
fire178, Bambi0098, Trollmanland, Samuel 'Thrash' Easey, DrMurky, Castrid Ho, Themat123, Eliissoft, Dexbot, Thebestalzheimer-
scare, Minniekelly74, Imabob, MrPotatoHead316, Alexandros Megas, Natuur12, Brayden kye akins, Houstace, Brownlowe96, Conair123,
Liyah65, Matt.Alan.Ward, Chicken mohican, Khan0981, Tvempeny, Webclient101, Broadwaydreams, The Fat Banana, ContentRat, Mys-
terychicks1, Mcaldwell22, Lugia2453, Sriharsh1234, JamesMoose, Jedrzej Wolski, Cherubinirules, AissuR rehtoM, Kynan31, Wikiuser-
petition2007, Keshetsven, HackerZZZZZ, TheEpTic, Patient Zero, Flappypappy, Thibaut120094, Vieque, Maison.is.sexy!, Zashazaiko,
MobheadTwo, Missngno, GeneralizationsAreBad, Jasonxu515, Michael Tio, Indy beetle and Anonymous: 245
• World War II casualties Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties?oldid=719564881 Contributors: AxelBoldt,
Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, Szopen, Rmhermen, Edward, Liftarn, Menchi, Ixfd64, Shoaler, Ejrh, Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, Julesd,
Amcaja, Dpol, Cherkash, John K, Doradus, Wik, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Jnc, Ann O'nyme, Samber~enwiki, Topbanana, Joy, Fvw,
Raul654, Jerzy, Johnleemk, Qertis, Wolfram~enwiki, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Fredrik, Moondyne, Goethean, Lowellian, Enceladus,
StefanPernar, Gidonb, Halibutt, Sunray, Hadal, Cautious, SoLando, Mattflaschen, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham,
Oberiko, Luis Dantas, Ich, Wwoods, P.T. Aufrette, Michael Devore, Varlaam, Duncharris, Ywsf, Matthead, Grant65, Delta G, Golbez, Pin-
necco, Andycjp, Dvavasour, Antandrus, Piotrus, Mzajac, Ilgiz, Bumm13, Kuralyov, Zondor, Ulflarsen, Naryathegreat, Discospinster, Rich
Farmbrough, Supercoop, Aris Katsaris, Kostja, Eric Shalov, Dbachmann, Bumhoolery, Bender235, Darkone, Helldjinn~enwiki, Kross,
Chairboy, Shanes, Tom, 96T, Bobo192, Grue, Lkkity, Cmdrjameson, SecretAgentMan00, Krellis, Jhertel, 119, Jeltz, Joshbaumgartner,
Mc6809e, Lectonar, Pion, Hu, Malo, Bart133, Hohum, GL, Evil Monkey, Endersdouble, RainbowOfLight, Pethr, GabrielF, Redvers,
Daranz, Daveydweeb, Woohookitty, LOL, TomTheHand, Tabletop, Zzyzx11, Xiong Chiamiov, Dysepsion, Thewanderer, Edison, Ka-
fuffle, Rjwilmsi, P3Pp3r, Wikibofh, Lugnad, Amire80, SMC, Oblivious, Ligulem, ScottJ, Czalex, Kazak, Alain2, Lotu, DirkvdM, Ya-
mamoto Ichiro, Exeunt, Ian Pitchford, Musical Linguist, Bmpower, Nihiltres, Crazycomputers, Nivix, Rbonvall, Pinkville, Mordien, Vil-
cxjo, Maustrauser, Kroboth, Chorny, Cpcheung, Matt314, King of Hearts, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Wjfox2005, YurikBot, Borgx, Ko-
rdas, RussBot, BTLizard, Kurt Leyman, SpuriousQ, Kirill Lokshin, Impetus~enwiki, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Pseudomonas, Haakonsson,
TopAce~enwiki, Anomalocaris, Wiki alf, CJK, IndieJones, SCZenz, Equilibrial, Darcrist, Raven4x4x, Molobo, Killdevil, Alex43223, Sarg-
eras~enwiki, Epa101, Gadget850, TastyCakes, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Mike92591, Dna-webmaster, David Underdown, Capt Jim, Stu-
Rat, Closedmouth, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Esprit15d, Mercenary2k, Ray Chason, Sean Whitton, Elfalem, Shawnc, Thelb4, Berndd11222,
Curpsbot-unicodify, Katieh5584, Thomas Blomberg, Nick-D, Eenu, That Guy, From That Show!, Mhardcastle, Luk, SmackBot, Nicolas
Barbier, Nihonjoe, Jagged 85, Davewild, Tbonnie, Delldot, Svenlafe, Mdd4696, Timeshifter, Anomaly2002, Kintetsubuffalo, Potemkine,
Gilliam, Brianski, Siggipa, Hmains, Jazzdude00021, RobertM525, Durova, Izehar, Chris the speller, Bluebot, KaragouniS, H2ppyme,
Ian13, Ksenon, PrimeHunter, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Hibernian, The King Maker, Leoni2, Joe.krisch, Colonies Chris, Rcbutcher,
Butterboy, Scwlong, SuperDeng, Onorem, Lampajoo, Addshore, Edivorce, Stevenmitchell, Soosed, Aldaron, TedE, MichelinMan222,
Lemon10, Martijn Hoekstra, Bmgoau, G-Bot~enwiki, Harryboyles, Titus III, AmiDaniel, MilborneOne, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington,
Breno, Ant6720, Kransky, Aleenf1, Shattered, TdanTce, -js-, BillFlis, Luokehao, Mets501, Ryulong, Andrwsc, MFago, Eevo, Clarityfiend,
Vanished user 90345uifj983j4toi234k, KnowledgeIsPower, Alex122188, Dp462090, CapitalR, Drogo Underburrow, Hokeman, Tawker-
bot2, Woogie10w, Pudeo, Vanisaac, Aristotle1990, JForget, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Triage, Crimson Observer, Kylu, THF, Andkore, That
Asian Guy, AMK8789, Easternknight, Matt. P, Jac16888, Themightyquill, Samuell, Jackyd101, Poeticbent, Red4tribe, Hippiemancam,
Flowerpotman, Llort, Sithvincent, Quibik, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Bookgrrl, Hbk135, Sir Grant the Small, TAIWAN, Quincefish, PKT,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Ayyou, 23prootie, SLAiN, Staberinde, Headbomb, Sobreira, Marek69, Bouchecl, Fiddlehead, Leon7, Nirvana77,
00666, Sikkema, Northumbrian, Oreo Priest, Ialsoagree, AntiVandalBot, StringRay, Gon4z, Jj137, Mack2, Kariteh, Ioeth, Jimknock, Son-
icsuns, Robina Fox, DocEss, Chelentano, OhanaUnited, Hut 8.5, Magioladitis, Dodo19~enwiki, Parsecboy, VoABot II, Jgrozev, Dauodwa,
JamesBWatson, Roches, Catgut, Ajmiles, Gomm, Caranorn, Cloudz679, Seba5618, MartinBot, EyeSerene, Rettetast, Mschel, Commons-
Delinker, Erockrph, J.delanoy, Danimoth~enwiki, Altes, Ali, Danzyl, Anas Salloum, Century0, Katalaveno, SchirmerPower, AntiSpam-
Bot, Colchicum, Alexb102072, Lulu321, Bobianite, Altar of Kez, Madhava 1947, MisterBee1966, Vsosin, DH85868993, Natl1, Gtg204y,
Slapshot01j, Ottershrew, Kechvsf, Signalhead, VolkovBot, Dark123, Safemariner, Ashdog137, Dragoonkain, Jeff G., Fundamental metric
tensor, Nug, Ilya1166, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Director, XavierGreen, Retrofraction, Ann Stouter, Krazytea, Sean D Martin, Lvivske,
Qxz, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Thefrood, Martin451, Stutzt, LeaveSleaves, Qszet, Rashanir, Brian Huffman, Bdr177, Enig-
maman, Philosophile, RaseaC, Mallerd, Justmeherenow, Hidaweed, Dibcrew, DionysiusThrax, SieBot, Gbms86, M. Jakovljevic, Scarian,
WereSpielChequers, LtWinters, Matthew Yeager, Hamster X, RJaguar3, Theevilempire666, Sabresfan303, Texnic, Aelius28, Bomanboi,
Faradayplank, 123ilikecheese, Lightmouse, Redsoxfan69, KathrynLybarger, Bant diet, Jaan, Kieraf~enwiki, Iaroslavvs, Gr8opinionater,
Loren.wilton, McLoaf, ClueBot, BANANA39~enwiki, Binksternet, Allen1221, Mathemajor, Serbiancetnik, Arakunem, Jacurek, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Dallas Alice, Av0id3r, Puchiko, Mantlefan, Karabinier, Xinjao, EnigmaMcmxc, No such user, Iwantitalllll,
Bobby Tables, Lartoven, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Iohannes Animosus, Gcdonaldson, Behruzhimo, BOTarate, Boby231,
Respectthevette, StormBreakLoose, A.h. king, Cosac16, Skunkboy74, Guns n roses the best, Chingerson, Burningview, Rror, Karl Rohm,
SilvonenBot, The thid reich, NellieBly, Mifter, Spoonkymonkey, Madness500, SelfQ, Picklasaurus, HexaChord, Jumentodonordeste,
JAHL14, Davemonk1984, Addbot, 123dan123dan123, Yousou, Youngla0450, Jojhutton, Qweqwewe, Herstas, Wingspeed, Jncraton,
Blaine.varner, Damiens.rf, Reedmalloy, TheShadowed, WillT.Net, WikiEditor50, Shortylatina798, Blaylockjam10, Terrillja, Tassedethe,
Spencemac724, Krano, Jarble, CrashTestSmartie, Nonno88, Ben Ben, Yobot, 2D, Ptbotgourou, Villy, PMLawrence, Reenem, Paul Siebert,
Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Davidbrookesland, FeelSunny, Grey Fox-9589, Klearvue, TopScumOne, Sz-iwbot, Ulric1313, Frisco415own,
Flewis, Larsanders, Jtborth, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Poetaris, LycanElite, Gilo1969, Kmcdm, Anna Frodesiak, Zibem,
318 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Srich32977, Adel.M.Radwan, Sir Stanley, J04n, Technoviking2008, Raphy1706, Webnetprof, Jsp722, Gnu Ordure, Edgars2007, Fres-
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trees, Nillurcheier, RedBot, GreenZeb, Taiwanman1, Dude1818, Bedivere.cs, Jroehl, Tim1357, EfAston, Begoon, Daniel Stringer, A
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• Consequences of Nazism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_Nazism?oldid=719146105 Contributors: The Anome,
Berek, BL~enwiki, KF, Edward, Kchishol1970, Isomorphic, IZAK, Paul Benjamin Austin, G-Man, GCarty, John K, Hauser, Audin,
Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Itai, Kluwer, Joy, Optim, Jason M, Jeffq, PBS, Fifelfoo, Altenmann, Sam Spade, Enceladus, Mervyn, Gian-
franco2, Cautious, TPK, Lysy, Move~enwiki, Fabiform, Aratuk, Jahaza, Matthead, Sedan, Bobblewik, Neilc, Merritcat, PeterC, Troll
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Bender235, Sgeo, SpaceMonkey, Martg76, Freako, Lectonar, KapilTagore, Sciurinæ, Woohookitty, CyrilleDunant, Onlyemarie, Kilter,
Robert K S, Jeff3000, Kelisi, Graham87, Elvey, Grammarbot, Rjwilmsi, Amire80, Boccobrock, The wub, Bhadani, TheIncredibleEdi-
bleOompaLoompa, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Naraht, Ian Pitchford, Colonel Mustard, Atrix20, Russavia, Gareth E. Kegg, YurikBot,
Josio00, NawlinWiki, Msoos, Molobo, Tony1, DGJM, AmandaHansen, Yodacows, Che829, Resolute, Crystallina, SmackBot, Mangoe,
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long, Nehrams2020, Joseph Solis in Australia, Geeman, FairuseBot, Woogie10w, CmdrObot, Wafulz, BeenAroundAWhile, Neelix, Cy-
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Excirial, Lindut, Ranjithsutari, DumZiBoT, Dthomsen8, Atoric, Addbot, Susan Grace Bellerby, Plantchair55, Doubtused, Eivindbot, Laa-
knorBot, Ferroequus, Brufnus, JIM19999, Kurtis, AadaamS, Yobot, Paul Siebert, AnomieBOT, Quebec99, Poetaris, Haselbrunner278,
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Rubbish computer, Bkirchner99, Hexfire0708 and Anonymous: 169
• Japanese war crimes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes?oldid=719188059 Contributors: Shii, Edward, Takuya-
Murata, Nanshu, Jpatokal, Hermeneus, Bueller 007, Jengod, Fuzheado, Silvonen, Tpbradbury, Bloodshedder, Francs2000, Branddobbe,
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Grant65, Bobblewik, Btphelps, Andycjp, Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, J3ff, Piotrus, Kusunose, Sam Hocevar, Tkh, Poo-T~enwiki, Trilo-
bite, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Miborovsky, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, FWBOarticle, Smyth, Ivan Bajlo, Pavel Vozenilek, Stereotek,
Bender235, Rubicon, FriedBunny, Violetriga, Zscout370, El C, Aude, Bendono, TomStar81, Rhysn, Ypacaraí, Viriditas, ZayZayEM,
Kevin Myers, Geocachernemesis~enwiki, Fallingwithstyle, Tachitsuteto, Yuje, Sasquatch, SecretAgentMan00, Gary, Tyler111, Daven-
belle, T-1000, Sligocki, Hohum, Hunter1084, Djlayton4, Stephane mot, Tony Sidaway, Dominic, RyanGerbil10, Mahanga, Hijiri88,
Lkinkade, Lincspoacher, Woohookitty, Zealander, Before My Ken, Lincher, Grika, GregorB, とある⽩い猫, Fxer, Stevey7788, Ash-
moo, Graham87, Sikandarji, BD2412, Sydneyphoenix, Rjwilmsi, Phileas, Feydey, Himasaram, MChew, Pinko1977, Yamamoto Ichiro,
Gsp, Caligvla, AED, RexNL, Jay-W, Jrtayloriv, EronMain, Chobot, Surge79uwf, Robthebob, Vess, Pip2andahalf, RussBot, Manicsleeper,
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SmackBot, Nihonjoe, InverseHypercube, Deiaemeth, Cla68, Kintetsubuffalo, Scott Paeth, Jtwang, Flamarande, Ian Rose, Hola79, Bi-
son augustus, Gilliam, Callaghan772, Hmains, Chris the speller, Galathrax, Kaliz, Kamosuke, RomaC, Neil Bowes, Rlevse, Blueshirts,
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hover, Mister Jinxy, The PIPE, Stor stark7, Roger.lee, Curly Turkey, Deiz, Ceoil, Rklawton, John, JohnI, Kilimanjaronum, Green Gi-
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Tropicaljet, Jmdoman, Baristarim, Skilled sniper~enwiki, SPD, Paul Gard, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, WelshMatt, Gw2005,
FourTildes, J.delanoy, Svetovid, DarKnEs5 WaRrí0r, Ayecee, Crimson stranger, NekoNekoTeacher, TBE1965, Just a suggestion, North-
wind12, Katalaveno, 14thArmored, Jhype86, Jeepday, Loggining, TomorrowTime, Plasticup, Alexb102072, C1010, Ko Soi IX, Color222,
Folger~enwiki, Sigmundur, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, DanKim, Lebob, RB972, Xyl 54, Wolcott, KoreanShoriSenyou, Xiahou, Funandtrvl,
Apocalyptic Destroyer, Caspian blue, VolkovBot, Firstorm, Guljato, Guardian Tiger, Philip Trueman, Zakisan5, Sir Joestar, Erik the
Red 2, Flyte35, Canberrajim, Pojanji, GOD ACRONYM, Itaewon, GcSwRhIc, Rourin bushi, Crohnie, LeaveSleaves, Room429, 4kin-
nel, Billinghurst, StuartLaJoie, Dragonwish, Falcon8765, Akg1212, Art8641, Ruffyuppie, Mcwarre, Master of the Oríchalcos, Necmate,
Azukimonaka, Demize, DrDHMenke, Nstott, Enkyo2, Endzen, Noveltyghost, Merxa, Flyer22 Reborn, Oda Mari, Jc3schmi, MartinJoh00,
IdreamofJeanie, Onopearls, Belligero, Maelgwnbot, Richard David Ramsey, Canglesea, IAC-62, Martarius, ClueBot, Sennen goroshi,
Binksternet, Trfasulo, Akhil Bakshi, Keraunoscopia, Niceguyedc, Yuckhil, Atlantisv2, Auntof6, Rockfang, Mondor, Ktr101, Kanguole,
Checkorder2, Nableezy, Ngebendi, Hadoooookin, JimBobUSA, Takabeg, Maine12329, Xoxxon, Zappa711, Acabashi, Juice8093, Joh-
nuniq, Somekindofusername, DumZiBoT, Bridies, XLinkBot, Cheeseheadburger, WikHead, Mifter, Johnkatz1972, SelfQ, EEng, Sweeper
tamonten, Addbot, Syntax Max, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Damiens.rf, CactusWriter, Ferroequus, AnnaFrance, LinkFA-Bot, Tassede-
the, Tide rolls, Captain Obvious and his crime-fighting dog, Lightbot, Bossyboots221, Logitech95, Jarble, Mps, The Bushranger, Marc87,
6.1. TEXT 319

Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Andreasmperu, Ptbotgourou, Amble, Melonbarmonster2, Bentecbye, AnomieBOT, IRP, Royote, Yotcmdr,
Dicttrshp, Wahtsay, Bukubku, Citation bot, Kasaalan, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Poetaris, 4twenty42o, Memoryboy520, Haydn259, Srich32977,
Anotherclown, Jean-Jacques Georges, BLJOU, AustralianRupert, Mjasfca, A.amitkumar, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Kierzek, LucienBOT,
Tobby72, みや東亞, Ishiai, Haein45, Cannolis, Citation bot 1, AkoDanielle, Abductive, 10metreh, PiT (The Physicist), Michitaro, Em-
norman, RedBot, Phoenix7777, Fuijin19, Carolina cotton, Arbero, Sandman888, RjwilmsiBot, International Common Editor, Yaush,
Polylepsis, Letdemsay, EmausBot, Ghostofnemo, Hirohitito, GoingBatty, Winner 42, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Illegitimate Barrister,
Raubfreundschaft, Charley sf, Glemmens1940~enwiki, Git2010, Wayne Slam, Piantanida31, Kitarr, Winstonlighter, $1LENCE D00600D,
Graeme374, Ihardlythinkso, Forever Dusk, Graylandertagger, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Satellizer, Iritakamas, VioletSeraphim,
Widr, Syss9, Scanhead25, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, 2pem, ISTB351, Cold Season, YouCute, Op47, CitationCleanerBot, MisterC-
Sharp, Harizotoh9, Quigley, BattyBot, Haymouse, Cyberbot II, JapHater, EuroCarGT, IceBrotherhood, 23 editor, Phuttimate, Alázhlis,
XXzoonamiXX, Valpiton, Joshtaco, Juzumaru, 93, Miunouta, Rajmaan, Epicgenius, MelissaLond, Darkness walks, Zmflavius, Tksgk262,
DavidLeighEllis, Konjakupoet, Jayme1234, Monochrome Monitor, Automaton wiki, LahmacunKebab, RemyMCMXI, Finnusertop, Quen-
hitran, Mevagiss, Monkbot, MarblePlinth, Greg723, JonurWiki, ICPSGWU, JPNEX, Stanislawlemlemlem, Pace2Pace, Vivexdino, Gen-
eralizationsAreBad, Hellobellobobello, Kdeerjeon, Kiwifist, BFG, Fortunatestars, Hqueue, The Quixotic Potato, Sarangball, Steveishere25,
Skl9977, Singaporean9919, Tkaehfdl1234, LittleKid1949, Otomowiki, Akari Asaka's Arisaka and Anonymous: 506
• Military production during World War II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II?oldid=
714538274 Contributors: Ixfd64, Bogdangiusca, Gentgeen, Cautious, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Bobblewik, Abu badali, Mzajac, Rich
Farmbrough, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, LtNOWIS, Joshbaumgartner, TenOfAllTrades, Drbreznjev, Mfields1, GraemeLeggett, Obliv-
ious, Ligulem, Naraht, Alassius, Cornellrockey, RussBot, Rsrikanth05, Rjensen, Davidsteinberg, Dna-webmaster, Open2universe, Petri
Krohn, Whobot, Nick-D, TravisTX, SmackBot, Alex earlier account, Hmains, Chris the speller, Hibernian, Trekphiler, SuperDeng, Or-
phanBot, Georgeccampbell, Simmyymmis, Microchip08, Buckboard, Hierakares, Laddiebuck, Geeman, The ed17, Cydebot, HawkShark,
Tec15, Jameboy, Ggbroad, Jj137, Magioladitis, Parsecboy, Engineman, Trusilver, Darrel UofA, Jeepday, WinterSpw, Thismightbezach,
Funandtrvl, Nug, Toddy1, Alex1709, David Condrey, Mugs2109, UnneededAplomb, RJaguar3, Miniapolis, Ashtheman, JL-Bot, ClueBot,
Scartboy, Excirial, 7&6=thirteen, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Favonian, Baffle gab1978, Damwiki1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Mate-
rialscientist, Anotherclown, AustralianRupert, Factuarius, FrescoBot, Marksspite2, Slivicon, I dream of horses, Serols, Lotje, Cowlibob,
Wilytilt, Caominhthang, 12345gorillamaster, Ain92, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, DTParker1000, Theopolisme, Abraxas42, BG19bot,
Brukner, MusikAnimal, Choy4311, Mogism, Ugog Nizdast, Manul, Whizz40, IseeEwe, Jordanrolsen, AABB112233321, Perapin, Knife-
in-the-drawer, PigeonOfTheNight, Robert Brukner and Anonymous: 152
• Home front during World War II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II?oldid=719841456 Contrib-
utors: William Avery, Mjb, Ahoerstemeier, Darkwind, Mxn, DJ Clayworth, Pollinator, Dale Arnett, PBS, ZimZalaBim, Mervyn, Carnildo,
Christopher Parham, Andries, Stevietheman, Abu badali, Antandrus, Piotrus, Gscshoyru, Tomwalden, Dcandeto, Klemen Kocjancic, Dis-
cospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, Bender235, Ylee, JustPhil, Bobo192, Smalljim, Sam Korn, Pearle, Divisive Cottonwood, Alansohn,
Philip Cross, Mac Davis, Garfield226, Velella, W7KyzmJt, Bastin, Woohookitty, Chris Mason, Bmatthewshea, Dmol, Theo F, Marudub-
shinki, Jclemens, Dwarf Kirlston, Rjwilmsi, Oblivious, Lairor, SchuminWeb, Gurch, Jhuuskon, DVdm, Chwyatt, EamonnPKeane, Scep-
tre, RussBot, CambridgeBayWeather, Antsun85, Megapixie, Rjensen, Ashwinr, Pyrotec, Dna-webmaster, American2, Red Jay, Mais oui!,
Rathfelder, Teryx, Destin, Nick-D, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Skeezix1000, Alex1011, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Gilliam, Hmains, Anthonysenn, Slo-
mo, Chris the speller, Analogue Kid, Dustimagic, Ctbolt, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, SuperDeng, Addshore, Aldaron, The undertow,
EdgeHM, RASAM, BHC, Fanx, Minna Sora no Shita, IronGargoyle, Zerath13, Werdan7, Mr Stephen, RHB, Squirepants101, Christian
Historybuff, Wjejskenewr, Radiant chains, Tawkerbot2, Nydas, CmdrObot, Shawnino, Dycedarg, Goldfritha, Mathew5000, Omicronper-
sei8, Bronzey214, Joowwww, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Qwyrxian, John254, Tellyaddict, Christopherjfoster, OrenBochman, AntiVandalBot,
Mmyers1976, Ggbroad, Akradecki, Lielais Rolands~enwiki, VoABot II, Faizhaider, Rich257, WODUP, Nick Cooper, Animum, Allstare-
cho, DerHexer, MartinBot, STBot, Fuzziqersoftware, Anaxial, Jay Litman, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Paris1127, Shawn in Montreal, McSly,
Jmajeremy, Mervill wikipidea, Mrg3105, SJP, 2812, KylieTastic, Mastrchf91, Lights, Hugo999, ABF, Lear's Fool, Oshwah, Lmaowitzer,
Dialh, Malinaccier, Oracle7168, Martin451, Argcar5199, Jeremy Bolwell, Pbrook, Zserdxcft, RaseaC, Justmeherenow, Anthonyycheung,
Enkyo2, Tiddly Tom, Cwkmail, Whiteghost.ink, Matthew Brandon Yeager, France3470, Faradayplank, Hobartimus, Mygerardromance,
Halo2, ClueBot, Binksternet, BillMaddock, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mild Bill Hiccup, Fallenfromthesky, Excirial, Keysanger,
Versus22, Pgerckn, Wikiuser100, HexaChord, Xp54321, Jncraton, Jeanne boleyn, Meiner, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, SomeUsr,
Glane23, Synthmesc, Tide rolls, Argentium, MissAlyx, Yobot, Kartano, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Piano
non troppo, Clarinetguy097, Yachtsman1, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, E2eamon, LilHelpa, Apothecia, Polemyx, Kelran24, Reiem,
Anotherclown, Dan O'Keefe, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, De bezige bij, Slivicon, DivineAlpha, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Alexknibb,
Meaghan, Tobystayte, Trappist the monk, Vrenator, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Aidan Stone Cunningham, Maharaja9933, Raellerby, Lord East-
farthing, Skamecrazy123, John of Reading, Dewritech, Racerx11, GoingBatty, Solarra, Moswento, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Jameslewis-
miller88, Josve05a, Itachiscore, Brechbill123, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Widr, Sephalon1, Miracle dream, Oddbodz, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Crazypo1234, Titodutta, Ramaksoud2000, Brukner, FJS15, HIDECCHI001, MusikAnimal, OttawaAC, Floating Boat, Dll137,
Anbu121, Padenton, EuroCarGT, JCJC777, Irondome, Lugia2453, Kinaga, SFK2, Graphium, Ovsek, JaviP96, Epicgenius, Catrunleen,
Lsmith670, NottNott, Quenhitran, Apleat6326, Cammy25401, Crystallizedcarbon, Jakenz1, Lomkimarsh, Jason.nlw, Yourmum.yanan,
Dharmalion76, Sraju94 and Anonymous: 458
• Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration_with_the_Axis_
Powers_during_World_War_II?oldid=719499821 Contributors: Novalis, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Theresa knott, Joy, Pigsonthew-
ing, Humus sapiens, Halibutt, Mervyn, Lysy, Wwoods, Apoivre, Comatose51, MisfitToys, Piotrus, Simhedges, Neutrality, Jayjg, Mi-
borovsky, Rich Farmbrough, YUL89YYZ, Bender235, Vecrumba, RobNS, Iamunknown, Giraffedata, Man vyi, Velella, Stephan Leeds,
Drbreznjev, Axeman89, Tiger Khan, Woohookitty, Josephf, Lokyz, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacifist, Rjecina, Mandarax, BD2412, Rjwilmsi,
Dr.Gonzo, Valentinejoesmith, Amire80, Naraht, SchuminWeb, Ground Zero, Valentinian, Volunteer Marek, Bgwhite, RussBot, Gardar
Rurak, Manxruler, Nahallac Silverwinds, Dijxtra, Welsh, Renata3, Capt Jim, Poppy, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Arthur Rubin,
Petri Krohn, Bandurist, RockyMM, Nixer, Cotoco, Patiwat, Ajdebre, Anonimu, Victor falk, Sarah, SmackBot, Kuban kazak, David
Kernow, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Gilliam, Hmains, The Gnome, Chris the speller, Alcatel, Jprg1966, Apeloverage, Hibernian, Xx236, Ben-
Velvel, Colonies Chris, Mladifilozof, Dr. Dan, MarshallBagramyan, Christofor~enwiki, Yulia Romero, Lute88, Alþykkr, Chymicus,
Tymek, Tazmaniacs, Robofish, Breno, Djenka018~enwiki, Thalia42, Conchuir, Iridescent, Clarityfiend, Sander Säde, FairuseBot, J Mil-
burn, JForget, Amalas, Charvex, Ruslik0, ShelfSkewed, Flying Saucer, Poeticbent, Goldfritha, Travelbird, Meowy, DumbBOT, DBaba,
Corporal Punishment, Robin Hood 1212, Buistr, Biruitorul, Frozenport, Staberinde, Esowteric, Merbabu, Dmitri Lytov, Blathnaid, Sum-
merPhD, Smith2006, IrishPete, Jj137, Vanjagenije, Golgofrinchian, Husond, Freshacconci, Parsecboy, MartinDK, Buckshot06, Froid,
Zoltarpanaflex, 1549bcp, Wolfshade, Semper-Fi 2006, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, DrFrench, Arrivisto, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Thau-
risil, Mkruijff, Hillock65, Mrg3105, Colchicum, DadaNeem, Olegwiki, Juliancolton, Sergey Romanov, Idioma-bot, Signalhead, Malik
320 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Shabazz, Hammersoft, Thomas.W, Nug, W. B. Wilson, TXiKiBoT, Lvivske, Klamber, Mkpumphrey, Olgerd, Michaeldsuarez, Just-
meherenow, Red Hurley, Romuald Wróblewski, Coffee, John.n-irl, Ostap R, Laoris, WRK, Digwuren, Beatle Fab Four, Gryphon044,
Lightmouse, Skinny87, Mayalld, KathrynLybarger, Termer, Jaan, Miyokan, Peltimikko, Michel Tavir, Binksternet, Boodlesthecat, Plas-
tikspork, Paul K., Saddhiyama, AlasdairGreen27, Jacurek, TheOldJacobite, P. S. Burton, Starstylers, Auntof6, Pernambuko, Jo0doe,
Leonard^Bloom, Rhododendrites, NuclearWarfare, Dn9ahx, Takabeg, Polly, Bosharivale, Milhis, FactsAssertingThemselves, Chaosdruid,
Sizeless, AlwaysForward, Behaviourmodel, LaughsAndLaughsAt, SiskelWithoutEbert, Poshgingersporty, Chlorinated, OsamaBinScared,
5TheChildren, Laffatthahaterz, InsiderAversion, Kolakowski, Editor2020, Neverneutral, Nonnegotiable, DumZiBoT, Joseph N'Boko,
Obamastopper, Facty~enwiki, Egsal, PartyLiason, Kevin07Corey08, MoveonNgiveitup, Dramaturge, LaughingSoLoud, Espmod, Plasin,
Mifter, Maijinsan, Asidemes, Kbdankbot, Avrem, Addbot, Magus732, CanadianLinuxUser, Keep it Fake, AnnaFrance, Favonian, Un-
knownSage, Kuhlfürst, KomBrig, Ivario, Lightbot, Xenobot, Timurite, Yobot, Legobot II, Gongshow, Paul Siebert, AnomieBOT, Samogitia,
Grey Fox-9589, AnkaraCity, Alexikoua, Citation bot, Eumolpo, LilHelpa, Potočnik, Andrewmc123, Balkanian`s word, The Banner, Van-
ishedUser sdu9aya9fs7sdad, J04n, Partisan1, Jean-Jacques Georges, Brutaldeluxe, Moxy, Historylover4, Governor Jerjerrod, FrescoBot,
NSH002, Tobby72, Abbatai, WaldirBot, Polyxeros, PasswordUsername, Saybow, Twotwo2019, Vinie007, Full-date unlinking bot, Cramy-
ourspam, Carolina cotton, DocYako, Cnwilliams, Trappist the monk, Knin0780, Fry1989, Irvi Hyka, Onel5969, MShabazz, Bossanoven,
Antidiskriminator, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, Ovidcaput, Ales hurko, ZéroBot, John Cline, Alpha Quadrant, Zloyvolsheb,
Wingman4l7, Staszek Lem, JoeSperrazza, Morgan Hauser, Mazurczak88, Δ, Champion, Erikupoeg, Donner60, Serb1914, ChuispastonBot,
Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, Skjoldbro, Calapone, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, Gob Lofa, Ramaksoud2000, Uzeu, BG19bot, Sindja22,
Tritomex, Montalban, LoneWolf1992, Peacemaker67, Iryna Harpy, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, Thqldpxm, EagerToddler39,
Mogism, Pluto2012, 183.492.365.I98, ColaXtra, Lemnaminor, Smashton Pumpkin, Factor01, Monkbot, Africa2123, Qordnlrns, Ânes-
pur-sàng, E-960, K.e.coffman, LupinoJacky, GeneralizationsAreBad, Srednuas Lenoroc, WilliamA121342 and Anonymous: 197
• Resistance during World War II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II?oldid=719658307 Contrib-
utors: Szopen, Deb, Patrick, Liftarn, Lquilter, Paul A, Bogdangiusca, Joy, Finlay McWalter, Gidonb, Halibutt, Mervyn, SoLando,
DocWatson42, Oberiko, Wwoods, Everyking, Jason Quinn, Matthead, Grant65, Piotrus, Billposer, Legionas, Klemen Kocjancic, Blood-
less, Bourquie, Discospinster, Chowells, Smyden01, Bender235, Kross, CDN99, 96T, Bobo192, Brainy J, Alansohn, Arthena, Carbon
Caryatid, Milesli, Max rspct, Kaiser matias, A D Monroe III, Woohookitty, Milen~enwiki, Before My Ken, Lapsed Pacifist, CiTrusD,
Kelisi, GregorB, BD2412, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Oblivious, Lendorien, Raguleader, Valip, DirkvdM, Yamamoto Ichiro, Mark83, Ayla,
Chwyatt, YurikBot, WO2~enwiki, Gardar Rurak, Gaius Cornelius, Eleassar, Alex Bakharev, Msikma, Rhythm, Mlouns, Black Cat, 3
Löwi, Black Falcon, Dna-webmaster, Bayerischermann, PaxEquilibrium, Nickybutt, Attilios, A bit iffy, SmackBot, John Lunney, Mister
X, Gnangarra, Davewild, Hmains, H2ppyme, Rex Germanus, PrimeHunter, Mladifilozof, Cplakidas, OrphanBot, Lord Eru, The PIPE,
Fredgoat, Tankred, Stor stark7, Drunken Pirate, Deepred6502, John, RKernan, The Wrong Man, GorillazFanAdam, Iridescent, The-
oldanarchist, £, AGK, Courcelles, FairuseBot, Heqs, WolfgangFaber, J Milburn, CmdrObot, Mattbr, Bobfrombrockley, Victoriagirl,
Jamoche, Poeticbent, Gatoclass, Xdiabolicalx, Gimmetrow, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Hervegirod, Jed, Staberinde, Mereda, Deip-
nosophista, Joan Gos, AntiVandalBot, BokicaK, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Res2216firestar, HanzoHattori, JAnDbot, Arch dude, Rebel-
Robot, Delius1967, SiobhanHansa, MartinDK, Faizhaider, Cgingold, Paris By Night, Hedwig in Washington, Pennywisepeter, GeorgHH,
Rskellner, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Uncle Dick, Semajdraehs, Toghrul Talibzadeh, Dmitry Malayev, Sherzo, DadaNeem, Monkey-
bob123, Cometstyles, DH85868993, Tingmelvin, Funandtrvl, Glossologist, Historiographer, Director, A Duck~enwiki, Aymatth2, BobM,
LeaveSleaves, Kingston1949, Billinghurst, Pat Godfrey, Justmeherenow, Ckelling08, GirasoleDE, Romuald Wróblewski, Comte de Chagny,
SieBot, Brenont, Robvhoorn, Haggawaga - Oegawagga, WereSpielChequers, Raskiy, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Mikeblew, Lightmouse, Callid-
ior, Dravecky, EthicsFarAboveYou, USHMMwestheim, Albert Krantz, ClueBot, Dvl007, RobertLunaIII, Binksternet, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Senzangakhona, Jacurek, Livanziska1, Fee Fi Foe Fum, Neverquick, Puchiko, Pernambuko, Excirial,
Sunil060902, Revotfel, Versus22, Kolakowski, DJ Sturm, Berean Hunter, Plasin, Menthaxpiperita, Jim Sweeney, Addbot, Magus732,
Enea95, Ronhjones, MrOllie, Buster7, Letzebuergerr, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Andreasmperu, Fraggle81, Angel ivanov angelov, Paul Siebert,
AnomieBOT, Tavrian, Mel 23, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Poetaris, Wüstenfuchs, Acebulf, Ched, Briony Coote, J04n, Pyraechmes, Crashdoom,
Dougofborg, RightCowLeftCoast, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, FkpCascais, Robert Warren, Puma1989, Winterst, Pinethicket, I dream of
horses, Acbertrand, Full-date unlinking bot, DocYako, Mercy11, Hedviberit, Fama Clamosa, Lotje, Vrenator, MiroslavNerdy, Maxbig-
wood, Userxxxname, EmausBot, John of Reading, Stryn, Arnauddevial, Marrante, Winner 42, Bongoramsey, Δ, Coasterlover1994,
Basvossen, GermanJoe, Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, FigLief, Lenin034, Delusion23, Widr, Hoopooloo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa,
Arnavchaudhary, Secretarmy, MusikAnimal, Marcocapelle, Seidenothniel, Snow Blizzard, Abcdukil, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Pla-
men, Khazar2, Charles Essie, XXzoonamiXX, Lugia2453, Burdi104, Rajmaan, Beige.librarian, Quod-erat-demonstrandum., Ana Radic,
Madreterra, JWNoctis, Red and black partisan, Factor01, Alicja Vertigo, Monkbot, Greg723, Trackteur, Ephemeratta, Ânes-pur-sàng,
Grandiax, Bogenf, Supdiop, Emmyrules120, Goxy63, Kings Men and Anonymous: 242
• German-occupied Europe Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German-occupied_Europe?oldid=714946384 Contributors: Donar-
reiskoffer, Jason Quinn, Grant65, Piotrus, Neutrality, Kostja, Grutness, Lapsed Pacifist, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Atrix20, Kurt Leyman,
Renata3, Silverhorse, Gunman47, Petri Krohn, Caballero1967, Victor falk, SmackBot, Gilliam, Hmains, Dahn, H2ppyme, Mladifilozof,
Savidan, Andrwsc, Cydebot, Poeticbent, Epbr123, Keraunos, SeNeKa, Dawnseeker2000, Vanjagenije, Danny lost, Magioladitis, Par-
secboy, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, CommonsDelinker, Pharaoh of the Wizards, DadaNeem, Dhaluza, Nug, Oxfordwang, Mkpumphrey, Still-
Trill, MNHM, MrChupon, The Evil Spartan, Rédacteur Tibet, Harry-, Afernand74, Superbeecat, ImageRemovalBot, Alexbot, M.O.X,
SoxBot, Teutonic Tamer, DJ Sturm, Anon126, MystBot, Maimai009, Addbot, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Music+mas, Alexikoua,
Khajidha, Hushpuckena, Dead Mary, I dream of horses, RedBot, SEVEREN, Bossanoven, Antidiskriminator, EmausBot, Morgan Hauser,
L Kensington, Billy545455, Brigade Piron, ClueBot NG, Kreuzkümmel, Aight 2009, Widr, BogdaNz, Iamsocoolyo, Thetroll111, Lolatjews,
HIDECCHI001, Jami430, Tricotec, Thqldpxm, Frosty, Female bodybuilder enthusiast, Epicgenius, Milicevic01, Poti Berik, Jackmcbarn,
JoseAlicea22, Patient Zero, AHC300, DIREKTOR, Fezuniverse, Lux-hibou, Petedog64dx, Patriot1917 and Anonymous: 46
• Technology during World War II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II?oldid=719583820 Contrib-
utors: Robert Merkel, The Anome, William Avery, Zadcat, Ahoerstemeier, Darkwind, Ijon, Emperorbma, DJ Clayworth, Dimadick,
Robbot, Moriori, Chris 73, Hadal, Dave6, Oberiko, Wolfkeeper, Fastfission, Wwoods, Matt Crypto, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Russell E,
Lacrimosus, Jwdietrich2, Discospinster, Brianhe, EliasAlucard, LindsayH, Kross, Shanes, Sietse Snel, Bookofjude, Bobo192, Kghose,
Smalljim, Tronno, Tersevs, Krellis, Carlb, Alansohn, Gary, 119, Joshbaumgartner, Viridian, Mac Davis, Denniss, Ledrug, ProhibitOnions,
Sciurinæ, Recury, Brookie, Bobrayner, Woohookitty, Damicatz, Wayward, Alan Canon, Justinmo, GraemeLeggett, Rusty2005, Magister
Mathematicae, BD2412, Jclemens, Crzrussian, Bruce1ee, Oblivious, Ligulem, Bhadani, Ysangkok, MacMania, King of Hearts, DaGizza,
Sus scrofa, Tom Barnwell 0, RussBot, Arado, Sarranduin, SpuriousQ, Surgo, Stephenb, Polluxian, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas,
Sum-dude, David R. Ingham, Wiki alf, Grafen, Welsh, AnotherLoophole, Ragesoss, Haoie, Dastal, Asams10, Dna-webmaster, Closed-
mouth, JLaTondre, ArielGold, Listowy, SmackBot, Matthuxtable, CMD Beaker, Dandin1, Delldot, Fnfd, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam,
6.2. IMAGES 321

Hmains, Skizzik, Chris the speller, Jordanhurley, CSWarren, J. Spencer, Rcbutcher, Sim man, MyNameIsVlad, Jorvik, Yamam, KevM,
Prmacn, Midnightcomm, Napalm Llama, Dreadstar, Xagent86, DMacks, Soarhead77, Bogsat, Stor stark7, John, AmiDaniel, Robofish,
Werdan7, Noah Salzman, Condem, Siebrand, Dermo, KnowledgeIsPower, Drogo Underburrow, Tawkerbot2, Pudeo, JForget, Anton-
2492, Aherunar, CWY2190, Dgw, MrFish, Silphium, TJDay, ElectricEye, Cydebot, Fl, DumbBOT, Snapper2, JodyB, Epbr123, Sam
Van Kooten, Nonagonal Spider, Deathbunny, Marek69, WillMak050389, The Hybrid, Nick Number, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Luna
Santin, Seaphoto, Jj137, Danger, Golgofrinchian, CombatWombat42, Nthep, Lan Di, Seddon, Rentaferret, PhilKnight, Jyotirmoyb, Io
Katai, Dodo19~enwiki, Parsecboy, VoABot II, Mbc362, Father Goose, DerHexer, Russeasby, TheRanger, War wizard90, Robin S, Mart-
inBot, Jim.henderson, JK1791, Mike6271, CommonsDelinker, Jargon777, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, TheTrojanHought,
Mrg3105, AntiSpamBot, Ja 62, Sam Blacketer, CWii, Thedjatclubrock, Mrh30, Nousernamesleft, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Moogwrench,
BlueLint, Someguy1221, Indochinetn, Monkey Bounce, Lradrama, Ahm2307, Andy Dingley, Justmeherenow, Euicho, PGWG, YonaBot,
Purplesox, WereSpielChequers, YourEyesOnly, VonBlade, Flyer22 Reborn, Prestonmag, Antonio Lopez, SuperSaiyaMan, Maralia, Geoff
Plourde, Bpeps, Jons63, ClueBot, Plastikspork, Gawaxay, Mild Bill Hiccup, Bob bobato, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, Jusdafax, Pacodat-
aco8, Terra Xin, Razorflame, Chicknatr, Thingg, Versus22, IJA, Editorofthewiki, TheGreekMinstrel, Alexius08, Noctibus, Snapperman2,
Drolz09, Addbot, ERK, Fyrael, Otisjimmy1, QuinceTupper, Jncraton, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, SrAtoz, Morning277, Glane23,
Ld100, Fireaxe888, Herr Gruber, CuteHappyBrute, Tide rolls, Hayoye111, Teles, Gail, RaminusFalcon, Yobot, Andreasmperu, Fraggle81,
Worm That Turned, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Jim1138, Pyrrhus16, Piano non troppo, Ulric1313, Materialscientist,
Rtyq2, 90 Auto, LilHelpa, The Evil IP address, Crzer07, Anotherclown, Brutaldeluxe, Dead Mary, Weetoddid, Resinguy, Javert, Lkeune,
Pinethicket, Full-date unlinking bot, Fama Clamosa, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Izauze, Robkelk, Slon02, Dewritech, Faceless Enemy, RA0808,
K6ka, Aspenbubba, John Cline, Donmotley, Traxs7, Aeonx, IIIraute, $1LENCE D00600D, Ego White Tray, Greenoid101, NTox, 28bot,
Whoop whoop pull up, Dllu, Sonicyouth86, Petrb, ClueBot NG, NobleN16, Jack Greenmaven, A520, Ferrari501, Hengistmate, Masssly,
Widr, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Krenair, Chess, Wiki13, Modinyr, Rm1271, Splatpc, IHC650, TBrandley, 220 of Borg, BattyBot,
W.D., ChrisGualtieri, Ngoquangduong, Nick Maso, ÄDA - DÄP, Buttsacks, XXzoonamiXX, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Frosty, Little
green rosetta, Lemnaminor, Nonsenseferret, Diamondminerkev, DavidLeighEllis, Anthronix, Mandruss, Kahtar, Whizz40, Mechanical-
Brain, JaconaFrere, Epicpenguin1999, Monkbot, Ehlersdavid025, Kinetic37, Orduin, Shamandrood, Onemariobro, JJMC89, CAPTAIN
RAJU, Tortle, JonathanWilliamDoe, Qzd, IAmAGamer and Anonymous: 671

6.2 Images
• File:101st_with_members_of_dutch_resistance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/
101st_with_members_of_dutch_resistance.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: CIA[1] Original artist: Unknown<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' src-
set='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:16May-21May1940-Fall_Gelb.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/16May-21May1940-Fall_
Gelb.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/ww2%20europe/WWIIEuropeIndex.
html Original artist: The History Dept at the United States Army Academy
• File:1943-07-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/
1943-07-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-07-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/
1943-07-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-07-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/
1943-07-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-07-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/
1943-07-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-08-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/
1943-08-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-08-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/
1943-08-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-08-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/
1943-08-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-08-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/
1943-08-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
322 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-09-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/
1943-09-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-09-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/
1943-09-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-09-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/
1943-09-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-09-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/
1943-09-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-10-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/
1943-10-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-10-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/
1943-10-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-10-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/
1943-10-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-10-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/
1943-10-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-11-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/
1943-11-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-11-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/
1943-11-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-11-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/
1943-11-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-11-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/
1943-11-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-12-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/
1943-12-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-12-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/
1943-12-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-12-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/
1943-12-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1943-12-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/
1943-12-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
6.2. IMAGES 323

• File:1943_Belorussia_Jewish_resistance_group.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/1943_

Belorussia_Jewish_resistance_group.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/belarus/bel427.html
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:1944-01-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/
1944-01-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-01-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/
1944-01-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-01-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/
1944-01-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-01-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/
1944-01-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Supplement to The Biennial report
of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943 to June 30 1945”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-02-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/
1944-02-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-02-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/
1944-02-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-02-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/
1944-02-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-02-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/
1944-02-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-03-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/
1944-03-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-03-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/
1944-03-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-03-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/
1944-03-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-03-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/
1944-03-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-04-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/
1944-04-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-04-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/
1944-04-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-04-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/
1944-04-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
324 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:1944-04-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/

1944-04-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-05-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/
1944-05-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-05-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/
1944-05-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-05-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/
1944-05-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-05-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/
1944-05-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-06-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/
1944-06-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-06-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/
1944-06-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-06-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/
1944-06-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Document “Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in
Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-06-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1944-12-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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• File:1945-01-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/

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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-01-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-01-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-02-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-02-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-02-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-02-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-03-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-03-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-03-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-04-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/
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Semimonthly Phases to August 15th 1945: Supplement to The Biennial report of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army July 1, 1943
to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-04-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-05-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-05-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
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• File:1945-06-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-07-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:1945-07-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/
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• File:1945-08-01JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/
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• File:1945-08-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/
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to June 30 1945 To the Secretary of War”Original artist: Army Map Service
• File:8th_AF_Bombing_Marienburg.JPEG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/8th_AF_
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• File:Approaching_Omaha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Approaching_Omaha.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: The original uploader was Taak at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Raul654,
Nauticashades at en.wikipedia.
328 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:BFCgroup.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/BFCgroup.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

Picture of members of the British Free Corps, of an unknown source, but likely to be British Crown Copyright, and obviously taken before
1956 and therefore in the public domain Original artist: Waffen SS, Second World War
• File:Battle_of_Lake_Khasan-Red_Army_gunners_in_the_interval.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
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artist: Viktor Antonovich Tyomin
• File:Battle_of_the_Bismark_Sea.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Battle_of_the_Bismark_Sea.jpg
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• File:Bluetank.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bluetank.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: LA2
• File:Boeing-Whichata_B-29_Assembly_Line_-_1944.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/
Boeing-Whichata_B-29_Assembly_Line_-_1944.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: United States Air Force Historical Re-
search Agency - Maxwell AFB, Alabama from “History and Units of the United States Air Force”, G H J Sharrings, European Aviation
Historical Society, 2004. Photo credit given as from USAFHRA. Original artist: United States Army Air Forces
• File:British_Burma_1937_flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_British_Burma_
%281937%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
• Burmapeacockforhistory.svg Original artist: Burmapeacockforhistory.svg: The original uploader was Stepshep at English Wikipedia

• File:British_Empire_1921.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png License:

Public domain Contributors: Own work. Original artist: Vadac.
• File:British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: based on Canadian Red Ensign.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Canadian_Red_
Ensign_(1957-1965).svg' class='image'><img alt='Canadian Red Ensign (1957-1965).svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/d/da/Canadian_Red_Ensign_%281957-1965%29.svg/48px-Canadian_Red_Ensign_%281957-1965%29.svg.png'
width='48' height='24' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Canadian_Red_Ensign_%281957-1965%
29.svg/72px-Canadian_Red_Ensign_%281957-1965%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
d/da/Canadian_Red_Ensign_%281957-1965%29.svg/96px-Canadian_Red_Ensign_%281957-1965%29.svg.png 2x' data-file-
width='1000' data-file-height='500' /></a> and Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg' class='image'><img alt='Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/b/be/Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg/32px-Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg.png' width='32' height='32' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg/48px-Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg/64px-Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg.png
2x' data-file-width='99' data-file-height='99' /></a> Original artist: Barryob
• File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-107546,_Köln-Bonn,_Adenauer,_Mutter_eines_Kriegsgefangenen.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-107546%2C_K%C3%B6ln-Bonn%2C_Adenauer%2C_Mutter_
eines_Kriegsgefangenen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German
Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic represen-
tation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-32A,_Russland,_Cholm,_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-004-3633-32A%2C_Russland%2C_Cholm%2C_gefallene_Rotarmisten.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the orig-
inals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Muck,
Richard
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-03A,_Russland,_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen_retouched.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-03A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_
Partisanen_retouched.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German
Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic
representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image
Archive. Original artist: Koch
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15,_Russland-Mitte,_Soldaten_der_französischen_Legion,_Fahne.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_
der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia
Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive
guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided
by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Momber
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-270-0298-11,_Polen,_Ghetto_Warschau,_Drahtzaun.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/35/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-270-0298-11%2C_Polen%2C_Ghetto_Warschau%2C_Drahtzaun.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Amthor
6.2. IMAGES 329

• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-295-1560-21,_Nordfrankreich,_Turkmenische_Freiwillige.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.

org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-295-1560-21%2C_Nordfrankreich%2C_Turkmenische_Freiwillige.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
(negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Müller, Karl
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-297-1704-10,_Nordfrankreich,_Angehörige_der_Wlassow-Armee.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-297-1704-10%2C_Nordfrankreich%2C_Angeh%C3%
B6rige_der_Wlassow-Armee.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the
German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic
representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image
Archive. Original artist: Müller, Karl
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-561-1148-04,_Ausbildung_arabischer_Luftwaffensoldaten.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-561-1148-04%2C_Ausbildung_arabischer_Luftwaffensoldaten.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Pirath, Helmuth
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-638-4221-06,_Produktion_von_Messerschmitt_Me_109.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/39/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-638-4221-06%2C_Produktion_von_Messerschmitt_Me_109.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Höss
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09042,_Genf,_Völkerbund,_Sitzungssaal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/60/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09042%2C_Genf%2C_V%C3%B6lkerbund%2C_Sitzungssaal.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part
of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or
positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-10541,_Weimar,_Aufmarsch_der_Nationalsozialisten.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-10541%2C_Weimar%2C_Aufmarsch_der_Nationalsozialisten.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Georg Pahl
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-1500,_Ukraine,_Ordnungspolizei,_Rayonposten_Sarig.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-1500%2C_Ukraine%2C_Ordnungspolizei%2C_Rayonposten_Sarig.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Scherer
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880,_Peenemünde,_Start_einer_V2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/
3c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_141-1880%2C_Peenem%C3%BCnde%2C_Start_einer_V2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This im-
age was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The
German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization
of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-063-32,_Bad_Godesberg,_Münchener_Abkommen,_Vorbereitung.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-063-32%2C_Bad_Godesberg%2C_M%C3%
BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Vorbereitung.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Com-
mons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an
authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital
Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-071-36,_Polen,_an_der_Brahe,_deutsche_Panzer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-071-36%2C_Polen%2C_an_der_Brahe%2C_deutsche_Panzer.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bunde-
sarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
(negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1980-036-05,_Amin_al_Husseini_bei_bosnischen_SS-Freiwilligen.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1980-036-05%2C_Amin_al_Husseini_bei_bosnischen_
SS-Freiwilligen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal
Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation
only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1982-161-01A,_Ukrainische_Wachmannschaft_eines_Torfwerks.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1982-161-01A%2C_Ukrainische_Wachmannschaft_
eines_Torfwerks.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal
330 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation
only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Maier, Dr.
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1985-083-11,_Anschluss_Österreich,_Innsbruck.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/7/77/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1985-083-11%2C_Anschluss_%C3%96sterreich%2C_Innsbruck.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-107-24,_Frankreich,_Einsatz_gegen_die_Resistance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/8/86/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-107-24%2C_Frankreich%2C_Einsatz_gegen_die_Resistance.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Koll
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146II-104,_Gertrud_Scholtz-Klink.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
b/b8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146II-104%2C_Gertrud_Scholtz-Klink.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This im-
age was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a
cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (neg-
ative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original
artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-97906,_Warschauer_Aufstand,_Straßenkampf.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/95/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-97906%2C_Warschauer_Aufstand%2C_Stra%C3%9Fenkampf.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de
Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a
cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or posi-
tive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Schremmer
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753,_Krefeld,_Hungerwinter,_Demonstration.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-753%2C_Krefeld%2C_Hungerwinter%2C_Demonstration.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
(negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Röhnert
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B10160,_Wilna,_Juden,_litauischer_Polizist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/ac/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B10160%2C_Wilna%2C_Juden%2C_litauischer_Polizist.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Con-
tributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a
cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or pos-
itive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Schmidt-Schaumburg
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B11441,_Libau,_Zusammengetriebene_Juden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/ef/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B11441%2C_Libau%2C_Zusammengetriebene_Juden.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contribu-
tors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation
project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the
digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Peter, Richard
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10868,_BDM_in_der_Landwirtschaft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/10/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-E10868%2C_BDM_in_der_Landwirtschaft.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Con-
tributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as
part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the origi-
nals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Origi-
nal artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25224,_Guernica,_Ruinen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
c/ca/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25224%2C_Guernica%2C_Ruinen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This im-
age was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a
cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (neg-
ative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original
artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337,_Moskau,_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/38/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H27337%2C_Moskau%2C_Stalin_und_Ribbentrop_im_Kreml.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bunde-
sarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the orig-
inals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
6.2. IMAGES 331

wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'
/></a>
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J16695,_Soldaten_der_Legion_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textquotedbl}{"}{}Freies_Indien”.
jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J16695%2C_Soldaten_der_Legion_
%22Freies_Indien%22.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German
Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic
representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image
Archive. Original artist: Werner
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173,_Münchener_Abkommen,_Staatschefs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Staatschefs.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
(negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'
/></a>
• File:Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0025,_Ausstellung_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textquotedbl}{"}{}Planung_und_Aufbau_
im_Osten”,_Schautafel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0025%2C_
Ausstellung_%22Planung_und_Aufbau_im_Osten%22%2C_Schautafel.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was
provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German
Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the
originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Krajewsky
• File:Cairo_conference.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Cairo_conference.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Cairo conference - Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill at the Cairo Conference November
25, 1943 Original artist: ?
• File:Canadian_Red_Ensign_1921-1957.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Canadian_Red_Ensign_
1921-1957.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Contributors: Official U.S. Navy Photograph 80-G-71198, now in the collections of the National Archives. Original artist: Unknown, the
original photograph was captured on Attu in 1943.
• File:Casablanca-Conference.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Casablanca-Conference.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/ Original artist:
• Post-Work: W.Wolny
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with_German_soldiers.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://digitalassets.ushmm.org/photoarchives/detail.aspx?id=1140003
[Photograph #46712]
Original artist: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Muzej Revolucije Narodnosti Jugoslavije
• File:Chiang_Kai-shek_in_full_uniform.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Chiang_Kai-shek_in_
full_uniform.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_48dcce8e01009yli.html Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'
/></a>
• File:Children_collecting_rubber.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Children_collecting_rubber.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec under the reference
number P48,S1,P7495
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Conrad Poirier
• File:Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Chinese_civilians_to_
be_buried_alive.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
最早 表在： 《⽇寇暴⾏ 》. 事委 会政治部 . ⼝: 1938. 35

Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'

src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Chinese_killed_by_Japanese_Army_in_a_ditch,_Hsuchow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/
Chinese_killed_by_Japanese_Army_in_a_ditch%2C_Hsuchow.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Chodźmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Chod%
C5%BAmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Narodowe Archiwum Cyfrowe (Syg-
natura: 2-5938) (Polish National Digital Archive) Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' ti-
tle='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
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SA 3.0 Contributors: File:Colonisation2.gif Original artist: en:User:Aris Katsaris
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height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
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of_Schoolchildren_in_Japan.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Japanese book “Showa History Vol.11: Road to Catas-
trophe”published by Mainichi Newspapers Company. Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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6.2. IMAGES 333

• File:Everything_for_the_Front,_USSR_WWII_propaganda_poster.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/

e/e9/Everything_for_the_Front%2C_USSR_WWII_propaganda_poster.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original publication:
Unknown
Immediate source: http://www.allworldwars.com/Russian%20WWII%20Propaganda%20Posters.html#15 Original artist: El Lissitzky
(Life time: December 30, 1941)
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domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction reference number C-091437
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
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cense: Public domain Contributors: United States National Archives, http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2001/winter/
crafting-day-of-infamy-speech.html Original artist: United States Government.
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• File:First_pictures_of_the_Japanese_occupation_of_Peiping_in_China.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/56/First_pictures_of_the_Japanese_occupation_of_Peiping_in_China.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: World War
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tributors: Image:IMARO-flag.png Original artist: Sebastian Walderich
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%281939-1943%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Roberto Breschi flags home page Original artist: F l a n k e r
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%281943-1944%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Eng-Wikipedia Original artist: ?
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tributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
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Contributors: Van den Bussche, E., Chief of Protocol, Belgian Federal Department of the Interior (2008) Noble Belgique, ô Mère chérie -
LE PROTOCOLE EN BELGIQUE (PROTOCOL IN BELGIUM), Heule: Editions UGA ISBN: 9789067689359. Original artist: Dbenbenn and
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Mahren.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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%281889-1960%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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main Contributors: The flag of Bulgaria. The colors are specified at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&
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80%931958%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.fotw.net/flags/eg-kingd.html Original artist: Mysid
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Ethiopia_%281897-1936%3B_1941-1974%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oren neu dag
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%281940-1944%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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80%931959%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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%281940-1953%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Osipov Georgiy Nokka
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%281918-1940%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Lithuanian_SSR_(1940-1953).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Flag_of_Lithuanian_
SSR_%281940-1953%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vectorized by Froztbyte
• File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1972/0051/a051.pdf#page=2, colors from http://www.
legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1993/0731609/0731609.pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
• File:Flag_of_Malaya.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Malaya.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5
Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Nightstallion assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Flag_of_Malta_(1943-1964).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_Malta_
%281943-1964%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: I created this work entirely by myself, using :Image:Coat of arms
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• File:Flag_of_Mexico_(1934-1968).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_
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• File:Flag_of_Moldavian_SSR.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Flag_of_Moldavian_SSR.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: svg by Pianist
• File:Flag_of_Monaco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others
• File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn
• File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Poland_(1928-1980).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Poland_
%281928-1980%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arvedui89
6.2. IMAGES 335

• File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public do-

main Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Colum-
bano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vítor Luís Rodrigues; António Martins-Tuválkin (2004; this specific vector set: see sources)
• File:Flag_of_Romania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: AdiJapan
• File:Flag_of_Russian_SFSR.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Flag_of_Russian_SFSR.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pianist
• File:Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Flag designed by Đorđe Andrejević-Kun[3]
• File:Flag_of_Saar_1920-1935.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Flag_of_Saar_1920-1935.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own Work, based on Flags of the World - Saar Territory 1920-1935 (Germany) Original artist: Thommy
• File:Flag_of_San_Marino.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work: [/Users/bicio/Desktop/Cailungo logo 40°.jpg] Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work; here, colors Original artist: SKopp
• File:Flag_of_South_Africa_(1928-1994).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Flag_of_South_Africa_
%281928-1994%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG based on this image Original artist: Parliament of South Africa

• File:Flag_of_Spain_(1945_-_1977).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Flag_of_Spain_%281945_-_

1977%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: SanchoPanzaXXI
• File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet

Credits:
• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
• File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 ̶Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови Original artist: Government of Ukraine
• File:Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_SSR_(1937).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Flag_of_
Byelorussian_SSR_%281937-1951%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.
Original artist: Zscout370 at English Wikipedia
• File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
• -xfi-'s file
• -xfi-'s code
• Zirland's codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-.
• File:Flag_of_the_Democratic_Federal_Yugoslavia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_the_
Democratic_Federal_Yugoslavia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist:
The original uploader was Zscout370 at English Wikipedia
• File:Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Flag_of_the_Free_City_
of_Danzig.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Please edit this file's description and provide a proper source.
HELP: (1) The picture claims to show an original insignia.“Own work”is therefor no proper source. The provided source doesn't show an original depiction
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• File:Flag_of_the_Government_of_National_Salvation_(occupied_Yugoslavia).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Government_of_National_Salvation_%28occupied_Yugoslavia%29.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_serbia_1941_1944.JPG' class='image'><img alt='Flag of serbia 1941
1944.JPG' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Flag_of_serbia_1941_1944.JPG/100px-Flag_of_serbia_
1941_1944.JPG' width='100' height='67' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Flag_of_serbia_1941_
1944.JPG/150px-Flag_of_serbia_1941_1944.JPG 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Flag_of_serbia_
1941_1944.JPG/200px-Flag_of_serbia_1941_1944.JPG 2x' data-file-width='471' data-file-height='315' /></a>

Original image taken from: Nenad M. Jovanović, Grbovi, zastave i himne u istoriji Srbije, Belgrade 2010 Original artist:
• File:Flag of serbia 1941 1944.JPG
336 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_the_Japanese_Resident_General_of_Korea_(1905).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/

4d/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Resident_General_of_Korea_%281905%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was
created with Inkscape. Original artist: Himasaram
• File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Flag_of_the_
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geometric) Original artist: Fibonacci
• File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_Mongolia_(1924-1940).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/
77/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_Mongolia_%281924-1940%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:
latebird Original artist: Adapted from :Image: [1]
• File:Flag_of_the_Philippines_(navy_blue).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Flag_of_the_
Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
• File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1923-1955).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Flag_of_the_
Soviet_Union_%281923-1955%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: created by rotemliss from Image:Flag of
the Soviet Union.svg.
• File:Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_SSR_(1927-1937).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Flag_of_
Ukrainian_SSR_%281929-1937%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Guilherme Paula
• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-
cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Fokker_Dr._I_(117710246).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Fokker_Dr._I_%28117710246%
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• File:Former_German_territories.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Former_German_territories.svg
License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ernio48
• File:Frikorps_danmarks_afrejse_til_oestfronten_hellerup_station_1941_(1).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/0/03/Frikorps_danmarks_afrejse_til_oestfronten_hellerup_station_1941_%281%29.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Na-
tional Archives of Denmark Original artist: Tage Nielsen
• File:Gedenktafel_Hünensteig_6_(Stegl)_Leo_Borchard.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/
Gedenktafel_H%C3%BCnensteig_6_%28Stegl%29_Leo_Borchard.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
OTFW, Berlin
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License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Based on Afbeelding:Duitsland1914-1923.png from the Dutch Wikipedia Original artist: User:52
Pickup
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lic domain Contributors: ru.wiki Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Granica-zrywanie_godła.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Granica-zrywanie_god%C5%82a.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Apoloniusz Zawilski (1972) “Bitwy Polskiego Września”(“Battles of Polish September”), Warsaw: Nasza Księgarnia ISBN 83-218-0817-4
(current edition) Original artist: Hans Sönnke
• File:Greek_Offensive_1940_41_in_Northern_Epirus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Greek_
Offensive_1940_41_in_Northern_Epirus.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: *Topography taken from DEMIS Mapserver, which
are public domain, other wise self-made.
Original artist: Alexikoua
• File:GuadNakagumaMatanikauDeadJapanese.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/
GuadNakagumaMatanikauDeadJapanese.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:He'{}s_coming_south.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/He%27s_coming_south.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Original publication: Unknown
Immediate source: Australian War Memorial http://www.awm.gov.au/collection/ARTV09225/ Original artist: Government of Australia
(Life time: Unknown)
• File:Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Heinkel_
He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph MH6547 from the collec-
tions of the Imperial War Museums (collection no. 4700-05) Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Hubal-with-soldiers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Hubal-with-soldiers.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://my.barackobama.com/page/community/post/poloniaworldwide/gGxnNF Original artist: Anonymous
6.2. IMAGES 337

• File:INF3-160_Fighting_Fit_in_the_Factory_Artist_A_R_Thomson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/

7/76/INF3-160_Fighting_Fit_in_the_Factory_Artist_A_R_Thomson.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file is from the col-
lections of The National Archives (United Kingdom), catalogued under document record INF3/160. For high quality reproductions of any
item from The National Archives collection please contact the image library.
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• File:INF3-203_Salvage_Help_put_the_lid_on_Hitler_by_saving_your_old_metal_and_paper.jpg Source: https://upload.
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License: Public domain Contributors: This file is from the collections of The National Archives (United Kingdom), catalogued under
document record INF3/203. For high quality reproductions of any item from The National Archives collection please contact the image
library.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:INF3-219_Salvage_Up_Housewives_and_at_em_-_put_out_your_paper,_metal,_bones_Artist_Yates-Wilson.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/INF3-219_Salvage_Up_Housewives_and_at_em_-_put_out_your_paper%2C_
metal%2C_bones_Artist_Yates-Wilson.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file is from the collections of The National Archives
(United Kingdom), catalogued under document record INF3/219. For high quality reproductions of any item from The National Archives
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• File:INF3-23_Harvesting_Artist_Allinson_1939-1946.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/INF3-23_
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• File:IWM-SE-5742-tank-Surabaya-194511.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/
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• File:Iceland_invasion_targets.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Iceland_invasion_targets.png Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Originally created and uploaded by Haukurth Original artist: Originally created and uploaded by
Haukurth
• File:Il_quotidiano_eritreo,_15_agosto_1945,_fine_della_seconda_guerra_mondiale.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
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SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko
• File:Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Inspired by File:Japan coa kiku.png Original artist: User:Philip Nilsson
• File:Infobox_collage_for_WWII.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Infobox_collage_for_WWII.
PNG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by IngerAlHaosului using CommonsHelper.

(Original text : source images:

Top left: :File:NRAWanjialing1.jpg
Original artist: User:Staberinde
• File:Into_the_Jaws_of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Into_the_Jaws_
of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and
Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identifier (National Archives Identifier) 195515. Original artist: Chief Photographer's
Mate (CPHoM) Robert F. Sargent
• File:Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/f/f6/Japanese_War_Crimes_Trials._Manila_-_NARA_-_292613.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S.
National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' ti-
tle='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> or not provided
• File:Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9922.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/
Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9922.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph K 9922 from the
collections of the Imperial War Museums. Original artist: Imperial War Museum
• File:Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/
Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9923.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph K 9923 from the
collections of the Imperial War Museums. Original artist: Imperial War Museum
• File:Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9924.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/
Japanese_atrocities_imperial_war_museum_K9924.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph K 9924 from the
collections of the Imperial War Museums. Original artist: Imperial War Museum
• File:Japanese_bayonet_practice_with_dead_Chinese_near_Tianjin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
e/e0/Japanese_bayonet_practice_with_dead_Chinese_near_Tianjin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: LIFE, Oct 11, 1937. page
30 Original artist: An Associated Press photographer
338 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Japanese_shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Japanese_

shooting_blindfolded_Sikh_prisoners.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph SE 4819 from the collections of the
Imperial War Museums. Original artist: Imperial War Museum
• File:Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Japanese_
troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: “Chronique de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale”Original artist:
Japanese Army
• File:Jew_Killings_in_Ivangorod_(1942).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Jew_Killings_in_
Ivangorod_%281942%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Original publication: Zwiazek Bojowników o Wolnosc i Demokracje / League of Fighters for Freedom and Democ-
racy / Union des Combattants pour la Liberté et la Démiocratie / Verband der Kämpfer für Freiheit und Demokratie
(1959) 1939-1945. We have not forgotten / Nous n'avons pas oublié / Wir haben es nicht vergessen., Warsaw: Polo-
nia, pp. 267 no ISBN (multilingual book)* [#cite_note-Spiegel-3 [3]]* [#cite_note-Janina_Struk-2 [2]] Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'
/></a> (Sometimes mistakenly attributed to Jerzy Tomaszewski who discovered it.)
• File:Katyń,_ekshumacja_ofiar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Katy%C5%84%2C_ekshumacja_
ofiar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Zbrodnia katyńska w świetle dokumentów / z przedm. Władysława Andersa. Wiele wydań
przed 1994 Original artist: unknown , Photo of Polish Red Cross delegation
• File:Korean_war_1950-1953.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Korean_war_1950-1953.gif License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Roke
• File:Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Lenin_and_stalin_crop.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Leon_Trotsky.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Leon_Trotsky.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: self-made Scan from an original public poster printed in Poland and dated 1920 Original artist: unknown,governmental
edition ( Ministry of Military Afffairs of Poland)
• File:LeonardGSiffleet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/LeonardGSiffleet.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: This image is available from the Collection Database of the Australian War Memorial under the ID Number: 101099

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Original artist: ?
• File:Maginot_Line_ln-en_svg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Maginot_Line_ln-en_svg.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
This file was derived from: Northern and Central Europe location map.svg

Original artist: Goran tek-en

• File:Map-Germany-1945.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Map-Germany-1945.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Based on map data of the IEG-Maps project (Andreas Kunz, B. Johnen and Joachim Robert Moeschl: Uni-
versity of Mainz) - www.ieg-maps.uni-mainz.de. Original artist: en:User:52 Pickup
• File:Marines_rest_in_the_field_on_Guadalcanal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Marines_rest_
in_the_field_on_Guadalcanal.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Members_of_the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Members_of_
the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Merchant_flag_of_Japan_(1870).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Flag_of_Japan_
%281870-1999%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: kahusi - <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Kahusi'
title='User talk:Kahusi'>(Talk)</a>'s file Original artist: kahusi - <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Kahusi' title='User
talk:Kahusi'>(Talk)</a>
• File:Münchner_abkommen5_en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/M%C3%BCnchner_
abkommen5_en.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: File:Münchner abkommen5+.svg Original artist: Jaro.p
• File:Nagasakibomb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Nagasakibomb.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.archives.gov/research/military/ww2/photos/images/ww2-163.jpg National Archives image (208-N-43888) Orig-
inal artist: Charles Levy from one of the B-29 Superfortresses used in the attack.
• File:Nazi_poster.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/92/Nazi_poster.jpg License: ? Contributors:
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• File:News._V.E._Day_BAnQ_P48S1P12270.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/News._V.E._Day_
BAnQ_P48S1P12270.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file has been scanned and uploaded to Wikimedia Commons grace-
fully with the permission and cooperation of Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec and Wikimedia Canada under the Poirier
Project. Original artist: Conrad Poirier
• File:No-nb_bldsa_5c006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/No-nb_bldsa_5c006.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: National Library of Norway Original artist: Creator:A. Frankl
• File:Nuremberg_Trials_retouched.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Nuremberg_Trials_retouched.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Nuremberg-1-.jpg Original artist: Work of the United States Government
6.2. IMAGES 339

• File:Oder-neisse.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Oder-neisse.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-

tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
• File:Orel43.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Orel43.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: scan da
'Armor battles on the eastern front (2)' di R.Michulec,Concord publ. 1999. Original artist: fotoreporter sovietico sconosciuto
• File:Organize_Labor_Service_Corps.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Organize_Labor_Service_
Corps.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Japanese book “Illustration of Showa History Vol.8”published by Shueisha Inc.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/POWs_Burma_Thai_RR.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the Collection Database of the Australian War Memorial under the ID
Number: P00761.011

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Original artist: Unknown, A. Mackinnon donated this photo to the Australian War Memorial
• File:P_history.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/P_history.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: User:Kontos
• File:Palmiry_before_execution.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Palmiry_before_execution.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Władysław Bartoszewski, “Warszawski pierścień śmierci 1939-1944”, Interpress, Warszawa 1970.
Original artist: Anonymous
• File:Paratroopers_Crete_'41.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Paratroopers_Crete_%2741.JPG
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: From collection of Wiki-Ed's great uncle, probably traded Original artist: Arthur Conry (digitised
and edited by Wiki-Ed)
• File:Paulus_POW2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Paulus_POW2.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: here Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Polish_Corridor.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Polish_Corridor.PNG License: CC BY-SA
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Wikipedia
• File:Pre-1962_Flag_of_Nepal_(with_spacing).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Pre-1962_Flag_
of_Nepal_%28with_spacing%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
• Pre-1962_Flag_of_Nepal.svg Original artist: Pre-1962_Flag_of_Nepal.svg: Orange Tuesday
• File:President_Franklin_D._Roosevelt-1941.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/President_Franklin_
D._Roosevelt-1941.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Associated Press photograph. No. 21773. Forms part
of: New York World-Telegram and the Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection (Library of Congress). SUBJECTS: Roosevelt, Franklin D.
(Franklin Delano), 1882-1945. World War, 1939-1945--Economic & industrial aspects. Document signings--Washington (D.C.)-−1940-
1950. FORMAT: Portrait photographs 1940-1950. Photographic prints 1940-1950. PART OF: New York World-Telegram and the Sun
Newspaper Photograph Collection (Library of Congress) REPOSITORY: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington,
D.C. 20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (b&w film copy neg.) cph 3c28765 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c28765 CARD #: 2001697018
• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
• File:RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/RIAN_archive_2153_
After_bombing.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: RIA Novosti archive, image #2153, http://visualrian.ru/ru/site/gallery/#2153
6x9 film / 6х9 негатив Original artist: Boris Kudoyarov / Борис Кудояров
• File:RIAN_archive_348_During_the_siege.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/RIAN_archive_348_
During_the_siege.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: RIA Novosti archive, image #348, http://visualrian.ru/ru/site/gallery/#348
6x9 film / 6х9 негатив Original artist: Vsevolod Tarasevich / Всеволод Тарасевич
• File:RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/RIAN_
archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: RIA Novosti archive, image #44732, http:
//visualrian.ru/ru/site/gallery/#44732 6x6 film / 6х6 негатив Original artist: Zelma / Георгий Зельма
• File:Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_(1933–1945).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/
Reichsadler_der_Deutsches_Reich_%281933%E2%80%931945%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Origi-
nal artist: RsVe.
• File:Reichstag_after_the_allied_bombing_of_Berlin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Reichstag_
after_the_allied_bombing_of_Berlin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph BU 8573 from the collections of the
Imperial War Museums. Original artist:
340 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• Post-Work: User:W.wolny
• File:Revisionists_Yasukuni_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Revisionists_Yasukuni_1.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Japanexperterna.se
• File:Reza_shah_flag.GIF Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Reza_shah_flag.GIF License: Public domain
Contributors: ORG source:Salname e Donia (from Wikipedia en:Image:Reza_shah_flag.GIF Original artist: Zand Media Corporation
• File:SBD_VB-16_over_USS_Washington_1943.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/SBD_VB-16_
over_USS_Washington_1943.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation photo No.
1996.253.680 [1] Original artist: U.S. Navy photo 80-G-204897
• File:Schleswig_Holstein_firing_Gdynia_13.09.1939.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Schleswig_
Holstein_firing_Gdynia_13.09.1939.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Apoloniusz Zawilski (1972) “Bitwy Polskiego
Września”(“Battles of Polish September”), Warsaw: Nasza Księgarnia ISBN 83-218-0817-4 (current edition) Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'
/></a>
• File:Second_World_War_Europe.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Second_World_War_Europe.
png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Listowy at English Wikipedia.
• File:Second_world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Second_
world_war_asia_1937-1942_map_en6.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This file was derived from: Second world war asia
1937-1942 map de.png
Original artist: Original Author: User:San Jose
Derivative Author: Dead Mary
• File:Second_world_war_europe_animation_small.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Second_
world_war_europe_animation_small.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work based on: maps of the University of Texas
Libraries Original artist: San Jose
• File:Serbs_expelled_from_Croatia,_July_1941.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Serbs_expelled_
from_Croatia%2C_July_1941.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ushmm.org [Photograph #46709]
Original artist: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Muzej Revolucije Narodnosti Jugoslavije
• File:Shanghai1937IJA_ruins.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Shanghai1937IJA_ruins.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.museumsyndicate.com/item.php?item=66449&tag=158 Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Shigemitsu-signs-surrender.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Shigemitsu-signs-surrender.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Naval Historical Center Photo # SC 213700 Original artist: Army Signal Corps
• File:Shiro-ishii.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Bulletin of Unit 731(an article not for sale) Original artist: Masao Takezawa
• File:Shop_Stewards_at_Burrard_Drydock.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Shop_Stewards_
at_Burrard_Drydock.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: North Vancouver Museum and Archives, Reference Number 8073
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Small_Flag_of_the_United_Nations_ZP.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Small_Flag_of_the_
United_Nations_ZP.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Soldatietiopia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Soldatietiopia.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Vestri Fund donated to Comune di Montevarchi and released on public domain Original artist: Vestri Family, photographers in
Montevarchi for 3 generations
• File:Soviet_guerilla.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Soviet_guerilla.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Spotkanie_Sojuszników.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Spotkanie_Sojusznik%C3%B3w.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: TASS press agency , October 1939, published also in “Krasnaya Zvezda”in September 1940 ( the
first anniversary of Soviet invasion of Poland ). Besides part of Soviet newsreel from October 1939. (“Osvobozhdenie Zapadnoi Ukrainy
i Zapadnoi Belorussi”) Original artist: unknown war correspondent of TASS
• File:Ssnederland.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Ssnederland.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: http://www.ssocr.com/waffenss/p_nederlander.jpg Original artist: SS
• File:Stalingrad_aftermath.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Stalingrad_aftermath.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
6.2. IMAGES 341

• File:State_flag_of_Greece_(1863–1924;1935–73).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/State_Flag_of_

Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1970%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:peeperman
• File:Stjepan_Stevo_Filipović.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Stjepan_Stevo_Filipovi%C4%87.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Muzej Revolucije Narodnosti Jugoslavije
[2] Original artist: probably Slobodanka Vasić [3]
• File:Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06b.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Stroop_
Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06b.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:Warsaw-Ghetto-Josef-Bloesche-HRedit.
jpg uploaded by United States Holocaust Museum Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' ti-
tle='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> (Franz Konrad confessed to tak-
ing some of the photographs, the rest was probably taken by photographers from Propaganda Kompanie nr 689.* [#cite_note-Stempowski-3
[3]]* [#cite_note-Zbikowski-4 [4]])
• File:Tarawa_beach_HD-SN-99-03001.JPEG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Tarawa_beach_
HD-SN-99-03001.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Defense Visual Information Center photo HD-SN-99-03001 [1]; U.S.
National Archives file 080-G-57405 Original artist: U.S. Navy
• File:Teheran_conference-1943.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors:
• http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a33351 Original artist: U.S. Signal Corps photo.
• File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_
with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
• File:The_Battle_of_Cassino,_January-may_1944_C4363.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/The_
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/8/media-8380/large.jpg Original artist: Baker (F/O), Royal Air Force official photographer
• File:The_Home_Front_in_Britain_during_the_Second_World_War_H23033.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
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//media.iwm.org.uk/iwm/mediaLib//55/media-55662/large.jpg Original artist: War Office official photographer, Goodwin (Sgt)
• File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4031.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/7/7a/The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp%2C_April_1945_BU4031.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://media.iwm.org.uk/iwm/mediaLib//57/media-57614/large.jpg Original artist: No 5 Army Film & Photographic
Unit, Oakes, H (Sgt)
• File:The_Schutzstaffeln_(ss)_B10730.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/The_Schutzstaffeln_
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Original artist: No 5 Army Film & Photographic Unit
• File:The_USS_Arizona_(BB-39)_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor,_12-07-1941_-_NARA_-_195617.tif
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attack_on_Pearl_Harbor%2C_12-07-1941_-_NARA_-_195617.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and
Records Administration Original artist: USN
• File:The_USS_Arizona_(BB-39)_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_
Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
• File:The USS Arizona (BB-39) burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor - NARA - 195617.tif Original artist:
• Retouched by: Mmxx
• File:Trinity_atmospheric_nucleat_test_-_July_1945_-_Flickr_-_The_Official_CTBTO_Photostream.jpg Source:
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342 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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main Contributors:
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Production_Propaganda.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original publication: Public propaganda poster issued by Office de
Répartition de lʼAffichage
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