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Indigenous inhabitants
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European colonization (1075–1754)
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Revolutionary period (1754–1793)
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Early republic (1793–1830)
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Expansion and reform (1830–1848)
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Civil War and Reconstruction (1848–1877)
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Gilded Age and the Progressive Era (1877–1914)
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Modern America and World Wars (1914–1945)
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Cold War (1945–1991)
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"American history" redirects here. For the history of the continents, see History of the
Americas.
Further information: Economic history of the United States
 Current territories of the United
States after the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands were given independence in
October 1994

This article is part of a series on the

History of the
United States

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The history of the present-day United States began in roughly 15,000 BC with the
arrival of the first people in the Americas. In the late 15th century, European
colonization began and wars and epidemics largely decimated Indigenous societies.
By the 1760s, the Thirteen Colonies, then part of British America and the Kingdom of
Great Britain, were established. The Southern Colonies built an agricultural system
on slave labor and enslaving millions from Africa. After the British victory over
the Kingdom of France in the French and Indian Wars, Parliament imposed a series of
taxes and issued the Intolerable Acts on the colonies in 1773, which were designed to
end self-governance. Tensions between the colonies and British authorities
subsequently intensified, leading to the Revolutionary War, which commenced with
the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. In June 1775, the Second
Continental Congress established the Continental Army and unanimously
selected George Washington as its commander-in-chief. The following year, on July 4,
1776, the Second Continental Congress unanimously declared its independence,
issuing the Declaration of Independence. On September 3, 1783, in the Treaty of Paris,
the British acknowledged the independence and sovereignty of the Thirteen Colonies,
leading to the establishment of the United States.

In the 1788-89 presidential election, Washington was elected the nation's first U.S.
president. Along with his Treasury Secretary, Alexander Hamilton, Washington sought
to create a relatively stronger central government than that favored by
other founders, including Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. On March 4, 1789, the
new nation debated, adopted, and ratified the U.S. Constitution, which is now the
oldest and longest-standing written and codified national constitution in the world.
[1] In 1791, a Bill of Rights was added to guarantee inalienable rights. In 1803,
Jefferson, then serving as the nation's third president, negotiated the Louisiana
Purchase, which doubled the size of the country. Encouraged by available,
inexpensive land, and the notion of manifest destiny, the country expanded to
the Pacific Coast in a project of settler colonialism marked by a series of conflicts with
the continent's indigenous inhabitants. Whether or not slavery should be legal in the
expanded territories was an issue of national contention.

Following the election of Abraham Lincoln as the nation's 16th president in the 1860
presidential election, southern states seceded and formed the pro-slavery Confederate
States of America. In April 1861, at the Battle of Fort Sumter, Confederates launched
the Civil War. However, the Union's victory at the Battle of Gettysburg, the deadliest
battle in American military history with over 50,000 fatalities, proved a turning point in
the war, leading to the Union's victory in 1865, which preserved the nation. On April
15, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated. The Confederates' defeat led to the abolition of
slavery. In the subsequent Reconstruction era from 1865 to 1877, the national
government gained explicit duty to protect individual rights. In 1877, white southern
Democrats regained political power in the South, often using paramilitary suppression
of voting and Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy. During the Gilded Age from
the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the United States emerged as the
world's leading industrial power, largely due to entrepreneurship, industrialization, and
the arrival of millions of immigrant workers. Dissatisfaction with corruption,
inefficiency, and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement, leading to
reforms, including to the federal income tax, direct election of U.S. Senators,
citizenship for many Indigenous people, alcohol prohibition, and women's suffrage.

Initially neutral during World War I, the United States declared war on Germany in
1917, joining the successful Allies. After the prosperous Roaring Twenties, the Wall
Street crash of 1929 marked the onset of a decade-long global Great Depression.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt launched New Deal programs,
including unemployment relief and social security.[2] Following the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the United States entered World War II, helping
defeat Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in the European theater and, in the Pacific War,
defeating Imperial Japan after using nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
August 1945. Following the end of World War II, the Cold War commenced with the
United States and the Soviet Union emerging as superpower rivals; the two countries
largely confronted each other indirectly in the arms race, the Space Race, propaganda
campaigns, and proxy wars. In the 1960s, due largely to the civil rights movement,
social reforms enforced African Americans' constitutional rights of voting and freedom
of movement. In 1991, the Cold War ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union,
leaving the United States as the world's sole superpower.

In the post-Cold War era, the United States has been drawn into conflicts in the Middle
East, especially following the September 11 attacks. In the 21st century, the country
was negatively impacted by the Great Recession of 2007 to 2009 and the COVID-19
pandemic of 2020 to 2023. Recently, the U.S. withdrew from the war in
Afghanistan, intervened in the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and became involved in
the Middle Eastern crisis.

Indigenous inhabitants
[edit]
Main articles: Geological history of North America, History of Native Americans in the
United States, and Pre-Columbian era
See also: Native Americans in the United States

Approximate location of the ice-free corridor and

specific Paleoindian sites, according to the Clovis theory

It is not definitively known how or when Native Americans first settled the Americas.
The prevailing theory proposes that people
from Eurasia followed game across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to
present-day Alaska during the Ice Age, and then spread southward, perhaps as early
as 30,000 years ago.[3] These early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, soon diversified
into hundreds of culturally distinct groups.

Paleo-Indians
[edit]
Main article: Pre-Columbian North America

The cultural areas of pre-Columbian North America,

according to Alfred Kroeber

By 10,000 BCE, humans were well-established throughout North America. Originally,

Paleo-Indians hunted Ice Age megafauna like mammoths, but as they began to go
extinct, people turned instead to bison as a food source, and later foraging for berries
and seeds. Paleo-Indians in central Mexico were the first in the Americas to farm,
around 8,000 BCE. Eventually, the knowledge began to spread northward. By 3,000
BCE, corn was being grown in the valleys of Arizona and New Mexico, followed by
primitive irrigation systems and, by 300 BCE, early villages of the Hohokam.[4][5]

One of the earlier cultures in the present-day United States was the Clovis
culture (9,100 to 8,850 BCE), who are primarily identified by the use of
fluted spear points called the Clovis point. The Folsom culture was similar, but is
marked by the use of the Folsom point.

A later migration around 8,000 BCE included Na-Dene-speaking peoples, who reached
the Pacific Northwest by 5,000 BCE.[6] From there, they migrated along the Pacific
Coast and into the interior.[7] Another group, the Oshara tradition people, who lived
from 5,500 BCE to 600 CE, were part of the Archaic Southwest.

Mound builders and pueblos

[edit]
Main articles: Mound Builders and Ancestral Puebloans

Monks Mound of Cahokia, a UNESCO World Heritage

Site, in summer

The Adena began constructing large earthwork mounds around 600 BCE. They are the
earliest known people to have been Mound Builders, although there are mounds in the
United States that predate this culture. The Adenans were absorbed into the Hopewell
tradition, a powerful people who traded tools and goods across a wide territory. They
continued the Adena tradition of mound-building and pioneered a trading system
called the Hopewell Exchange System, which at its greatest extent ran from the
present-day Southeast up to the Canadian side of Lake Ontario.[8] By 500 CE, the
Hopewellians had been absorbed into the larger Mississippian culture.

The Mississippians were a broad group of tribes. Their most important city
was Cahokia, near modern-day St. Louis, Missouri. At its peak in the 12th century, the
city had an estimated population of 20,000, larger than the population of London at
the time. The entire city was centered around a mound that stood 100 feet (30 m) tall.
Cahokia, like many other cities and villages of the time, depended on hunting,
foraging, trading, and agriculture, and developed a class system with slaves and
human sacrifice that was influenced by societies to the south, like the Mayans.[4]

In the Southwest, the Anasazi began constructing stone and adobe pueblos around
900 BCE.[9] These apartment-like structures were often built into cliff faces, as seen in
the Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde. Some grew to be the size of cities, with Pueblo
Bonito along the Chaco River in New Mexico once consisting of 800 rooms.[4]

Northwest and northeast

[edit]
Main articles: Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands and Indigenous peoples of
the Pacific Northwest Coast

The K'alyaan Totem pole of the Tlingit Kiks.ádi Clan,

erected at Sitka National Historical Park commemorating the lives lost in the Battle of
Sitka in 1804

The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest were likely the most affluent Native
Americans. Many distinct cultural groups and political entities developed there, but
they all shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality
of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Permanent villages began to develop in
this region as early as 1,000 BCE, and these communities celebrated by the gift-giving
feast of the potlatch.

In present-day upstate New York, the Iroquois formed a confederacy of tribal peoples
in the mid-15th century, consisting of the Oneida, Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga,
and Seneca.[10][11][12] Each tribe had seats in a group of 50 sachem chiefs. It has been
suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development
of the United States government.[citation needed] The Iroquois were powerful, waging
war with many neighboring tribes, and later, Europeans. As their territory expanded,
smaller tribes were forced further west, including the Osage, Kaw, Ponca,
and Omaha peoples.[12][13]

Native Hawaiians
[edit]
Main articles: Ancient Hawaii and Hawaiian Kingdom

The exact date for the settling of Hawaii is disputed but the first settlement most likely
took place between 940 and 1130 CE.[14] Around 1200 CE, Tahitian explorers found
and began settling the area. This marked the rise of the Hawaiian civilization, which
would be largely separated from the rest of the world until the arrival of the British
600 years later.[15][16][17] Europeans under the British explorer James Cook arrived in
the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, and within five years of contact, European military
technology would help Kamehameha I conquer most of the island group, and
eventually unify the islands for the first time, establishing the Hawaiian Kingdom.[18]

Puerto Rico
[edit]
Main articles: History of Puerto Rico and Taino

The island of Puerto Rico has been settled for at least 4,000 years. Starting with
the Ortoiroid culture, successive generations of native migrations arrived replacing or
absorbing local populations. By the year 1000 Arawak people had arrived from South
America via the Lesser Antilles; these settlers would become the Taíno encountered
by the Spanish in 1493. Upon European contact a native population between 30,000
and 60,000 was likely, led by a single chief called a Cacique.[19] Colonization resulted
in the decimation of the local inhabitants due to the harsh Encomienda system and
epidemics caused by Old World diseases. Puerto Rico would remain a part of Spain
until American annexation in 1898.[19]

European colonization (1075–1754)

[edit]
Main article: Colonial history of the United States

Norse exploration
[edit]
Main article: Norse colonization of North America

The earliest recorded European mention of America is in a treatise by the medieval

chronicler Adam of Bremen, circa 1075, where it is referred to as Vinland.[a] It is also
extensively referred to in the Norse Vinland sagas. The strongest archaeological
evidence of the existence of Norse settlements in America is located in Canada; there
is significant scholarly debate as to whether Norse explorers also made landfall in New
England.[21]

Early settlements
[edit]
Main article: European colonization of the Americas

The Mayflower in Plymouth

Harbor. Fluyts, caravels and carracks brought Europeans to the Americas.

Europeans brought horses, cattle, and hogs to the Americas and took back maize,
turkeys, tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, beans, and squash to Europe. Many explorers
and early settlers died after being exposed to new diseases in the Americas. However,
the effects of new Eurasian diseases carried by the colonists, especially smallpox and
measles, were much worse for the Native Americans, as they had no immunity to
them. They suffered epidemics and died in very large numbers, usually before large-
scale European settlement began. Their societies were disrupted by the scale of
deaths.[22][23]

Spanish contact
[edit]
Main article: Spanish colonization of the Americas

Spanish explorers were the first Europeans, after the Norse, to reach the present-day
United States, after the voyages of Christopher Columbus (beginning in 1492)
established possessions in the Caribbean, including the modern-day U.S.
territories of Puerto Rico, and parts of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Juan Ponce de
León landed in Florida in 1513.[24] Spanish expeditions quickly reached
the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon,[25] and the Great
Plains.[26]

In 1539, Hernando de Soto extensively explored the Southeast,[26] and a year

later Francisco Coronado explored from Arizona to central Kansas in search of gold.
[26] Escaped horses from Coronado's party spread over the Great Plains, and the Plains
Indians mastered horsemanship within a few generations. [4] Small Spanish
settlements eventually grew to become important cities, such as San
Antonio, Albuquerque, Tucson, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.[27]

Dutch mid-Atlantic
[edit]
Main article: Dutch colonization of the Americas

The Dutch East India Company sent explorer Henry Hudson to search for a Northwest
Passage to Asia in 1609. New Netherland was established in 1621 by the company to
capitalize on the North American fur trade. Growth was slow at first due to
mismanagement by the Dutch and Native American conflicts. After the Dutch
purchased the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans, the land was
named New Amsterdam and became the capital of New Netherland. The town rapidly
expanded and in the mid-1600s it became an important trading center. Despite
being Calvinists and building the Reformed Church in America, the Dutch were
tolerant of other religions and cultures and traded with the Iroquois to the north.[28]

The colony served as a barrier to British expansion from New England, and as a result
a series of wars were fought. The colony was taken over by Britain as New York in
1664 and its capital was renamed New York City.

Swedish settlement
[edit]
Main article: New Sweden

C. A. Nothnagle Log House in Gibbstown, New

Jersey, the oldest wooden building in the United States

In the early years of the Swedish Empire, Swedish, Dutch, and German stockholders
formed the New Sweden Company to trade furs and tobacco in North America. The
company's first expedition was led by Peter Minuit, who had been governor of New
Netherland from 1626 to 1631, and landed in Delaware Bay in March 1638. The
settlers founded Fort Christina at the site of modern-day Wilmington, Delaware, and
made treaties with Indigenous peoples for land ownership on both sides of
the Delaware River.[29][30]

Over the following seventeen years, 12 more expeditions brought settlers from the
Swedish Empire to New Sweden. The colony established 19 permanent settlements
along with many farms, extending into modern-day Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New
Jersey. It was incorporated into New Netherland in 1655 after a Dutch invasion from
the neighboring New Netherland colony during the Second Northern War.[29][30]

French and Spanish

[edit]

The San Pablo Bastion of the Castillo de San

Marcos, completed in 1683, in St. Augustine, Florida

Giovanni da Verrazzano landed in North Carolina in 1524, and was the first European
to sail into New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. In the 1540s,
French Huguenots settled at Fort Caroline near present-day Jacksonville, Florida. In
1565, Spanish forces led by Pedro Menéndez destroyed the settlement and
established the first Spanish settlement in what would become the United States — St.
Augustine.

Most French lived in Quebec and Acadia (modern Canada), but far-reaching trade
relationships with Native Americans spread their influence. French colonists in small
villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers lived in farming communities that
served as a grain source for Gulf Coast settlements. The French established
plantations in Louisiana along with settling New Orleans, Mobile, and Biloxi.

British colonies
[edit]
Further information: British colonization of the Americas and British North America

The English, drawn in by Francis Drake's raids on Spanish treasure ships leaving the
New World, settled the strip of land along the east coast in the 1600s. [4] The early
British colonies were established by private groups seeking profit, and were marked
by starvation, disease, and Native American attacks. Many immigrants were people
seeking religious freedom or escaping political oppression, peasants displaced by
the Industrial Revolution, or those simply seeking adventure and opportunity. Between
the late 1610s and the Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 to 120,000
convicts to their American colonies.[31]

In some areas, Native Americans taught colonists how to grow local crops. In others,
they attacked the settlers. Virgin forests provided an ample supply of building material
and firewood. Natural inlets and harbors lined the coast, providing easy ports for
essential trade with Europe. Settlements remained close to the coast due to this as
well as Native American resistance and the Appalachian Mountains in the interior. [4]
First settlement in Jamestown
[edit]
Main articles: Jamestown, Virginia and Colony of Virginia

Following the Indian massacre of Jamestown

settlers in 1622, colonists in Virginia feared all natives as enemies.

The first successful English colony, Jamestown, was established by the Virginia
Company in 1607 on the James River in Virginia. The colonists were preoccupied with
the search for gold and were ill-equipped for life in the New World. Captain John
Smith held the fledgling Jamestown together in the first year, and the colony
descended into anarchy and nearly failed when he returned to England two years
later. John Rolfe began experimenting with tobacco from the West Indies in 1612, and
by 1614 the first shipment arrived in London. It became Virginia's chief source of
revenue within a decade.

In 1624, after years of disease and Indian attacks, including the Powhatan attack of
1622, King James I revoked the Virginia Company's charter and made Virginia a royal
colony.

New England Colonies

[edit]
Main articles: New England Colonies and Puritan migration to New England (1620–
1640)

New England was initially settled primarily by Puritans fleeing religious persecution.
The Pilgrims sailed for Virginia on the Mayflower in 1620, but were knocked off course
by a storm and landed at Plymouth, where they agreed to a social contract of rules in
the Mayflower Compact. About half died in the first winter.[32] Like Jamestown,
Plymouth suffered from disease and starvation, but local Wampanoag Indians taught
the colonists how to farm maize.

Plymouth was followed by the Puritans and Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. They
maintained a charter for self-government separate from England, and elected
founder John Winthrop as governor. Roger Williams opposed Winthrop's treatment of
Native Americans and religious intolerance, and established the colony of Providence
Plantations, later Rhode Island, on the basis of freedom of religion. Other colonists
established settlements in the Connecticut River Valley, and on the coasts of present-
day New Hampshire and Maine. Native American attacks continued, with the most
significant occurring in the 1637 Pequot War and the 1675 King Philip's War.

New England became a center of commerce and industry due to the poor,
mountainous soil making agriculture difficult. Rivers were harnessed to power grain
mills and sawmills, and the numerous harbors facilitated trade. Tight-knit villages
developed around these industrial centers, and Boston became one of America's most
important ports.

Middle Colonies
[edit]
Main article: Middle Colonies

Treaty of Penn with the Indians, a portrait

depicting William Penn signing the Treaty of Shackamaxona with Lenape Indians in
the Province of Pennsylvania in 1682 by Benjamin West

In the 1660s, the Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware were
established in the former Dutch New Netherland, and were characterized by a large
degree of ethnic and religious diversity. At the same time, the Iroquois of New York,
strengthened by years of fur trading with Europeans, formed the powerful Iroquois
Confederacy.

The last colony in this region was Pennsylvania, established in 1681 by William
Penn as a home for religious dissenters, including Quakers, Methodists, and
the Amish.[33] The capital of the colony, Philadelphia, became a dominant commercial
center in a few short years. While Quakers populated the city, German immigrants
began to flood into the Pennsylvanian hills and forests, while the Scots-Irish pushed
into the far western frontier.

Southern Colonies
[edit]
Main article: Southern Colonies

The Old Plantation, a portrait depicting a plantation

in South Carolina in approximately 1790 with Gullah slaves playing traditional West
Africa instruments resisting forced assimilation from the planation culture.

The overwhelmingly rural Southern Colonies contrasted sharply with the New England
and Middle Colonies. After Virginia, the second British colony south of New England
was Maryland, established as a Catholic haven in 1632. The economy of these two
colonies was built entirely on yeoman farmers and planters. The planters established
themselves in the Tidewater region of Virginia, establishing massive plantations with
slave labor.
In 1670, the Province of Carolina was established, and Charleston became the region's
great trading port. While Virginia's economy was also based on tobacco, Carolina was
more diversified, exporting rice, indigo, and lumber as well. In 1712, it was divided in
two, creating North and South Carolina. The Georgia Colony was established by James
Oglethorpe in 1732 as a border to Spanish Florida and a reform colony for former
prisoners and the poor.[33]

Religion
[edit]
Main article: History of religion in the United States

Religiosity expanded greatly after the First Great Awakening, a religious revival in the
1740s led by preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.
American Evangelicals affected by the Awakening added a new emphasis on divine
outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted new believers with an
intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and carried the newly
created evangelicalism into the early republic, setting the stage for the Second Great
Awakening in the late 1790s.[34] In the early stages, evangelicals in the South, such
as Methodists and Baptists, preached for religious freedom and abolition of slavery.

Government
[edit]
Main article: Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies

Each of the American colonies had a slightly different governmental structure.

Typically, a colony was ruled by a governor appointed from London who controlled the
executive administration and relied upon a locally elected legislature to vote on taxes
and make laws. By the 18th century, the American colonies were growing very rapidly
as a result of low death rates along with ample supplies of land and food. The colonies
were richer than most parts of Britain, and attracted a steady flow of immigrants,
especially teenagers who arrived as indentured servants. [35]

Servitude and slavery

[edit]
Main articles: Indentured servitude in British America and Slavery in the colonial
history of the United States

Map of the British, French and Spanish settlements

in North America in 1750, before the French and Indian War

Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured

servants.[36] Typically, people would sign a contract agreeing to a set term of labor,
usually four to seven years, and in return would receive transport to America and a
piece of land at the end of their servitude. In some cases, ships' captains received
rewards for the delivery of poor migrants, and so extravagant promises and
kidnapping were common.[4]
The first African slaves arrived in 1619.[37] Initially regarded as indentured servants
who could buy their freedom, the institution of slavery began to harden and the
involuntary servitude became lifelong[37] as the demand for labor on tobacco and rice
plantations grew in the 1660s.[citation needed] Slavery became identified with brown skin
color, and the children of slave women were born slaves, known as partus sequitur
ventrem.[37] By the 1770s, African slaves comprised a fifth of the American
population.

The question of independence from Britain did not arise as long as the colonies
needed British military support against the French and Spanish powers. Those threats
were gone by 1765. However, London continued to regard the American colonies as
existing for the benefit of the mother country in a policy known as mercantilism.[35]

Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that used forms of unfree
labor, such as slavery and indentured servitude. The British colonies were also marked
by a policy of avoiding strict enforcement of parliamentary laws, known as salutary
neglect. This permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its
European founders.[38]

Revolutionary period (1754–1793)

[edit]
Main article: History of the United States (1776–1789)

Lead-up to the Revolution

[edit]
Further information: Boston Tea Party

A portrait depicting the Boston Tea Party on

December 16, 1773, a prominent act of rebellion that served to dramatically escalate
the American Revolution, leading ultimately to the commencement of the American
Revolutionary War at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775

The French and Indian War (1754–1763), part of the larger Seven Years' War, was a
watershed event in the political development of the colonies. The influence of the
French and Native Americans, the main rivals of the British Crown in the colonies and
Canada, was significantly reduced and the territory of the Thirteen Colonies expanded
into New France in Canada and Louisiana.[citation needed] The war effort also resulted in
greater political integration of the colonies, as reflected in the Albany Congress and
symbolized by Benjamin Franklin's call for the colonies to "Join, or Die."[39]

King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, to organize the new North
American empire and protect the Native Americans from colonial expansion west of
the Appalachian Mountains. Strains developed in the relations between the colonists
and the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, imposing a tax
on the colonies without going through the colonial legislatures. Crying "No taxation
without representation", the colonists refused to pay.[40]
On December 16, 1773, the Boston Tea Party was a direct action to protest the new
tax on tea. Parliament responded the next year with the Intolerable Acts, stripping
Massachusetts of its historic right of self-government and putting it under military
rule, which sparked outrage and resistance in all thirteen colonies. Patriot leaders
from every colony convened the First Continental Congress to coordinate their
resistance. The Congress called for a boycott of British trade, published a list of rights
and grievances, and petitioned the king to rectify those grievances.[41] This appeal
had no effect.

American Revolution
[edit]
Main article: American Revolution

Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of

the Declaration of Independence and a principle intellectual force behind the American
Revolution, wrote the first draft of the Declaration in isolation over a period of two
weeks between June 11, 1776 and June 28, 1776, from the second floor of a three-
story home he was renting at 700 Market Street in Philadelphia. The Declaration was
unanimously adopted by the Second Continental Congress a week later, on July 4,

1776, at present-day Independence Hall

Washington's covert crossing of the Delaware River over the night of December 25-26,
1776, represented a major comeback for the cause of American independence
following the loss of New York City, allowing Washington and the Continental Army to
launch surprise attacks on the British Army in Trenton and Princeton and
recapture New Jersey.

The Second Continental Congress voted to declare independence on July 2, 1776.

The Declaration of Independence presented arguments in favor of the rights of
citizens, stating that all men are created equal, supporting the rights of Life, Liberty
and the pursuit of Happiness, and demanding the consent of the governed.
[42] The Founding Fathers were guided by the ideology of republicanism, rejecting
the monarchism of Great Britain.[43] The Declaration of Independence was signed by
members of the Congress on July 4.[42] This date has since
been commemorated as Independence Day.[44]
The American Revolutionary War began with the Battles of Lexington and Concord on
April 19, 1775.[45] George Washington was appointed general of the Continental Army.
[46] Washington's crossing of the Delaware River began a series of victories that
expelled British forces from New Jersey.[47] The British began the Saratoga
campaign in 1777 to capture Albany, New York, as a choke point.[48] After
American victory at Saratoga, France, the Netherlands, and Spain began providing
support to the Continental Army.[49] Britain responded to defeat in the northern
theater by advancing in the southern theater, beginning with the Capture of
Savannah in 1778.[50] American forces reclaimed the south in 1781, and the British
Army was defeated in the Siege of Yorktown on October 19, 1781.[51]

King George III formally ordered the end of hostilities on December 5, 1782,
recognizing American independence.[52] The Treaty of Paris was signed on September
3, 1783,[53] and was ratified by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14,
1784.[54]

Confederation period
[edit]
Main article: Confederation period

The Articles of Confederation were ratified as the governing law of the United States,
written to limit the powers of the central government in favor of states. This
caused economic decline, as the government was unable to pass economic legislation
and pay its debts.[55] Nationalists worried that the confederate nature of the union
was too fragile to withstand an armed conflict with any adversarial states, or even
internal revolts such as Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts.[56]

In the 1780s the western regions were ceded by the states to Congress and became
territories. With the migration of settlers to the Northwest, soon they became states.
[56] The American Indian Wars continued in the 1780s as settlers moved west.
[57] The Northwestern Confederacy and American settlers began fighting
the Northwest Indian War in the late 1780s; the Northwestern Confederacy received
British support, but the settlers received little assistance from the American
government.[58][59]

Nationalists – most of them war veterans – organized in every state and convinced
Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The delegates from every state
wrote a new Constitution that created a federal government with a strong president
and powers of taxation. The new government reflected the prevailing republican
ideals of guarantees of individual liberty and of constraining the power of government
through separation of powers.[56] The constitution was ratified by a sufficient number
of states in 1788 to begin forming a federal government. [60]

Early republic (1793–1830)

[edit]
Main article: History of the United States (1789–1815)

The United States Electoral College chose George Washington as the first President in
1789.[61] The national capital moved from New York to Philadelphia in 1790 and finally
to Washington, D.C., in 1800.

The major accomplishment of the Washington Administration was creating a strong

national government that was recognized by all Americans. [62] His government,
following the vigorous leadership of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, assumed
the debts of the states, created the Bank of the United States, and set up a uniform
system of tariffs and other taxes to pay off the debt and provide a financial
infrastructure. To support his programs Hamilton created the Federalist Party. To
assuage the Anti-Federalists who feared a too-powerful central government, the
Congress adopted the United States Bill of Rights in 1791, which guaranteed individual
liberties such as freedom of speech and religious practice. [63]

Thomas Jefferson and James Madison formed an opposition Republican Party (usually
called the Democratic-Republican Party). Hamilton and Washington presented the
country in 1794 with the Jay Treaty that reestablished good relations with Britain. The
Jeffersonians vehemently protested, and the voters aligned behind one party or the
other, thus setting up the First Party System.[64] The treaty passed, but politics
became intensely heated.[65] Serious challenges to the new federal government
included the Northwest Indian War, the ongoing Cherokee–American wars, and the
1794 Whiskey Rebellion, in which western settlers protested against a federal tax on
liquor.[66] Washington refused to serve more than two terms – setting a precedent.
[67] John Adams, a Federalist, defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election. War loomed with
France and the Federalists used the opportunity to try to silence the Republicans with
the Alien and Sedition Acts, build up a large army with Hamilton at the head, and
prepare for a French invasion. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams
sent a successful peace mission to France that ended the Quasi-War of 1798.[64][68]

Increasing demand for slave labor

[edit]
Main article: Slavery in the United States

Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia, an

1861 portrait by British painter Eyre Crowe

During the first two decades after the Revolutionary War, there were dramatic
changes in the status of slavery among the states and an increase in the number
of freed blacks. Inspired by revolutionary ideals of equality and influenced by their
lesser economic reliance on slavery, northern states abolished slavery.

States of the Upper South made manumission easier, resulting in an increase in the
proportion of free blacks in the Upper South (as a percentage of the total non-white
population) from less than one percent in 1792 to more than 10 percent by 1810. By
that date, a total of 13.5 percent of all blacks in the United States were free. [69] In
1807, with four million slaves already in the United States, Congress severed U.S.
involvement with the Atlantic slave trade.[70]

Second Great Awakening

[edit]
Main article: Second Great Awakening
 A drawing of a Protestant camp meeting, c. 1829

The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival movement that affected
virtually all of society during the early 19th century and led to rapid church growth.
The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800, and, after 1820
membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose
preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the 1840s. [71]

It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to

the formation of new denominations. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the
establishment of many reform movements, including abolitionism and temperance.[72]

Louisiana and Jeffersonian republicanism

[edit]
Main articles: Presidency of Thomas Jefferson and Louisiana Purchase

Land acquired in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803

(highlighted in white)

Jefferson defeated Adams massively for the presidency in the 1800 election.
Jefferson's major achievement as president was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which
provided U.S. settlers with vast potential for expansion west of the Mississippi River.
[73] Jefferson supported expeditions to explore and map the new domain, most notably
the Lewis and Clark Expedition.[74] Jefferson believed deeply in republicanism and
argued it should be based on the independent yeoman farmer and planter; he
distrusted cities, factories and banks. He also distrusted the federal government and
judges, and tried to weaken the judiciary. Although the Constitution specified
a Supreme Court, its functions were vague until John Marshall, the Chief Justice of the
United States (1801–1835), defined them, especially the power to overturn acts of
Congress or states that violated the Constitution, first enunciated in 1803 in Marbury
v. Madison.[75]

War of 1812
[edit]
Main article: War of 1812
See also: History of the United States (1789–1815)
Americans were increasingly angered by the British violation of American ships'
neutral rights to harm France, the coercion of 10,000 American sailors needed by
the Royal Navy to fight Napoleon, and British support for hostile Indians attacking
American settlers in the American Midwest with the goal of creating a pro-
British Indian barrier state to block American expansion westward. They may also
have wished to annex all or part of British North America, although this is still heavily
debated.[76][77][78][page needed][79][80] Despite strong opposition from the Northeast,
especially from Federalists who did not want to disrupt trade with Britain,
Congress declared war on the United Kingdom on June 18, 1812.[81]

Oliver Hazard Perry's message to William Henry

Harrison after the Battle of Lake Erie during the American Civil War began with: "We
have met the enemy and they are ours", depicted in a painting by William H. Powell in
1865[82]

Both sides tried to invade the other and were repulsed. The American militia proved
ineffective because the soldiers were reluctant to leave home, and efforts to invade
Canada repeatedly failed. The British blockade ruined American commerce,
bankrupted the Treasury, and further angered New Englanders, who smuggled
supplies to Britain. The Americans under General William Henry Harrison finally gained
naval control of Lake Erie and defeated the Indians under Tecumseh in Canada,
[83] while Andrew Jackson ended the Indian threat in the Southeast. The Indian threat
to expansion into the Midwest was permanently ended. The British invaded and
occupied much of Maine.

In 1814, the British raided and burned Washington but were repelled at Baltimore,
where "The Star-Spangled Banner" was written to celebrate the American success. In
upstate New York, a major British invasion of New York State was turned back at
the Battle of Plattsburgh. In early 1815, Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a major
British invasion at the Battle of New Orleans,[84][page needed] and the Americans finally
claimed victory on February 18, as news came almost simultaneously of Jackson's
victory of New Orleans and the peace treaty that left the prewar boundaries in place.
This "second war of independence" helped lead to an emerging American identity that
cemented national pride over state pride.[85] The War of 1812 also dispelled America's
negative perception of a standing army as opposed to ill-equipped and poorly-trained
militias.[86]

Era of Good Feelings

[edit]
Main article: Era of Good Feelings

Depiction of election-day activities

in Philadelphia by John Lewis Krimmel in 1815
National euphoria after the victory at New Orleans ruined the prestige of the
Federalists and they no longer played a significant role as a political party.
[87] President Madison and most Republicans realized they were foolish to let the First
Bank of the United States close down, for its absence greatly hindered the financing of
the war. With the assistance of foreign bankers, they chartered the Second Bank of
the United States in 1816.[88][89]

The Republicans also imposed tariffs designed to protect the infant industries that had
been created when Britain was blockading the U.S. With the collapse of the Federalists
as a party, the adoption of many Federalist principles by the Republicans, and the
systematic policy of President James Monroe in his two terms (1817–1825) to
downplay partisanship, society entered an Era of Good Feelings and closed out
the First Party System.[88][89]

The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that
European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas. This was a
defining moment in U.S. foreign policy.[90]

In 1832, President Andrew Jackson ran for a second term under the slogan "Jackson
and no bank" and did not renew the charter of the Second Bank, dissolving the bank in
1836.[91] Jackson was convinced that central banking was used by the elite to take
advantage of the average American, and instead implemented publicly owned banks
in various states, popularly known as "pet banks". [91]

Expansion and reform (1830–1848)

[edit]
Main article: History of the United States (1815–1849)

Second Party System

[edit]
Main articles: Second Party System and Presidency of Andrew Jackson

The former Jeffersonian (Democratic-Republican) party split into factions over the
choice of a successor to President James Monroe, and the party faction that supported
many of the old Jeffersonian principles, led by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren,
became the Democratic Party. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828:

Jacksonians believed the people's will had finally prevailed. Through a

lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and
newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president. The
Democrats became the nation's first well-organized national party, and
tight party organization became the hallmark of nineteenth-century
American politics.[92]

Opposing factions led by Henry Clay helped form the Whig Party. The Democratic
Party had a small but decisive advantage over the Whigs until the 1850s, when the
Whigs fell apart over the issue of slavery.

Westward expansion and manifest destiny

[edit]
Main articles: American frontier, Manifest destiny, and Indian removal
 The Indian Removal Act resulted in the
transplantation of several Native American tribes and the Trail of Tears

The country grew rapidly in population and area, as pioneers pushed the frontier of
settlement west.[93][94] Native American tribes in some places resisted militarily, but
they were overwhelmed by settlers and the army, and after 1830, were relocated to
reservations in the west.[95] That year, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act,
which authorized the president to negotiate treaties that exchanged Native American
tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi River. [96] Its goal was
primarily to remove Native Americans, including the Five Civilized Tribes, from
desirable lands in the American Southeast. [97] Thousands of deaths resulted from the
relocations, as seen in the Cherokee Trail of Tears,[97] which resulted in approximately
2,000 to 8,000 of the 16,543 relocated Cherokee dying along the way.[98][99] Many of
the Seminole Indians in Florida refused to move west, and fought the Army for years in
the Seminole Wars.

During the California Gold Rush, some 300,000

people relocated to California from the rest of the United States and abroad following
the discovery of gold in the state.

The first settlers in the west were the Spanish in New Mexico, known as "Californios",
followed by over 100,000 California Gold Rush miners, known as
'49ers. California grew rapidly, and by 1880, San Francisco became the economic hub
of the Pacific Coast, with a diverse population of a quarter million. From the early
1830s to 1869, the Oregon Trail and its offshoots were used by over 300,000 settlers
headed to California, Oregon, and other points in the far west. Wagon trains took five
or six months on foot.[100]

Manifest destiny was the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across
the continent.[101] Manifest destiny was rejected by modernizers, especially the Whigs
like Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln who wanted to build cities and factories – not
more farms.[b] Democrats strongly favored expansion, and won the key election of
1844. After a bitter debate in Congress, the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845,
leading to the Mexican–American War.[103] The U.S. Army invaded Mexico at several
points, captured Mexico City, and won the war decisively. The Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo ended the war in 1848. Many Democrats wanted to annex all of Mexico, but
that idea was rejected by White Southerners, who argued that incorporating millions
of Mexican people, mainly of mixed race, would undermine the U.S. as an exclusively
white republic.[102] Instead, the U.S. took Texas and the lightly settled northern parts
(California and New Mexico). Simultaneously, gold was discovered in California in
1848. To clear the state for settlers, the U.S. government began a policy of
extermination since termed the California genocide.[104] A peaceful compromise with
Britain gave the U.S. ownership of the Oregon Country, which was renamed
the Oregon Territory.[103] The demand for guano (prized as an agricultural fertilizer)
led the U.S. to pass the Guano Islands Act in 1856, which enabled U.S. citizens to take
possession, in the name of the country, of unclaimed islands containing guano
deposits. Under the act, the U.S. annexed nearly 100 islands in the Pacific Ocean and
the Caribbean Sea. By 1903, 66 of these islands were recognized as U.S. territories.
[105]

The women's suffrage movement began with the 1848 National Convention of
the Liberty Party. Presidential candidate Gerrit Smith established women's suffrage as
a party goal. One month later, the Seneca Falls Convention was organized, signing
the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights for women, including the right
to vote.[c] The women's rights campaign during first-wave feminism was led
by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucy Stone and Susan B. Anthony, among others. Stone
and Paulina Wright Davis organized the prominent and influential National Women's
Rights Convention in 1850.[107]

Civil War and Reconstruction (1848–

1877)
[edit]
Main articles: American Civil War and Reconstruction era

Divisions between North and South

[edit]
Main articles: Origins of the American Civil War, History of the United States (1849–
1865), and Abolitionism in the United States
See also: Plantation complexes in the Southern United States, Proslavery thought,
and Antebellum South

An 1863 map of the United States during

the American Civil War, showing the affiliation of states and territories

Union states

Union territories not permitting slavery

Border Union states, permitting slavery

Confederate states

Union territories permitting slavery (claimed by Confederacy)

The central issue after 1848 was the expansion of slavery, with the anti-slavery
elements in the North pitted against the pro-slavery elements in the South. [108] By
1860, there were four million slaves in the South. A small number of
Northerners sought the immediate abolition of slavery, while much larger numbers in
the North were opposed to the expansion of slavery and sought to put it on the path
to extinction.[108] There were violent reactions to abolitionist advocates in the North,
notably the burning of an anti-slavery society in Pennsylvania Hall.[109]

There was resistance to slavery by both peaceful and violent means. Slave
rebellions by Gabriel Prosser (1800), Denmark Vesey (1822), Nat Turner (1831),
and John Brown (1859) caused fear in the white South, where stricter oversight of
slaves was imposed, and the rights of free Black people were reduced. [citation
needed] Southern white Democrats insisted that slavery was of economic, social, and
cultural benefit, even to the slaves themselves. [108] Supporters of slavery argued that
a sudden end to the slave economy would have a fatal economic impact in the South,
causing widespread unemployment and chaos; slave labor was the foundation of their
economy.[110] The plantations were highly profitable because of the heavy European
demand for raw cotton. Northern cities and regional industries were tied economically
to slavery through banking, shipping, and manufacturing, including their textile mills.
In addition, Southern states benefited from slavery by having an increased
apportionment in Congress due to the partial counting of slaves in their populations.

Remember Your Weekly Pledge, a collection box

for Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society in 1850

The issue of slavery in the new territories was seemingly settled by the Compromise
of 1850, which included the admission of California as a free state in exchange for no
federal restrictions on slavery placed on Utah or New Mexico. [111] A point of
contention was the Fugitive Slave Act, requiring the states to cooperate with slave
owners when attempting to recover escaped slaves. Previously, an escaped slave that
reached a non-slave state was presumed to have attained freedom under
the Compromise of 1820.[112][113][114]

The Missouri Compromise was repealed in 1854 with the Kansas–Nebraska Act;
promoted by Stephen Douglas in the name of "popular sovereignty" and democracy,
this act of Congress permitted voters to decide on the legality of slavery in each
territory. Anti-slavery forces rose in anger and alarm, forming the new Republican
Party. Pro- and anti- contingents rushed to Kansas to vote for or against slavery,
resulting in a miniature civil war called Bleeding Kansas. By the late 1850s, the young
Republican Party dominated nearly all Northern states, and hence the electoral
colleges. The party insisted that slavery would never be allowed to expand and would
therefore slowly die out.[115]

The Supreme Court's 1857 decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford ruled that the
Compromise was unconstitutional, and that free Black people were not U.S. citizens.
The decision enraged Northerners, and the Republicans worried that the decision
could be used to expand slavery.[112][113][114]

Civil War
[edit]
Main articles: American Civil War, Confederate States of America, and 1860 United
States presidential election
See also: Union Army, Confederate States Army, Military history of African Americans
in the American Civil War, End of the American Civil War, and End of slavery in the
United States

After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election, seven Southern states seceded from the
Union and formed the Confederate States of America (Confederacy) on February 8,
1861.[116] The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a
U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. In response, Lincoln called
on the states to send troops to recapture forts, protect Washington D.C., and
"preserve the Union".[117] Lincoln's call led to four more states seceding and joining
the Confederacy. A few of the (northernmost) slave states did not secede and became
known as the border states; these were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri.
[citation needed] During the war, the northwestern portion of Virginia seceded from the
Confederacy, becoming the new Union state of West Virginia.[118]

The two armies' first major battle was the First Battle of Bull Run, which proved to
both sides that the war would be much longer than anticipated. [117] In the western
theater, the Union Army was relatively successful, with major battles such
as Perryville and Shiloh, along with Union Navy gunboat dominance of navigable rivers
producing strategic Union victories and destroying major Confederate operations.
[119] Warfare in the eastern theater began poorly for the Union. U.S. General George B.
McClellan failed to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, in
his Peninsula campaign and retreated after attacks from Confederate General Robert
E. Lee.[120] Meanwhile, in 1861 and 1862, both sides concentrated on raising and
training new armies. The Union successfully gained control of the border states,
driving the Confederates out.[121] Lee's Army of Northern Virginia won battles in late
1862 and spring 1863, but he pushed too hard and ignored the Union threat in the
west. He invaded Pennsylvania in search of supplies and to cause war-weariness in the
North.[122]

A portrait of Robert E. Lee and the Confederate

States Army surrendering to the Union Army following the Battle of Appomattox Court
House in Appomattox County, Virginia, on April 9, 1865

The Emancipation Proclamation, issued by Lincoln on January 1, 1863, freed three

million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy. [123] In perhaps the turning
point of the war, Lee's army was badly beaten by the Army of the Potomac at the July
1863 Battle of Gettysburg, and barely made it back to Virginia.[121] Survivors of the
battle were immediately redeployed to suppress the New York City draft riots by Irish
Americans protesting Civil War conscription and the city's free Black population.[122] In
July 1863, Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant gained control of the
Mississippi River at the Battle of Vicksburg, splitting the Confederacy. In 1864, Union
General William Tecumseh Sherman marched south from Chattanooga to
capture Atlanta, a decisive victory that ended war jitters among Republicans in the
North and helped Lincoln win re-election. Sherman's march to the sea was almost
unopposed. Much of the South was destroyed, and could no longer provide
desperately needed supplies to its armies. In spring 1864, Grant launched a war of
attrition and pursued Lee to the final Appomattox campaign, which resulted in
Lee surrendering in April 1865.[citation needed] By June 1865, the Union Army controlled
all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves. [123] The Civil War
was the world's earliest industrial war. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and
mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. Civilian factories, mines,
shipyards, and were mobilized.[124] Foreign trade increased, with the U.S. providing
both food and cotton to Britain, and Britain sending in manufactured products and
thousands of volunteers for the Union Army (and a few to the Confederate army). The
Union blockade shut down Confederate ports. It remains the deadliest war in American
history, resulting in the deaths of about 750,000 soldiers and an undetermined
number of civilian casualties.[d] About ten percent of all Northern males 20–45 years
old, and thirty percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40 died. [124] Many Black
people died after being dislocated during the war and Reconstruction. [127]

Reconstruction
[edit]
Main articles: Reconstruction era and History of the United States (1865–1918)
Further information: Ku Klux Klan, Jim Crow laws, and Nadir of American race relations

Reconstruction lasted from the end of the war until 1877.[117][128][129] Lincoln
supported the Ten Percent Plan for states' re-admission, and the right of Black people
to vote.[130] Lincoln was assassinated in April 1865 by John Wilkes Booth, and
succeeded by Andrew Johnson.[131]

A May 10, 1869 picture of the completion of the first

transcontinental railroad in Promontory, Utah

After the war, the far west was developed and settled, first by wagon trains and
riverboats, and then by the first transcontinental railroad. Many Northern European
immigrants took up low-cost or free farms in the Prairie States. Mining for silver and
copper encouraged development.[132]

An illustration of African-American Freedmen voting

in New Orleans in 1867
The severe threats of starvation and displacement of the unemployed Freedmen were
met by the first major federal relief agency, the Freedmen's Bureau, operated by the
Army.[133] The bureau also took in freed slaves.[citation needed] Three "Reconstruction
Amendments" expanded civil rights for black Americans: the 1865 Thirteenth
Amendment outlawed slavery;[134] the 1868 Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed
equal rights and citizenship for Black people; [135] the 1870 Fifteenth
Amendment prevented race from being used to disenfranchise men. [136] Ex-
Confederates remained in control of most Southern states for over two years, until
the Radical Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. Johnson,
who sought good treatment for ex-Confederates, was virtually powerless in the face of
Congress; he was impeached, but the Senate's attempt to remove him from office
failed by one vote. Congress enfranchised black men and temporarily banned many
ex-Confederate leaders from holding office. New Republican governments came to
power based on a coalition of Freedmen made up of Carpetbaggers (new arrivals from
the North), and Scalawags (native white Southerners), backed by the Army.
Opponents said they were corrupt and violated the rights of whites. [137] State by
state, the New Republicans lost power to a conservative-Democratic coalition, which
gained control of the South by 1877. In response to Radical Reconstruction, the Ku
Klux Klan (KKK) emerged in 1867 as a white-supremacist organization opposed to
black civil rights and Republican rule. President Ulysses Grant's enforcement of the Ku
Klux Klan Act of 1870 shut them down.[137] Paramilitary groups, such as the White
League and Red Shirts emerging around 1874, openly intimidated and attacked Black
people voting.[137]

A September 1, 1868 cartoon

from Tuscaloosa's Independent Monitor, threatening that
the KKK will lynch scalawags (left) and carpetbaggers (right) the day President Ulysses
S. Grant takes office in 1869

Reconstruction ended after the disputed 1876 election. The Compromise of 1877 gave
Republican Rutherford B. Hayes the presidency in exchange for removing all
remaining federal troops in the South.[138] In 1882, the United States passed
the Chinese Exclusion Act (which barred all Chinese immigrants except for students
and businessmen),[139] and the Immigration Act of 1882 (which barred all immigrants
with mental health issues).[140] From 1890 to 1908, southern states
effectively disenfranchised Black and poor white voters by making voter registration
more difficult through poll taxes and literacy tests. Black people were segregated from
whites in the violently-enforced Jim Crow system.[141][142]

Gilded Age and the Progressive Era

(1877–1914)
[edit]
Main articles: Gilded Age, Progressive Era, and Second Industrial Revolution

After Reconstruction
[edit]
The "Gilded Age" was a term that Mark Twain used to describe the period of the late
19th century with a dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity,
underscored by mass corruption in government. [143] Some historians have argued that
the United States was effectively plutocratic for at least part of the era.[144][145]
[146] As financiers and industrialists such as J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller began
to amass vast fortunes, many observers were concerned that the nation was losing its
pioneering egalitarian spirit.[147]

An unprecedented wave of immigration from Europe served to both provide the labor
for American industry and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped
areas. From 1880 to 1914, peak years of immigration, more than 22 million people
migrated to the country.[148] Most were unskilled workers who quickly found jobs in
mines, mills, and factories. Many immigrants were craftsmen and farmers who
purchased inexpensive land on the prairies. Poverty, growing inequality and
dangerous working conditions, along with socialist and anarchist ideas diffusing from
European immigrants, led to the rise of the labor movement.[149][150][151]

Dissatisfaction on the part of the growing middle class with the corruption and
inefficiency of politics, and the failure to deal with increasingly important urban and
industrial problems, led to the dynamic progressive movement starting in the 1890s.
Progressives called for the modernization and reform of decrepit institutions in the
fields of politics, education, medicine, and industry. [152] "Muckraking"
journalists exposed corruption in business and government, and highlighted rampant
inner-city poverty. Progressives implemented antitrust laws and regulated such
industries of meatpacking, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments
– the Sixteenth through Nineteenth – resulted from progressive activism, bringing
the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and female suffrage.
[152]

In 1881, President James A. Garfield was assassinated by Charles Guiteau.[153]

Unions and strikes

[edit]
Main articles: Labor history of the United States and Union violence in the United
States

A Harpers Weekly illustration by Frederic

Remington depicting hundreds of boxcars and coal cars looted and burned and state
and federal troops violently attacked striking workers on July 7, 1894

Skilled workers banded together to control their crafts and raise wages by forming
labor unions in industrial areas of the Northeast. Samuel Gompers led the American
Federation of Labor (1886–1924), coordinating multiple unions. In response to heavy
debts and decreasing farm prices, wheat and cotton farmers joined the Populist Party.
[154]

The Panic of 1893 created a severe nationwide depression.[155] Many railroads went
bankrupt. Labor unrest involved numerous strikes, most notably the violent Pullman
Strike of 1894, which was forcibly shut down by federal troops. One of the
disillusioned leaders of the Pullman strike, Eugene V. Debs, went on to become the
leader of the Socialist Party of America.[156]

Economic growth
[edit]

Important legislation of the era included the 1883 Civil Service Act, which mandated a
competitive examination for applicants for government jobs, the 1887 Interstate
Commerce Act, which ended railroads' discrimination against small shippers, and the
1890 Sherman Antitrust Act, which outlawed monopolies in business.[143]

After 1893, the Populist Party gained strength among farmers and coal miners, but
was overtaken by the even more popular Free silver movement, which demanded
using silver to enlarge the money supply and end the depression. [157] Financial and
railroad communities fought back hard, arguing that only the gold standard would
save the economy. In the 1896 presidential election, conservative Republican William
McKinley defeated silverite William Jennings Bryan.[158]

The assassination of William McKinley in Buffalo,

New York on September 6, 1901, depicted in a portrait by Leon Czolgosz

Prosperity returned under McKinley. The gold standard was enacted, and the tariff was
raised. By 1900, the U.S. had the strongest economy in the world. [159] McKinley
was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz in 1901, and was succeeded by Theodore
Roosevelt.[160]

The period also saw a major transformation of the banking system, with the arrival of
the first credit union in 1908 and the creation of the Federal Reserve System in 1913.
[161][162] Apart from two short recessions in 1907 and 1920, the economy remained
prosperous and growing until 1929.[159]

Imperialism
[edit]
Further information: American imperialism and Spanish–American War
 A cartoon reflecting Judge magazine view that the
U.S. maintained imperial ambitions following its quick victory in the Spanish–American
War in 1898[163]

The United States Army continued to fight wars with Native Americans as settlers
encroached on their traditional lands. Gradually the U.S. purchased tribal lands and
extinguished their claims, forcing most tribes onto subsidized reservations. According
to the U.S. Census Bureau in 1894, from 1789 to 1894, the Indian Wars killed 19,000
white people and more than 30,000 Indians.[164]

The Spanish–American War began when Spain refused American demands to reform
its oppressive policies in Cuba.[165] The war was a series of quick American victories
on land and at sea. At the Treaty of Paris peace conference the United States acquired
the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.[166] Cuba became an independent country,
under close American tutelage. William Jennings Bryan led his Democratic Party in
opposition to control of the Philippines, which he denounced as imperialism.[166] After
defeating an insurrection by Filipino nationalists, the United States achieved little in
the Philippines except in education. Infrastructural development lost much of its early
vigor with the failure of the railroads.[167]

By 1908, however, Americans lost interest in an empire and turned their international
attention to the Caribbean, especially the building of the Panama Canal. The canal
opened in 1914 and increased trade with Japan and the rest of the Far East. A key
innovation was the Open Door Policy, whereby the imperial powers were given equal
access to Chinese business, with none of them allowed to take control of China. [168]

Women's suffrage
[edit]
Main article: Women's suffrage in the United States

A Women's suffragists parade in New York City in

October 1917, featuring placards with the signatures of more than a million
women[169]

The women's suffrage movement reorganized after the Civil War. By the end of the
19th century, a few Western states had granted women full voting rights, [107] and
women gained rights in areas such as property and child custody law. [170]

Around 1912, the feminist movement reawakened, putting an emphasis on its

demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded
purification by women.[171] Alice Paul split from the large, moderate National
American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and
formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during
their "Silent Sentinels" pickets at the White House and taken as political prisoners.[172]

The anti-suffragist argument that only men could fight in a war, therefore only men
deserved the right to vote, was refuted by the participation of American women on
the home front in World War I. The success of women's suffrage was demonstrated by
the politics of some U.S. states that were already allowing women to vote, including
Montana, which elected the first woman to the House of Representatives, Jeannette
Rankin. The main resistance came from the South, where white leaders were worried
about the threat of black women being allowed to vote. Congress passed
the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919, and women first voted in 1920.[173] Politicians
responded to the new electorate by emphasizing issues of special interest to women,
especially prohibition, child health, and world peace.[174][175]

Modern America and World Wars (1914–

1945)
[edit]

World War I and the interwar years

[edit]
Main article: History of the United States (1917–1945)
See also: American entry into World War I, United States home front during World War
I, United States in World War I, and Roaring Twenties

Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery in France, a

cemetery for U.S. servicemen killed in Europe during their service in World War I

As World War I raged in Europe from 1914, President Woodrow Wilson declared
neutrality, but warned Germany that resumption of unrestricted submarine
warfare against American ships would mean war. Germany decided to take the risk,
and try to win by cutting off supplies to Britain through the sinking of ships such as
the RMS Lusitania. The U.S. declared war in April 1917.[176]

By the summer of 1918 soldiers in General John J. Pershing's American Expeditionary

Forces arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, while Germany was unable to replace its
losses.[177] Dissent against the war was suppressed by the Sedition Act of
1918 and Espionage Act of 1917. Over 2,000 were imprisoned for speaking out against
the war.[178]

The Allies won in November 1918. Wilson dominated the 1919 Paris Peace Conference,
putting his geopolitical hopes in the new League of Nations as Germany was treated
harshly in the Treaty of Versailles (1919). Wilson refused to compromise with Senate
Republicans over the issue of Congressional power to declare war, and the Senate
rejected the Treaty and the League.[179] Instead, the United States chose to
pursue unilateralism.[180] The aftershock of Russia's October Revolution resulted in
fears of Communism in the United States, leading to a Red Scare and the deportation
of non-citizens considered subversive.

Despite the Progressive-era modernization of hospitals and medical schools, [181] the
country lost around 550,000 lives to the Spanish flu pandemic in 1918 and 1919.[182]
[183] During the "Roaring" 1920s, the economy expanded. African-Americans benefited
from the Great Migration and had more cultural power, an example being the Harlem
Renaissance which spread jazz music. Meanwhile, the Ku Klux Klan had a resurgence,
and the Immigration Act of 1924 was passed to strictly limit the number of new
entries.[184]

Prohibition began in 1920, when the manufacture, sale, import and export of alcohol
were prohibited by the Eighteenth Amendment. Bootlegged alcohol in the cities ended
up under the control of gangs, who fought each other for territory. Italian bootleggers
in New York City gradually formed the Mafia crime syndicate. In 1933,
President Franklin D. Roosevelt repealed prohibition.[185]

Great Depression and the New Deal

[edit]
Main articles: New Deal, Presidency of Herbert Hoover, and Presidency of Franklin D.
Roosevelt

A depiction of the sharp decrease of the money

supply between Black Tuesday and the Bank Holiday when massive bank
runs commences across the United States in March 1933

The Great Depression (1929–1939) and the New Deal (1933–1936) were decisive
moments in American political, economic, and social history. [186] A financial
bubble was fueled by an inflated stock market, which led to the Wall Street crash on
October 29, 1929.[187] This, along with other economic factors, triggered a
worldwide depression. The United States experienced deflation as prices fell,
unemployment soared from 3% in 1929 to 25% in 1933, farm prices fell by half, and
manufacturing output plunged by one-third.

The New Deal enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt was a series of permanent
reform programs including Social Security, unemployment relief and insurance, public
housing, bankruptcy insurance, farm subsidies, and regulation of financial securities.
[188] It also provided unemployment relief through the Works Progress
Administration (WPA) and for young men, the Civilian Conservation Corps. Large-scale
spending projects designed to rebuild infrastructure were under the purview of
the Public Works Administration.[188]

State governments introduced the sales tax to pay for new programs. Ideologically,
the New Deal established modern liberalism in the United States.[188] The New Deal
coalition won re-election for Roosevelt in 1936, 1940, and 1944.[188] The Second New
Deal in 1935 and 1936 brought the economy further left, building up labor unions
through the Wagner Act. Roosevelt weakened his second term by a failed effort to
pack the Supreme Court, which had been a center of conservative resistance to his
programs.[188] The economy essentially recovered by 1936, but long-term
unemployment remained a problem until it was solved by wartime spending. Most of
the relief programs were dropped in the 1940s, when the conservatives regained
power in Congress through the Conservative coalition.[188]
World War II
[edit]
Main articles: World War II, United States in World War II, and Military history of the
United States during World War II
See also: Historiography of World War II and United States home front during World
War II

The USS Arizona burning after the Japanese attack

on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941

During the Depression, the United States remained focused on domestic concerns.
U.S. legislation in the Neutrality Acts sought to avoid foreign conflicts; however, policy
clashed with increasing anti-Nazi feelings following the German invasion of Poland in
September 1939 that started World War II.[189] At first, Roosevelt positioned the U.S.
as the "Arsenal of Democracy", pledging full-scale financial and munitions support for
the Allies and Lend-Lease agreements – but no military personnel.[189]

Japan tried to neutralize America's power in the Pacific by attacking Pearl Harbor in
1941, but instead it catalyzed American support to enter the war.
[190] Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 resulted in over 120,000 Americans of
Japanese descent being removed from their homes and placed in internment camps.
[191][192][193] The Allies fought against Germany in the European theater and Japan in
the Pacific War.[194] The United States was one of the "Allied Big Four", alongside
the United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China.[195][196]

The U.S. gave the Allied war effort money, food, petroleum, technology, and military
personnel. The U.S. focused on maximizing its national economic output, causing a
dramatic increase in GDP, the end of unemployment, and a rise in civilian
consumption, even as 40% of the GDP went to the war effort.[186] A wartime
production boom led to the end of the Great Depression. Tens of millions of workers
moved into the active labor force and to higher-productivity jobs. Labor shortages
encouraged industries to look for new sources of workers, finding new roles for women
and Black people. Economic mobilization was managed by the War Production Board.
[186] Most durable goods became unavailable or were tightly rationed, while housing
for industrial jobs was in short supply. Prices and wages were controlled, and
Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to post-war growth. [197]
[198]

The U.S. stopped Japanese expansion in the Pacific in 1942; after the loss of
the Philippines to Japanese conquests, as well as a draw in the Battle of the Coral
Sea in May, the American Navy then inflicted a decisive blow at Midway in June 1942.
The Allied forces built up a garrison on Guadalcanal island, formerly held by the
Japanese, after the successes of the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and the Battle of
Guadalcanal. The Japanese then stopped advancing south, and the U.S. began
taking New Guinea. Japan also lost their invasion of the Alaskan Aleutian Islands,
allowing the U.S. to begin attacking the Japanese-controlled Kuril Islands.[194]
American ground forces assisted in the North African campaign and the collapse of
Fascist Italy in 1943. A more significant European front was opened on D-Day, June 6,
1944, in which Allied forces invaded Nazi-occupied France.[194] The Allies began
pushing the Germans out of France in the Normandy campaign. After Allied forces
landed at the French Riviera in Operation Dragoon, Hitler allowed his army to retreat
from Normandy.[199] Roosevelt died in 1945, and was succeeded by Harry Truman.
[200] The western front stopped short of Berlin, leaving the Soviets to take it in
the Battle of Berlin. The Nazi regime formally capitulated in May 1945, ending the war
in Europe.[194]

Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, a photo of U.S.

Marines raising a U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi during the Battle of Iwo Jima on
February 23, 1945

In the Pacific, the U.S. implemented an island hopping strategy toward Tokyo. The
Philippines was eventually reconquered, after Japan and the United States fought in
history's largest naval battle, the Battle of Leyte Gulf.[201] After the war, the
U.S. granted the Philippines independence.[202]

Military research and development increased during the war, leading to the Manhattan
Project, a secret effort to harness nuclear fission to produce atomic bombs;[203] the
first nuclear device was detonated on July 16, 1945.[204] U.S. airfields in the Mariana
Islands allowed for easier bombing of Japan and hard-fought U.S. victories at Iwo
Jima and Okinawa in 1945.[205] The U.S. prepared to invade Japan's home islands, but
they dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
compelling Japan to surrender and ending World War II. [206] The U.S. occupied
Japan (and part of Germany).[207] 400,000 American military personnel and civilians
were killed.[208] Nuclear weapons have not been used since the war ended, and a
"long peace" began between the global powers, but they still competed in the Cold
War.[209]

Cold War (1945–1991)

[edit]
Main articles: Cold War, History of the United States (1945–1964), History of the
United States (1964–1980), and History of the United States (1980–1991)
 The NATO (blue) and Warsaw Pact (red) alliances
during the Cold War from 1949 to 1990

Economic boom and the beginning of the Cold War

[edit]

Truman administration
[edit]
Main articles: Presidency of Harry S. Truman and Cold War (1947-1953)

In the decades after World War II, the United States became a global influence in
economic, political, military, cultural, and technological affairs. Following World War II,
the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers, the Soviet
Union being the other. The U.S. Senate approved U.S. participation in the United
Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from traditional American isolationism and
toward increased international involvement. [210] The United States and other major
Allied powers became the foundation of the UN Security Council.[211] The Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) was created in 1947.[212]

One of a number of posters created by

the Economic Cooperation Administration, an agency of the U.S. government, to sell
the Marshall Plan in Europe following the end of World War II

The U.S. wished to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II, and to contain
the expansion of communism, represented by the Soviet Union. U.S. foreign policy
during the Cold War was built around the support of Western Europe and Japan along
with the policy of containment (containing the spread of communism).
[213] The Truman Doctrine in 1947 was the U.S.' attempt to secure trading partners in
Europe, by providing military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey to counteract
the threat of communist expansion in the Balkans. [214][209] In 1948, the United States
replaced piecemeal financial aid programs with a comprehensive Marshall Plan, which
pumped money into Western Europe, and removed trade barriers, while modernizing
the managerial practices of businesses and governments. [215] Post-war American aid
to Europe totaled $25 billion, out of the U.S. GDP of $258 billion in 1948.[215]

In 1949, the United States, rejecting the long-standing policy of no military alliances in
peacetime, formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance. In
response, the Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact of communist states, leading to the
"Iron Curtain".[215] In 1949, the Soviets performed their first nuclear weapon test.
[209] This escalated the risk of nuclear warfare; the threat of mutually assured
destruction, however, prevented both powers from nuclear war, and resulted the
proxy wars in which the two sides did not directly confront each other. [209]

The U.S. fought against communists in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and toppled
left-wing governments in the third world to try to stop its spread, such as Iran in
1953 and Guatemala in 1954.[213] McCarthyism was a widespread government
program led by Senator Joseph McCarthy to expose communists in government and
business. Hollywood was targeted by the House Un-American Activities Committee.
[216] Gay people were targeted under the McCarthyist Lavender Scare.[217]

Eisenhower administration
[edit]
Main articles: Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and Cold War (1953–1962)

Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected president in 1952 in a landslide.[218] He ended the

Korean War, and avoided any other major conflict. He cut military spending by relying
on advanced technology, such as nuclear weapons carried by long-range
bombers and intercontinental missiles.[219] After Stalin died in 1953, Eisenhower
worked to obtain friendlier relationships with the Soviet Union. At home, he ended
McCarthyism, expanded the Social Security program, and presided over a decade of
bipartisan cooperation.[219]

Domestically, after 1948, America entered an economic boom: 60% of the American
population had attained a "middle-class" standard of living by the mid-1950s,
compared with only 31% in the 1928 and 1929. Between 1947 and 1960, the average
real income for American workers increased by as much as it had in the previous half-
century.[220] The economy allowed for an affordable lifestyle with large families; this
created the baby boom, in which millions of children were born at increased rates
from 1945 to 1964.[221] Many Americans moved into suburban neighborhoods.[222]

The 101st Airborne Division escorting the Little

Rock Nine into Little Rock Central High School in September 1957
In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled on Brown v. Board of Education, finding public
school segregation unconstitutional.[223] When nine Black students were threatened
over their admission into all-white Little Rock Central High School, Eisenhower sent in
a thousand National Guard troops to ensure peace. [219] Starting in the late 1950s,
institutionalized racism across the United States, but especially in the South, was
increasingly challenged by the growing civil rights movement. The activism of Rosa
Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. led to the boycott of segregated public
buses in Montgomery, Alabama in 1955, organized by King and the Montgomery
Improvement Association. They faced multiple acts of violence, but continued the
boycott for a year, until the Supreme Court ordered the city to desegregate the buses.
[223]

The Soviets unexpectedly surpassed American technology in 1957 with Sputnik, the
first Earth satellite. The R-7 missile which launched Sputnik into space could have
hypothetically dropped a nuclear bomb into U.S. air space from above; new American
fears regarding Soviet power began the Space Race, a competition between the two
countries to prove their technological superiority through space exploration. In 1958,
Eisenhower created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for this
purpose. Angst about the weaknesses of American education led to large-scale federal
support for science education and research.[224]

Civil unrest and social reforms

[edit]
Main articles: History of the United States (1964–1980) and Cold War (1962-1991)
Further information: Presidency of John F. Kennedy, Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson,
and Great Society

In 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected President. His administration saw the
acceleration of the country's role in the Space Race, escalation of the American role in
the Vietnam War, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. President
Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963.[225] Lyndon B. Johnson then
became president.[226] He secured congressional passage of his Great
Society programs,[227] dealing with civil rights, the end of legal segregation, Medicare,
extension of welfare, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and
humanities, environmental activism, and a series of programs designed to wipe out
poverty.[228][229]

Civil rights and counterculture movements

[edit]
Main articles: Civil rights movement, Counterculture of the 1960s, and Second-wave
feminism

Civil rights activists during the March on

Washington for Jobs and Freedom in Washington, D.C. in August 1963

For years, nonviolent civil rights activists organized direct actions, such as the
1963 Birmingham campaign and 1965 Selma to Montgomery march, where they also
became victims of violence. Along with Supreme Court decisions like Loving v.
Virginia and the 1963 March on Washington, these movements achieved great steps
toward equality with laws like the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of
1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. These ended the Jim Crow laws that had
legalized racial segregation.[230] Native Americans protested federal courts,
highlighting the federal government's failure to honor treaties involving them. One of
the most outspoken Native American groups was the American Indian
Movement (AIM). In the 1960s, Cesar Chavez began organizing poorly paid Mexican-
American farm workers in California, eventually forming the country's first successful
union of farm workers, the United Farm Workers of America (UFW).[231]

U.S. soldiers searching a village for potential Viet

Cong during the Vietnam War in October 1966

An anti-Vietnam War demonstration outside the Pentagon in October 1967

Amid the Cold War, the United States entered the Vietnam War, whose growing
unpopularity fed already existing social movements. Feminism and the environmental
movement became political forces, and progress continued toward civil rights for all
Americans. A counterculture revolution in the late sixties and early seventies further
divided Americans in a "culture war" but also brought forth more liberated social
views.[232] Frustrations with the seemingly slow progress of the integration movement
led to the emergence of more radical politics, such as the Black Power movement.
[233] The summer of 1967 saw opposing philosophies in two widespread movements,
the more peaceful summer of love and the radical long, hot summer, which included
nationwide riots.[234] Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in 1968.[235] The
modern gay rights movement started after the Stonewall riots in 1969.[236]

A new consciousness of the inequality of American women began sweeping the nation,
starting with the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan's best-seller, The Feminine
Mystique, which critiqued the American cultural idea that women could only find
fulfillment through their roles as wives, mothers, and keepers of the home. In 1966,
Friedan and others established the National Organization for Women (NOW) to
advocate for women's rights.[170][237] Protests began, and the new women's liberation
movement grew in size and power, gaining much media attention. [238] The
proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, passed by Congress in 1972,
was defeated by a conservative coalition mobilized by Phyllis Schlafly.[238]
[239] However, many federal laws established women's equal status under the law,
such as those equalizing pay, employment, education, employment opportunities,
and credit between genders, and ending pregnancy discrimination. State laws
criminalized spousal abuse and marital rape, and the Supreme Court ruled that
the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied to women. Social
custom and consciousness began to change, accepting women's equality. Abortion,
deemed by the Supreme Court as a fundamental right in Roe v. Wade (1973), is still a
point of debate.

Détente
[edit]
Main article: Détente

Nixon administration
[edit]
Main article: Presidency of Richard Nixon

Buzz Aldrin (shown) and Neil Armstrong became the

first humans to walk on the Moon during NASA's Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.

President Richard Nixon (1969–1974) largely continued the New Deal and Great
Society programs he inherited.[226][240] Nixon created the Environmental Protection
Agency,[241] opened relations with China, and attempted to gradually turn the
Vietnam War effort over to the South Vietnamese. He negotiated the peace treaty in
1973 which secured the release of POWs and led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops. The
war had cost the lives of 58,000 American troops. Nixon manipulated the fierce
distrust between the Soviet Union and China to the advantage of the U.S.,
achieving détente with both parties.[240] He was also president during the
U.S.' landing on the Moon in 1969.

The Watergate scandal, involving Nixon's cover-up of his operatives' break-in into
the Democratic National Committee headquarters, destroyed his political base and
forced his resignation on August 9, 1974.[240] He was succeeded by Vice
President Gerald Ford.[240][242]

Ford and Carter administrations

[edit]
Main articles: Presidency of Gerald Ford and Presidency of Jimmy Carter

The Fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975, ended the Vietnam War.[240] In Central America,
the U.S. government supported right-wing governments against left-wing groups, such
as in El Salvador and Guatemala. In South America, they
supported Argentina and Chile, who carried out Operation Condor, a campaign of
assassinations of exiled political opponents by Southern Cone governments, created
at the behest of Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet in 1975.[243][244][245]
The OPEC oil embargo marked a long-term economic transition: energy prices
skyrocketed, and American factories faced serious competition from foreign
automobiles, clothing, electronics, and consumer goods. By the late 1970s, the
economy suffered an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment, very
high inflation, and high interest rates (stagflation). Since economists agreed
on deregulation, many of the New Deal era regulations were ended. [246] Meanwhile,
the first mass-market personal computers were being developed in California's Silicon
Valley.[247]

Jimmy Carter was elected president in 1976.[248] Carter brokered the Camp David
Accords between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Iranian students stormed the U.S.
embassy in Tehran and took 66 Americans hostage. Carter lost the 1980 election to
the Republican Ronald Reagan.[249] On January 20, 1981, minutes after Carter's term
ended, the remaining U.S. captives were released.

End of the Cold War

[edit]
Main article: History of the United States (1980–1991)
See also: Cold War (1985-1991)

Reagan administration
[edit]
Main article: Presidency of Ronald Reagan

Monthly unemployment, inflation, and interest rates

from January 1981 to January 1989

President Ronald Reagan's conservative policies produced a major political

realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslide elections.[250]
[251] Reagan's neoliberal economic policies (dubbed "Reaganomics") included the
implementation of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981.[251][252][253] Reagan
continued to downsize government taxation and regulation; [254] New Deal and Great
Society programs were ended.[226] The U.S. experienced a recession in 1982, but after
inflation decreased, unemployment then decreased, and the economic growth rate
increased from 4.5% in 1982 to 7.2% in 1984.[255][256] However, homelessness and
economic inequality also rose.[257][258]

The Reagan administration's expansion of the War on Drugs led to an increase in

incarceration, particularly among African Americans, with the number of people
imprisoned for drug offences rising from 50,000 to 400,000 between 1980 and 1997.
[259][260] Manufacturing industries moving out of inner cities increased poverty in
those areas; poverty increased drug dealing and contributed to the crack epidemic,
which led to increased crime and incarceration. [259][261] The government also reacted
slowly to the AIDS crisis, and banned reliable information on the disease, which led to
higher infection rates.[262][263]
Reagan ordered a buildup of the U.S. military, incurring additional budget deficits.
[264] The 1983 invasion of Grenada and 1986 bombing of Libya were popular in the
U.S., though Reagan's backing of the Contra rebels was mired in the controversy over
the Iran–Contra affair.[265] Reagan also introduced a complicated missile defense
system known as the Strategic Defense Initiative. The Soviets reacted harshly because
they thought it violated the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, and would give the U.S.
a major military advantage, so they stopped negotiating disarmament deals until the
late 1980s.[264]

U.S. Air Force aircraft fly over oil fields destroyed by

the retreating Iraqi Ground Forces during the Gulf War in 1991

Reagan met four times with Gorbachev, and their summit conferences led to the
signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.

George H. W. Bush administration

[edit]
Main articles: Presidency of George H. W. Bush and Post–Cold War era

International affairs drove the George H. W. Bush presidency, which navigated the end
of the Cold War and a new era of U.S.–Soviet relations. In 1989 Bush directed
a military invasion of Panama to overthrow Manuel Noriega. On 3 December 1989,
Gorbachev and Bush declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit. After the fall of
the Berlin Wall, Bush successfully pushed for the reunification of Germany in close
cooperation with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, overcoming the reluctance
of Gorbachev. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, leaving the United States as the
sole superpower.[266]

Contemporary United States (1991–

present)
[edit]
Main articles: History of the United States (1991–2016) and History of the United
States (2016–present)

George H. W. Bush and Clinton administrations

[edit]
Main articles: Presidency of George H. W. Bush, Presidency of Bill Clinton, Third Way
(United States), and Republican Revolution

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States continued to intervene in
international affairs. George H. W. Bush's administration led an international
coalition against Iraq in the Gulf War after Iraq invaded neighboring Kuwait in 1990.
The war undid the Iraqi annexation of Kuwait.[267] Under Bush, the U.S. also became
involved in wars in Panama, Somalia, Bosnia, and Croatia.[268][269][270] In 1992, there
were riots in Los Angeles over police brutality.[271]
 Ruins following the Oklahoma City bombing in April
1995

Elected in 1992, President Bill Clinton oversaw economic expansion and passed
the first balanced federal budget in 30 years.[272] Much of the economic boom was a
side effect of the Digital Revolution, and new business opportunities created by
the Internet.[273] During the Clinton administration, the U.S. was involved in wars
in Haiti and Kosovo.[274][275]

Conservative Republicans heavily won the 1994 midterm elections in a "Republican

Revolution", which was built around the Contract with America policy agenda.[276]
[277] Newt Gingrich was chosen as House Speaker,[276] and he would heavily influence
the Republican Party to engage in "confrontational" political speech. [278][279] Clinton's
leadership after the Oklahoma City bombing increased his popularity,[280] and he won
in the 1996 presidential elections.[281] In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House
of Representatives on charges of lying under oath about a sexual relationship with
White House intern Monica Lewinsky. He was acquitted by the Senate.[272]

In 2000, the dot-com bubble, a widespread overvaluation of Internet company stocks,

burst and hurt the U.S. economy.[282][283] The close presidential election in
2000 between Governor George W. Bush and Al Gore was extremely close and
produced a dramatic dispute over the counting of votes.[284] Bush ultimately won.[285]

George W. Bush administration

[edit]
Main articles: Presidency of George W. Bush, September 11 attacks, and War on terror
 United Airlines Flight 175 crashes into the South
Tower of the World Trade Center complex in New York City during the September 11
attacks, the deadliest terrorist attack in world history with 2,977 fatalities [286]

In the September 11 attacks on September 11, 2001, 19 al-Qaeda hijackers

commandeered four commercial planes to be used in suicide attacks. Two were
crashed intentionally into both Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York
City, and a third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. The fourth plane was
retaken by the passengers and crew and crashed into an empty field in Pennsylvania.
Every building of the World Trade Center partially or completely collapsed, massively
damaging the surrounding area and blanketing Lower Manhattan in toxic dust clouds.
2,977 victims died in the attacks, which proved the deadliest terrorist attack in world
history.[287]

On September 20, Bush announced a "war on terror".[288][289] In October 2001, the

U.S. and NATO invaded Afghanistan and ousted the Taliban regime, which had
harbored al-Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden.[290] Bin Laden escaped to
Pakistan, starting a manhunt.[291] The U.S. established new domestic efforts to
prevent future attacks. The Patriot Act increased the power of government to monitor
communications and removed legal restrictions on intelligence sharing between
federal law enforcement agencies.[292] The government's indefinite detention of
terrorism suspects captured abroad at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp led to
allegations of human rights abuses and violations of international law. [293][294]
[295] The Department of Homeland Security was created to lead federal counter-
terrorism activities.[292]

In March 2003, the U.S. launched an invasion of Iraq, claiming Iraqi dictator Saddam
Hussein had weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). Intelligence backing WMDs were
later found to be inaccurate. The war led to the collapse of the Iraqi government and
the eventual capture of Hussein.[296][297] The Iraq War fueled international
protests and gradually saw domestic support decline.[298][299]

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina killed 1,800 people around New Orleans after the
city's levees broke.[300] In 2007, after years of violence by the Iraqi insurgency, Bush
deployed more troops in a strategy dubbed "the surge". While the death toll
decreased, the political stability of Iraq remained in doubt. [301] In 2008, the U.S.
entered the Great Recession.[302][303] Multiple overlapping crises were involved,
especially the housing market crisis, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices,
an automotive industry crisis, rising unemployment, and the worst financial
crisis since the Great Depression. The financial crisis threatened the stability of the
entire economy in September 2008, when Lehman Brothers failed, and other giant
banks were in grave danger.[304] Starting in October, the federal government lent
$245 billion to financial institutions through the bipartisan Troubled Asset Relief
Program.[305][306]

Obama administration
[edit]
Main articles: Great Recession in the United States, Presidency of Barack Obama,
and Tea Party movement
Barack Obama delivering his 2009 inauguration speech

Barack Obama, the first multiracial[307] president, was elected in 2008.[308] He signed
the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act, which allowed people to serve in the military
while openly gay.[309] To help the economy, he signed the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act of 2009,[310] Consumer Assistance to Recycle and Save Act,
[311] the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, informally called "Obamacare",
[312] and the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.[313]
[314] The unemployment rate began falling as the economy and labor markets
experienced a recovery.[315]

These changes to the economic system created new political movements, such as
the Occupy movement and the Tea Party movement.[316] The recession officially
ended in mid-2009.[317] Following the 2010 midterm elections, Congress was
in gridlock,[318] leading to the Budget Control Act of 2011.[319] The economic
expansion that followed the Great Recession was the longest in U.S. history; [320]
[321] the unemployment rate reached a 50-year low in 2019. [322] Despite the strong
economy, increases in the cost of living surpassed increases in wages. [323][324]

In 2009, Obama issued an executive order banning the use of torture.[325][326] He

ordered the closure of secret CIA-run prisons overseas,[327][328] and sought to
close the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, but his efforts were stymied by Congress.
[329][330] American military personnel left Iraq in 2011.[331] Meanwhile, Obama
increased involvement in Afghanistan, adding 30,000 troops, while proposing to
begin withdrawal in 2014.[326] The U.S., with NATO, intervened in the Libyan Civil
War in 2011.[332] In May 2011, Osama bin Laden was killed in Pakistan in a Navy
SEALs raid ordered by Obama. While al-Qaeda was near collapse in Afghanistan,
affiliated organizations continued to operate in Yemen and other remote areas, as the
CIA used drones to hunt down its leadership.[333][334] In October, Obama sent troops
to Central Africa to fight the Lord's Resistance Army.[335]

Following Obama's 2012 re-election, Congressional gridlock continued, resulting in

the first government shutdown since the Clinton administration.[336] In 2012,
the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Newtown, Connecticut, led to
unsuccessful attempts from Obama to promote gun reform.[337] The Boston Marathon
bombing of 2013 killed three people and injured more than 260.[338] In 2013, the U.S.
also started a counter-terrorist intervention in Niger,[339] and began a covert operation
to train rebels in Syria who were fighting against the terrorist group ISIS. The latter
program was publicized and expanded in 2014.[340] That year, ISIS grew in scope in
the Middle East, and inspired many terrorist attacks in the United States, including
the 2015 San Bernardino attack.[341][342][343] The U.S. and its allies began a
significant military offensive against ISIS in Iraq which lasted from 2014 to 2021.[344]
[345] In December 2014, Obama officially ended the combat mission in Afghanistan.
[346]

The White House lit with rainbow colors in

celebration of the legalization of gay marriage in June 2015

The shooting of Black teen Michael Brown by police officer Darren Wilson, and a grand
jury declining to charge Wilson with murder, led to the Ferguson unrest in Missouri in
2014 and 2015.[347] In 2012, President Obama became the first president to openly
support same-sex marriage.[348] The Supreme Court provided federal recognition of
same-sex marriages in 2013,[349] and then legalized gay marriage nationwide
with Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015.[350] Also in 2015, the U.S. joined the
international Paris Agreement on climate change.[351]

First Trump administration

[edit]
Main articles: First presidency of Donald Trump and COVID-19 pandemic in the United
States

A February 2018 demonstration following

the Parkland high school shooting in Parkland, Florida

In November 2016, Donald Trump was elected president.[352] The election's legitimacy
was disputed when the FBI and Congress investigated if Russia interfered in the
election to help Trump win. There were also accusations of collusion between Trump's
campaign and Russian officials. The Mueller report concluded that Russia attempted to
help Trump's campaign, but there was no evidence of "explicit" collusion. [353][354][355]

During Trump's presidency, he espoused an "America First" ideology, placing

restrictions on asylum seekers, expanding the wall on the U.S.-Mexico border,
and banning immigration from seven Muslim-majority countries. Many of his actions
were challenged in court.[356][357][358] He confirmed three new Supreme Court
justices (cementing a conservative majority),[359] started a trade war with China,
[360] signed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, and removed the U.S. from the Paris
Agreement.[351] In 2018, the administration separated families which were illegally
immigrating to the country. After public outcry, Trump rescinded the policy. [361][362] A
whistleblower complaint alleged that Trump had withheld foreign aid from
Ukraine under the demand that they investigate the business dealings of Hunter
Biden; Hunter's father, Democrat Joe Biden, would be Trump's opponent in the 2020
presidential election.[363][364] Trump was impeached for abuse of power and
obstruction of congress, but was acquitted in 2020.[365]

In the 2010s and early 2020s, Americans became more politically polarized.[366][367]
[368] The #MeToo movement exposed alleged sexual harassment and abuse in the
workplace.[369] Many celebrities were accused of misconduct or rape. [370]
[371] The Black Lives Matter movement gained support after multiple police killings of
African-Americans.[372] White supremacy also grew.[373][374][375] The 2017 Women's
March against Trump's presidency was one of the largest protests in American history.
[376] Multiple mass shootings, including the 2016 Pulse Nightclub shooting, 2017 Las
Vegas shooting, and 2018 Parkland shooting, led to increased calls for gun reform,
such as in the March for Our Lives student protest movement.[377][378]

COVID-19 started spreading in China in 2019.[379] In March 2020, the WHO declared
a pandemic.[380] American state and local governments imposed stay-at-home
orders to slow the virus' spread, reducing patient overload in hospitals. By April, the
U.S. had the most cases of any country, at 100,000. [381][382][383] On April 11, the U.S.
death toll became the highest in the world at 20,000, [384] and by May 2022, one
million had died.[385] Unemployment rates were the highest since the Great
Depression.[386][387] The biggest mass vaccination campaign in U.S. history started in
December 2020.[388] The May 2020 murder of George Floyd caused mass protests and
riots in many cities over police brutality.[389] Many organizations attempted to rid
themselves of institutionalized racism.[390] 2020 was also marked by a rise in
domestic terrorist threats and widespread conspiracy theories around mail-in
voting and COVID-19.[391][392][393] The QAnon conspiracy theory gained publicity.[394]
[395] Multiple major cities were hit by rioting and fighting between far-left anti-fascist
groups and far-right groups like the Proud Boys.[396][397]

Supporters of then-President Trump attempting to

stop the counting of electoral votes on January 6, 2021

Joe Biden defeated Trump in the 2020 presidential election.[364] Trump repeatedly
made false claims of massive voter fraud and election rigging, [398][399][400] leading to
the January 6 United States Capitol attack by supporters of Trump and right-wing
militias.[401][402] The attack was widely described as a coup d'état.[403][404][405] It led
to Trump's impeachment for incitement of insurrection, making him the only U.S.
president to be impeached twice.[406][407][408] The Senate later acquitted Trump,
despite some fellow Republicans voting against him. [409][410] Kamala
Harris was inaugurated as the first Black, Asian, and female vice president. [411]

Biden administration
[edit]
Main article: Presidency of Joe Biden

In 2021, Biden finished the withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan which
started under Trump. After an evacuation of over 120,000 American citizens,
Afghanistan fell to the Taliban in August.[412][413][414] Biden signed into law
the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, a $1.9 trillion stimulus bill.[415] He also
proposed a significant expansion of the social safety net through the Build Back Better
Act, but those efforts, along with voting rights legislation, failed in Congress.[416] He
signed bills regarding infrastructure,[417] gun reform,[418] inflation reduction,
[419] and healthcare for veterans,[420] among other issues.[421] New preventative
restrictions were put in place in reaction to the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant.[422][423][424]

In 2022, following Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine, the Biden administration

provided extensive military and economic aid to Ukraine, approving tens of billions of
dollars in assistance and coordinating sanctions against Russia with NATO allies.
[425] The U.S. also supplied advanced weaponry, including artillery and missile defense
systems, while reinforcing NATO’s eastern flank in response to the conflict. [426][427]

Protestors outside the Supreme Court following

the Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization decision in June 2022
In the early 2020s, Republican-led states began rollbacks of LGBT rights.[428] In 2022,
the Supreme Court ruled in Dobbs v. Jackson that having an abortion is not a
protected Constitutional right, overturning Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v.
Casey and sparking nationwide protests.[429][430] Biden appointed Ketanji Brown
Jackson to become the first Black woman to serve on the court.[431] In 2023, Trump
began appearing in court as a defendant in multiple notable criminal trials.[432]
[433] Meanwhile, the U.S. began supporting Israel in the Gaza war[434] and protecting
shipping in the Red Sea from attacks by the Yemeni Houthis.[435]

In May 2024, Trump became the first former president convicted of a crime, when he
was found guilty of 34 felony counts for falsifying business documents related to
his paying off of Stormy Daniels.[436] In July, the Supreme Court ruled in Trump v.
United States that presidents are somewhat immune from criminal prosecution,
helping Trump before his planned election subversion trial.[437][438][439] Later in July,
Biden dropped out of the 2024 race, endorsing Kamala Harris.[440] During the election
season, there were two assassination attempts on Trump.[441] Trump won the 2024
presidential election.[442][443] Biden delivered his farewell address from the Oval Office
on January 15, 2025. He opened with an announcement that a hostage release
deal was reached between Israel and Hamas. Additionally, he advocated for continued
renewable energy investment, strengthening checks and balances in government, and
the dangers of what he termed the ‘tech industrial complex’.[444]

Second Trump administration

[edit]
Main article: Second presidency of Donald Trump

Donald Trump won the 2024 presidential election, becoming only the second
president to be elected to non-consecutive terms after Grover Cleveland. The election
was certified by Congress on January 6, 2025, and Trump assumed office on January
20.[445] On his first day, Trump pardoned about 1,500 people convicted of offenses in
the January 6 Capitol attack of 2021. Within his first month, he signed approximately
70 executive orders (far more than any of his recent predecessors), some of which are
being challenged in court.[446] On immigration, he signed executive orders blocking
asylum-seekers from entry to the U.S., reinstated the national emergency at
the Mexico–U.S. border, designated drug cartels as terrorist organizations, and
attempted to end birthright citizenship. He signed the Laken Riley Act as the first
legislation of his term. Trump established the Department of Government
Efficiency (DOGE), led by the businessman Elon Musk, which is tasked with cutting
spending by the federal government, limiting bureaucracy, and which has
overseen mass layoffs of civil servants.

In international affairs, Trump withdrew the United States from the World Health
Organization and the Paris Climate Accords. He started a trade war with Canada and
Mexico and continued the ongoing trade war with China. He has repeatedly expressed
interest in annexing Canada, Greenland, and the Panama Canal. In response to
the Gaza War, he proposed an American takeover of the Gaza Strip, forcibly
relocating the Palestinian population to other Arab states, and rebuilding Gaza into a
tourist resort. Amid the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Trump administration
temporarily suspended the provision of intelligence and military aid to Ukraine,
offered concessions to Russia, requested half of Ukraine's oil and minerals as
repayment for American support, and said that Ukraine bore partial responsibility for
the invasion. The administration resumed the aid after Ukraine agreed to a potential
ceasefire.[447]

See also
[edit]
 United States portal

 American urban history

 Bibliography of American history
 Colonial history of the United States
 Economic history of the United States
 History of agriculture in the United States
 History of education in the United States
 History of United States foreign policy
 History of immigration to the United States
 History of North America
 History of religion in the United States
 History of the Southern United States
 History of the United States government
 History of women in the United States
 List of historians by area of study
 List of history journals
 List of presidents of the United States
 Military history of the United States
 Outline of the history of the United States
 Politics of the United States
 Racism in the United States
 Territorial evolution of the United States
 Territories of the United States
 United States factor
 An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States

Notes
[edit]

1. ^ 'In addition, he [i.e., Sweyn Estridsson, king of Denmark (reigned 1047–1076)] named
one more island in this ocean, discovered by many, which is called "Vinland", because
vines grow wild there, making the best wine. For [that] crops [that are] not sown,
abound there, we learn not from fanciful opinion but from the true account of the
Danes.'[20]
2. ^ Howe argued that, "American imperialism did not represent an American consensus; it
provoked bitter dissent within the national polity."[102]
3. ^ The Seneca Falls Convention was preceded by the Anti-Slavery Convention of
American Women in 1837 held in New York City, at which women's rights issues were
debated, especially African-American women's rights.[106]
4. ^ A new way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of
men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least
627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died through the
war.[125][126]

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