CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a deeply entrenched cultural
practice that affects millions of women and girls worldwide. It
involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia or
other forms of injury to female genital organs for non-medical
reasons. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes FGM as
a violation of human rights with no health benefits but severe
physical and psychological consequences. Globally, more than 230
million girls and women alive today have undergone FGM,
primarily in Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia. 1 While the
global prevalence of FGM has declined over the past decades due
to increasing advocacy, legal prohibitions, and educational
campaigns, the practice remains deeply rooted in some
communities.2
Africa bears the highest burden of FGM, with over 144 million
cases occurring on the continent.3 The practice is most prevalent in
countries such as Somalia, Guinea, Djibouti, Mali, Egypt and
Sudan, where over 85% of women have undergone the procedure.4
Despite growing awareness and legal frameworks criminalizing
FGM in several African nations, the practice persists due to
cultural traditions, gender norms, and societal pressure.
In West Africa, FGM is widespread, with varying prevalence across
countries. Mali, Sierra Leone, and Guinea have some of the highest
rates, with over 75% of women affected.5 In contrast, countries like
Ghana and Togo have lower prevalence rates, primarily due to
strict legal enforcement and community-based interventions.
However, social norms and intergenerational transmission of the
practice still pose significant challenges to eradication efforts.
Despite regional variations, FGM in West Africa is often performed
at a young age and is deeply integrated into traditional and
religious practices.6
Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa, has one of the highest
absolute numbers of women affected by FGM, with an estimated
19.9 million survivors.7 The practice varies widely across the
country, with the highest prevalence in the South-South (77%),
South-East (68%), and South-West (65%) regions.8 While the
federal government has enacted laws against FGM, enforcement
remains inconsistent, and many cases go unreported due to
cultural sensitivity and secrecy surrounding the practice. FGM is
commonly performed by traditional practitioners, although some
cases involve medical personnel, leading to the phenomenon of
"medicalization".9
In South-West Nigeria, where Oyo State is located, FGM is deeply
ingrained in cultural traditions. The practice is particularly
common among the Yoruba ethnic group, where it is often justified
as a means of preserving a girl's purity and preventing
promiscuity.10 Studies indicate that despite awareness of its
harmful effects, many families continue the practice due to societal
expectations, family pressure, and the belief that it enhances social
acceptance.11
Oyo State has one of the highest FGM prevalence rates in the
South-West region, with traditional and religious influences
sustaining its practice.12 In both urban and rural communities, FGM
is often conducted in secrecy, sometimes before a girl reaches
puberty. Although government and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) have made efforts to curb FGM through
awareness campaigns and legal actions, progress remains slow due
to deep-rooted cultural beliefs and resistance to change.
Ogbomoso, a major urban center in Oyo State, presents a unique
case for studying FGM. The city, known for its rich cultural
heritage, has diverse population groups with varying perspectives
on the practice. While urbanization and education have contributed
to a decline in FGM among younger generations, traditional beliefs
and family customs continue to influence its prevalence. However,
limited research has been conducted on the prevalence and
determinants of FGM in Ogbomoso, making it necessary to
investigate the factors sustaining this harmful practice and develop
targeted interventions to address it.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Female genital mutilation (FGM) remains a significant public
health and human rights issue with severe physical, psychological,
and social consequences for affected women. Despite global and
national efforts to eliminate the practice, it continues to persist,
particularly in communities where cultural traditions and societal
expectations strongly influence behaviors. FGM is associated with
short-term complications such as severe pain, excessive bleeding,
infections, and even death, as well as long-term consequences
including chronic pelvic infections, childbirth complications, sexual
dysfunction, and psychological trauma.13, 14 These health
implications contribute to maternal and neonatal morbidity, making
FGM a pressing concern in healthcare and human rights advocacy.
In Nigeria, despite legal frameworks banning FGM, the practice
remains widespread, particularly in the southwestern region,
where cultural and traditional norms uphold its continuation. Many
families subject their daughters to FGM due to beliefs that it
preserves virginity, enhances marriageability, or fulfills traditional
rites. In Oyo State, studies indicate that the practice is still
performed, often in secrecy, making it difficult to monitor and
enforce anti-FGM laws.15
Ogbomoso, a major urban center in Oyo State, provides a unique
setting to examine the persistence of FGM. Although modernization
and education have led to increased awareness about its harmful
effects, the practice continues in some communities due to
intergenerational transmission and societal pressure. However,
there is a lack of empirical data on the prevalence, determinants,
and health consequences of FGM in Ogbomoso. Without such data,
policymakers, healthcare providers, and advocacy groups may
struggle to design effective interventions tailored to the local
context.
This study aims to fill this gap by investigating the prevalence of
FGM and identifying the social, cultural, and demographic factors
influencing its practice among women in Ogbomoso. The findings
will provide evidence-based insights necessary for formulating
targeted interventions, health education campaigns, and policy
recommendations to reduce the prevalence of FGM and mitigate its
consequences.
References
1. World Health Organization. Female genital mutilation: key facts. WHO;
2022. Available from:
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-
mutilation
2. UNFPA. Female genital mutilation: progress at risk. UNFPA; 2021.
3. UNICEF. Female Genital Mutilation: A Global Concern. UNICEF; 2024.
Available from: https://data.unicef.org/resources/female-genital-mutilation-a-global-
concern-2024/
4. World Bank. Prevalence of female genital mutilation (FGM) in Africa.
2023. Available from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.FGMS.ZS?
most_recent_value_desc=true
5. 28 Too Many. Country profile: FGM in West Africa. 28 Too Many; 2018.
6. Berg RC, Denison E. Interventions to reduce the prevalence of female
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