BHAGWAN MAHAVIR COLLEGE OF

COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES

COURSE: TYBMS (SEM-VI)

SUBJECT: IHRM

UNIT– 2: MANAGING CULTURE DIVERSITY

PREPARED BY: KHUSHBOO LALWANI

Contents
2.1 Cross cultural differences in workplace ........................................................................................ 5
1. Communication Styles ........................................................................................................... 6
2. Hierarchy and Authority......................................................................................................... 6
3. Work Ethic and Time Management ........................................................................................ 6
4. Conflict Resolution ................................................................................................................ 6
5. Teamwork and Collaboration ................................................................................................. 6
6. Workplace Etiquette and Customs .......................................................................................... 7
7. Leadership and Management Practices ................................................................................... 7
2.2 Cultural Sensitivity ...................................................................................................................... 7
1. Recruitment and Selection...................................................................................................... 8
2. Training and Development ..................................................................................................... 8
3. Performance Management ...................................................................................................... 8
4. Compensation and Benefits .................................................................................................... 8
5. Employee Relations ............................................................................................................... 8
6. Cross-Cultural Communication .............................................................................................. 8
7. Global Leadership Development ............................................................................................ 9
2.3 Cross-Cultural Communication and Negotiation Process: Planning and Parameters ...................... 9
1. Research and Understanding: ..................................................................................................... 9
2. Building Relationships: .............................................................................................................. 9
3. Communication Strategy: ............................................................................................................ 10
4. Negotiation Approach: ................................................................................................................. 10
5. Cultural Sensitivity: ..................................................................................................................... 10
6. Adaptability and Flexibility: ........................................................................................................ 10
7. Conflict Resolution: ..................................................................................................................... 11
8. Continuous Learning and Improvement: ...................................................................................... 11
2.4 Types and Strategies of Organizational Culture .......................................................................... 11
1. Hierarchical Culture: ............................................................................................................ 12
2. Clan Culture: ....................................................................................................................... 12
3. Adhocracy Culture: .............................................................................................................. 12
4. Market Culture:.................................................................................................................... 12
5. Bureaucratic Culture: ........................................................................................................... 13
6. Innovative Culture: .............................................................................................................. 13
7. Ethical Culture: .................................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Stages and Process of Expatriation and Repatriation .................................................................. 14
1. Pre-Departure Stage: ................................................................................................................ 14
2. Arrival and Adjustment Stage: ................................................................................................. 14
3. Integration and Performance Stage: .......................................................................................... 14
4. Repatriation Planning Stage: .................................................................................................... 14
5. Repatriation Stage:................................................................................................................... 15
6. Post-Repatriation Evaluation Stage: ......................................................................................... 15
2.1 Cross cultural differences in workplace

Cross-cultural differences in the workplace refer to the variations in behaviors,

communication styles, work habits, and values among individuals from
different cultural backgrounds. These differences can arise due to factors such
as nationality, ethnicity, religion, language, and societal norms. Understanding
and managing these differences is essential for promoting inclusivity, fostering
collaboration, and maximizing productivity in multicultural work environments.
Here are some key areas where cross-cultural differences can manifest in the
workplace:

1. Communication Styles: Different cultures have distinct communication

styles, which can affect how individuals express themselves, convey
information, and interpret messages. For example, some cultures may
value direct and assertive communication, while others may prefer
indirect and subtle communication. These differences can lead to
misunderstandings, misinterpretations, and ineffective communication if
not addressed appropriately.

2. Hierarchy and Authority: Cultural norms regarding hierarchy,

authority, and power dynamics can vary significantly across cultures. In
some cultures, there is a strong emphasis on hierarchical structures and
deference to authority figures, whereas in others, there may be a more
egalitarian approach with less emphasis on formal authority. These
differences can influence decision-making processes, leadership styles,
and team dynamics in the workplace.

3. Work Ethic and Time Management: Cultural differences in work ethic,

attitudes toward work, and perceptions of time can impact productivity
and efficiency in the workplace. For example, cultures that prioritize
punctuality, efficiency, and task-oriented work may clash with cultures
that value flexibility, relationship-building, and a more relaxed approach
to time management. Bridging these differences requires sensitivity,
flexibility, and open communication.

4. Conflict Resolution: Cultural differences can influence how individuals

approach conflict, handle disagreements, and resolve disputes in the
workplace. Some cultures may prefer direct confrontation and open
discussion of issues, while others may prioritize harmony, consensus-
building, and avoiding confrontation. Effective conflict resolution
strategies should take into account cultural sensitivities and preferences to
reach mutually satisfactory outcomes.

5. Teamwork and Collaboration: Cultural differences can impact

teamwork dynamics, collaboration styles, and decision-making processes
 within multicultural teams. Some cultures may emphasize individual
achievement and competition, while others may prioritize collective
goals, consensus-building, and group harmony. Building a cohesive and
high-performing multicultural team requires fostering mutual respect,
trust, and understanding of diverse perspectives.

6. Workplace Etiquette and Customs: Cultural norms regarding

workplace etiquette, dress code, social interactions, and professional
conduct can vary widely across cultures. What may be considered
appropriate behaviour in one culture may be perceived differently in
another. Cultural sensitivity training and awareness-building initiatives
can help employees navigate these differences and avoid unintentional
cultural faux pas.

7. Leadership and Management Practices: Leadership and management

practices can be influenced by cultural values, norms, and expectations.
Effective leaders in multicultural environments are adaptable, culturally
competent, and capable of leveraging diversity as a strength. They
recognize and respect cultural differences, promote inclusive decision-
making processes, and foster a supportive work environment where all
employees feel valued and empowered.

Overall, cross-cultural differences in the workplace present both challenges and

opportunities for organizations operating in diverse global environments. By
promoting cultural awareness, fostering open communication, and embracing
diversity, organizations can harness the collective strengths of their
multicultural workforce and achieve sustainable success in today's
interconnected world.

2.2 Cultural Sensitivity

Cultural sensitivity in international human resource management (IHRM) is

crucial for effectively managing a diverse workforce across different countries
and cultures. It involves recognizing, respecting, and accommodating cultural
differences in various aspects of HRM practices, policies, and strategies. Here's
how cultural sensitivity is applied in IHRM:
1. Recruitment and Selection: Cultural sensitivity influences the
recruitment and selection process by considering cultural factors such as
language proficiency, cultural fit, and work values. HR managers need to
understand the cultural nuances of different regions to attract and select
candidates who align with the organizational culture while respecting
local customs and practices.

2. Training and Development: Cultural sensitivity is essential in designing

training and development programs that are culturally appropriate and
relevant to employees from diverse backgrounds. Training initiatives
should take into account cultural differences in learning styles,
communication preferences, and work attitudes to ensure effectiveness
and engagement across multicultural teams.

3. Performance Management: Cultural sensitivity plays a role in

performance management practices, including goal setting, feedback, and
performance appraisal. HR managers need to consider cultural
differences in perceptions of performance, approaches to feedback, and
expectations regarding recognition and rewards to ensure fairness and
accuracy in performance evaluations.

4. Compensation and Benefits: Cultural sensitivity influences decisions

related to compensation and benefits to account for differences in cost of
living, labor market conditions, and cultural expectations regarding
rewards and incentives. HR managers need to balance global consistency
with local relevance to ensure that compensation packages are
competitive and equitable across diverse geographic locations.

5. Employee Relations: Cultural sensitivity is essential in managing

employee relations and resolving conflicts in multicultural workplaces.
HR managers need to understand cultural differences in communication
styles, conflict resolution approaches, and attitudes toward authority and
hierarchy to foster positive working relationships and collaboration
among employees from different cultural backgrounds.

6. Cross-Cultural Communication: Cultural sensitivity is critical for

effective cross-cultural communication in IHRM. HR managers need to
communicate policies, procedures, and organizational goals in a manner
that is culturally sensitive and inclusive, taking into account language
 barriers, cultural norms, and communication preferences across different
cultures.

7. Global Leadership Development: Cultural sensitivity is integral to

developing global leaders who can navigate and succeed in diverse
cultural contexts. HR managers need to provide leadership development
programs that foster cultural intelligence, cross-cultural communication
skills, and a deep understanding of cultural differences to enable leaders
to effectively lead and manage multicultural teams across borders.

Overall, cultural sensitivity is essential in international human resource

management to promote inclusivity, respect diversity, and enhance
organizational effectiveness in a globalized world. By integrating cultural
sensitivity into HRM practices and strategies, organizations can leverage the
strengths of a diverse workforce and achieve sustainable success in the
international marketplace.

2.3 Cross-Cultural Communication and Negotiation Process: Planning and

Parameters

1. Research and Understanding:

 Planning: Before engaging in cross-cultural communication and
negotiation, thoroughly research and understand the cultural norms,
values, communication styles, and business practices of the other party's
culture.

 Parameters: Identify key cultural differences and potential areas of

misunderstanding to guide your communication and negotiation strategy
effectively.

2. Building Relationships:
 Planning: Cultivate rapport and trust through relationship-building
efforts, such as demonstrating respect for cultural customs, showing
genuine interest in the other party's culture, and establishing common
ground.

 Parameters: Be mindful of cultural norms related to greetings, gestures,

and interpersonal interactions to avoid unintentional offense and foster
positive relationships.
3. Communication Strategy:
 Planning: Develop a communication strategy that considers cultural
differences in language, nonverbal communication, and communication
hierarchy.

 Parameters: Adapt your communication style, tone, and language to

align with the cultural preferences of the other party, such as using formal
or informal language, direct or indirect communication, and high or low
context communication.

4. Negotiation Approach:
 Planning: Tailor your negotiation approach to accommodate cultural
differences in negotiation style, decision-making processes, and conflict
resolution strategies.

 Parameters: Be flexible and open-minded in your negotiation approach,

allowing for cultural variations in negotiation tactics, negotiation pace,
and negotiation outcomes.

5. Cultural Sensitivity:
 Planning: Prioritize cultural sensitivity and awareness throughout the
communication and negotiation process, showing respect for cultural
differences and avoiding ethnocentric assumptions.

 Parameters: Demonstrate sensitivity to cultural nuances and customs,

such as addressing individuals by their appropriate titles, respecting
hierarchical structures, and considering cultural taboos and sensitivities.

6. Adaptability and Flexibility:

 Planning: Prepare to adapt and adjust your communication and
negotiation approach based on real-time feedback and observations of the
other party's responses.

 Parameters: Remain flexible and agile in your communication and

negotiation strategy, willing to modify your tactics and objectives to
accommodate cultural differences and facilitate mutual understanding.
7. Conflict Resolution:
 Planning: Anticipate potential conflicts or misunderstandings arising
from cultural differences and proactively develop strategies for
constructive conflict resolution.

 Parameters: Approach conflicts with patience, empathy, and a

willingness to compromise, seeking mutually beneficial solutions that
respect the cultural perspectives and interests of all parties involved.

8. Continuous Learning and Improvement:

 Planning: Commit to ongoing learning and improvement in cross-
cultural communication and negotiation skills by seeking feedback,
reflecting on past experiences, and expanding your cultural awareness.

 Parameters: Embrace opportunities for cross-cultural learning and

development, such as cultural immersion experiences, intercultural
training programs, and mentorship from experienced negotiators in
diverse cultural contexts.

By incorporating these planning considerations and parameters into the cross-

cultural communication and negotiation process, individuals and organizations
can enhance their effectiveness in navigating cultural differences, building
successful relationships, and achieving mutually beneficial outcomes in diverse
global environments.

2.4 Types and Strategies of Organizational Culture

Organizational culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, norms, and practices
that shape the behavior and interactions of individuals within an organization.
Various types of organizational culture exist, each with its unique
characteristics and strategies. Below are some common types and corresponding
strategies:
1. Hierarchical Culture:
 Characteristics: This culture emphasizes formal structures, clear
lines of authority, and adherence to rules and procedures. Decision-
making is centralized, and there is a strong focus on stability and
control.

 Strategies: Implement clear hierarchical structures, establish

formal policies and procedures, emphasize compliance with rules
and regulations, and promote a sense of order and stability.

2. Clan Culture:
 Characteristics: Clan cultures prioritize collaboration, teamwork,
and mutual support. Employees often feel like they are part of a
family, with a strong emphasis on mentorship, employee
development, and shared values.

 Strategies: Foster open communication and collaboration,

encourage employee involvement in decision-making, promote
team-building activities and social events, and emphasize the
importance of employee engagement and satisfaction.

3. Adhocracy Culture:
 Characteristics: Adhocracy cultures are dynamic, innovative, and
flexible. They value creativity, experimentation, and risk-taking,
with an emphasis on adaptability and agility in responding to
change.

 Strategies: Encourage experimentation and innovation, empower

employees to take risks and pursue new ideas, foster a culture of
continuous learning and improvement, and provide resources and
support for entrepreneurial initiatives.

4. Market Culture:
 Characteristics: Market cultures are results-oriented, competitive,
and customer-focused. They prioritize achieving business
objectives, meeting market demands, and delivering high-quality
products or services.

 Strategies: Set clear performance objectives and targets,

incentivize achievement of goals and targets, foster a sense of
 competitiveness and urgency, and prioritize customer satisfaction
and market responsiveness.

5. Bureaucratic Culture:
 Characteristics: Bureaucratic cultures are characterized by strict
adherence to rules, procedures, and formalities. They prioritize
stability, predictability, and consistency, often resulting in slower
decision-making processes.

 Strategies: Streamline bureaucratic processes and procedures,

promote accountability and transparency in decision-making,
empower employees to challenge and improve existing systems,
and seek opportunities for innovation within established
frameworks.

6. Innovative Culture:
 Characteristics: Innovative cultures value creativity,
experimentation, and risk-taking. They encourage employees to
challenge the status quo, explore new ideas, and embrace change as
an opportunity for growth.

 Strategies: Foster a culture of curiosity and exploration, provide

resources and support for innovation initiatives, reward and
recognize creative thinking and problem-solving, and create a
psychologically safe environment for taking calculated risks.

7. Ethical Culture:
 Characteristics: Ethical cultures prioritize integrity, honesty, and
ethical behavior in all aspects of organizational operations. They
emphasize compliance with laws, regulations, and ethical
standards, as well as a commitment to social responsibility.

 Strategies: Lead by example with ethical leadership, establish

clear ethical guidelines and codes of conduct, provide ethics
training and education for employees, encourage open
communication and reporting of ethical concerns, and hold
individuals accountable for unethical behavior.

Organizations may exhibit a combination of these culture types, with one

culture being more dominant depending on factors such as leadership style,
industry dynamics, and organizational history. Effective leaders understand the
nuances of different culture types and employ strategies that align with their
organization's values, goals, and objectives.

2.5 Stages and Process of Expatriation and Repatriation

1. Pre-Departure Stage:
 Selection and Preparation: This stage involves selecting suitable
candidates for expatriation based on skills, experience, and cultural
adaptability. Once selected, candidates undergo pre-departure training,
which includes language and cultural training, as well as information
about the host country's business practices and social customs.

2. Arrival and Adjustment Stage:

 Orientation: Upon arrival in the host country, expatriates undergo
orientation to familiarize themselves with the local environment,
including housing, transportation, healthcare, and schooling (if
applicable).

 Cultural Adjustment: Expatriates experience a period of cultural

adjustment, which may involve dealing with language barriers, adapting
to new work practices, and understanding cultural norms and values.

3. Integration and Performance Stage:

 Building Relationships: Expatriates focus on building relationships with
local colleagues, clients, and stakeholders to facilitate collaboration and
teamwork.

 Performance Management: Expatriates are evaluated based on their

performance against established objectives and goals. Continuous
feedback and support are provided to ensure their success in the host
country.

4. Repatriation Planning Stage:

 Career Planning: Organizations develop repatriation plans to facilitate
the transition of expatriates back to their home country. This may involve
discussing career goals and opportunities upon return.

 Knowledge Transfer: Knowledge transfer sessions are conducted to

ensure that expatriates share their experiences, insights, and expertise
with colleagues in the home office.
  Expectation Management: Organizations manage the expectations of
expatriates regarding their roles, responsibilities, and career progression
upon repatriation.

5. Repatriation Stage:
 Reverse Culture Shock: Expatriates may experience reverse culture
shock upon returning home, as they readjust to their home country's
culture, work environment, and lifestyle.

 Career Transition: Expatriates transition back into their roles in the

home office or take on new assignments within the organization. Career
progression opportunities and support are provided to facilitate their
reintegration.

 Retention and Engagement: Organizations focus on retaining

repatriated employees by recognizing their contributions, providing
opportunities for continued development, and addressing any concerns or
challenges they may face during the repatriation process.

6. Post-Repatriation Evaluation Stage:

 Feedback and Evaluation: Both the organization and the repatriated
employee provide feedback on the expatriation experience, including
strengths, areas for improvement, and lessons learned.

 Continuous Improvement: Organizations use feedback and evaluation

data to refine their expatriation and repatriation processes, address any
gaps or challenges, and enhance the overall expatriate experience for
future assignments.

By following these stages and processes, organizations can effectively manage

the expatriation and repatriation of employees, ensuring their success and
satisfaction throughout the international assignment lifecycle.
Hofstede’s Dimension Theory
One of the commonly used cultural dimensions is Geert Hofstede’s Cultural
Dimensions, where cultural data was initially collected from IBM employees
from 70 countries, then further enhanced with data from commercial airline
pilots and students in 23 countries, civil service managers in 14 countries,
“up-market” consumers in 15 countries and “elites” in 19 countries.

The contributions from all this research data validated earlier findings and
helped Hofstede to develop a model that identifies four
primaries “Dimensions of Culture” to assist in differentiating cultures. A fifth
dimension was added after conducting an additional international study
developed with Chinese employees and managers and was applied to 23
countries.
 Power Distance Index – PDI
 Individualism – IDV
 Masculinity – MAS
 Uncertainty Avoidance Index – UAI
 Long Term Orientation – LTO

Power Distance Index – PDI

PDI refers to the degree of inequality that exists – and is accepted – especially
by the less powerful members of a group, organization, institution or society.
A high PDI score indicates that society accepts an unequal distribution of
power and that people understand “their place” in the system. Low PD means
that power is shared and well dispersed. It also means that society members
accept themselves as unequal.

In organizations, an illustration of a high PDI score is generally represented as

a highly vertical hierarchical pyramid. Subordinates are often told what to do
and do not feel entitled to discuss the decisions of their superiors.

 High PDI also means that the higher a person is in the hierarchy, the
more difficult this person is to approach. Barriers can be in the form
of persons such as secretaries who serve as ‘gatekeepers preventing
access to the manager or symbols such as the executive dining room
which is separate from the staff cafeteria.

 Low PDI would be found in organizations with a flatter hierarchical

pyramid. Subordinates and superiors are in a more collaborative
relationship and hierarchy tends to be perceived as a distinction of a
task rather than of persons.
According to Hofstede’s model, in a high PDI country such as Malaysia (104),
you would probably send reports only to top management and have closed-
door meetings where only a select few, powerful leaders were present.

Individualism – IDV
IDV refers to the strength of the ties people have to others within the
community. A high IDV score indicates loose connections.

 In countries with a high IDV score, there is a lack of interpersonal

connection, and little sharing of responsibility beyond family and
perhaps a few close friends.

 A society with a low IDV score would have strong group cohesion,
and there would be a large amount of loyalty and respect for
members of the group. The group itself is also larger and people take
more responsibility for each other’s well being.
IBM respondents were asked to grade how important work goals were for
choosing an ideal job. Independence from the organization was interpreted as
an indicator of respondents individualism and they preferred to be managed
as individuals who chose work goals dependent on the organization were
seen as expressing collectivist characteristics –a preference for being
managed as a member of an in-group (the organization).

Illustrations of Individualism in the workplace can be found in employees

preference to be able to work independently and to praise individual decision-
making. Collectivism can be seen in the preference for the collective
organization of work and responsibility.

Hofstede’s analysis suggests that in the Central American countries of Panama

and Guatemala where the IDV scores are very low (11 and 6, respectively), a
marketing campaign that emphasized benefits to the community or that tied
into a popular political movement would likely be understood and well-
received.

Masculinity – MAS
MAS refers to how much a society sticks with, and values, traditional male and
female roles. High MAS scores are found in countries where men are expected
to be “tough,” to be the provider, and to be assertive whereas females tend to
express preferences for the interpersonal aspect of work (‘working with
people who cooperate well with one another, ‘having a good working
relationship with you
These differences relate to gender role patterns present in many societies.
Hofstede labels this dimension as Masculinity versus Femininity. This
dimension expresses values such as assertiveness of the person (Masculinity)
and care and attention to the social surroundings (Femininity).

Japan is highly masculine with a score of 95 whereas Sweden has the lowest
measured value only 5. According to Hofstede’s analysis, if you were to open
an office in Japan, you might have greater success if you appointed a male
employee to lead the team and had a strong male contingent on the team. In
Sweden, on the other hand, you would aim for a team that was balanced in
terms of skill rather than gender.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index – UAI

This relates to the degree of anxiety society members feel when in uncertain
or unknown situations. High UAI-scoring nations try to avoid ambiguous
situations whenever possible. They are governed by rules and order and they
seek a collective “truth.” Low UAI scores indicate the society enjoys novel
events and values differences. There are very few rules and people are
encouraged to discover their own truth.

From the IBM employees’responses, Hofstede found that some questions

provided an indicator of employees’(in) tolerance of ambiguity. He argued
that a high Uncertainty Avoidance is expressed for example, by a company’s
need for regulations which endeavor to minimize uncertainties in the
behavior of its employees.

Company rules are seen as something that ‘should not be broken, even when
the employee thinks it is in the company’s best interest’. In such an
environment, work stress is often high. Conversely in a low Uncertainty
Avoidance work environment, work stress is lower as employees seem to be
less affected by uncertainty such as security of employment.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions imply that when discussing a project with

people in Belgium, whose country scored a 94 on the UAI scale, you should
investigate the various options and then present a limited number of choices,
but have very detailed information available on your contingency and risk
plans. (Note that there will be cultural differences between French and Dutch
speakers in Belgium.
Long Term Orientation – LTO
This refers to how much society values long standing –as opposed to short
term –traditions and values. This is the fifth dimension of national culture that
Hofstede added in the 1990s in another study designed to counterbalance the
potential Western bias of the IBM questionnaire after finding that Asian
countries with a strong link to Confucian philosophy acted differently from
western cultures. In countries with a high LTO score, delivering on social
obligations and avoiding “loss of face” are considered very important.

Hofstede’s interpretation of the two poles of this dimension is the unique

importance given to values ‘fostering virtues oriented toward future
rewards’(e.g., ‘persistence, perseverance’) as opposed to values ‘fostering
virtues related to the present and past’(e.g., ‘stability’, ‘respect for tradition’).
Hofstede adopted this cultural dimension as ‘Long-term versus Short-term
Orientation’.

According to Hofstede’s analysis, people in the United States and United

Kingdom have low LTO scores. This suggests that you can pretty much expect
anything in this culture in terms of creative expression and novel ideas. The
model implies that people in the U.S. and U.K. don’t value tradition as much as
many others, and are therefore likely to be willing to help you execute the
most innovative plans as long as they get to participate fully. (This may be
surprising to people in the UK, with its associations of tradition.)

Hofstede’s Contribution to
International Management
Hofstede’s contribution to management is worth mentioning where he could
identify cultural dimensions with hard data and made comparisons across
countries to show the culture’s consequences in managerial behaviors.

Previously, culture was viewed as a soft dimension that couldn’t be quantified

nor measured. Hofstede changed this perception of culture and showed that
culture is composed of recognizable dimensions, centered on values and
relatively stable over time. Hofstede shows that national cultures and be
perceived and measured through 5 dimensions which have implications to
management and performance of firms.
These dimensions are said to be universal because they appear to be
fundamental issues with which all societies have to cope and have
implications in work places. Power Distance deals with human inequality,
Uncertainty Avoidance with the level of stress caused by an unknown future,
Individualism versus Collectivism deals with individuals’relationships with
primary groups, Masculinity versus Femininity relates to emotional role
differentiation, and finally, Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation deals
with people’s choice of focus for their actions.

Hofstede’s definition of culture presents ‘traditional’ (i.e. historically derived

and selected) ideas and especially their attached ‘values’as ‘the essential core
of culture’(Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952: 181). Individuals raised in a society
have acquired components of the national culture and its implicit values to
which they are exposed from early childhood. Culture is learned partly
unconsciously; cultural values are deep-rooted.

This is what Hofstede calls the ‘mental programming’that influences people’s

thinking and action. He argues that this mental programming is at the source
of differences in management practices across countries.

Strengths of Hofstede’s work

 The information population (IBM employees) is controlled across
countries, which means comparison can be made.
 The connotations of each dimension are highly relevant. The
questions asked in the questionnaire relate to issues of importance to
international managers.
 No other study compares national cultures in so much detail.
Weaknesses of Hofstede’s work
 First, concerns have been raised regarding Hofstede’s methodology
(the use of a survey questionnaire, the original IBM sample and a
mismatch that can be perceived between some dimensions and their
measurement).
 A second theme is the choice of nation to study culture (not
respecting multicultural nations).
 A third one is the obsolescence of the data (collected between 1967
and 1973).
Trompenaars & Hamden-Turner’s
Seven Dimensions of Culture
Like Hofstede, Trompenaars (1997) also proposed comparing countries using
cultural dimensions. The Seven Dimensions of Culture were identified by
management consultants FonsTrompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner,
and the model was published in their 1997 book, “Riding the Waves of
Culture.”
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner concluded that what distinguishes people
from one culture compared with another is where these preferences fall on
each of the following seven dimensions:

1. Universalism versus Particularism

2. Individualism versus Communitarianism
3. Specific versus Diffuse
4. Neutral versus Emotional
5. Achievement versus Ascription
6. Sequential Time versus Synchronous Time
7. Internal Direction versus Outer Direction

Kluckhohn &Strodbeck’s Cultural

Demensions
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck and their research associates identified a set of six
basic cultural orientations with two or three possible variations each. The six
value orientations are:

1. Relationships to nature: People have a need or duty to control or

master nature (domination), to submit to nature (subjugation), or to
work together with nature to maintain harmony and balance
(harmony).

2. Beliefs about human nature: People are inherently good, evil, or a

mixture of good and evil.

3. Relationships between people: The greatest concern and

responsibility is for one’s self and immediate family (individualist),
 for one’s own group that is defined in different ways (collateral), or
for one’s groups that are arranged in a rigid hierarchy (hierarchical).

4. Nature of human activity: People should concentrate on living for

the moment (being), striving for goals (achieving), or reflecting
(thinking).

5. Conception of space: The physical space we use is private, public, or

a mixture of public and private.

6. Orientation to time: People should make decisions with respect to

traditions or events in the past, events in the present, or events in the
future.

Hall’s Cultural Dimensions

Edward T. Hall (1981, 1990), a noted American cultural anthropologist, has
proposed a model of culture based on his ethnographic research in several
societies, notably Germany, France, the US, and Japan. His research focuses
primarily on how cultures vary in interpersonal communication, but also
includes work on personal space and time.

GLOBE Project’s Nine Dimensions of Culture

Finally, in one of the most ambitious efforts to study cultural dimensions,
Robert House led an international team of researchers that focused primarily
on understanding the influence of cultural differences on leadership processes
(House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta, 2004). Their investigation was
called the “GLOBE study”for Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior
Effectiveness. In their research, the GLOBE researchers identified nine cultural
dimensions.

The nine dimensions are:

 Assertiveness: The United States, Austria, Germany, and Greece are

high; Sweden, Japan, and New Zealand are low.

 Future Orientation: A propensity for planning, investing, delayed

gratification: Singapore, Switzerland, and the Netherlands are high;
Russia, Argentina, and Italy are low.
 Gender Differentiation: The degree to which gender role
differences are maximized: South Korea, Egypt, India, and the China
are high; Hungary, Poland, and Denmark are low.

 Uncertainty Avoidance: A reliance on societal norms and

procedures to improve predictability, a preference for order,
structure, and formality: Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany are
high; Russia, Bolivia, and Greece are low.

 Power Distance: Russia, Thailand, and Spain are high; Denmark, the
Netherlands, and Israel are low.

 Institutional Collectivism (individualism vs. collectivism):

Promoting active participation in social institutions: Sweden, South
Korea, and Japan are high; Greece, Argentina, and Italy are low.

 In-group/family collectivism: A pride in small-group membership,

family, close friends, etc.: Iran, India, and China are high; Denmark,
Sweden, and New Zealand are low.

 Performance Orientation (much like achievement orientation):

Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States are high; Russia,
Argentina, and Italy are low.

 Humane Orientation: An emphasis on fairness, altruism, and

generosity: Ireland, Malaysia, and Egypt are high; Germany, Spain,
France, Singapore, and Brazil are low.