WRITTEN REPORT IN

SCIENCE 10

The Rock
Cycle

Rechlyn Ydagdag
Grade 10 Amethyst
Mrs, Lalaine Javier
THE ROCK CYCLE
The rock cycle describes the processes through which the three main rock types (igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary) transform from one type into another. The formation,
movement and transformation of rocks results from Earth’s internal heat, pressure from
tectonic processes, and the effects of water, wind, gravity, and biological (including human)
activities. The texture, structure, and composition of a rock indicate the conditions under
which it formed and tell us about the history of the Earth.

Rock Types
The three main types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks: form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
Sedimentary rocks: are formed from the accumulation and cementation of sediments (small
pieces of rock, sand, etc.).
Metamorphic rocks: are formed when existing rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or
chemical reactions.
Processes of the Rock Cycle:
Weathering: The breakdown of rocks at or near the Earth's surface into smaller pieces
through physical or chemical processes.
Erosion: Erosion too is the natural process of breaking down rocks into sand-like particles.
The only difference between weathering to erosion is the presence of agents like water and
wind. In the previous one, water was only present as a factor for reactions to take place
while in erosion, it acts as a transporting agent too.
Deposition: Sediment is the constant deposition or settling down of small particles of sand,
pebbles, etc. that is broken down from rocks. It is usually done by-
Wind and water- Water in the rivers and glaciers from mountains slowly erode sand
particles and create layers of sediments.
Biological Influence- Living organisms die and get sedimented under great pressure to form
rocks.
Evaporation- Chemicals like CaCO3 and NaCl are sedimented in troughs and seashores to
create limestones and rock salts respectively.
Lithification: The process by which sediments are compacted and cemented together to
form sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphism: The transformation of rocks into new types through heat and pressure.
Melting: The reverse of the previous process is melting. As soon as the rocks reach the
bottom of the earth, the more the temperature rises and so does the pressure. Soon, they
melt and give rise to melted rocks called lava. This, in turn, is erupted only to cool down at
the surface to form rocks. Some rocks do not erupt and are forced to change characteristics
to give rise to new forms of rock.
What Are the Factors That Influence the
Rock Cycle?

The rocks cycle is the result of Earth’s geological activities. Therefore, rock
cycles depend upon two essential factors:

External factors are the external geological processes that act on the
planet’s surface. These are agents such as wind, rain, rivers, and the sea. These
agents continuously affect rocks and constantly erode them.

Internal Factors are the internal geological processes that act inside the
Earth’s surface. These are the factors generated by the Earth’s internal energy.

For example, the intense pressure and heat melt down rocks to form magma.

The magma moves through volcanic processes, earthquakes, and tectonic

movements. It eventually cools down and forms igneous rocks.
 Written Report in
Science 10

Catalysis
and
Reactor
design
 Angeline Arasa
10- Amethyst
Mrs. Lalaine Javier
 CATALYSIS AND REACTOR DESIGN

catalysis and reactor design focus on developing efficient and sustainable chemical
processes by designing catalysts and reactors that maximize reaction rates, selectivity, and
minimize energy consumption and environmental impact.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Catalysis

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance
called a catalyst, which remains unchanged after the reaction.

Developing novel catalysts with enhanced activity and selectivity.

Designing catalysts for specific applications, such as renewable energy, environmental

remediation, and chemical synthesis.
 Examples:

Using catalysts to convert biomass into fuels.

Developing catalysts for CO2 capture and utilization.

Designing catalysts for hydrogen production.

Developing catalysts for the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols

 Reactor Design

Reactor design involves designing and optimizing the physical environment where chemical
reactions take place, focusing on factors like flow patterns, heat and mass transfer, and
reactor configuration.

Developing new reactor types and configurations for specific reactions.

Improving reactor performance by optimizing flow patterns, heat transfer, and mass
transport.

Designing reactors for sustainable and energy-efficient chemical processes.

Developing advanced reactor technologies, such as membrane reactors, microreactors, and

electrochemical reactors.

Examples:

Designing membrane reactors for selective oxidation reactions.

Developing autothermal reactors for energy-efficient processes.

Designing microreactors for fast and efficient reactions.

Designing reactors for the conversion of biomass into fuels.

 Written Report in
Science 10

Fossils
and
Paleontol
ogy
 Angeline Arasa
10- Amethyst
Mrs. Lalaine Javier
 FOSSILS AND PALEONTOLOGY

fossils are the preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms, and paleontology is the
scientific study of these fossils and the history of life on Earth. Paleontologists analyze fossils
to understand evolution, biodiversity, ancient ecosystems, and Earth's history.

Types of Fossils:

Body fossils - These are the preserved remains of the organism's body, such as bones, teeth,
shells, or wood.

Trace fossils - These show evidence of the organism's behavior, such as footprints, burrows,
or fossilized nests.

How Fossils Form:

Fossilization typically occurs when an organism dies and its remains are buried in sediment,
which over time, transforms into rock.

The organism's remains may be replaced by minerals, leaving a fossilized copy of the original
structure, or the organism's shape can be preserved as an impression in the rock.
 What is Paleontology?

Paleontology is the scientific study of the history of life on Earth, as reflected in the fossil
record.

Paleontological Tools

Paleontologists use a variety of tools, including microscopes, X-ray machines, and computer
modeling software, to study fossils.

They also conduct fieldwork to collect fossils and study the geological context in which they
are found.

Understanding Evolution:

Paleontology provides crucial evidence for the theory of evolution, demonstrating how life
has changed over millions of years.

Reconstructing Past Environments:

By studying fossils, paleontologists can reconstruct past climates, landscapes, and

ecosystems.

Understanding Earth's History:

Paleontology helps us understand the history of our planet, including the formation of
continents, the rise and fall of species, and the impact of major events like asteroid impacts.
 Paleontology and Evolution:

Fossils are a tangible record of past life, providing evidence of evolutionary changes and the
relationships between different species.

By studying the fossil record, paleontologists can trace the lineage of extinct organisms and
understand how they evolved into modern species.

Paleontology and Climate Change:

Fossil evidence can provide insights into past climate conditions, helping scientists
understand how the Earth's climate has changed over time.

By studying fossilized plants and animals, paleontologists can reconstruct past ecosystems
and infer the type of climate that existed at a particular time.
 SURFACE WATER AND RIVERS
What is Surface Water?
Surface water refers to all the water bodies present on the Earth's surface, from small
ponds to vast oceans and everything in-between. It includes both freshwater bodies (rivers,
ponds, lakes, etc.) as well as the saline water bodies (mainly oceans). Rivers, ponds, lakes,
etc., constitute freshwater, while oceans have saline water. Surface water mainly originates
from rainfall. It is a combination of both surface runoff and groundwater.
Surface water is closely associated with groundwater. Some surface water percolates deep
into the ground through the cracks and porous spaces within rocks, sand, and soil. The
surface water eventually reaches underground springs and wells to become groundwater.
Groundwater is fresh and naturally uncontaminated, since the water gets filtered as it
trickles through the sediment. However, groundwater is not easily accessible as it is usually
located in deeper parts of the Earth, often requiring tools or machinery to access it. Surface
water is more readily available, but since it is not filtered like groundwater, it is often
contaminated by pollution, microbes and harmful minerals, and must be treated before it is
safe to use or ingest.
Importance of Surface Water:
HUMAN:
Drinking Water: Surface water is a primary source of freshwater for human consumption,
after treatment.
Irrigation: Rivers and lakes are crucial for irrigating crops, supporting agriculture and food
production.
Industrial Uses: Many industries rely on surface water for cooling, processing, and other
operations.
Hydropower: Dams on rivers can generate electricity through hydropower, a renewable
energy source.
Recreation: Surface water bodies offer opportunities for recreation, tourism, and fishing
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY:
Habitat for Aquatic Life: Surface water bodies are home to a diverse array of plants and
animals, forming complex ecosystems.
Water Cycle: Surface water plays a crucial role in the water cycle, influencing precipitation,
evaporation, and groundwater recharge.
Wetland Support: Surface water sustains wetlands, which are vital habitats for many
species and help filter pollutants.
Nutrient Transport: Rivers and streams transport nutrients and sediment, supporting
aquatic life and maintaining the health of downstream ecosystems
ECONOMIC:
Agriculture: Irrigation with surface water is essential for crop production, impacting food
security and local economies.
Fishing Industry: Surface water supports fisheries, providing livelihoods and food resources.
Tourism: Scenic rivers, lakes, and coastal areas attract tourists, boosting local economies.
Transportation: Rivers and canals can serve as transportation routes for goods and people.
3 TYPES OF SURFACE WATER:
Perennial- Perennial, or permanent, surface water persists throughout the year and is
replendished with groundwater when there is a little precipitation.
Ephemeral- Ephemeral, or semipermanent, surface water exist for only part of the year.
Ephemeral surface water includes small creeks, lagoons, and water holes.
Artificial-Artificial surface water is found in artificial stuctures, such as dams and
constructed wetlands.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SURFACE WATER:

Rivers and Streams: These are bodies of water that flow in channels, carrying water from
higher to lower elevations.
Lakes and Ponds: These are natural or artificial bodies of water surrounded by land, where
surface water runoff and groundwater seepage accumulate.
Wetlands: These are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the
surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year.
Oceans: These are large bodies of saltwater that cover a significant portion of the Earth's
surface.
Reservoirs: These are artificial lakes created by damming a river, used for water storage and
other purposes.
Brackish Water: This is water that has a higher concentration of dissolved solids than fresh
water, but not as high as seawater, often found in estuaries and coastal areas.
Hard Water: This is water that contains high levels of dissolved minerals, primarily calcium
and magnesium, which can make it difficult to use for certain purposes.
Rainwater: This is precipitation that falls from the atmosphere and can be a source of
surface water
RIVERS (from latin word ripa “bank”)
A river is a natural stream of fresh water that flows on land or inside caves towards another
body of water at a lower elevation, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. A river may run
dry before reaching the end of its course if it turns out of water, or only floe during certain
seasons.

IMPORTANCE OF RIVER:
Rivers are crucial for supporting life, ecosystems, and human societies, providing essential
resources like drinking water, irrigation, transportation, and food, as well as playing a vital
role in regulating the water cycle and supporting biodiversity.
Ecological Importance:
 Water Cycle: Rivers act as natural channels, carrying water from land to oceans,
which is essential for the water cycle and replenishing Earth's freshwater supply.
 Habitat: They provide diverse habitats for a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial
species, supporting biodiversity and the health of freshwater ecosystems.
 Food Source: Rivers are a vital source of food for wildlife and humans, with fish and
other aquatic organisms playing a significant role in the food chain.
 Natural Processes: Rivers shape landscapes through erosion, deposition, and
floodplains, creating fertile lands and diverse ecosystems.
Human Importance:
 Water Resources: Rivers are a primary source of drinking water, irrigation for
agriculture, and industrial processes.
 Transportation: Rivers have historically served as important transportation routes,
facilitating trade and movement of people and goods.
 Energy: Hydroelectric power generation from dams on rivers provides a clean and
renewable energy source.
 Recreation: Rivers offer recreational opportunities like fishing, kayaking, and
boating, contributing to tourism and leisure activities.
 Economic Value: Rivers support various industries, including fishing, agriculture, and
tourism, contributing to local and national economies.
 Cultural Significance: Rivers hold cultural and spiritual significance for many
communities, often serving as a source of identity, tradition, and connection to the
land.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RIVERS
Rivers can be classified based on their flow patterns, geological features, and how they
interact with their environment, including ditibutaries, tributaries mrndering rivers, and
bedrock-controlled rivers.
BASED ON FLOW AND CHANNEL:
 Distributary:
A river branch that does not return to the main river, common in river deltas.

Tributary:
A river or stream that flows into a larger river or lake, but doesn't flow directly into the sea.
 Meandering River:
A river with a winding course, common in flat terrain, evolving based on flow, sediment, and
boundary conditions.

Braided River:
A river with multiple channels separated by bars of sediment, often found in areas with high
sediment load.

Bedrock-controlled Rivers:
Rivers whose channel is constrained by the underlying bedrock, often found in confined
valleys.
 River Bifurcation:
When a river splits into two or more separate streams.
 MARINE ECOSYSTEM
A marine ecosystem is a specific part of the global aquatic system characterized by high
salinity, encompassing all ecosystems from the shoreline to the deep sea, and home to a
diverse array of lifeforms, especially in tropical shallow waters like coral reefs.
Based on “education.nationalgeographic.org” marine ecosystems are aquatic environments
with high levels of dissolved salt, such as those found in or near the ocean. Marine
ecosysytems are defined by ther unique biotic and abiotic factors. Biotic components are
living organisms like parasites, predators, competitors and other species. Abiotic
components are temperature, salinity, turbulence, density, sunlight and concentration of
nutrients.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE ECOSYSTEM:
Scientists divide marine ecosystems into several broad categories, although there are
discrepancies depending on the source about what qualifies as a marine ecosystem. The
number of marine ecosystems is actively debated. Although there is some disagreement,
several types of marine ecosystems are largely agreed on: estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove
forests, coral reefs, the open ocean, and the deep-sea ocean.
High Salinity: Marine ecosystems are defined by their high salt content, distinguishing them
from freshwater ecosystems.
Global Scale: They encompass a vast area, ranging from coastal areas to the deep ocean.
Biodiversity: Marine ecosystems are known for their rich and diverse array of lifeforms,
including fish, crustaceans, marine mammals, and other organisms.
Ecological Importance: They play a crucial role in global climate regulation, carbon cycling,
and providing resources for human populations.
EXAMPLES OF MARINE ECOSYSTEMS:
Coral Reefs: These vibrant ecosystems are among the most diverse on Earth, providing
habitat for a vast array of marine species.
Mangrove Forests: These coastal ecosystems are highly productive and act as nurseries for
many marine species.
Estuaries: These areas where rivers meet the ocean create unique brackish water
environments, supporting diverse life.
Kelp Forests: These underwater "forests" of kelp seaweed are important habitats and food
sources for many marine organisms.
Salt Marshes: These coastal wetlands are highly productive and provide important habitats
for a variety of species.
Open Ocean: The vast, deep waters of the ocean, supporting a wide range of marine life,
from microscopic plankton to large whales.
 Deep Sea: The deepest parts of the ocean, home to unique ecosystems, including
hydrothermal vents.
Intertidal Zone: The area between the high and low tide marks, where marine life must
adapt to periodic exposure and submersion.
Hydrothermal Vents: Underwater geysers that release hot, mineral-rich water, supporting
unique ecosystems.
Sandy Beaches: Coastal ecosystems where sand and water are always in motion, supporting
unique fauna and flora.

MARINE ANIMALS:
It refers to species that live in saltwater environments and have been historically used as
model organisms in scientific research to enhance our understanding of human anatomy,
phsycology, and drug metabolism.
Marine animals encompass a vast and diverse group of creatures, including fish, mammals,
reptiles and invertebrates.
Mammals:
Whales: These are large marine mammals belonging to the order Cetacea, including baleen
whales (like humpbacks and blue whales) and toothed whales (like sperm whales and
orcas).
Dolphins: Marine mammals belonging to the cetacean order, known for their intelligence
and playful nature.
Seals and Sea Lions: These pinnipeds (fin-footed mammals) are adapted to both land and
sea, with seals having a more streamlined body and sea lions having more pronounced
flippers.
Manatees and Dugongs: These gentle giants are herbivorous marine mammals, also known
as sea cows.
Sea otters: Marine mammals that spend most of their time in the ocean
Reptiles:
Sea Turtles: These reptiles have adapted to a marine lifestyle, with different species
inhabiting various ocean environments.
Invertebrates:
Fish: A diverse group of cold-blooded aquatic animals, including sharks, rays, and countless
other species.
Squid and Octopuses: These cephalopods are known for their intelligence and ability to
change color and camouflage.
 Jellyfish: These marine invertebrates have a unique gelatinous body and use stinging
tentacles to capture prey.
Crustaceans: This group includes crabs, lobsters, shrimp, and krill, which are important
components of the marine food web.
Other Marine Animals:
Seabirds: Birds that spend a significant portion of their lives at sea, including albatrosses,
penguins, and various types of gulls.
Coral Reefs: These underwater ecosystems are home to a vast array of marine life, including
colorful fish, invertebrates, and alga.
IMPORTANCE OF MARINE ECOSYSTEM;
Global life support- Marine ecosystem are crucial source of food, particularly seafood,
which is vital proteinsource for billions of people. It also enhance our oxygen production
through phytoplankton and other marine organisms, produce a significant amount of the
Earths oxygen.
Ecosystem Sevices- Ecosystem like mangroves and coral reefs protect coastlines from
erosion and storm surges, ecosystem also helps filter water, improving water quality. They
play a vital role in nutrient cycling, supporting the health of the entire ecosystem and
provides habitats for vast array of species, supporting biodiversity.