Valentine 1965 in strict psychological discussion it is well to keep the thinking for an activity which

consists essentially of a part of a connected flow of Ideas which are directed towards them and your
purpose.

Ross 1951 thinking is mental activity in its cognitive aspects or mental activity with regard to
psychological objects.

Garrett 1968 thinking is behaviour which is of an implicit and hidden and in which symbols images
ideas concepts are ordinarily employed.

Mohsin 1967 thinking is an implicit problem solving behaviour.

Gilmer 1970 thinking is a problem solving process in which we use ideas for symbols in place of over
activity.

Thinking may thus be defined as a pattern of behaviour in which we make use of internal
representation (symbols, signs, etc) of things and events for the solution of some specific purposeful
problem.

The gestalt and holistic theory:

This theory emphasized the importance of the organisation of the perceptual field. According to it
thinking behaviour is always purposeful and goal-oriented. With wider perception of a field, one is
set for the reorganization and restructuring of it for an optimal solution. The acts of such
restructuring or reorganisation of the perceptual field belong to the process and product of thinking.

Behaviouristic theory

According to this theory, thinking behaviour is learned or acquired in much the same way as other
modes of behaviour, interests, ideas, knowledge and skills etc. J.B. Watson stated that same stimuli
generates the same type of thought and the organism becomes conditioned. The theory of operant
conditioning propounded by B.F. Skinner viewed thinking as that private behaviour which was
determined by stimulus control and reinforcement in the same way as overt behaviour.

Piaget’s developmental theory

Piaget explained thinking through stages of cognitive development, the sensorimotor,

In the beginning, at the sensorymotor stage (up to 2 years) a child's behaviour exhibits more
sensory-motor activities than the mental manipulation of objects. He cannot distinguish between
animate and inanimate objects, he has no object permanance. He does not differentiate between
the world and himself. Gradually, he these skills, he uses words and symbols at this stage.

At the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) he begins to think logically by learning some
distinctive logical operations, he can only think in terms of concrete things

The formal operational stage (12 years and after) is characterized by the development of the ability
abstract thinking, test hypotheses and deal with problems that are not physically present in the
environment. It is the highest stage of intellectual functioning.
Sullivan's basic modes theory:

The leading psychoanalyst HS Sullivan explained thinking through protaxic mode, parataxic mode
and syntaxic mode.

In infancy, during the prototaxic mode, there is no definite structure of the thought. There is only
feelings such as pleasure at sucking the nipple and apprehension at being separated from care giver.

During the parataxic mode, the child begins to differentiate between his self and world, to
discriminate, distinguish persons. His thinking at this stage is quite elementary and operative in the
concrete.

The syntaxic mode reflects the development it he local thought processes, incorporating the use of
symbolic representations, images and abstract reasoning and uses developed logical oprations.

Bruner theory of cognitive development:

Jerome S. Bruner hypothesized that one's thought process evolves as a result of maturation, training
and experiences through sequential stages. The stages of cognitive development enumerated by
him purpose enactive, iconic and symbolic representation

In first stage the child's representation of event in terms of appropriate motor responses and
activities.

Iconic stage is characterized by the child’s representation of things and events in terms metal
pictures

In final stage thoughts do not dependent upon the motor activities for sensory images and mental
pictures. Child uses words, symbols and other imaginary abstract phenomena take the place of
motor manipulation or concrete visualization.

The information processing theory.

According to this theory, thinking connected with the information one receives from the
environment through one's senses and the nature of the thought process depends on how it is
utilized. This theory identifies a series of steps in the way we process the information. Features of
this process are registering information, retrieving material related to his information from memory
and using both kinds of knowledge purposefully.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory of thinking.

The key concepts in Freud's psychoanalytic system may be described as the inherent desire for
satisfaction of the sex urge and the role of the unconscious in moulding and shaping of one's
behaviour. The thinking behaviour is also governed through these two factors. If the goal is pleasure
through sex gratification, the thought process would be naturally coloured accordingly and since
nine tenths of one's psyche consists of the unconscious and subconscious, the major portion of one's
thinking must emerge from it.
New-born infant does not show any sign of thought-related activities. In fact, his mental life is
chaotic at this stage and is driven by a set of psycho-physiological drives.

Gradually, Freud maintains, the infant develops a kind of self end thinking termed as narcissistic
thinking. His behaviour is almost entirely dominated by the Id and the pleasure principle and the
thoughts of the infant are colored by instinctual impulses demonstrating a total disregard of realities
logic. As the child grows older, another part of his personality, the ego comes into play. He then
began to pay attention to people and his environment in order to be able to cope with it effectively.
He now begins to operate according to the rainy principle and his thought processes become more
rational and logical. Symbols and words also become involved in his thinking but he still remains ego-
centric. With the entry of another component of his personality, the superego his thinking is now
fashioned in accordance with the morales and ideals of society It becomes more objective. The
development of creative thinking, enrichment of fantany, imagination and abstract thinking is the
outcome of emergence of the super ego and the subsequent expansion of the child's thinking
apparatus