Unit 11

: Management of Natural Resources

11.1. Concepts of Natural Resource Use

Natural resources, especially non-renewable ones, exist

in limited quantities. Examples include coal, natural gas,
and mineral ores. Misuse of these resources leads to
rapid depletion, affecting future generations. Proper
management ensures sustainability.
Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population
level a resource can support. For instance, if a hectare of
grassland supports 100 sheep, that is its carrying
capacity. Exceeding this limit leads to resource
depletion and population decline due to starvation and
disease.
Sustainable use refers to utilizing resources in ways
that fulfill current needs without compromising future
availability. Sustainable management ensures long-term
water, soil, forest, and mineral conservation.
11.2. Soil Management
Soil degradation, mainly through erosion, reduces
productivity. Continuous cultivation compacts soil,
preventing water absorption and increasing runoff.
Removing vegetation worsens erosion and nutrient
depletion.
Soil management practices include agronomic measures
such as mulching, mixed cropping, and contour
cultivation, which protect soil from erosion. Mulching
involves spreading organic materials like crop residues
or inorganic materials like plastic on the soil surface to
reduce erosion. Mixed cropping, where different crops
grow together, enhances soil cover. For example, maize
and beans grown together provide better soil
protection.
Contour cropping involves planting crops along
contour lines to slow runoff and reduce erosion.
Improving soil fertility is another key practice,
achieved by adding organic matter like manure,
compost, or legumes, which enhances soil structure and
reduces erosion. Liming, which involves applying
limestone or wood ash, helps reduce soil acidity and
improve nutrient availability.
Saline soil management includes leaching salts with
quality water and adding organic matter to enhance soil
structure. Salt-tolerant crops such as sorghum and
barley can be grown in saline soils.
11.3. Agricultural Water Management
Transpiration occurs when plants absorb water from
soil and release it as vapor. Deep percolation refers to
water moving below root depth, becoming unavailable
to plants.
Water conservation practices include rainwater
harvesting, where water is stored in pits or tanks for
later use. Reducing evaporation is another method,
achieved by covering soil with mulch or leaving crop
residues. Soil conservation techniques such as contour
farming, bunding, and bench terraces reduce runoff and
improve water retention.
In dry areas, drought-tolerant crops that require less
water can be selected to ensure productivity. Efficient
irrigation is essential, adjusting water use based on soil
type, crop needs, and climate to minimize losses.
11.4. Forest and Wildlife Management

Maintaining forest cover increases carbon storage and

reduces emissions. Forests also protect soil from
erosion and provide habitats for wildlife.
Forest management involves afforestation and
reforestation, where trees are planted in deforested or
barren areas. Sustainable timber harvesting ensures
logging and transport are planned to minimize
environmental damage. Preventing wildfires is also
crucial in forest conservation. Conservation efforts
protect forests, ensuring sustainable fuelwood supply,
biodiversity conservation, and employment
opportunities.
Wildlife habitats are often destroyed due to
deforestation, overgrazing, and human settlement.
Effective wildlife management strategies include
preventing agricultural encroachment into protected
areas, controlling invasive species, and establishing
buffer zones between settlements and habitats.
11.5. Environmental Management
The environment refers to the climatic, biological, and
chemical conditions affecting organisms. Environmental
management ensures that resource use does not harm
future generations.
The objectives of environmental management include
air quality control by reducing agricultural waste
emissions, water pollution prevention by controlling
soil erosion, and pesticide management by minimizing
risks through proper usage. Waste management
involves proper disposal and recycling techniques to
reduce environmental impact.
Regulatory compliance ensures that agricultural
practices meet environmental laws. Effective natural
resource management ensures long-term sustainability,
environmental protection, and improved agricultural
productivity.

11.6 Indigenous Knowledge in Natural Resource

Management
Ethiopia is a land of diverse altitudes and climates,
covered by various types of natural vegetation.
Indigenous knowledge plays a significant role in forest
conservation and sustainable resource management.

Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation Practices in

North Shewa
Farmers in North Shewa implement various indigenous
soil and water conservation techniques to combat land
degradation. These practices include:
1. Constructing Wide Waterways:
Farmers create waterways that are 40 to 50 cm wide
between adjacent farms to control runoff from upper
slopes.
2. Building Traditional Ditches:
Medium-sized ditches are constructed to dissect farms
and connect two wide waterways, reducing runoff
speed by diverting excess water.
3. Using Stone Lines on Slopes:
A single line of stones is placed across farms on slopes
up to 2% to slow runoff and retain soil sediments.
4. Planting Trees at Farm Edges:
Tree species planted at the farm edges help prevent soil
erosion and stabilize the land.
5. Employing Vegetative Barriers:
Local vegetative barriers filter out sediments from
runoff and reduce runoff speed.
6. Combining Stone Bunds and Vegetation:
Traditional stone bunds are combined with grasses or
perennial species to control soil erosion on steep slopes.
Indigenous Knowledge in Northwestern Ethiopia (Gumuz
Community)
Similarly, the Gumuz community in northwestern
Ethiopia applies indigenous knowledge in natural
resource management. The area benefits from fertile
soils, and traditional practices ensure sustainable land
use and environmental conservation.
Gumuz Indigenous Knowledge System
The Gumuz land is rich in vegetation, diverse plant and
animal species, and abundant mineral resources,
including gold. The livelihood of the community is
deeply tied to natural resources, establishing a special
relationship with their land and environment.
Through observation and experience, the Gumuz have
developed an indigenous knowledge system for
managing their natural resources. Their indigenous
knowledge is closely associated with their traditional
belief systems, which include:
Vital natural resources are sacred.
Natural resources are seen as a divine gift, a blessing,
and the creation of Yamba (God).
Yamba (God) provided the Gumuz community with
knowledge of proper resource use, management, and
the responsibility to pass it on to future generations.
Natural resources are considered ancestral heritage.
Ownership of natural resources is vested in the whole
community, meaning they cannot be privately
possessed or controlled by individual members.
These indigenous techniques and beliefs demonstrate
the importance of local knowledge in addressing
environmental challenges and promoting sustainable
agricultural practices in Ethiopia.
 Unit 12:
Concepts of Biodiversity
12.1. What is Biodiversity?
Brainstorming 12.1:
Think individually about these questions. You can
share your ideas with your partners.
- What is biodiversity?
- What are the components of biodiversity?
Definition of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity refers to the range of all forms of life on
Earth, including plants, animals, humans, bacteria,
and other organisms. It includes the different
species, sub-species, and communities that exist in a
given habitat, such as a rainforest or grassland.
Components of Biodiversity:
- The number of species (plants, animals, and other
organisms).
- The genetic diversity of different species found in
an area.
- The population of each species (plants, animals,
and other organisms).
- The diversity of habitats and landscapes of species
(forests, grasslands, etc.) in an area.
The biodiversity of an area shows how rich it is in
terms of the total number of species present, their
populations, and habitats. For example, Ethiopia has
high geographic and climatic diversity, resulting in
a rich diversity of plant and animal species. Many
species found in Ethiopia are endemic (i.e., not
found elsewhere). The way biodiversity is managed
determines whether individual species and
ecosystems develop healthily.
12.2. The Scope of Biodiversity
Biodiversity encompasses the diversity of:
- Plant species, including crop genetic resources and
forest genetic resources.
- Animal species, including farm animal genetic
resources and wildlife genetic resources.
- Microbial genetic resources.
Biodiversity assessments can be conducted at
various scales, from specific sites or regions to
national or global levels. The scale of assessment
depends on the evaluation objective. For example:
- If the goal is to evaluate the biodiversity of a forest
or water resource, the assessment is conducted for
that specific area.
- If the aim is to determine the national biodiversity
status, the assessment must cover all kinds of
habitats and various species of plants, animals, and
other organisms.
12.3. Values and Services of Biodiversity
Brainstorming 12.2:
- What do you think are the major benefits of
biodiversity?
- Which values and services provided by
biodiversity are closely associated with our daily
lives?
Benefits of Biodiversity:
A. Products and Services:
- Food production – Cropping, livestock, food from
wild plants and animals.
- Firewood, fiber, and construction materials –
Derived from various plant species.
- Medicinal resources – Various plant and animal
species serve as medicine sources.
B. Regulatory Services:
- Climate regulation – Soil and forests store large
amounts of carbon, preventing its release into the
atmosphere.
- Disease and pest control – Natural predators
control disease-causing pests.
- Pollination – Bees and other insects assist in seed
dispersal and plant reproduction.
- Purification of drinking water and air – Organisms
decompose and detoxify toxic substances.
- Soil erosion control – Forests help prevent soil
erosion.
- Waste decomposition – Various organisms break
down waste, enhance nutrient cycling, and prevent
waste accumulation.
C. Cultural Services:
- Recreation, sports, and hunting.
- Source of foreign currency.
- Education and research.
12.4. Threats to Biodiversity
1. Land Use Change:
The conversion of forests, grasslands, and
woodlands into cultivated land leads to habitat
destruction for various plant and animal species.
2. Unsustainable Use of Resources:
- Overgrazing exposing soils to erosion.
-Uncontrolled fishing.
- Overharvesting tree species, such as Hagenia
abyssinica in Ethiopia.
3. Invasive Species:
-Parthenium weed.
-Prosopis juliflora.
- Water hyacinth.
4. Climate Change:
Climate change has increased both the maximum
and minimum temperatures in Ethiopia, altered
rainfall patterns, and shortened crop-growing
seasons.
5. Environmental Pollution:
Pollution from improper waste management
introduces toxic substances into water, forests, and
soils, harming organisms and reducing species
populations.
6. Population Growth:
A growing population leads to increased demand
for food and services, causing expansion of
agricultural lands and overexploitation of
resources.
12.5. Biodiversity Conservation and Its Status in Ethiopia
Brainstorming 12.4:
- What is biodiversity conservation? Why is it
necessary?
- What is the status of biodiversity conservation in
Ethiopia? What are its future trends?
Definition of Biodiversity Conservation:
Biodiversity conservation refers to the planned
management of biodiversity in a particular
ecosystem to prevent overexploitation, pollution,
and destruction, ensuring biodiversity
maintenance.
Objectives of Biodiversity Conservation:
- To maintain sustainable use of species and
ecosystems.
- To protect life-supporting systems.
- To preserve essential ecological processes.
Biodiversity in Ethiopia:
Ethiopia has diverse ecosystems at various
altitudes, which harbor a wealth of biological
resources, including:
- Field crops.
- Horticultural crops (fruits and vegetables).
- Wild plants.
- Medicinal plants.
- Forests.
- Rangelands and forage plants.
Threats to Biodiversity in Ethiopia:
- Deforestation, habitat destruction, and poor forest
regeneration.
- Overgrazing, over-browsing, and conversion of
grazing lands to cultivated lands.
- Loss of wildlife due to agricultural expansion and
habitat destruction.
- Unbalanced water use and siltation of water
resources.
Conservation Efforts:
Efforts to reduce threats include:
- Participation of local communities in forest
management.
- Establishment of protected areas, such as national
parks, wildlife sanctuaries, wildlife reserves,
botanical gardens, and controlled hunting centers.
 Unit 13
Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation
13.1. Definitions of Climate Change and Variability
Climate change refers to long-term (e.g., decades)
changes in temperature and weather patterns.
Extreme weather events like unusual floods,
prolonged droughts, wildfires, unusual snowfalls,
intense hurricanes, and global warming become
more common due to climate change.
Climate variability refers to short-term (days,
weeks, or months) fluctuations in climate. Unlike
climate change, it does not cause fundamental
shifts in ecosystems. Organisms can usually adapt
to these short-term changes. For example, rainfall
levels may fluctuate from year to year, with some
years receiving below-average, average, or above-
average rainfall.
Effects of Climate Change
Climate change leads to significant changes in
ecosystems, including:
- Decreased crop and animal productivity
- Threat to animal and plant species, leading to
extinction
- Changes in water availability
- Altered storm patterns and frequencies
- Increased flooding in coastal areas
- Changes in rainfall amount and patterns
- Increased frequency of droughts
- Drying of surface water resources
- Increased soil erosion
- Expansion of desertification
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
The main cause of climate change is the emission
of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere.
These gases trap heat and contribute to global
warming. The primary greenhouse gases include:
- Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- Methane (CH4)
- Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Key Terms
Greenhouse gases (GHGs): Gases that absorb
heat radiation from the Earth's surface,
preventing it from escaping into space.
Fossil fuels: Energy sources derived from ancient
plant and animal remains, including coal, oil, and
natural gas.
13.2. Climate Change and Its Effects
Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture:
- Reduced rainfall in rain-fed agricultural areas
leads to water shortages.
- Increased temperatures cause higher
evaporation rates, leading to further water loss.
- Soil erosion due to increased rainfall depletes
essential nutrients, reducing crop yields.
- Higher temperatures and water shortages
negatively impact livestock productivity.
- Rising temperatures increase the spread of crop
and animal diseases.
Effects on Forestry
- Reduced vegetation growth due to global
warming and water shortages.
- Loss of tree species, reducing carbon absorption
capacity.
- Deforestation accelerates desertification and
biodiversity loss.
Effects on Sea Levels
Melting ice caps raise sea levels, leading to
flooding in coastal areas.
Ocean Acidification
Increased CO2 absorption by oceans results in
acidification, harming marine life.
13.3. Strategies for Mitigating Climate Change
Climate change mitigation involves efforts to
reduce or eliminate GHG emissions through:
1. Reducing emissions from sources
2. Enhancing carbon sinks
13.3.1 Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Energy: Shifting from fossil fuels to renewable
energy (solar, wind, hydro) to reduce CO2
emissions.
- Deforestation: Reducing forest clearing to
prevent carbon release.
13.3.2. Enhancing Carbon Sinks
Afforestation: Planting new forests increases
carbon storage capacity.
Improved Soil Management: Conservation
practices like crop rotation, mixed cropping,
reduced tillage, and mulching enhance soil carbon
storage.
13.4. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in
Ethiopia
Climate adaptation involves adjusting agricultural
and community practices to cope with climate
change. Key adaptation strategies include:
- Adjusting crop rotation and introducing drought-
resistant crops.
- Intercropping to reduce soil erosion and water
loss.
- Planting crops with lower water demand.
- Shifting planting schedules based on rainfall
patterns.
- Using perennial crops (e.g., fruit trees) to reduce
soil erosion.
- Implementing grazing enclosures to prevent land
degradation.
- Using alternative animal feed sources, such as
agro-industrial by-products.

Climate Adaptation Strategies in Ethiopia

Perennial Crops Expansion:

Growing crops like enset and tree species to
ensure food security during droughts.
Income Diversification:
Engaging in off-farm activities to reduce reliance
on agriculture.
Improved Crop Varieties:
Selecting drought-resistant crop varieties.
Mixed Cropping:
Planting multiple crops on the same land to
reduce crop loss risks.
Selective Animal Breeding:
Raising livestock that are resistant to diseases and
adapted to local climate conditions.
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)
CSA integrates crop and livestock management
with natural resource conservation to address
climate challenges. Its goals include:
1. Increasing sustainable productivity
2. Reducing vulnerability to climate risks
3. Lowering GHG emissions
Examples of CSA Practices:
- Efficient agricultural input management
- Water and soil conservation
- Crop diversification
- Integrated crop-livestock management
- Improved grazing methods
By integrating these practices, Ethiopian farmers
can enhance agricultural resilience, ensuring food
security in the face of climate change.