Climate change reveals ancient artefacts in Norway’s glaciers

A
Well above the treeline in Norway’s highest mountains, ancient fields of ice are shrinking as Earth’s climate
warms. As the ice has vanished, it has been giving up the treasures it has preserved in cold storage for the
last 6,000 years – items such as ancient arrows and skis from Viking Age* traders. And those artefacts have
provided archaeologists with some surprising insights into how ancient Norwegians made their livings.
———–
*Viking Age: a period of European history from around 700 CE to around 1050 CE when Scandinavian
Vikings migrated throughout Europe by means of trade and warfare
B
Organic materials like textiles and hides are relatively rare finds at archaeological sites. This is because
unless they’re protected from the microorganisms that cause decay, they tend no to last long. Extreme cold
is one reliable way to keep artefacts relatively fresh for a few thousand years, but once thawed out, these
materials experience degradation relatively swiftly.
With climate change shrinking ice cover around the world, glacial archaeologists need to race the clock to
find newly revealed artefacts, preserve them, and study them. If something fragile dries and is windblown
it might very soon be lost to science, or an arrow might be exposed and then covered again by the next
snow and remain well-preserved. The unpredictability means that glacial archaeologists have to be
systematic in their approach to fieldwork.
C
Over a nine-year period, a team of archaeologists, which included Lars Pilø of Oppland County Council,
Norway, and James Barrett of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, surveyed patches of ice
in Oppland, an area of south-central Norway that is home to some of the country’s highest mountains.
Reindeer once congregated on these ice patches in the later summer months to escape biting insects, and
from the late Stone Age**, hunters followed. In addition, trade routes threaded through the mountain passes
of Oppland, linking settlements in Norway to the rest of Europe.
The slow but steady movement of glaciers tends to destroy anything at their bases, so the team focused on
stationary patches of ice, mostly above 1,400 metres. That ice is found amid fields of frost-weathered
boulders, fallen rocks, and exposed bedrock that for nine months of the year is buried beneath snow.
‘Fieldwork is hard work – hiking with all our equipment, often camping on permafrost – but very rewarding.
You’re rescuing the archaeology, bringing the melting ice to wider attention, discovering a unique
environmental history and really connecting with the natural environment,’ says Barrett.
—————
**The Stone Age: a period in early history that began about 3.4 million years ago
D
At the edges of the contracting ice patches, archaeologists found more than 2,000 artefacts, which formed
a material record that ran from 4,000 BCE to the beginnings of the Renaissance in the 14th century. Many
of the artefacts are associated with hunting. Hunters would have easily misplaced arrows and they often
discarded broken bows rather than take them all the way home. Other items could have been used by hunters
traversing the high mountain passes of Oppland: all-purpose items like tools, skis, and horse tack.
E
Barrett’s team radiocarbon-dated 153 of the artefacts and compared those dates to the timing of major
environmental changes in the region – such as periods of cooling or warming – and major social and
economic shifts – such as the growth of farming settlements and the spread of international trade networks
leading up to the Viking Age. They found that some periods had produced lots of artefacts, which indicates
that people had been pretty active in the mountains during those times. But there were few or no signs of
activity during other periods.
F
What was surprising, according to Barrett, was the timing of these periods. Oppland’s mountains present
daunting terrain and in periods of extreme cold, glaciers could block the higher mountain passes and make
travel in the upper reaches of the mountains extremely difficult. Archaeologists assumed people would stick
to lower elevations during a time like the Late Antique Little Ice Age, a short period of deeper-than-usual
cold from about 536-600 CE. But it turned out that hunters kept regularly venturing into the mountains even
when the climate turned cold, based on the amount of stuff they had apparently dropped there.
‘Remarkably, though, the finds from the ice may have continued through this period, perhaps suggesting
that the importance of mountain hunting increased to supplement failing agricultural harvests in times of
low temperatures,’ says Barrett. A colder turn in the Scandinavian climate would likely have meant
widespread crop failures, so more people would have depended on hunting to make up for those losses.
G
Many of the artefacts Barrett’s team recovered date from the beginning of the Viking Age, the 700s through
to the 900s CE. Trade networks connecting Scandinavia with Europe and the Middle East were expanding
around this time. Although we usually think of ships when we think of Scandinavian expansion, these recent
discoveries show that plenty of goods travelled on overland routes, like the mountain passes of Oppland.
And growing Norwegian towns, along with export markets, would have created a booming demand for
hides to fight off the cold, as well as antlers to make useful things like combs. Business must have been
good for hunters.
H
Norway’s mountains are probably still hiding a lot of history – and prehistory – in remote ice patches. When
Barrett’s team looked at the dates for their sample of 153 artefacts, they noticed a gap with almost no
artefacts from about 3,800 to 2,200 BCE. In fact, archaeological finds from that period are rare all over
Norway. The researchers say that could be because many of those artefacts have already disintegrated or
are still frozen in the ice. That means archaeologists could be extracting some of those artefacts from
retreating ice in years to come.

Questions 14-19
Reading Passage 2 has eight sections, A-H.
Which section contains the following information?
Write the correct number, A-H, in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.

14 an explanation for weapons being left behind in the mountains

15 a reference to the physical difficulties involved in an archaeological expedition
16 an explanation of why less food may have been available
17 a reference to the possibility of future archaeological discoveries
18 examples of items that would have been traded
19 a reference to the pressure archaeologists are under to work quickly

Questions 20-22
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 20-22 on your answer sheet.

Interesting finds at an archaeological site

Organic materials such as animal skins and textiles are not discovered very often at archaeological sites.
They have little protection against 20 …………………, which means that they decay relatively quickly.
But this is not always the case. If temperatures are low enough, fragile artefacts can be preserved for
thousands of years.
A team of archaeologists have been working in the mountains in Oppland in Norway to recover artefacts
revealed by shrinking ice cover. In the past, there were trade routes through these mountains
and 21 ………………… gathered there in the summer months to avoid being attacked
by 22 ………………… on lower ground. The people who used these mountains left things behind and it is
those objects that are of interest to archaeologists.

Questions 23 and 24
Choose TWO letters, A-E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 23 and 24 on your answer sheet.

Which TWO of the following statements does the writer make about the discoveries of Barrett’s team?
A Artefacts found in the higher mountain passes were limited to skiing equipment.
B Hunters went into the mountains even during periods of extreme cold.
C The number of artefacts from certain time periods was relatively low.
D Radiocarbon dating of artefacts produced some unreliable results.
E More artefacts were found in Oppland than at any other mountain site.

Questions 25 and 26
Choose TWO letters, A-E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet.

Which TWO of the following statements does the writer make about the Viking Age?
A Hunters at this time benefited from an increased demand for goods.
B The beginning of the period saw the greatest growth in the wealth of Vikings.
C Vikings did not rely on ships alone to transport goods.
D Norwegian towns at this time attracted traders from around the world.
E Vikings were primarily interested in their trading links with the Middle East.
Key & Explanation:

14. D - Section D states that “Hunters would have easily misplaced arrows and they often discarded
broken bows rather than take them all the way home.” This explains why the weapons were abandoned.
15. C - Section C says “Fieldwork is hard work – hiking with all our equipment, often camping on
permafrost,” indicating the physical challenges.
16. F - Section F explains that “A colder turn in the Scandinavian climate would likely have meant
widespread crop failures,” leading to food shortages.
17. H - Section H mentions that “That means archaeologists could be extracting some of those artefact s
from retreating ice in years to come,” pointing to future finds.
18. G - Section G provides examples of trade items: “a booming demand for hides … as well as antlers
to make useful things like combs.”
19. B - Section B notes that “With climate change shrinking ice cover … glacial archaeologists need to
race the clock,” showing they must hurry before the artefacts degrade or get lost.
20. microorganisms / micro-organisms - Section B explains that organic materials “tend not to last long”
unless protected from “the microorganisms that cause decay.”
21. reindeer - Section C: “Reindeer once congregated on these ice patches in the later summer months
to escape biting insects.”
22 insects - Section C: “Reindeer once congregated on these ice patches … to escape biting insects.”
23, 24. B and C
B - Supported by Section F: “[the artefacts] perhaps suggesting that the importance of mountain hunting
increased … even when the climate turned cold.”
C - Supported by Section E: “They found that some periods had produced lots of artefacts … But there
were few or no signs of activity during other periods.”
25, 26. A and C
A - Supported by Section G: “Business must have been good for hunters.”
C - Supported by Section G: “Although we usually think of ships … plenty of goods travelled on
overland routes.”

TEAM-BASED LEARNING
With the globalisation of information technology (IT) and worldwide access to the Internet, people from
all areas of learning are finding themselves using some form of information technology in the workplace.
The corporate world has seen a boom in the use of IT tools, but conversely, not enough people with IT
skills that can enter the workplace and be productive with minimal on -the-job training.

A recent issue of the New York Times reports that many companies are looking for smart students who
may have a budding interest in IT. Some companies, trying to encourage students to attend interviews,
provide good salary packages and challenging work environments. For example, one American IT
consulting company offers high salaries, annual bonuses, and immediate stock options to potential recruits.
It also brings in 25 to 40 prospective applicants at a time for a two-day visit to the company. This time
includes interviews, team exercises and social events. The idea behind the team exercises is that the
applicants get to see that they will be working with other smart people doing really interesting things, rather
than sitting alone writing code.
In the past 10 years, employers have seen marked benefits from collaborative projects in product
development. Apart from the work environment, there is also a similar body of research indicating that
small team-based instruction can lead to different kinds of desirable educational results. In order to prepare
IT graduates to meet these workplace requirements, colleges and universities are also beginning to include
team-based educational models.

One of the leaders in promoting team-based education is the American Intercontinental University (AIU),
which has campuses worldwide. AIU offers programs in IT with a major portion of the curriculum based
on team projects. AIU has a large body of international students and students from different educational
backgrounds. This team-based learning gives the students a sense of social and technical support within the
group, and allows students firsthand experience of both potential successes and of inherent problems
encountered when working with others.

Team-oriented instruction has not been the common mode of delivery in traditional college settings.
However, since most college graduates who choose to go into an IT work environment will encounter some
form of teamwork at work, it is to their advantage that they are educated using collaborative learning and
that they are taught the tools needed to work with different people in achieving common goals or objectives.
In team-based learning, students spend a large part of their in-class time working in permanent and
heterogeneous teams. Most teams are made up of individuals with different socio-cultural backgrounds and
varying skill levels. Team activities concentrate on using rather than just learning concepts, whilst student
grades are a combination of overall team performance and peer evaluation of individual team members.

In a team-based environment, the teacher takes on the role of a facilitator and manager of learning, instead
of just providing information to passive students. The facilitator/teacher also guides the team in identifying
their goals and establishing standards of team performance. Team exercises then help the students to
improve their problem-solving skills by applying theory to simulated real-world situations. Working as a
team allows students to adopt new roles and empowers them to control their own learnin g. Students in
teams are taught to use each other as resources and accept the responsibility of managing tasks.

Team members must also study assigned material individually to ensure their preparation for classes. There
are individual assessment tests to measure if students have not only read the assigned material, but also
understand the concepts of the module, and can apply them to given problems. Additional team assessment
tests present a problem for discussion and require consensus, helping students learn critical communication
skills. This also enables them to deal with conflicts between members before they escalate to crises. Team
presentations (written or verbal) allow the team to focus and build cohesion, with team members sharing
the responsibility for presenting and persuading the audience to accept their viewpoint. Feedback on how
the team is functioning with task management, team dynamics and overall work is given by the facilitator.
Team exercises that are application-oriented help students experience the practical application of concepts
and learn from other students’ perspectives.

Team-based classrooms are especially beneficial in colleges with international students. Since this type of
learning encourages people to listen and communicate with others, share problems, resolve personal
conflicts, and manage their time and resources, it is a great environment for students who are in a new social
situation. Since social interaction plays an important role during teamwork, team learning has an added
advantage for students who are not comfortable in traditional classroom settings. It allows students from
different cultures to understand their differences and use them productively. This type of learning
environment also allows students to express themselves freely in a team context, rather than feeling singled
out as when answering questions in a traditional classroom.

This learning model was designed to better prepare students for today’s global workplace. Students are
encouraged to explore ideas together, to build communication skills and achieve superior results. It is likely
that employers will increasingly seek out students with these skills as we move into the future.

Questions 26-32
Complete the summary below.
Choose your answers from the box below the summary.
There are more words than you will need to fill the gaps.

Although IT is one of the leading career choice (example) made by graduates today, the industry’s
demand for qualified applicants 26………………… the supply of skilled IT personnel. Despit e
the 27………………… widespread use of computer technology in all areas of
life, 28………………… face difficulties recruiting people whose education has equipped them to
commence working productively without further training. Several business organisations now offer
income and other 29………………… inducements to potential employees. They also include
group 30………………… in their selection procedures, often inviting up to
forty 31………………… to their company for the two-day visit. In this way the company can
demonstrate the reality of the working 32………………… which is more likely to involve challengin g
co-operative projects than individualised tasks.

List of Words
exceeds
extracts
choices
candidates
employees
admiration
previous
financial
employment
regularity
advantages
employers
environment
activities
current
Questions 33-37
Do the following statements reflect the views of the writer of the passage?
Write:
YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

33. The American Intercontinental University includes team-based learning in all its courses on all its
campuses.
34. The composition of teams is changed regularly.
35. Theoretical problems are the most important team activity.
36. The team members participate in assessment of other team members.
37. International students prefer traditional classroom learning to team -based learning.

Questions 38-40
Choose one phrase from the list of phrases A-H below to complete each of the following sentences.
There are more phrases than questions so you will not use all of them.

38. Students’ work is assessed ...

39. The teams make a joint presentation ...
40. The need to achieve consensus assists ...

List of Phrases
A. to compete with other teams as judged by the facilitator.
B. by individual tests and exams.
C. to see who has the strongest point of view in the group.
D. individually, by their peers and as a team.
E. in the development of communication skills.
F. to practise working as a group while putting theory into practice.
G. to assist international and non-traditional students.
H. in getting to know new friends and colleagues.
Key & Explanation:

26. exceeds - … not enough people with IT skills that can enter the workplace.
27. current - The text mentions the “current” widespread use of IT in many areas of life.
28. employers - In the past 10 years, employers have seen marked benefits from collaborative projects in
product development.
29. financial - For example, one American IT consulting company offers high salaries, annual bonuses,
and immediate stock options to potential recruits.
30. activities - This time includes interviews, team exercises and social events.
31. candidates - It also brings in 25 to 40 prospective applicants at a time for a two-day visit to the company.
32. environment - The idea behind the team exercises is that the applicants get to see that they will be
working with other smart people doing really interesting things, rather than sitting alone writing code.
33. NO - One of the leaders in promoting team-based education is the American Intercontinental University
(AIU), which has campuses worldwide. AIU offers programs in IT with a major portion of the curriculum
based on team projects.
34. NO - In team-based learning, students spend a large part of their in-class time working in permanent
and heterogeneous teams.
35. NO - Team activities concentrate on using rather than just learning concepts, …
36. YES - … student grades are a combination of overall team performance and peer evaluation of
individual team members.
37. NOT GIVEN - Team-based classrooms are especially beneficial in colleges with international students.
38. D - … student grades are a combination of overall team performance and peer evaluation of individual
team members.
39. F - Team presentations (written or verbal) allow the team to focus and build cohesion, with team
members sharing the responsibility for presenting and persuading the audience to accept their viewpoint.
Feedback on how the team is functioning with task management, team dynamics and overall work is given
by the facilitator. Team exercises that are application-oriented help students experience the practical
application of concepts …
40. E - Additional team assessment tests present a problem for discussion and require consensus, helping
students learn critical communication skills.