Civil And Moral

Education (section B of the HND)

Contents
Course outline..............................................................................................................................................2
General Introduction....................................................................................................................................2
Chapter 1: Definition of basic concept.........................................................................................................3
The state and the nation..........................................................................................................................3
The nation................................................................................................................................................3
Democracy...............................................................................................................................................3
Concepts of freedom and liberty..............................................................................................................3
The concept of public and collective property.........................................................................................4
Citizen and citizenship..............................................................................................................................4
Nationality................................................................................................................................................4
How is nationality Acquired in Cameroon............................................................................................4
Child Adoption..........................................................................................................................................5
Conditions and types of adoption........................................................................................................5
The Notion of civic responsibility.............................................................................................................6
Cameron’s national symbols....................................................................................................................6
Descriptions of the Cameroon flag.......................................................................................................7
The national anthem............................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2: The reality of good governance and the importance of civic education.....................................7
The characteristics of good governance...................................................................................................8
Trajectories of bad governance in Cameroon (poor governance in Cameroon).......................................8
The importance of civic education in schools...........................................................................................8
Chapter 3: The government, local government and civic society.................................................................9
Local councils’ finances..........................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER 4: ETHICS AND LAW....................................................................................................................13
THE RELATION BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW...........................................................................................14
DIFFERENCES BETWEEEN ETHICS IN GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS..........................................15
ETHICS AND MORALITY..........................................................................................................................15
CONFLICTS BETWEEN ETHICS AND MORALS..........................................................................................16

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 ETHICAL THEORIES.................................................................................................................................16
1-) DEONTOLOGY:..............................................................................................................................16
2-) CONSEQUENTIALISM.....................................................................................................................17
3-) DIVINE COMMAND THEORY:.........................................................................................................17
4-) TELEOLOGICAL THEORY:................................................................................................................17
MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS:......................................................................................................................18
Chapter 5: Man, and his environment........................................................................................................18
Types of environments...........................................................................................................................18
Forms or causes of environmental degradation.....................................................................................19
Forms of environmental deterioration...............................................................................................19

Course outline

Introduction
Chapter 4: Ethics and laws.
Chapter 6: The concept of human right.

General Introduction
The exploration of civic education invariably with the exploration of democracy and the related
of related terms of citizenship and civil society. Those engaged in civic education have the
version of empowered citizens voluntary organizing themselves for self-reliance and political
impact in the society where representative and participatory democracy produces peace,
prosperity and personal liberation.

A truly democratic society relies on its citizens to be informed and already to act. What is the
government of the people, by the people and for the people. Requires that they receive proper
instruction in civic, civic education therefore should be instructed in every school.

As a field of intellectually inquiry, moral philosophy is also related to the field of descriptive
ethics and value theory. Ethics is system of moral principle that explains how people make
decision or their ways. It is concerning the good of the individual and the society.

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Chapter 1: Definition of basic concept.
The state and the nation
The state can be defined as an organized community of people living in a given geographical
entry and having a central government and sovereignty. It is geographically determined with
very clear frontier borders that have international recognition. It must have a central
government whose authority covers the entire territory. The people living within the
geographical entry must share much in common notably common language, constitution, a
police force for law maintenance and an army for defense, currency.

The nation
Nation can be defined as a large community of people living together as members of a particular
community or country this people are answerable to government and the same culture.
Members are a particular nation either live in the state or are part of the diaspora.

Democracy
The word democracy comes from a Greek word “demos” meaning people and “Kratos” meaning
power. It is a way of governing which depends on the will of the people. Abraham Lincoln said
“It is the government of the people from the people with the people”. It is different from
autocracy and oligarchy. Democracy at least in theory is the government on behalf of all the
people according to their will. The idea of democracy derived it moral strength and moral terms
from individual autonomy and authority.

Concepts of freedom and liberty

Freedom generally is the ability to act or change without constraints. Something is free it can
change easily without constraint to current stage. A person has the freedom to do things be
prevented by other forces, outside of the human realm freedom generally doesn’t change this
political dimension. In political freedom discourse political freedom is often associated with
liberty or autonomy in the sense of given oneself with the civic liberty to exercise them without
interfere by the state. The terms “freedom” and “liberty” tend to be used as the something in
political discussion. However, some differences between the two has been noted. Example John
Stuart Mill says “freedom is primarily if not exclusively the ability to what one wants. where
liberty concern the absent of arbitrary restraints and take into account the right of all involved
so the exercise of capability and limited by the rights of others.”

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The concept of public and collective property
Public property is property dedicated to public use and is a subset of state property. The is used
either to describe what is used for or describe the character of its ownership (owned collectively
by the population of the state. It’s in contrast to private property owned by private individuals or
companies.

Citizen and citizenship

A citizen is a person who has legal right and privilege of belonging to a country. They have the
obligation to obey and perform duties as required by their country ‘s government in return for
protection from the state. Citizenship is gotten through or naturalization.

Citizenship is the status of a person recognized by a state as one of its members. Each state
decides the citizenship of a person and how it can be redrawn.

If one has Cameron’s citizenship, they have the right to live, work and pay taxes to the state.
Normally the basic right normally from the citizenship. The right to a passport and ID card, work
there or leave or return when they want. Some countries accept multi citizenships while other
don’t. One with no citizen is said to be stateless while one who lives on state borders and whose
territorial status isn’t certain is a border-lander.

Nationality
It is often as a synonym of citizenship in English though the term is only in international law. It
denotes where an individual is born or hold citizenship. It is inherited from one’s parents which
called a natural phenomenon. Article 15 of the international declaration of human says
“Everyone has the right to a nationality. Nobody should be denied one nor strip of theirs.”

How is nationality Acquired in Cameroon

It is not accessible to children as the law of 1968 on Cameroon nationality clearly states
Cameroon nationality may not be conferred son a person less than 21 years. A child can a
Cameroonian citizenship but can’t apply to citizenship except in limited circumstances. They can
access citizen by;

 By descent: Legitimate and illegitimate kids through their Cameroonian parent.

 By birth: Kids with unknown parents and newly babies will be presumed prima facia. One
can renounce it six months before majority.
 By Declaration: Any person born in Cameroon by foreign parents may be claim
Cameroonian nationality within six months before majority in the manner provided by
the law. Provide on such date he had his domicile has been in Cameroon for at least five
years.

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Child Adoption
It’s a legal procedure in which the parental responsibility is transferred from the biological
parents to the adopters. An adoption order is made in respects to the child. It confesses all rights
above the child to the adoptive parents.

An applicant for adoption must be 40 years old or be married for more than 10 years or have
fertility issues backed by medical evidences. A single parent can also adopt.

A family law solicitor ensures the adoption process goes according to Section 41 and 42 of the
civil status registration Ordinance of 1981 and Section 42 sub 2 of the Adoption children Act of
2002.

Conditions and types of adoption

In Cameroon, adoption is governed by the Civil Code, which outlines specific

conditions and recognizes different types of adoption.

Conditions for Adoption:

 Age Requirements: An individual must be over 40 years old to adopt.

However, a married couple can jointly adopt if one spouse is at least 35 years
old, they have been married for over 10 years, and have no biological children
together.
 Childlessness: Prospective adoptive parents should not have any legitimate
children or descendants at the time of adoption.
 Age Difference: There must be at least a 15-year age gap between the adopter
and the adoptee. This requirement is reduced to a 10-year difference if the
adoptee is the child of the adopter's spouse. Further reductions can be granted
by special permission from the President of the Republic.
 Consent: If the adoptee is a minor with living parents, both parents must
consent to the adoption. In cases where one parent is deceased or unable to
express consent, the other parent's consent suffices. For divorced or separated
parents, the consent of the custodial parent is required.

Types of Adoption:

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 1. Simple Adoption (Adoption Simple): This form of adoption is recognized in
Francophone regions of Cameroon. It allows the adoptee to maintain legal ties
with their biological family while establishing a relationship with the adoptive
family. Simple adoption is revocable, and the adoptee retains inheritance rights
from both families.
2. Full Adoption (Adoption Plénière or Légitimation
Adoptive): Predominantly practiced in Francophone Cameroon, full adoption
completely severs the legal relationship between the adoptee and their
biological family, establishing a new, irrevocable bond with the adoptive
family. This type of adoption is typically reserved for children under five years
old who have been abandoned, or whose parents are unknown or deceased.

It's important to note that adoption procedures in Cameroon are judicial processes,
requiring court judgments to become effective. The Ministry of Social Affairs is
involved, especially in cases involving foreign adopters or children under five, to
conduct social inquiries and ensure the welfare of the child.

Given the complexity of adoption laws in Cameroon, it's advisable to consult legal
professionals or relevant authorities to navigate the process effectively.

The Notion of civic responsibility

Civic means relating to or belonging to a country or state.

Responsibility refers to the state or being responsible such as the duties or burdens.

Therefore, civic responsibility is defined as a “responsibility of a citizen”. It comprises of actions

and attitudes associated with demographic governance and social participation. Civic
responsibility includes participation in government, church, volunteers etc.

Cameron’s national symbols

National symbols on what makes Cameroonians different from other nationals. These symbols
brandish frequently on official occasions like the national day, they awaken a sense of belonging
and the pride of being a Cameroonian. They include;

 The national anthem

 The coat of arm
 international telephone dial code.

A look at the national flag and the national flag explains why Cameroonian are different.

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Descriptions of the Cameroon flag
It is the most important symbol because it represents the country everywhere.

The national flag is define 18th January 1996 which states “ The Cameroon flag must three equal
size of green, red and yellow charge with a yellow star in the middle. The national flag is a piece
of material that symbolize a country.

The green represents Southern vegetation

Red stands for unity, independent and national sovereign

Yellow stands for the Sunshine of the Sahel, happiness and prosperity.

The national anthem

The Cameroon national anthem is a patriotic music usually in the form of a song or hymn. That
evokes and energize the nation or its people. It can officially recognize as a national song by a
country’s constitution. Just the first “O Cameroon thou cradle of our fathers.” Tells us or a
people who are resolved to reserve a fatherland handed over the founding fathers. The anthem
is a symbol of the dreams and aspiration.

Chapter 2: The reality of good governance and

the importance of civic education

Good governance.

It’s not about “making good decision” but about the possible process for arriving at a consensus
solution. Good decision-making process and good governance has some shared characteristics.
All have positive eff

The characteristics of good governance

 Accountability; It is the fundamental requirements of good governance. Local
government the obligation to report, explain and be answerable on behave on the
community it represents.
 Transparence; For governance to be good must be transparent. People must be able to
follow and understand the decision-making process. What information advice and
consultation council require.

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  The rule of law; The rule of law. It means that decisions are concide and w
 Equality; Good governance in all its ramifications should be equable and inclusive. A
community well-being resulted from that. That means that all groups should have
opportunity to take part in decisions. In light of distributing state resources.

Trajectories of bad governance in Cameroon (poor

governance in Cameroon)
 Corruption: It led to injustice and unequally widening the gap between the rich and the
poor in the country. The is a high level of corruption in the custom department, police,
army. It often said with money all things are possible. Those in import and export
defraud the state of a lot money with custom officials who collect money and make
wrong declaration or none. Corruption is present in public employment and services. The
doctrine of “godfatherism”.
 Poor management: The country became poor and underdeveloped because of poor
management. Cameroon had exported oil with so many oil reserves around the Bakasi
peninsula but the revenues for these resources was included in the national budget. It
was no new because it was made known to the protect. It was only recently that the IMF
and the world bank in their initiation of government transparency program forced the
government to include it in the national budget.
 Gross imbalance in the distribution of resources is one of the poor government
mechanisms that increase poverty rate in the country and had put pressure of the
government.
 Embezzlement and misappropriation: It’s due of lack of transparency.
Good governance in Cameroon is more theorical than practice. Effort to establish good
governance is frustrated at the state department level.

The importance of civic education in schools

A truly democratic society must have its citizens to informed and ready to act. Preparing people
of people to be knowledgeable requires that get educated in civic for the following important
reasons.

i. Fundamentals of the government: It teaches people the basics of how the government
works how they must work together.
ii. Ownership as citizens: it teaches student that they become adults they can lawfully lay
claim to the government they learn it the voice of the citizenry not that of obscure
politicians. The people have power to vote politicians out of office they need changes.
iii. Proactivity and knowledgeable voting: Students who really receive proper civic education
that voting is an important right of important citizens and it’s through voting that people
can make sure that their voices are heard.
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 iv. Government limitation: The state has limitation and the people has constitutional rights
that cannot be taken away as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from
unreasonable seizure.

Chapter 3: The government, local government

and civic society.

Cameroon is bicameral republic with two levels of government. The main law controlling local
governments are law number

Local authorities are founded by a presidential degree the president has the power to create
merge and change the boundaries of the local government by a presidential decree. We have
regions, divisions and subdivisions.

The constitution of 1972 emphasis its unitary nature attempting to unify its Anglophone and
francophone part and then 100 ethnic cities.

Types of local government; There are three main types.

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Local councils’ finances

In Cameroon, local councils, also known as municipalities, derive their financial

resources from both internal and external sources to fund their operations and
development projects.

Internal Revenue Sources:

1. Local Taxes: Councils collect various taxes within their jurisdiction, including
property taxes, licenses, and other local levies.
2. Fees, Fines, and Penalties: Revenue is generated from administrative fees,
fines imposed for violations, and penalties for non-compliance with local
regulations.
3. Service Charges: Income is obtained from services provided by the council,
such as water supply, waste management, and market facilities.
4. Patents and Business Licenses: Councils issue licenses to businesses operating
within their area, contributing to their revenue base.
5. Gifts and Donations: Occasionally, councils receive financial or material
support from individuals, organizations, or philanthropic entities.

External Revenue Sources:

1. State Transfers: The central government allocates funds to councils to support

local development initiatives and service delivery.
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 2. Special Funds: Institutions like the Special Council Support Fund for Mutual
Assistance (FEICOM) provide financial assistance to municipalities for
investment projects.
3. Development Programs: Programs such as the National Participatory
Development Programme (PNDP) offer funding and technical support for local
development.
4. Public Investment Budget (BIP): This is a government mechanism through
which funds are allocated for public investment projects at the local level.

Expenditures:

Local council expenditures in Cameroon are directed towards various sectors to

promote community development and service delivery. Key areas of spending include:

1. Infrastructure Development: Building and maintaining roads, bridges, and

public buildings.
2. Education: Supporting primary and secondary education through the
construction of schools and provision of learning materials.
3. Healthcare: Establishing and equipping health centers to provide medical
services to the community.
4. Water and Sanitation: Implementing projects to supply clean water and
improve sanitation facilities.
5. Agriculture: Providing support to local farmers through training, equipment,
and agricultural inputs.
6. Administrative Costs: Covering salaries of council staff and other operational
expenses.

Challenges:

Despite the various sources of revenue, local councils face challenges in effectively
mobilizing and utilizing these funds. A stnnnudy focusing on councils in the Fako
Division highlighted difficulties such as limited access to certain revenue sources and
challenges in exploiting available financial opportunities.

Additionally, the efficiency of resource utilization varies among municipalities.

Research assessing the technical efficiency of investment resources allocated to
municipalities indicated disparities in how effectively these funds are used, suggesting
a need for improved financial management practices at the local level.

Efforts to enhance budget transparency have been initiated, including the piloting of a
local budget transparency index in two of Cameroon's ten regions. This initiative aims
to improve accountability and the efficient use of resources within local councils.

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In summary, while Cameroon's local councils have access to multiple financial
resources and allocate expenditures across various essential sectors, challenges in
revenue mobilization and efficient fund utilization persist, necessitating ongoing
reforms and capacity-building initiatives.

In general, local government only fulfill function which the national ministry for
territorial administration and decentralization and national line ministries active at
the local level deems appropriate. This is due to the fact that the local, authorities
lack financial and human resources. So, they are only able to take action in limited
areas. They receive support from the national government to perform specific
service. So, the local government have both Internal and External Sources of
revenue.

The internal sources include: Waste Disposal, Public space usage, Building permits
and Water supply. Most of these sources are related to local services, which requires
a level of organization and personnel which only larger local authority possess.
Typically, therefore smaller and rural local authorities have no access to such
authorities

External sources are mostly inter-related to the inter-governmental transfers and

councils’ development funds from FEICOM. Local authorities receive block grants
revenue from national government through its special council support form from
neutral assistance (FEICOM).

FEICOM is from French acronym which stands for Fond Special d’equipement et
d’intenvention Inter-communale (FEICOM). FEICOM is based in Yaoundé with 10
regional branches. Each branch is weighted according to a council’s population. Top
priorities of FEICOM owned resources include utility and urban development and also
for the training of council staff.

Evidence indicates that most rural councils spend only on the most vital
functions such as Staff cost, Road maintenance, Health care Education etc…

CHAPTER 4: ETHICS AND LAW

Ethics refers to the moral principles that governs a person’s behavior on the
conduction of an activity. It is the branch of knowledge that deals with moral
principles. Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts
such as good and evil, right and wrong, justice and crime etc.

At its simplest, Ethics is a system of moral principle that affects how people
make decisions and lead their lives. Ethics is concern with what is good for
individuals and the society and is also described as moral philosophy. The term
Ethics is derived from a Greek word “Ethos” which can mean custom, Habit,
Character or disposition.

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 Our concept of ethics has been derived from Religion, Philosophy and
customs.

They infuse debates on topics like human rights and professional conduct. If ethical
theories are to be useful in practice, they need to affect the way human beings
behave.

THE RELATION BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW

Ethics also derived as moral philosophy is a system of moral principles which is
concerned with what is good for individuals and the society.

Why Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through
social institutions to govern behavior.

There are many distinctions between ethics and law:

Firstly, ethics comes from people awareness of wat is right and what is wrong why
Laws are written and approved by the government. It means that ethics may vary
from one person to another because different people may have different opinions on
certain issues but law describe clearly what is illegal no matter what people are
arguing. To some external, ethnics is not well defined but law ethnics are defined
and précised.

ii-) Ethics can also be distinguished by looking at whether people are punished after
they violate the rules. Nobody will be punished when they violate ethics but who so
ever violate Law is going to receive a punishment carried out by relevant
authorities. Besides, an action can be illegal but morally right. For example, in
ancient China, some rich people steal from rich people and give to poor people and
it was considered to be morally right but illegal. Similarly, an action that is Legal can
be Morally wrong. For example, some people send millions of dollars on their pets
while some poor people on the street cannot have enough food. This action is
morally wrong but legal.

Ethics emphasizes more on positive aspects while laws are more concerned with
negative actions, hence ignorance of the law is not an excuse.

Similarly, in general laws are made based on general values of a

particular society. They describe the basic behavior of human beings. In other
words, laws represent the minimum standard of human behavior, that is ethical
behavior.

Besides, both Law and Ethics are systems which maintain a set of
moral values and prevent people from violating them. They both provide people with
guidelines of what they may do or may not do in certain situations. In a word they
exist in a purpose of making people benefit from being members of a well-regulated
society.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEEN ETHICS IN GENERAL AND
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
Ethics in general are applicable to the whole society. Every person living in the
society should follow them to make the society a Habitable place. For example,
respecting elders, helping someone to cross the road, do not Steal from anyone etc.
are the ethical duties we owe to the society at large.

Professional Ethics varies from profession to profession. They are a

part of your job and helps you to maintain the credibility of your company. At the
time of training, they harmer down those ethics in you. Examples include
Confidentiality, Transparency, Punctuality etc., even thieves and contract killers
have their professional ethics for example they never disclose the information of
their employer and always make sure a job taken is completed. The biggest
difference between personal ethics (general) and professional code of conduct is
perhaps the strictness with which people conform with them. The value that you
define yourself are up to you to be followed or not while the values defined in a
company or by a profession must be followed by you. But if you don’t appear to,
personal ethics, it might hardly make a difference. Even then you must keep in mind
that the violation of your rules may harm others around you.

General ethics is the way people have expressed their thoughts about a
subject. It is hence descriptive. Professional ethics is more about, what one should
or should not do and is known a prescriptive ethics.

ETHICS AND MORALITY

Ethics and morality relate to right and wrong conducts while they are sometimes
used interchangeably, they are different. Ethics refers to external standards that are
provided by institutions, groups or culture to which an individual belong. For
example, Lawyers, Doctors all follow an ethical code let by their profession
regardless of their own feelings or preferences. Ethics can also be considered a
social system or a frame work for acceptable behavior.

Morals are also influenced by culture or society but they are personal
principles created and upheld by individuals themselves. Ethics are principles set
and applied in a group while morality depends of an individual.

An individual moral code is usually unchanging and consistent across all

conduct but it is also possible for certain events to radically change an individual
personal believes and values.

Much of the confusion between these two words can be traced back to
their origin. The word Ethics comes from a Greek word (Ethos) and refers to
custom or moral philosophy. While the words Moral comes from a Latin word

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(Moralis) which refers to appropriate behavior and manner in the society. So, the
two have very similar if not synonymous meaning originally.

CONFLICTS BETWEEN ETHICS AND MORALS

One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of the defense
attorney. A Lawyers moral may tell her that murder is reprehensible and that
murders should be punished

But he ethics as a professional Lawyer requires her to defends her client to the best
of her ability even if she knows that the client is guilty.

How ever there are some situations where general ethics and morals
clashes with professional ethics for example The professional ethics of a soldier is to
torture and captive natives while his general personal ethics and morality teaches
that killing is not allowed.

ETHICAL THEORIES
1-) DEONTOLOGY:

In moral philosophy, Deontological ethics or Deontology comes from a Greek word

“Deon” meaning obligation or duty. It is a normative ethical theory that the
morality of an action should be based on whether the action itself is right or wrong
under a series of rules rather than based on the consequences of the action. It is
sometimes described as duty or obligation or rules-based ethics because rules bind
one to one’s duty. Deontological ethics is commonly constated to consequentialism.
In this terminology, action is more important than consequences.

Depending on the system of Deontological ethics under consideration,

a moral obligation may arise from, an external or internal source such as a set of
rules inherence to the universe.

Deontological ethics is an approach to ethics that focuses on the

rightness or wrongness of action themselves as opposed to the rightness or
wrongness of the consequences of these actions.

Because to a Deontologist, whether the situation was good or bad

depends of what action that brought it about was right or wrong. “What makes a
choice right it is conformity with a mortal norm. Right state Priority over goods. For
example, if someone propose to kill every one currently living on land, that could
not support agriculture in order to bring about a world without starvation, a
Deontologist will argue that this world without starvation was a bad state of affairs
because of the ways by which it was brought about. A Consequentialist will argue
that the final state of affairs justifies the drastic action.

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 Deontology may sometimes be consistent with moral absolutism
(They believe that some actions are wrong no matter what consequences) but not
necessarily.

Immanuel Kants famously argued “that it is always wrong to lie, even if

a murderer is asking for the location of a potential victim.”

Others such as W.D Ross hold that the consequences of an action may sometimes make
lying the right thing to do (Moral Relativism)

2-) CONSEQUENTIALISM

This is an ethical theory which states that the rightness of any action depends solely
on its consequences

3-) DIVINE COMMAND THEORY:

It is a meta ethical theory which proposes that an action status as morally good is
equivalent to whether it is commanded by GOD. The theory asserts that what is
moral is determined by GOD’s command and that for a person to be moral it should
be follow by GOD’s command.

4-) TELEOLOGICAL THEORY:

It is derived from the Greek word “Thelos” which means an “end”. According to the
theory, the rightness of an action is determined solely by its consequences rather by
any feature of the action itself. Actions that result in greatest possible balance of
good or evil are considered ethical thus Teleological theory are based on the
concept of goodness.

Now the question is which is good and what is evil. A classical utilitarianism
pleasure is regarded as good while pain is considered evil. In broader terms,
goodness is broader wellbeing thus classical utilitarianism does not require
observing rules such as “Tell the truth”. The theory deals with action a rule. It states
that an action is right if and only if it conforms to generally accepted rules and
produces the greatest balance of pleasure over pain.

Examples of Teological Theory

Telling a lie or breaking a promise is better if its consequences are better than those
of alternative cause of action.

The Teleological theory is advantageous in that a decision maker can choose

the right cause of action by calculating and comparing the consequences of different
alternatives. They seem to maximize their utility or welfare.

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 This theory is disadvantageous in that they do not consider the basic
obligations. Parents have obligations to their children and they must provide to their
children even if the money could be more beneficial for orphans.

MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS:
The world has become a world of today has become a world without moral
consciousness. A world where everyone feels they have the right to do as they
which with no care of the consequences.

Morality has to do with questions of what is right and what is wrong, what is
good and what is evil. Consciousness means Knowledge. Therefore, Moral
Consciousness is about the knowledge of what is right and wrong.

The heart of negligence is a violation of a standard of care. If you ask in a

manner that allow something under your care to happened, you are morally and
legally responsible.

In Common Law negligence is immoral because a body of law holds persons

responsible of their act even when they are unaware of their act that ultimately does
harm. For example, if you aloud a dog to escape and bite a kid next door.

The reason why we hold people liable in “Tort” for their negligence is because
through their negligent action, persons create non reciprocal risk which eventuates
in harm to others.

Chapter 5: Man, and his environment.

Every institution has a surrounding called the environment. The environment deals with nature
ad it is difficult for ma to do without it (land, water, plants and animals). Population growths
drive further demand for nature.

This chapter shall discuss the types of environments, harmful human activities and the effects of
those activities and measures to protect the environment.

Environment is the combination of surrounding things, conditions and influences such as the air,
water, mineral, organisms and other factors affecting man and other forms of life. In short it is
the surrounding conditions in which forms of life live at a particular time.

Types of environments
There are types of environments on earth a term used by scientists for environment is
ecosystem.

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 i. The physical / abiotic environment is made up of non-living things and it helps to
support the biological environment E.g. the atmosphere, climate, plants and water.
ii. Biological environment / biotic environment is made up of living things that exist in the
physical such as man, plants, animals and bacteria.

Apart from these two mentioned other subtypes include;

 Ocean
 Grasslands
 Deserts
 Etc.

Forms or causes of environmental degradation

Environmental degradation is the deterioration (excess damage) of the environment through
excess exploitation of soil, water and wild land. As a result, the natural space is destroyed.

Forms of environmental deterioration

i. Pollution; It is the introduction of contaminates into the environment that causes harm
and discomfort to humans or other living organisms. It could equally damage the physical
environment such as land and water. Different types include air, land and water pollution.
ii. Deforestation; It is another major form of environmental degradation. The forest is
gradually replaced by grassland because trees cut are not replant. This exposes the soils,
man and plant to dangers. The tree lost their habitats the soil is expose to erosion.
iii. Desertification; The gradual advancement of desert and it condition to grassland and
forest is another way of environmental degradation. This provoke prolong dryness,
overgrazing and bushfire which causes the top soil to be expose. Water or wind caused
erosion leaves the bare of vegetation.

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