16

Doraemon GoesAbroad
SayaS. Shiraishi

Doraemon for Everyone

A fine sunnyafternoon,anda lO-year-oldboy comeshomefrom school.

Returning to his room on the secondfloor of his wooden housein a
residential area in Tokyo, he suddenlybursts into tears-therein his
room sits Doraemon,a large,bright blue robot cat whoseearsare miss-
ing but who fully comprehendsthe trials and emotionalcrisesof tender
childhood.Doraemon'sroundhandimmediatelysearcheshis front pocket
for the fantastic high-tech gadgetsthat will most effectively help the
boy deal with the harshrealitiesof everydaylife.'
ThusbeginsDoraemon,the mostpopularcomic andanimationseries
in postwarJapan.Createdby Hiroshi Fujimoto, writing underthe pen
nameFujiko F. Fujio, Doraemonfirst appearedin 1970 in the monthly
children'smagazineCoroCoro Comic. In 1978,TV Asahi beganbroad-
castingan animatedversion which turned Doraemon,Nobita (the 10-
year-oldboy and Doraemon's"owner"), and the other main characters
into full-fledged stars,known to virtually everyonein Japan.Through-
out the 1980s,families with youngchildrentunedin to watchDoraemon
five eveningsa week,catchingthe fifteen-minuteepisodeshownat 6:45,
just beforethe seveno'clock news.Theateranimationfollowed the TV
series,and movie housesfeaturedfull-length Doraemonfilms during
the summerand winter school holidays. Videos, records,and cassette
tapeswere sold, as well as a flood of Doraemon"charactermerchan-
dise," including toys, dolls, games,stickers,stationery,bags,desksand
chairs, children's clothes, hats, shoes,boots, umbrellas, lunchboxes,
dishes,snacks,calendars,bicycles,and entertainmentfacilities in play-
groundsand amusementparks. The massmerchandisingfurther stimu-

287
288 JAPAN POP!

lated salesof the comics,and by 1996 the forty-six-volume paperback

serieshad sold over 100 million copies.2
Doraemonhasbecomea virtual family memberfor many Japanese,
andmost children and young adultscan quickly producea sketchof the
robot cat upon request.On February 10, 1995, three weeks after the
GreatKansaiEarthquake,a movie theaterin Kobe showeda Doraemon
movie free of chargeto cheerup the childrenof the devastatedcity. Four
hundredchildren cameto see the robot cat and his friends that after-
noon, and their jolly laughterfilled the 200-seattheater.3
Doraemonis well known outsideJapanas well. The television ver-
sion hasaired in Italy, China,Taiwan, Korea, Malaysia,Singapore,In-
donesia,Thailand, Russia, Spain, Brazil and other Latin American
countries,and the Middle East.Doraemoncomic books, including pi-
rateeditions,arewidely readinternationally.Doraemonappearedin Viet-
namin 1993whena Vietnamesestudentstudyingin Bangkokdiscovered
the comicsthereand liked them so much that he begantranslatingthem
from Thai into Vietnameseand selling them in his home country. The
series'subsequentpopularityin Vietnam hasforced that country'swrit-
ersof children'sbooksto rethink their craft andto createmore imagina-
tive works for kids insteadof the moralizing and dogma-lacedworks
they had previouslybeenproducing.In Cambodia,educatorsand par-
ents have praisedDoraemon for setting good examplesof behavior,
manners,love for parents,carefor friends, and concernfor the environ-
ment.4 Doraemonis just the tip of the iceberg;similar storiesinvolving
other Japanesemanga(comics) and animationare found from Asia to
North America and Europe. More recently, the World Wide Web has
helped acceleratethe export of this form of Japan'spopular culture,
with hundredsof Web sites devotedto Japanesemangaand animation
seriesand characters.
The popularity of Doraemonand other Japanese"cultural" exports
calls into questionthe often-expressed view that Japanhas little influ-
enceor impact on the rest of the world otherthan in the fields of busi-
nessand economics.At the end of the Cold War someobserverswere
askingwhetherwe werewitnessingnot just a shift in powerbut a partial
transformationin the natureof power. JosephNye, for example,coined
the term "soft power" to capturethe growing importanceof cultural
factors in world politics. At the sametime, however,Nye arguedthat
Japanis a "one-dimensional"economicpowermarkedby a cultural in-
sularity that robs it of relevancefor other societies.5
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 289

I contendthat Japan'ssupposedinsularity is less pronouncedthan

Nye andothersassume.This is particularlytrue in Asia, wherethe prod-
ucts of Japan'spopularculture industries--mangaand animation,tele-
vision dramas,pop music--haveachieveda position of high visibility,
enthusiasticacceptance,and growing relevanceand influence. In The
AmericanDream andthe PopularNovel, ElizabethLong pointsout that
best-sellersbecomebest-sellersbecausethey have found "resonance"
with large segmentsof the population.6 The successand presenceof
Japan'scultural exportsin othercountriesis strongevidencethat Japan's
culturedoeshaverelevancefor other societies.Somethingadditional is
necessary,however,for best-sellersin one country to becomebest-sellers
overseas;they also needa vehicle with which to crossthe political and
cultural boundaries.This has beenprovidedby Japan'scultural indus-
tries, in particularthe "imagealliances"formed amongthe producersof
comics, animation, movies, and charactermerchandise,which see in
the expandingmarketsof other Asian countriesopportunitiesfor mar-
ket andprofit growth. This chapterexaminesthe rolesthat cultural reso-
nanceand the "image alliance" play in the spreadand popularity of
Doraemonand other Japanese mangaand animationthroughoutAsia.

Doraemon'sResonanceAbroad: A Republicof
Children and Robots

Thereare many things to like aboutDoraemonand thus many reasonsto

expectthatDoraemonmight bepopularnotjust in Japanbut in othercoun-
tries as well. The humor is first rate, and appealsto adultsas well as chil-
dren.School-agekids canrelateto Nobitaandhis friendsbecausetheyface
the sametroublesas real kids do: homework,parentsand teacherswho
scoldthem,secretloves,mateswho canbe difficult to get alongwith. The
Doraemoncharactersare extremelyhuman: they possessboth strengths
and shortcomings,they can be in turn nice or mean,they havedreamsand
experiencedisappointments.Here, though,I will focus on two aspectsof
Doraemonthat give it a particularrelevanceandappealin Japanandother
Asian countries:kids' empowermentandtechnologicaloptimism.

Kids' Empowerment

Doraemonis oneof manymangathat sharethe themeof empowerment

of children and youth. This characteristiccan be tracedback to Japan's
290 JAPAN POP!

most influential mangaartist, OsamuTezuka(192&-1989),the pioneer

known as the kami-sama(god) of manga. Postwarchildren's manga
beganwith OsamuTezuka.Tezukahimselfbegandrawing comics at a
very youngageandfor morethan forty yearsafterthe war producedone
splendidandvoluminouswork after another.He alsoleft behinda legacy
of innovation,not only in drawing style but in mangaproductionmeth-
ods. He establishedthe "productionsystem,"in which a team of assis-
tantsworks with the principal artist; this madespeedyquantityproduction
possible,providedjob securityand on-siteapprenticeshiptraining, and
laid the foundation for the postwarmangaindustry. Tezuka'senthusi-
asm and devotion are legendary,and accountsof his warm personal
supportfor and inspirational influence on young comic artistsfill the
pagesof biographiesof the celebratedartistsoftoday-HiroshiFujimoto,
Doraemon'screator, very much among them. Fujimoto and his long-
time partnerMotoo Abiko-until the mid-1980sthesetwo artistsworked
underthe commonpennameFujiko Fujio-wereenticedinto the world
of comicsby Tezuka'sworks, lived in Tezuka'sold apartment,andwere
deeply influenced by Tezuka. Nobita's home address,"Tsuki-mi-dai
[Moon-View-Heights],Nerima-ku,Tokyo" doubtlessrefersto Tezuka's
residence/animation studioin "Fuji-mi-dai [Fuji-View-Heights],Nerima-
ku, Tokyo," where TetsuwanAtom (Mighty Atom) and other Tezuka
mangaclassicswere created.
Tezuka'smangawere initially categorizedas "children'smanga"not
becausethey were simple but because they were most eagerlyaccepted
by young people,who embracedthem as their mediumfor comprehen-
sion, expression,and communication.As the children grew up, manga
accompaniedthem into adulthood,until "children's manga" have be-
come mangafor everyone,young and old. While the comics and their
themeshaveevolvedin manydirections,the category"children'smanga"
has endured,and the conceptand themeof childhood is continuously
invoked. Manga like Doraemon constitutea "children's domain," in-
side which children'sissuesrule, and adult standardsand expectations
can be brokenor ignored.
The boy in whoseroom Doraemonsuddenlyappearsis namedNobi
Nobita. The word nobi nobi expressesthe way a young child grows
up--free, healthy, and happy, unrestrainedin any sense.That is pre-
cisely the ideal of "childhood" in contemporaryJapan.Nobita'sgangof
friends includesJaian(Giant),the neighborhoodbully, who, thoughloud
and quick to take out his frustrationson otherswith his fists, hasa good
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 291

Figure 16.1 Nobita "pauses" Jaian with a typical Doraemon gadget, the
"human remote control," as Doraemon and Suneo look on

heart;Suneo,the whiny andschemingrich kid who is Jaian'ssidekick;and

Shizuka,the girl Nobita and the other boys all havea crushon. The three
boys,asJapanese pop culturecritic Mark Schilling notes,"presenta micro-
cosmof Japan'sclasssystem,and illustrate the way thoseclassesare per-
ceived, with Suneorepresentingthe arrogant,materialistic,self-centered
upper-middle;Nobita the nice, ordinary but much-put-uponmiddle; and
Jaianthe impulsive, crude,but salt-of-the-earthlower-middle."7
The"children'sdomain"in Nobita'sown householdis his room, which
is on the secondfloor of the houseand, though connectedby stairs, is
separatefrom the first-floor spacewhere Nobita's mother and father
spendtheir time. His mother is a traditional Japanesehousewifewho
stayshometendingthe family, and his father is a "salaryman"who goes
off to work eachmorning andcomesback in the eveningto havedinner
with his family, and is usually found readingthe newspaperor watching
TV when at home. This arrangementleavesNobita's childhood world
undisturbed.
Outsidehis window Nobita can seethe blue sky wherewhite clouds
float by, and from his room Nobita and his friends use gadgetsfrom
Doraemon'sfourth dimensionpocketto exploreand find adventureand
 292 JAPAN POP!

Figure 16.2 Doraemon, Nobita, Jaian, Suneo, and Shizuka step through
the "dokodemo door" into the heart of Africa

trouble in a variety of outsideworlds. For local travel they attachto their

headsa "take-copter,"a small hat with a helicopterblademadeof take
(bamboo)which enablesthem to fly from placeto place.8 To travel in-
stantlyto more distantplaces,they walk throughthe "dokodemo-door"
(anywheredoor), which opensto any location its userwishes.They can
also travel to the past or future by using the time machine which
DoraemonleavesparkedinsideNobita'sdeskdrawer.How manyadults
would love to havesuchdevicesat their disposal,to escapefrom crammed
train cars during rush hour "hell," or to return to the past or visit the
future?
Doraemon'swonderful gadgetsare for children only, however.The
child's room and this children'smangaare privilegedspacesin modern
society,wherekids can hangup a "No Adults Allowed" sign and dream
dreamsthattranscendtime andspaceandthe concernsof adults.Fujimoto
believesthat his own personalityhasallowed him to createmangathat
are truly for kids: "You can't draw children'scomicsfrom the perspec-
tive of adultsand try to createwhat you think the childrenwill like," he
says. "You have to createsomethingyou really enjoy, that they also
happento enjoy. You haveto be at their eye-level,in other words, with
their perspective.I guessI have a bit of the child in me that refusesto
grow up, becauseI'm extraordinarilylucky in that what I like to draw,
they like, too."9
It is not surprising that Doraemon,which legitimizes not only the
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 293

existenceof a "children'sdomain" but the freedomand power of chil-

dren to rule that domain, has a strong appeal in contemporaryAsia.
Doraemonandhis pocket,handierandmoreeffectivethan a Searscata-
log in producing gadgetsperfectly suited to Nobita's personalneeds,
are a consumer'sdream in a region of consumersocieties.For Asia's
young people,who in real life face pressuresto conform and to excel
academically,the children'sdomainofferedby Doraemonis a welcome
respite.It offers, asSchilling writes, a "breathoffreedomanda glimpse
of a funnier, friendlier world where all dreams,even foolish ones,can
cometrue."IO

TechnologicalOptimism

Throughthe sky to the distantstars

GoesAtom, as far as his jets will take him.
The oh-so-gentlechild of science
With one hundredthousandhorsepower,
It's Mighty Atom.

Listen carefully and watch out

That'sright, Atom, be on your guard.
The pure-heartedchild of science
With his sevenpowers,
TheregoesMighty Atom.

On the streetcorneror at the bottom of the sea

There'sAtom again,protectingmankind.
The oh-so-cheerfulchild of science
Everyone'sfriend,
Mighty Atom. II

Although Doraemon'sNobita has his own room, his own "child's

domain,"this doesnot meanthat his life is easy.This happy,easygoing,
andthoroughlyundisciplinedchild neverthelessfacesmany daily prob-
lems: he is doing poorly in school, is hopelessat sports, is routinely
bullied by shrewderor strongerchildren in the neighborhood,is con-
stantly scoldedby his mother for not doing his homeworkor keeping
his room clean,and is neververy successfulin winning Shizuka'sheart.
The tool madeavailableto Nobita to combattheseproblemsis techno1-
294 JAPAN POP!

ogy, in the form of Doraemon,the robot cat poweredby a nuclearreac-

tor in his chest, and the many high-tech gadgetsDoraemonproduces
from his magic pocket.
Japan'sfirst atomic-poweredrobot hero was Tetsuwan(or "Mighty"
Atom). Atom was createdby Tezuka in 1951, just six years after the
atomic bombsweredroppedon Hiroshimaand Nagasaki,12 andbecame
so popular in Japanthat by 1981 over 100 million copies of Mighty
Atom comicshadbeensold.13 With Mighty Atom's themesong(above),
the popularimageryof robot as reliable friend emergedto heal postwar
Japan'swoundedconfidencein scienceand technology.But how could
"atom" becomethe nameof a friend who protectsmankind,in the only
country in the world to experiencefirsthand the horrible consequences
of an atomic bombing?
Czech writer Karel Capek coined the word "robot" from a Czech
word, robota, in his 1920play, R. U.R. (Rossum'sUniversalRobots).In
post-World War I Europe,this play createda sensation,and the metal
men have since starred in hundredsof novels, plays, and films. The
plots are generallyquite similar to the original, which Schodtsumma-
rizes as: "Men mass produceartificial slaves,or robots, to take over
their work andlater to wagewar aswell; the robots,of high intelligence,
decide not to kill each other, and instead slaughtertheir masters,the
humans."14R.U.R. was stagedin Tokyo in 1924 but did not gain popu-
larity as it did in the West. The theme"Man makesrobots, robots kill
man" held little appealfor Japanese and did not takeroot. 15 In the Japa-
nesemind, robots with humanoidforms embodyingadvancedtechnol-
ogy werenot, by themselves,that interesting.Whatdid interestJapanese
was the relation of robotsand technologyto humankind.When Tezuka
createdthe robot hero Mighty Atom, "robots" becamewhat they still
are to the Japanese: reliable friends of people,and especiallyof children.
In the story, a leadingscientistbuilds Mighty Atom as a replacement
for his own son who has died in a traffic accident.His creationis an
incredibly strong,atomic-poweredsuperrobotwith the body of a young
boy and sensitive, innocent eyes. When the father discoversthat his
robot son will nevergrow up, he sellsAtom to a circus. Thus, like post-
war youthsin Japan,the orphanedAtom is freed of the pastandoftradi-
tional familial authority. He is born of the marriagebetweenadvanced
technologyand dreamsof the future.
Tezuka,who had read R. U.R. and personallywitnessedthe destruc-
tive effects of modem warfare--whenhe was a medical studentafter
 DORAEM ON GOES ABROAD 295

the war, most of the patientshe treatedwere suffering from malnutri-

tioll-QriginaUy conceivedAtom's characteras a cynical parodyof sci-
enceand technology.But, as Schodtexplains,"publishers,the public,
and the times pushedhim to a more romantic depiction of the future,
and as is often the casehis charactertook on a life of its own. 'In the
days after the war,' saysTezuka,'the publisherswantedme to stressa
peacefulfuture, whereJapanese scienceand technologywere advanced
and nuclearpower was usedfor peacefulpurposes.'''16Thus, contrary
to his original intention,Tezukacreatedthe imageof a friendly technol-
ogy which helps men, women, andchildren to attain a peacefuland
prosperouslife.
Such a view of technologystruck a chord in postwarJapan.Schodt
writes, whereas"the carnagewrought by technologyin World War II
had deepeneddistrust of it among many intellectuals in the West, in
Japanit had a decidedlydifferent effect."17The disastrouswar between
humansand technologyhad alreadyhappenedin Japanwith the atomic
bombs,but in the West the worst had "yet to happen."What Tezukadid
was createa "day-after" scenarioin which scientific knowledgeand
technology would be trustworthy partnersin rebuilding the land.
TetsuwanAtom beginswith the destructionof the earthand is the story
of subsequenthumanefforts to rebuild society on a new planet and of
Atom's role in bringing peaceto the new world. The central theme is
that the awesomepower of the atom can be a friend to a humanwith a
pure heart. Robots in Tezuka'sstory becomeharmful to people only
when they are controlled by men of evil intent or when they are not
madewith precision.Theseideasare expressedin Tezuka's"Principles
of RobotLaw," which state:"Robotsare createdto servemankind,"and
"Robotsshall neverinjure or kill humans."The tricky part is that robots
can only fully obey their law when they are freed from their creators,
men, who areproneto makemistakes."All robotshavethe right to live
free and equal," readsanotherPrinciple. This was a declarationof the
republic of childrenand robots,wherethe future is no longershapedby
the past,and wherethe imageof a bright and peacefulfuture guidesand
definesthe present.
In both TetsuwanAtom and Doraemon,scienceand technologyare
intimately associatedwith children.Atom and Doraemon,both nuclear-
powered,are symbolsof the confidenceand hopepeopleplacein tech-
nology as the trusteeof the future of their children. Technology,which
oncecausedtotal devastation,is purified by its associationwith and use
296 JAPAN POP!

by an innocentchild, and children are conceptuallyempoweredas those

who areresponsiblefor befriendingandadvancingscienceandtechnology.
Nobita hashis great-great-grandson, who lives in the future world of
the twenty-secondcentury, to thank for his accessto technologyfrom
Doraemon'spocket.Nobita'sdescendent andbenefactorknowsall about
his great-great-grandfather's (i.e., Nobita's)childhoodtrials and crises,
andsends--orshouldI say"will send?"--hisown toy robot, Doraemon,
to be Nobita's full-time, live-in tutor, guardian, andfriend. Doraemon
also understandsNobita's frustrationsand pains, and endeavorsto re-
lieve themwith the aid of the high-techgadgetshe pulls from his pocket.
This is user-friendlytechnologyat its finest. Most of Doraemon's gad-
getsare portable;haveno intrinsic weight; readily expandor shrink as
needed;rarely break down; and easily transcendtime, space,gravity, en-
ergy, and volume. They are an impressivetestimonyto the standardsof
quality control and innovationthat exist in the twenty-secondcentury.
TV audiencesand comic book readersmust love thesegadgetsbe-
causethere is now an encyclopediadedicatedto them which lists and
explainsover a thousandof Doraemon'sdevices.18 The best-knownis
the take-copter,which, accordingto the encyclopedia,Nobita and his
friends have used214 times. Secondin popularity is the time machine
(which hasappeared97 times),andthird is the anywheredoor(68 times).
Other frequently employedgadgetsare the small light and big light,
which shrink or enlargewhateverthey are shinedon; Momotarobrand
kibidango(rice cakes),which when given to wild animalscausethemto
becometame and friendly; and the kisekae(dress-up)camera,which
enablesits holder to instantly clothe peoplein different outfits simply
by aiming and shooting.
While thesegadgetsare a vital featureof the series,it is Doraemon
who occupiesthe central position in the story. Though Doraemonis
himselfa high-techproduct,he possesses an endearingpersonalitythat
captivatesyoung audiences.He is both a full memberof Nobita'sfam-
ily and an intimate friend to Nobita and his companions.Portrayedin
this way, Doraemonrepresentsthe optimistic view of the relationship
betweentechnologyand humanity. At the sametime, Nobita exempli-
fies man as masterof technology,securein the view that technology
brings benefitsto man, not fear, enslavement,or harm. Nobita, it turns
out, is a vigorousexperimentalistwith an imaginativemind. Whenever
Doraemonproducesa high-tech toy to solve Nobita's latest problem,
Nobita cheerfully experimentswith it to find a new applicationnot in-
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 297

tendedby its designeror by Doraemon.Theseexperimentsgenerally

resultin mishaps.The story"HumanRemoteControl," shownin Figure
16.1,is typical. In responseto Nobita'scomplaintsthat he hastoo much
homework, Doraemonproducesfrom his pocket the "human remote
control," and "fast-forwards"Nobita through his homework in an in-
stant.Nobita thenusesthe deviceto his further benefit,"fast-forwarding"
himselfout of the pathof Jaian'spunches(causingJaianto smashinto a
telephonepole and a wall) and"rewinding" Suneoto catchhim in a lie.
In the end,Nobita accidentally"pauses"himselfwhile running to show
Shizukathe new toy; as a result,he losesthe chanceto impressShizuka
and endsup not getting home until after dark, which earnshim a one-
hour scolding from his mother. Still, optimistic, good-naturedNobita
neverloseshis curiosity,andhis mettleis asmucha sourceofthe comic's
charm as are its breathtakinglyfresh ideas for high-tech products.
Nobita'sfearlessandplayful engagement with technology,in fact, makes
the entire structureof the story persuasive,for it is this curiosity andthe
free and creativemind of a child that will eventuallyproducethe fabu-
lous high-techproductsthat Doraemonbrings back from the future.

Television Animation, Character Merchandising, and the

Image Alliance

In Japan,artistic creativityandinnovationin onepopularmediumquickly

expand to other media, thanks to a web of "image alliances" among
producersof the print media,television,movies,andcharactermerchan-
dise.Mutually beneficialrelationshipsamongthese"divisions" of Japan's
cultural industriesnot only work to increasethe size and earningsof
those industries,they also provide a vehicle for the spreadof Japan's
popularculture to otherAsian countries.
Televisionbroadcastingbeganin Japanin 1956 when the public net-
work NHK and private network TBS went on the air, followed soon
after by Nihon TV (1957),Fuji TV (1959),andTV Asahi (1959).Ameri-
can cartoonssuch as Popeye,Mighty Mouse, and Woody Woodpecker
were televised beginning in 1959, introducing Japaneseaudiencesto
animatedcartoonTV shows. Japan'sfirst animation productioncom-
pany, Toei Animation, was setup in 1956 to produceanimationmovies
for theaters.OsamuTezuka,a big fan of Walt Disney'sanimatedmov-
ies,19participatedin Toei's early productions.
In 1962,Tezukaestablishedhis own animationstudio,Mushi (Beetle)
298 JAPAN POP!

Production,and in Januaryof the next year-whenthe numberof tele-

vision sets in Japanhad reachedfifteen million--TetsuwanAtom was
broadcastby Nihon TV as the first Japanese TV animationseries.Ani-
mation is an extremelylabor-intensive
labor-intensive
industry~ producinga half-hour
animatedcartoon takes forty-five days for forty people working full
time. In the early 1960s,importedAmericancartoons,which were sold
to a worldwide market, cost only a little over ¥100,000yen per thirty-
minute program,while it cost more than ¥1 ,000,000to producethirty
minutes of animation in Japan.The ¥550,000per episodethat Meiji
ConfectioneryCompanyinitially paid to sponsorTetsuwanAtom did
not evencover Mushi's productioncosts.20
At Mushi Production,Tezukaimplementedseveralproceduresto cut
costs.For a half-hourprogram,only 3,000to 4,300pictureswere used.
Tezuka's"bank system"further simplified the process;severalkinds of
mouths,eyes,noses,and arms were preparedand, when possible,only
these parts were exchangedinsteadof drawing entirely new figures.
While Disney used 200 colors, Mushi made do with only 80. Tezuka
wantedhis productsto be enjoyedby many, even if he had to sacrifice
quality at the beginning.21 Still, animation costs were high and other
meansto generateprofit from the imageswere sought.
It was noticedthat, after TetsuwanAtom went on the air, salesof the
comic books went up. This demonstrateda synergisticeffect whereby
exposureto televised animation entices a wider population into the
printed visual narration, and vice versa. Today, the close relationship
betweenthe popularityof a TV animationandthe saleof its comic books
is well understoodand hasgiven rise to closecooperationbetweenpub-
lishersand television companies.
Tezuka raised money to meet the costsof animationproductionby
selling licensesto use his animation characterson merchandise.Four
hundredmerchandisecontractswere signedfor TetsuwanAtom,putting
the boy robot'simageon stationary,toys, sportinggoods,clothes,foods,
electronicproducts,and many otheritems.Mushi Productionsreceived
¥3,000,000for eachlicense.
Anotherpieceto the imagealliancefell into placein 1965whenFujiko
Fujio's mangaObake no Q-Taro (Q-Taro the Ghost), called "Oba-Q"
for short, was made into an animatedtelevision series.Children were
enrapturedby the endearingghost, and Oba-Q'stelevision sponsor,
Fujiya, saw its chocolatesalesquickly catchup with and surpassthose
of its rivals, Morinagaand Meiji. This demonstratedthe profoundeffect
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 299

that a popular children's cartoon show could have on the sale of its
sponsor'sproducts.Oba-Qcomic book salesalso explodedafter Oba-Q
appearedon TV, and when the publisher built a new ten-story office
building in Tokyo, it was promptly called the "Oba-Q Building.,,22
Through experiencessuch as these,the advantageof linking televised
animation, comic books, charactermerchandising,and product spon-
sorshipbecameclear,andthe "imagealliance"wascemented.As Schodt
explains,"the typical patternis for a popular story first serializedin a
comic magazineto be compiled into books and sold as a paperback
series,then madeinto an animatedtelevisionseries,and, if still popular,
finally madeinto an animatedfeaturefor theatricalrelease.... Anima-
tion stimulatesfurther salesof magazines,reprintsof comic paperbacks,
and massivemerchandising."23Merchandisingincreasesthe visibility
of the story'scharactersin daily life, which in turn further booststhe TV
programratingsand comic book sales.
It is also possiblefor merchandisingto initiate the entire process.In
1986, Lotte ConfectioneryCompany'sPlanningDivision deviseda se-
ries of illustratedcardsthat were to be wrappedinside the packagesof a
new product,"Bikkuri-Man Chocolate."Comic artists were enlistedto
draw the original "Bikkuri-Man" (FlabbergastedMan) charactersfor
the cards,but therewas no story. Children were intrigued by the myste-
rious characters,however,and begancompetingto collect all the char-
actersof the seriesas if to deciphera hiddenstory. Lotte kept addingto
the numberof charactersandthe childrenkept collectingthem.By 1989,
more than 500 Bikkuri-Man characterimageshad been created,and
annualsalesof the thirty-yen chocolatereached¥5 billion (around$40
million in U.S. dollars). Forgedimageswere evendiscoveredbeingsold
to children, without the chocolates.
Lotte's Planning Division, itself showing no sign of being flabber-
gasted,coolly arrangedfor its artiststo makeup storiesfor the Bikkuri-
Man characters,and in 1988 CoroCoro Comic beganprinting serialized
Bikkuri-Man stories. At one point in 1988, Bikkuri-Man's popularity
exceededDoraemon's.That summer,the publisherreleaseda "Bikkuri-
Man" specialissue,and its 200,000copiessold out injust oneday. Soon
after, a television animation version was produced,and its rating ex-
ceeded20 percent.Finally a Bikkuri-Man video gamewasdeveloped.24
The beautyof the image alliance is that eachpartnerhelps promote
the others.The image is the central componentof the alliance,and the
copyright to the imageis sharedby the original artist, the publisher,and
300 JAPAN POP!

the television company.As characterimagescirculate,in print, anima-

tion, and merchandiseform, demandfor the productsof all membersof
the alliance grows. This in turn enhancesthe value and the revenue-
generatingpotential of the copyright. The result of all this is a larger
profit pie for all participantsin the allianceto sharein.
Ironically, althoughOsamuTezukaplayeda leadingrole in creatingthe
image alliance and therebymaking the mangaand animation industries
more viable, Tezuka'sown companywas a victim of the industry'sevolu-
tion. In the early the 1970s,the oil crisis prompteda restructuringof many
industriesin Japan.Television stationswere forced to cut costsby laying
off employees,manyof whom setup their own small independentprogram
productionhouses.T6ei Animation followed suit, and a numberof small
animationcompaniessprouted.Mushi Productionswent bankruptin 1973,
for Tezukacould not bring himselfto fire his assistants.

Doraemonand the ImageAlliance in Asia

It was to reduceproduction coststhat Japan'sanimation industry first

branchedout into Asia. In 1980,animationstudioswere set up in Seoul
and Taipei, and by the middle of the 1980s,50 percentof all animation
programsbroadcastin Japanwere being madeoverseas,where artistic
talentwasavailableat lower wagesthan in Japan.However,like Japan's
world-famous automobile and electronicsmakers,the image alliance
viewed otherAsian countriesnot just as low-costproductionsitesbut as
growing, and potentially huge,marketsfor their products.

TelevisionandAnimationCometo Indonesia

Televisiongot its start in Indonesiain 1962 (the sameyear that Osamu

Tezukasetup Mushi Productionsin Tokyo) whenthe country'snational
television companyTVRI (Televisi Republik Indonesia)begantrans-
mission. In the mid-l 970s, the Indonesiangovernmentrequiredevery
village to have at least one television set and requestedthat villagers
watchthe newsandcultural events;asa result,electricgeneratorsspread
television to many villages aheadof electrification. In 1989,Indonesia
had approximatelysix million registeredTV sets,about one for every
thirty-three persons.By 1990, TVRI's 13 regional stations,350 trans-
missionfacilities, and6,000employeescovered40 percentof the nation's
land and 70 percentof its population.
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 301

Indonesia'scommercialtelevision age beganafter a controversial

deregulationin the late 1980s,and today five privately run TV stations
havenationalbroadcastlicenses.Thanksto satellitedishes,manypeople
in the archipelagohave accessto foreign network broadcastsas well,
including CNN, ESPN,StarTV, HBO, and Discovery.
American comics such as Supermanwere introducedto Indonesia
during the 1950s,and it becamecommon for affluent parentsto buy
translationsof Disney picture books for their children. With television
deregulation,however,Japaneseprogrammingbeganto be shown,and
it quickly took root.25 Japanesechildren's animation and comics are
generallyregardedassuitableandeducationalfor children;a local Mus-
lim leaderhassaidthat he allows his childrento watchonly the national
newsand Japanesechildren'sanimation.
When I visited Indonesiain the early 1990s,Doraemonhad beenon
the air for two yearsand the blue robot cat was alreadya highly popular
and intimately familiar figure. One Sundaymorning at 8:00 A.M., I wit-
nesseda friend's 5-year-old son tum on the TV set precisely when
Doraemon,dubbedinto BahasaIndonesian,started.He watchedit, en-
grossed,for half an hour (two episodes),and as soonas it was over, he
switchedthe set off and beganto play video games.Only Doraemon
could competewith the video games!My friend, who formerly enjoyed
sleepingin on Sundays,now gets up to watch Doraemonwith his son.
He has also bought him Doraemoncharactertoys for his birthday. An
Indonesiancabinetministerconfessesthat he watchesDoraemonevery
Sunday,and when he cannot,he asks his wife to videotapethe day's
episodesfor him. In 1994, the first surveyon children'stelevisionpro-
grams in Indonesiawas conducted,and Doraemonranked first in all
four areassurveyed--Jakarta, Medan,Surabaya,and Semarang.
Soon after television broadcastsof Doraemonbegan,locally drawn
comic bookletsbeganappearingon the streets.Street-comerbookstands
and hawkers sold thesepalm-size,one-episode,"pirated" editions of
Doraemoncomics at prices affordableeven for children: 200-400ru-
piah (10-20 cents) each. The tissue paper booklets were producedby
teenageboys, and are reminiscentof the early postwardaysof Japan's
incipient manga industry. Japanesepublisherstook no direct action
againstthe Indonesianpirated comics at the beginning. When inter-
viewed,they explainedthat with Japan'sdomesticmarketso large, and
the overseaspirates'businessesso minuscule,they could afford to wait
and see how the situation developed.After all, narrative comics had
302 JAPAN POP!

takenroot in postwarJapanin a similar fashion.Their insight provedto

be correct. Thanksto the pirates'ingenuity and risk taking, handmade
Doraemoncomics spreaduntil local publishing housesdecidedto join
the party. They struck legal deals with Japanesepublishersand began
selling better-quality,copyrightedTento-Mushi SeriesDoraemon pa-
perbacksfor 3,300rupiah (about$1.50)throughtheir bookstorechains.
Oncethe markethad developedto this level, the legal Indonesianpub-
lishers found it in their interestto enforcethe copyright againstthe pi-
ratepeddlerson the streets,andthe piratededitionsquickly disappeared.
(In fact, Indonesianpublishers haveaskedthe Japanese publishers to
pay more attentionto the copyright issue.)
Today in Indonesia,Elex Media Komputindo, a subsidiary of
Gramedia,Indonesia'slargest publishing group and bookstorechain,
publishesDoraemonin pressrunsof 40,000copiespervolume.By 1996
this companyhad alreadytranslatedand publishedmore than 400 Japa-
nesemangatitles, and was selling Doraemonand other mangafigure
merchandisethrough its CharacterMerchandisingDivision (createdin
1994). In this way, Doraemonhashelpedestablishan imagealliancein
Indonesiasimilar to thosein Japan.CandyCandy,Sailor Moon, Dragon
Ball, and other popularJapanese mangaand animationserieshave fol-
lowed suit, and productsadornedby their characterimagescrowd the
shelvesin the first-generationshoppingmalls that are springing up in
Indonesia'scities.

OtherAsian Markets

In other Asian countries,as in Indonesia,economicgrowth has given

birth to a consumerclass living modem,urban lifestyles that increas-
ingly resemblethoseportrayedin Japanese mangaandanimation.Many
prevalentthemes,including children'sempowermentandtechnological
optimism, find rich soil in Asia'sdevelopingcountriesas well. Children
in the region are generallybettereducatedthan their parents,and they
are expectedto lead the nationalmarchinto a prosperousfuture. In such
a setting,manga'sdreamof a high-techsocietybuilt by the young gen-
erationfinds strongresonanceand support.Equally important,the mar-
ket infrastructurewhich is required for an image alliance to take root
and function efficiently-large-scalepublishing companies,bookstore
chains, television, shoppingmalls--is increasinglyin place in Asia's
. .
growmg economies.
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 303

Taiwan has alreadybecomea full memberof the mangaclub--the

term mangais commonlyusedin Taiwan--with its own artists, comic
magazines,and paperbackseries.Doraemonhas beenin Taiwan since
the late 1970s,when it arrived in both mangaand animationform. A
Taiwaneseman in his early thirties recalls that Doraemon was quite
popular from the time he was a teenager,and that a great variety of
Japanese mangawerealreadyavailablein Taiwanat that time. Doraemon
peakedin popularity around 1990, and today is just one of many Japa-
nesecartoonshowsbroadcastdaily in Taiwan,not only on the two chan-
nels devotedto Japaneseprogrammingbut on other channelsas well.
Many of theseseriesare backedup with comic books, videos, calen-
dars, stationary,plastic warriors, weapons,and other toys.
Today, mostDoraemoncomicssold in Taiwan bearthe marksof the
companieslicensedto distributethem,but clearly illegal copiesof Japa-
neseoriginals and someTaiwaneseimitations are still found, remnants
of earlier years when copyrights were not enforced.One storekeeper
complainedthat the imposition of GeneralAgreementon Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) restrictionsdrove illicit mangaoff the market, leaving
only the much higher-pricedlegal manga.PublisherDong Li oncepro-
duced many Doraemon manga,but stoppedin the early 1990s when
copyright becamean issue. Other companiescontinue to publish
Doraemon,even without copyright permissions.A managerof one of
theseexplainedthat someof the drawingsand storiesare copied from
the Japanese,while othersare originals createdin Taiwan.
Doraemonhasplayedan importantrole in helpingtrain aspiringrnanga
artistsin Taiwan. Beforethe publicationrights were licensedto Taiwan-
esemangapublishersChing Wen and Da Ran, many local artists spe-
cialized in drawingDoraemon.For some,Doraemonwas a springboard
from which they went on to other projects."No artistsdraw Doraemon
now," explainsa Ching Wen staff member,"they all do their own com-
ics." Japanese publishers are themselveshelping supportthe develop-
ment of local artists. Shueisha,publisherof Japan'stop-selling manga
weekly ShonenJump,haslicensedtwo Taiwanesecompaniesto publish
ShonenJump in Taiwan with the stipulationthat "more than forty per-
cent of their pageshave to be reservedfor young local artists."26Tal-
entedartists are the most preciousassetin the mangabusiness,and for
Japan'smanga industry, which has a bottomlessappetitefor new vi-
sionsand voices,Asian artistsare a promisingsourceoftalent.Japanese
publishinggiant Kodanshahasintroducedcomicsby overseasartistsin
304 JAPAN POP!

its weekly manga,ShakanMorning, and in 1990 the "Association of

SoutheastAsian Nations(ASEAN) MangaArtists Exhibition" was held
in Tokyo.
China,Asia's largestpotentialmarket,has showna specialreceptiv-
ity to Japanesecomicsand animationthat encouragechildren to aspire
to careersin scienceand technology.In 1980,the TetsuwanAtom series
becamethe first foreign animatedTV seriesbroadcastin China. Publi-
cation of the comics by SciencePromotionPublisheraccompaniedthe
TV show, and Doraemonhasfollowed closebehind. In China, wherea
printing of20,000copiesis consideredaveragefor a comic book,900,000
copiesof Doraemonmangaweresold in a three-yearperiodin the 1990s.
The TV serieshas becomea nationwidehit as well, and Doraemonmer-
chandiseis sold in stores,including state-runoutlets,all over the country.

Difficulties in the United States

While Japanese comicsandanimationhavecaptureda broadandenthu-

siastic market in Asia, their forays into Westernmarkets,where they
face greatercultural barriers, have producedmixed results. Western
Europe has been relatively receptive. In Italy, for example,Yumiko
Iigarashi'sCandy Candyhas becomea favorite. Television broadcasts
spawned publicationof deluxe hardboundcomic books,rescripted,re-
drawn,and coloredby local artists,and when the Japanese seriesended,
local artistsdrew Italian sequelsto meetcontinuingdemand.The Italian
CandyCandyboom has beenaccompaniedas well by the usual heavy
merchandisingof stationery,toys, and recordingsof the themesong. In
France,which hasboth a thriving industryin comicsfor grown-upsand
its own indigenousform of artistically respectedcomic books,the beau-
tifully producedbandesdessinees,Japanese mangaand animationhave
built a broadfan base.The existenceof numerouscomicsand animation
retailers-particularlyin the Bastille area of Paris-providesa ready-
madedistribution systemfor Japanese manga and animationin France.
Someare in Japanesewhile othersare translatedinto French.27
The United States,by contrast,has proved to be less fertile ground.
While a few Japaneseanimation serieshave done well in the United
States-SailorMoon, for example,has been extremely popular with
school-agegirls-andalthoughmangaand animationfan clubsarepop-
ping up by the dozenson collegecampusesand the Internet,the level of
acceptanceand the size of the market remain minusculecomparedto
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 305

thosein Asian countries.Severalreasonscan be given for this. America

hasits own history and style of comics,andhashad no Tezukato stage
a mangarevolution to developcomicsinto the rich and diverseexpres-
sivemediumit hasbecomein Japan.TherearedifferencesbetweenJapa-
nese and American comic traditions in language and format
conventions---Ieft-to-rightversusright-to-left reading progression, the
useof soundeffectsandthoughtballoons,color versusblack-and-white---
which makethetranslationandsuccessfulmarketingof Japanese manga
in the United Statesfar from easy.28Existing Americancomic distribu-
tion channelsand outlets are not set up to handlethick Japanese-style
comic books,andmorebroadly,comicsin Americahaveneverachieved
the placein American"image alliances"that they have in Japan.In Ja-
pan comics startedthe image alliance; in the United Statesthe image
alliance includesmovies,animation,and charactermerchandising,but
comicsplay virtually no role. Historically, therehasbeenlittle needfor
comicsto be a major mediumof expressionin the United States,as this
role wasmorethanadequatelyplayedby America'swell-developedpop
music, Hollywood movie, and television industries.
The difficulty of selling Japanesecomics in the American market
was demonstratedby the caseof Hadashi no Gen (Barefoot Gen), the
antiwar classicwritten by Keiji Nakazawa(seechapter8). Nakazawa
was a victim of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, an event that he
personallyexperiencedand that claimedthe lives of his father, brother,
andsister.In the late 1970s,a nonprofit peacegroup in Tokyo published
anEnglishedition ofNakazawa's1,400-pagemanganovel andsentcop-
ies aroundthe world. In the United States,a SanFranciscounderground
publishercut the lengthy narrative into several"normal-sized"comic
books,but it did not sell well. Lack of "mangaliteracy" and familiarity
with the novel-lengthmangaformat was no doubt one reason.Another
was the interventionof America'sComicsCode,which was enactedin
the 1950s in responseto political and social pressuresand which, in
Schodt'swords, nearly "sanitized[U.S. comics] to death."29The Com-
ics CodeAuthority consideredGen'sday-afterscenes"too graphically
violent"; it was one thing, apparently,to drop the bomb and have chil-
dren go through the experience,but anotherto allow an eyewitness's
visual narrationof the tragedyto circulate.3o Perhapsthe Authority felt
that Gen did not present"qualitiesof finenessand permanence"or "ex-
periencesworth reliving," valuesthat have beenestablishedin Ameri-
can literary circles for children's literature, though the strong antiwar
306 JAPAN POP!

themeof Gen and the integrity, bravery,and charmof its charactersmake

suchan argumentseemabsurd.On the other hand,Americanadults nor-
mally do not read"children's" accounts,which is how Gen'snarrativeis
scripted.Theline betweenliteraturefor adultsandthatfor childrenis clearer
in the United Statesthanit is in postwarJapan,a fact notedby Sh6nenJump
editor Kazuhiko Torishima,who hasstated:"I feel sorry for U.S. children
who live in a Disney-filteredworld."31
Japanesecartoonprogramshave also run into problemsin America.
They are often categorizedas "animation for small children" and cen-
soredunderthe BroadcastingCode,which is evenmore stringentthan
the ComicsCode.32 Ironically, animationwith conspicuousviolence,a
relatively unpopulargenrein Japan,33has found a smootherroad into
the Americanmarketbecausetheseproductsare categorizedas "not for
children." Doraemonhas neverbeenbroadcastin the United States.

Conclusion

PostwarJapanesecomics originatedas a children'smedium-aforum

in which children could sing the themesof frustration, rebellion, opti-
mism, andhope.They constituteda children'sdomain,wheretherewas
respite from the pressuresof school and the concernsand rules of the
adult world; in the caseof TetsuwanAtom,Doraemon,and manyothers,
there was freedom from the laws of physicsas well. As early readers
have matured,mangahave grown with them to becomea pop culture
genrefor everyone,young and old. Along the way, imagealliancesde-
velopedto supportthe artistic side of the industry and to multiply and
maximizethe variousforms of profit that mangagenerateeitherdirectly
or indirectly. When Doraemonhas goneabroad,he has beenmost suc-
cessfulwhereresonancewith local valuesand lifestyles hascreatedthe
"pull" of local demand,and where image alliancessimilar to those in
Japanhave formed to "push" the product. This has happenedmost
strongly in Asia. Where resonance,demand,and industry supportare
weaker,as in the United States,Doraemonand other Japanesemanga
charactershave faced a bumpierroad.
Just as Hollywood films have helped disseminatethe idea of the
American way of life to the rest of the world, Japanesecomicsand TV
animationare now spreadingJapaneseideasaboutchildhood,war and
peace,scienceand technology,and the future world. Today in Asia,
Disney cartoonsare what parentstend to buy for their children. But
 DORAEMON GOES ABROAD 307

Japanesecomic books, animation videos, video games,and character

merchandisearewhat childrenasktheir parentsto buy for them,or what
childrenbuy with their own money.In doing this they arepracticingand
verifying the notion frequentlyfound in mangathat the children are the
pioneersof the future and are capableof deciding what they want and
getting it for themselves.
The popularity of Japanesemangaand animationdoesnot necessar-
ily meanthat the hegemonyof Americanpopularculture is beingunder-
mined or that the idea of the American way of life has lost its luster.
Rather,a new brand has beenaddedto the world's pop culture menu,
giving the world's citizens a much expandedrange of characters,sto-
ries, values,and mental universesto enjoy and learnfrom.

Notes

I. This chapterhas been adapted,with pennission,from Saya S. Shiraishi,

"Japan'sSoft Power: DoraemonGoes Overseas,"in Network Power: Japan and
Asia, ed. PeterJ. KatzensteinandTakashiShiraishi(Ithaca,NY: Cornell University
Press,1997),pp. 234-272.All changesto the original material are the sole respon-
sibility ofTim Craig.
2. Thesefigures are for the Tento-Mushi Seriesalone.There are other paper-
backsas well, some producedby other artists, such as "study comics" in which
Doraemonteachesmathematicsand science.This diversity makesit impossibleto
count them all.
3. Nihon Keizai Shimbun(FebruaryII, 1995).
4. Yojana Shanna,"If You Can't Beat 'Em ... ," Nation (May 7, 1997),p. Cl.
5. JosephS. Nye Jr., Boundto Lead: The ChangingNature ofAmericanPower
(New York: Basic Books, 1990),pp. 166-169,188.
6. Elizabeth Long, The American Dream and the Popular Novel (Boston:
Routledgeand KeganPaul, 1985).
7. Mark Schilling, The Encyclopediaof JapanesePop Culture (New York:
Weatherhill, 1997),p. 42.
8. The take-copterenablesits userto fly through a combinationof antigravity
andthe effectiveuseof wind. The directionandspeedcanbe controlled"as wished,"
that is, by brain waves.The maximum speedis 80 km per hour, and it must be
rechargedafter eight hours of continuoususe. It can be unstablein strong winds.
SetagayaDoraemonKenkyu-Kai, DoraemonKenkyuKanzenJiten (The Complete
Encyclopediaof DoraemonStudies)(Tokyo: Data House, 1994).
9. Quotedin FrederikL. Schodt,DreamlandJapan: Writings on Modern Manga
(Berkeley,CA: StoneBridge, 1996),pp. 219-220.
10. Schilling, Encyclopedia,pp. 44-45.
11. Music by TatsuoTakai, lyrics by ShuntaroTanikawa,translatedby Frederik
L. Schodt.In FrederikL. Schodt,Inside the RobotKingdom (New York: Kodansha
International,1988),p. 79.
308 JAPAN POP!

12. Ironically, Mighty Atom's name was changedto "Astro Boy" in the U.S.
version,to downplaythe atomic connectionfor Americanviewers.
13. UsakuFujishima,SengoMangaMinzoku-shi(Tokyo: Kawai Shuppan,1990),
p.328.
14. Schodt,RobotKingdom,pp. 29-30.
15. Ibid., p. 73.
16. Ibid., p. 76.
17. Ibid., p. 77.
18. SetagayaDoraemonKenkyii-Kai, DoraemonKenkyii Kanzen.
19. Tezuka is reportedto have seenBambi over eighty times and Snow White
fifty times (Fujishima,SengoManga, p. 120).
20. For the costsof TV animation,seeFujishima,SengoManga, pp. 110-123,
224-249.
21. Today,Japan'sanimationindustryis the world's largest,andT6ei Animation
usesas many colors as it pleases.The 1994 two-hour hit animatedmovie Heisei
Tanuki Gassen:Ponpoko,by Studio Ghibli, used502 colors and 82,289cells.
22. FrederikSchodt,Manga! Manga! The World ofJapaneseComics(New York:
KodanshaAmerica, 1983), p. 145.
23. Ibid., p. 146.
24. For the Bikkuri-Man story, seeFujishima,SengoManga, pp. 272-277.
25. Christine T. Tjandraningsih,"Japan'sManga Oust Rivals from Indonesian
Market," Japan Times(January11, 1995).
26. Takarajima Shonen(Boys'TreasureIsland)andNetsumonSh6nenTOP.
27. Schodt,DreamlandJapan,p. 308.
28. For a descriptionof the difficulties of developinga marketfor Japanese
manga
in America, seeSchodt,DreamlandJapan,pp. 308-321.
29. Schodt,DreamlandJapan,p. 52.
30. On the censorshipof children'sbooksin the United States,seePaul Deane,
Mirrors of American Culture: Children s Fiction Seriesin the TwentiethCentury
(Metuchen,NJ: Scarecrow,1991),pp. 16-29.
31. BenjaminFulford, "Comicsin JapanNot JustFunnyBusiness,"Nikkei Weekly
(February17, 1997),p. I.
32. Schodt,Manga Manga, p. 156.
33. Japanesein the United Statesare shockedto find violent made-in-Japanvid-
eos so widely available;theseare harderto find in Japan.