PRE HISTORIC PERIOD

1. Sources - Non literary ( coins, inscriptions, monuments, archaeological remains)

- Literary
2. Stone age is also known as - Lithic age
3. Tools used during stone age were made of- stones, bones, wood
4. First archaeological evidence of paleolithic age was found where and by whom- Robert Bruce Foote
(British geologist, father of pre historic archaeology- 1863 found pallavaram handaxe)

LOWER PALEOLITHIC AGE

5. Tools during paleolithic age was made of rough stones for making- hand axes, choppers, cleavers (also
used lime stones)
6. Oldest lower paleolithic site in India- Maharashtra, kashmir valley, thar dessert, didwana dessert
(rajasthan)
7. Natural rock caves and shelters were found in - Vindhyas, deccan plateau
8. Important sites of lower paleolithic age - Bhimbetka caves Bhopal, Nagarjunakonda AP, UP, saurashtra
region of Gujarat, deccan plateau, chota nagpur plateau

MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC AGE (1,00,000- 40,000 BC)

9. Humans used sharp and pointed tools such as- flakes, blades, pointers (tools were small, thin, sharp)
10. Artefacts of this age found in- Narmada river, Tungabhadra river, Luni Valley - rajasthan, Belan
Valley - UP, Bhimbetka caves- MP

UPPER PALEOLITHIC AGE ( 40,000 - 10,000 BC)

11. Climate during the age- warmer and humidity was low
12. Men of modern type- Homosapiens- found in this age
13. Development in tools including- fishing tools, needles, burins, parallel sided blades, boring tools
14. The evidence of use of blades and burins were found in - AP, Kar, Maha, MP, southern UP,
Jharkhand
15. Blades, scrappers, flakes were found in - gujarat sand dunes
16. Bone tools were found in- konoor region and muchchatla Chintamani Gavi of AP

MESOLITHIC AGE (10,000BC- 6000 BC)

17. Climate change- ice melting, flora fauna , advancements in tools
18. First human colonisation was found during this period in - Ganga Plains
19. Microliths- small bladded tools
20. Microliths were made of- crypto- crystalline silica, finely grained rock
21. Earliest discovery of microliths and other mesolithic tools were found in rock shelters of- Mirzapur
district of UP
22. MIcroliths were found in- Tapti, sabarmati, narmada, mahi river
23. Oldest site of animal domestication was found in- MP- Adamgarh
24. Farming of- wheat, barley, rice
25. Art- rock paintings,
26. Themes of the paintings were- wild animals, hunting, dancing
27. How many mesolithic art sites are found in India- 150- Bhimbetka caves, Karwar, Jaora, sambalpur-
orissa, Sundargarh, orissa, ezhuthu guha(kerala)
28. Important Mesolithic sites- Langhnaj (guj), Burhanpur (WB)

NEOLITHIC AGE (5000- 1800 BC)

29. Book “Man makes himself” was written by- Gordon Childe- gave the name Neolithic revolution
30. Oldest site of rice cultivation in the world- Koldihwa and Mahagara of UP
31. More refined and polished tools
32. Major crops grown during this age were- Ragi, Horse gram, Cotton, rice, wheat and barley
33. Agro pastoral societies were founded highly in- Hallur, Maski, Brahmagiri od Karnataka
34. Pottery making first appeared in - Neolithic age
35. Classification of pottery- black burnished ware, grey ware, matte impressed ware
36. Oldest evidence of cotton was found in- Mehrgarh site- now pak

CHALCOLITHIC- COPPER STONE AGE (1800- 1000BC)

37. Copper was used in making- axe, fishing hooks, chisels, pins, knife, rod
38. Which is the only site where remains of baked bricks were found- Gilund, rajasthan
39. Different types of burrials- single burrials, small box shaped, rock cut tombs
40. Bodies were burried along with- pots and copper objects
41. High infant mortality rate was found in- neolithic age
42. Pottery during chalcolithic age- polychrome painted pottery, black and red pottery, ochre coloured
pottery
43. Remains of ochre coloured pottery were found in- Rajasthan, haryana, Punjab, haryana, western UP
44. Ornaments were made using- shell, bones, semi precious stones- Steatite, quartz crystal
45. Major cultures that developed during the period
(i) Ahar and Banas culture- rajasthan- Udaipur, Bhilwara, Rajsamand
(ii) Kayatha culture- bank of kali sindh- tributory of chambal
(iii) Malva culture- maha- wheat, barley, oilseed, jawar, rice, legumes, bull figurines made of terracota
(iv) Jorwe culture- west maha- daimabad- bronze made elephant, rhino, charriot

46. Important sites of the period- inamgaon, Nashik, Rangpur, Nevada, Chirand

MEGALITHIC PERIOD (single big stone - used to build memorials)

47. Megalith types- polylithic, monolithic
48. Bulk found in- southern india
49. Important sites- Menhir Megalith burrials- Maski and gulbarga of karna, Hood stone memorials- AP,
Umbrella stone cave- kerala, Dolmen shaped tomb- Brahmagiri, Chengalpattu, Rockcut cave memorials-
kochi, Brah, Wastal( jammu), Banda, Allahabad, Mirzapur, varanasi (UP)
50. Wealthier- burried with gold, poor- pots

HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
51. Who discovered the ruins of Harappa- Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni 1920
52. Who discovered the ruins of Mohenjodaro- RD Banerji 1921
53. Major Harappan sites- Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigari, Ropar, Alamgiri, Dholavira,
Lothal
54. The term IVC was first used by - John Marshall
55. The oldest record of harappan ruins is first traced in- british soldier book- Charles Masson- “Narrative
of various journeys in Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and Punjab”
56. Archaeologists- NG. Majumdar, Amlanand goose, RS. Bisht, JP. Joshi, R.Rao, Vasanth Shinde
57. The discovery of Stone inscription and Indus signboard at Dholavira by R.S. Bisht in 1990s was the
most major discovery.
58. Second major discovery was Rakhigarhi by Amrendra Nath in 1997
59. The recent excavation in Rakhigari by Vasant Shinde in 2014 made it the largest site of Harappan
civilization
60. 4 phases of evolution of IVC-
(I) Pre- Harappa- Nomadic ppl- settled life- agriculture
(II) Early harappa- massive villages and Urban centres emerged
(III) Mature Harappa- large urban centres flourished- merchantalism
 (IV) Late Harappa- decline of the civilization
61. Geographical location- Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Balochistan, Guj, Raja, western UP - tributaries of
indus- fertile
62. Decline in fertility of Indus Valley due to environmental changes- ppl shifted to Ganga Valley
63. Post Harappan settlements- Mahajanapadas, Magadha
64. Northern most- Manda
Southern most- Daimabad
Eastern most- Alamgirpur
Western most- Sutkagan Dor

PRIMARY EVIDENCES

65. Important innovations of this civilization include standardized weights and measures, seal carving,
and metallurgy with copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
66. Port cities- Lothal, surkotada, Kuntasi, Allahadino, Sutkagandor, Balakot
67. Mesopotamian trade centres- Ur, Susa
68. Major excavations- town planning, drain system, grid system
69. Architecture- great bath, great granary
70. Arts and crafts were prominent in industrial towns- Chanhudaro, Nageshwar, kot bala
71. Famous sculpture of IVC- Upper male body part (torso) in red sandstone, bearded man sculpture
(identified as priest)- made of steatite, soap rock- elongated half closed eyes- had trefoil patterned shawl
indicating existence of embroidery practice
72. Bronze casting- Natrajar statue made by cholas in 11the ce- same technique found in ivc
73. Famous bronze sculptures- Dancing girl (4 inch tribanga posture, mohenjodaro), buffalo, goat animal
74. Terracotta figures- mother goddess, bearded males, masked horn diety, toy carts, seals
75. Prominent terracotta figure- Mother goddess- adorned with necklace, loin coins, girdles
76. Variety of seals- terracotta, steatite, agate, chert, copper, faience, gold, ivory, and silver- as proof of
authenticity in trade
77. Famous seal- pashupathi seal of mohenjodaro- contains elephant, tiger, rhino, buffallo, 2 antelpoes
78. Pottery- red and blackware
79. Standard weight measures were used- in multiple of 16 units

IMPORTANT SITES:
80. HARAPPA
- located at bank of Ravi river in punjab, pak
81. MOHENJODARO
- what does mohenjodaro mean- “mound of the dead”
- location- punjab province of pak
- the great bath, great grannary, bronze dancing girl, seal of pashupathi, statue of bearded man, woowen
cotton
- one of the UNESCO world heritage site
82. DHOLAVIRA
- Location- rann of Kachh
- large reservoirs, elaborate system of water harvesting
83. Theories of harappan political system
- uniform sculptures and architecture shows the centralised polity under a ruling class
- use of labour forces and collection of taxes for town planning and building
- centralised system of governance
- Citadels- “seat of power”, Great grannary- “ state’s treasury”(grains collected as tax)
- political system reached zenith in mature harappan phase
- no evidence of organised army but paintings were found of standing army
- no evidence of temples- no priest rule
84. Economy - Agriculture
- agri- main economic activity due to fertility of the valley- which was due to overflow of indus- evidence
was found through burnt brick walls used for flood control
- main crops- wheat, barley, sesamum, mustard, peas
- the evidence of rice were found in- Lothal and Rangpur
- first civilisation in the world to raise cotton crop- mohenjodaro, spinning wheels found in many houses
indicating weaving
- irrigation- found in shortugai
- kalibangan- shows evidence of 2 crops grown in same field
- animal domestication- Ox, buffalo, goats, sheep, pigs, humped bull
- donkey, camels- used for ploughing
- were not aware of horses but terracotta made horse like structures were found in mohenjodaro and horse
like animal remains found in kalibangan
85. Economy- Trade and commerce
-evidence of seals, uniform script, weights and measures shows importance of trade
- important port for trade- Lothal
- trade- based on barter system
- commercial links found in- euphrates, tigris river in europe
- important trading sites in mesopotamian civilisation- Dilmun(behrain), Kuait, Qatar, Magan(oman)
- important trading goods- teracotta pots, gold, silver, metals, beads, seashells, pearls, coloured gemstones
86. Society and religion
- well developed social hierarchy- Citadel and lower towns
- evidence of valuable materials in particular region indicates existence of regional divisions ( fiance
miniature pots were found only in harappa and mohenjodaro
- fashion sense- necklace, finger rings, amulets, earing- made of precious stones, clay, bones; clothes,
hairstyles, beard styles, lipstick, cosmetics, face paints
- bead industries flourished in- Chanhudaro and Lothal
- religion- great bath- religious bath- no other religious practices
- women teracotta figurines, embryo of women- worship of earth as the fertility god and was worshipped
- Pashupati Mahadev- regarded as diety- found in seal in yogic posture with 3 horned head
- evidence of stone made palace worship
- evidence of peepal tree in seals shows worship of trees
- evidence of animal worship found in- one horned unicorn seal
- amulet- belief in presence of evil forces
87. Language and Script
- undeciphered script- pictographic- alphabets were in the form of diagrammatic symbols
- writing style- Boustrophedon- written in right to left and then left to right direction
88. Burial practices
- 3 types of burials in mohenjodaro- complete, fractional( body left for wild beasts and birds), post
cremation
- most common burial practice- extended inhumation- prevalent in northern part of ivc
-evidence of wooden coffin and reddish cloth- found in harappa
- pot burial evidence has been found in- Surkotada
- the practice of double burial(both male and female burried together) was prevalent in- Lothal- head
injury was found in female body- indicating widow sacrifice- 2019 burial found in rakhigari- no evidence
of head injury (weak theory)
- belief of after life- indicated through burial of pots, bangles,beads
89. Theories of decline of Harappan civilisation
- Migration theory- aryan invasion- ivc was destructed by aryan inaders- people started to hide their
wealth in fear of invasion- no direct evidence of invasion
- environmental factors- sutlej and yamuna were abandoned and new cources started to flow due to which
Hakra- ghaggar rivers dried up- reduced rainfall- reduced soil fertility- led to decline of the civilisation
- sudden flooding, earthquake
- trade collapse theory- political crisis in mesopotamia resulted in trade collapse
- people moverd out of ivc and post harrapan sites were formed including- Ahar culture, Malwa culture,
Jorwe culture- copper dominated society

VEDIC AGE
90. Parts of vedic age- early vedic (Rig vedic age), later vedic age( 3 vedas, brahmanas, aranyakas,
upanishads)
Early vedic age
91. Source of aryan culture- Vedic, Iranian, greek texts- like rig veda, zend-avesta, Homer’s Iliad and
Odessey
92. Aryans were semi nomadic tribes- but society was based on pastoral economy
93. Origin of aryans from arctic region was mentioned by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in his book named- “the
Arctic Home in the Vedas”
94. It is believed that aryans entered india through- Hindkush mountains
95. Most accepted theory- aryans came into india as immigrants
96. Aryans lived in- eastern afghan, NW frontier province, Punjab, Western UP
97. 5 tributaries of Indus- Jhelum, Chenab, Satluj, Beas, Ravi- mentioned in Rig veda
98. The initial region where Aryans settled is known as- “ Land of 7 rivers”
Rig Veda
99. Which is the oldest veda- Rig Veda- added to UNESCO world human heritage site
100. Structure of Rig veda- 1028 hymns- divided into 10 mandalas- Mandalas 2-8 old- mandala 1 and 9
lately added
101. It is a collection of prayers offered to- Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna,
102. Other texts that mentions about rig veda- Zend- Avesta, Iliad
103. Content of rig veda covers which regions- India, Pak, Afgan, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Greece
104. Horse was an important trait of aryan culture and was called as “Asva” in rig veda
105. Vajaypeya- sacrifice in greek practice also mentioned in later vedic texts
106. Birch wood were used by aryans for writing
107. Cremation- important trait of aryans found in vedic, avestan, homeric texts
108. Fire worship- mentioned in both Avesta and rig veda
Political features of rig veda
109. Tribe was known as Jaana, Tribal chief- rajan, Gopati/ gopa (protector of cow), chief queen-
Maheshi
110. Responsibility of Rajan- protect jaana and cattle from enemies, pray to god on behalf of Jaana
111. Position of Rajan was hereditary- but instances of election were also found
112. Purohits- conducted rituals and in turn were offered Danas and Dakshina
113. Army chief- Senani; person to control territory- Vrajpati; village leader- Gramini
114. Assembly- Sabha (body of elites), samiti (house of ppl whose leader was rajan), Vidatha (Tribal
assembly), Gana (Troops); women participation was found in sabha and vidatha
115. Rajan did not have regular standing army but used to take help from militas composed of Ganas
116. Conflicts faces by aryans- against the indigenous people- war mentioned in rig veda
- another conflict where Aryans fought among themselves( Battle of Ten Kings)- in ravi
- among which 5 tribes were aryans and other 5 were non aryans
- 5 aryan tribes were known as Panchjana- included Yadu, Durvasa, Puru, Anu, Dhruyu
- 5 non aryans- headed by Bharata chief Sudas- who emerged victorious
- Baratas with help of puru tribes established Kuru tribe- upper gangetic
- India got its name “ Bharatvarsha” from the ancient Barata tribe

Social life of Rig Veda

117. Kinship was the basis of rigvedic society
118. Which was the basic family unit- Kul; family head- Kulva- patriarchal type of family
119. Every Kul (family) was part of larger group- Vis (clan)- few clans come together to form Jana (tribe)
120. Marriage as an institution was established, no evidence of child marriage, sat, varna system; few
instances of remmariage were found
- marriages were generally monogamous- one person marries only one, polygamy was also witnessed
121. No caste division was found and no occupation by birth
122. Initially varna of a person was decided based on colour
123. Mention of 4 varnas was found in Purushsukta- 10th Mandala of Rig veda- intoduced in end of rig
veda
124. Egalitarian society- no strict varna division

Economic structure in rig veda

125. Many references of cow and bull- indicates that it was a pastoral economy
126. Main purpose of war was to capture cow- as it was considered as the basic wealth
127. Wars for the purpose of capturing cows were known as- “Gavisthi”
128. Donation or danas to priests were also done in form of cows- no importance of land was given- land
was not a well established private property
129. Gold coins were called as- ‘Niksha’- unit of currency
130. Coins were used only for large transactions
131. Trade was usually conducted in barter system
132. Function of the kingdom was dependent only upon voluntary offerings known as- ‘Bali’- no regular
system of revenue
133. Crafts- carpenter, Chariot maker, potter, weaver, leather workers
134. Popular recreational activities- Chariot racing, dice gambling
135. Copper and bronze were called as ‘Ayas’- no evidence of Iron technology

Rig vedic Religion

136. Aryans worshiped natural forces such as- earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder- were considered as
different gods
137. No concepts of Idol worship and temples- yagans (prayers and sacrifices) were performed to worship
natural forces
138. Aryans did not worship for spiritual uplifting but rather for food, animals and shelters
139. Most important deity during rig vedic times- Indra (rain god)- also war lord- 250 hyms were devoted
to indra in rig veda
140. 2nd most important god- Agni- intermediary between god and ppl- fire in yagnas considered to reach
directly to god (200 hymns)
141. 3rd important- Varuna- water god- upholds natural water for ppl
142. Savitri- solar deity- famous gayathri mantra was attributed to her- but male deities were given more
importance

LATER VEDIC AGE- Transition stage

143. Expansion in Later vedic age- vedic hymns are known as ‘samhitas’
- to recite samhitas along with tune some modifications were made - ‘Samaveda’
- sama(hymns by spl class of priests for rel ceremonies and sacrifices), yajur (rules to be followed for
sacrifices and rituals), atharva (collection of songs, spells for evil spirits), Brahmanas (ritualistic
formulas- religious and social meaning of rituals)- compiled in upper gangetic basin
- 700 painted grey wares were found in the region- earthern bowls, dishes
- iron weapons were also been used
144. Location- punjab, western UP- expanded
145. Kuru tribes- caaptured upper regions of delhi and doab- the area is known as ‘Kurukshetra’ (land of
Kurus); kurus also united with Panchalas living in central Doab
146. Hastinapur - was declared as the capital- meerut district
147. They did not have the knowledge of burnt bricks- used mud bricks for houses
148. Around 500 BC - they expanded to east- Kosala (eastern UP) and Videha (northern Bihar)
149. As they expanded- found ppl of late harappan culture- found the use of copper implements- black
and red earthen pots and ochre and red colour pots
150. Started the use of Horse drawn chariots and iron weapons- helped in expansion
151. Also known as PGW -Iron phase culture- due to use of Painted Grey Ware and iron
152. First use of Iron in India was found in- 1500 BC- during Copper stone age- in karnataka, rajasthan
153. What was iron called in the vedic texts- ‘Shyama’ and ‘Krishna ayas’- meaning black metal

Political life
154. Large kingdoms started to form- amalgamation of Janas to form- Janapadas/ rashtras
155. Capture of territories also became the major aim of war; king- Kshatriya, heriditary
156. Names used to address the king- virat (north), Samrat (east), Svarat (south), Bhoja (south)
157. Rajasuya sacrifice was believed to give the king supreme power
158. Rituals performed by kings - Ashwamedha (horse is let to run and the distance covered by it is said
to have been conquered by the king) and Vajaypeya (Chariot race)- to depict power and prestige of king
159. The importance of tribal assemblies disapeared during this period- vidatha
160. Women were not permitted to sit in the assemblies
161. No standing army was maintained

Social life
162. 4 Varnas-
163. Increase in importance of brahmanas as- they perform rituals for sacrifice, festivals related to agri
164. Upanayana- means wearing sacred thread with vedic mantras
165. Social mobility was possible as few craftsman were allowed to wear sacred threads
166. Patrimonial system was followed- women were given lower positions- instances of sati and child
marriage found
167. Gotra- as an institution appeared in later vedic age- meaning: cow pen ( a place where cattle
belonging to the same clan were kept)- with time its meaning changed and person belonging to same
gotra were not allowed to marry
168. Caste exogamy was widely practiced
169. 4 ashrams mentioned in post vedic texts: Brahmachari(student), Grihastha (householder),
Vanaprastha (Partial retirement), Sanyasa (complete retirement from the world)

Later vedic Economy- Agriculture

170. Tools- iron were not used- wooden ploughs were used with help of oxen
171. Detail description of ploughing were given in the - Satapatha Brahmana- kings and princes used to
plough during this period
172. Produces- barley (prominent), rice, wheat, lentils

Later vedic Economy- Arts and crafts

173. Smiths and smelters- copper smiths- copper tools found in west UP and Bihar- used for Ornaments,
war, hunting
174. Weaving- confined to women- practiced in wide scale
175. Aware of 4 types of pottery- Black and red ware, Black slipped ware, painted grey ware, red ware
176. Urbanisation started in the end of later vedic period.
177. The mention of the word ‘Nagar’ is mentioned in- Taittiriya Aranyaka
178. Nishka- was used as convenient unit of exchange
179. Taxes were collected in the form of- Sangrihitri

Religion
180. Importance of Indra and Agni reduced- ppl started worshiping- Prajapati (the creator), Rudra (god of
animals), and Vishnu (protector of ppl)
181. Pushan (protector of cattles)- main god of shudras
182. Signs of Idolatry seen in later vedic period
183. There were 2 types of sacrifices- Public (king and entire community), Domestic - involved killing of
animals especially for cattle wealth
184. The person who performs the sacrifice are called as- Yajamana, guest ere called- Goghna

JAINISM
185. Gandhi’s non violence policy was inspired from- Jainism
186. Upanishads in panchala and videha(UP)- criticized rituals and focused on knowledge
187. Major changes after vedic age- territorial kingdoms were established- known as Janapadas
- war objective: included capture of territories
- pastoral economy was converting into agricultural
- 62 sects arose- among which jainism and buddhism were famous
188. Causes of Origin- the varna system started becoming rigid- Kshatriya varna rose against the
domination of Brahmanas- led to origin of new religions
- another reason- agricultural economy spread through NE part- at end of 6th ce- iron was discovered in
UP, Bihar, which were used to clear forests - ppl at large started to settle- widespread agriculture
189. Punch marked coins were first started to be used during this period in trade and commerce- uplifted
the economic position of Vaishyas and they were in search of new religion to improve their social
position- therefore they took the support of Vardhamana Mahavir
190. Reasons to choose Jainism- Jainism did not give importance to varna system
- importance to principle of Non violence which helps to end wars and promote trade and commerce,
- Brahmanical Scriptures condemned money lending and thus did not have good opinion about traders
- older generations did not accept the changes due to industrial revolution- new clothing pattern, house-
wanted primitive lifestyle
- jainism gave importance to simple and aesthetic lifestyle
191. Vardhamana Mahavira- had 23 predecessors- tirthankaras
192. Who was the first Tirthankaras and founder of Jainism- Rishabhadeva (ayodhya)
193. Important teachings of jainism started from the period of - Parshvanath- 23rd tirhankaras (banaras)-
abandoned his royal life and became tapasvi
194. Mahavira- born in Vaishali- 540 BC- bihar - his father- kshatriya clan, mother- sister of Lichchhavi
chief Chetaka- renounced the world at the age of 30
195. He conquered misery and happiness with the help of- Kaivalya
196. He is aka- ‘Jina’ meaning- conqueror of oneself
197. Died at the age of 72 in Pavapuri
Doctrines of jainism
198. 5 sidhanta- do not commit violence, do not tell a lie, do not steal, do not hoard, observe continence
199. Predecessors of mahavir- followed practice of covering upper and lower body parts- mahavir-
renounced clothes therefore jainism was divided into 2 sects- Shvethambaras (who wears white clothes),
Dhigambaras (renounced clothes)
200. Jainism did not completely condemn the varna system unlike buddhism- believed birth in lower or
upper varna is based on sins of past life- believed in theory of karma
201. Right knowledge, right faith, right action- were the paths to salvation under jainism- known as
trirathna of jainism.
202. Jainism prohibited both war and agriculture (ploughing using bullock)- as both involved killing of
living beings- relied mainly on trade and commerce

Spread of Jainism
203. Mahavir created grp of followers both men and women to spread the ideas
204. Prakrit language - was used to reach the teachings to common man- were not able to differentiate
from brahmanical practices therefore could not reach the masses - but spread in south west region were
brahmanical importance lacked
205. Who is said to be the cause of spread of jainism in karnataka- Chandragupta Maurya
206. Famine in magadha - for 12 yrs- 2 yrs after death of mahavir- there fore ppl migrated to south west
207. After end of famine- differences were created between both the grps on the principles of jainism- to
solve the dispute and to compile main teachings of jainism- a council was convened in Patliputra- ppl in
south boycotted the council. From then southern grp were known as Dhigambaras and northern-
Shvethambaras
208. The council was again convened in 512 AD- framed 12 Angas and 12 Upangas
209. Jaina monastries were build in karnataka after 5th ce AD- known as Basadis

210. Contributions of Jainism

- discarded varna system, Brahmanical ritualism
- adopted prakrit as medium- led to growth of the language from which shauraseni lang evolved and
further from which Marathi evolved
- contributed in growth of Kanada
- development of jain architecture - Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in odisha- built by Kharavela king-
for jain monks
- worlds tallest monolith statue- Gomatheshwara statue

211. Decline of Jainism

- fierce competitior of Brahmanism
- rigorous principles- proh agriculture, fasting, renouncing- could not be followed by general
householder.
- did not get any political patrionage- from rulers unlike buddhism
BUDDHISM (Watershed movement of Indian Ancient history)

212. 5th and 6th CE- north and upper Ganga and Yamuna- aryan culture reached its peak
213. Causes of Origin of Buddhism:
- since budhhism and jainism arose at the same time- their causes were also the same- due to rigidity of
Varna system
- widespread agri based economy in mid gangetic plains
- due to use of coins - trade and commerce grew- increased the importance of Vaishyas- to improve their
social conditions they started to adopt new religions

214. Gautama Budhha- aka- Siddarth, Shakyamuni- born to Kshatriya family in Lumbini (Nepal) - 567
BC
-father- Suddhodhana- headed the Shakya clan, Mother- Maya devi- belonged to Koshalan dynasty-
princess
- since he belonged to noble family and lived in an egalitarian society- believed in equality- liked
meditation from early age- he was locked in the palace by his father to become a great king- at age of 29
yrs he was depicted 4 scenes of- old man, sick man, dead man, tapasvi- wanted to end the sufferings of
human birth and relieve from the birth cycle- he renounced the world at age of 29- he migrated from one
place to another for 7 yrs in search of knowledge- got enlightened at the age of 35 under a Peepal tree.-
therefore the place is called as Bodh Gaya (bihar)- he shared all his ideas during the journey known as
sermon.
- he gave his first Sermon ar Sarnath, Benaras- had strong physic due to which he was able to travel
longer distances- preached his learnings for 40 yrs by travelling
- he died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar (UP) in 487 BC
- presence of budhha was found in the regions of- Kaushambi, Shravasti, Varanasi, Vaishali, Rajagir

215. Doctrines of Buddhism

- he was a practical reformer who sought solutions of general social problems- hebelieved that the world
is filled with sorrows and the main reasons of all sorrow is ‘desire’. - if these desires are conquered
humans can attain ‘Nirvana’- then they are free from the birth and death cycle
- no supreme diety or god was established
- to eliminate human misery- he gave ‘ 8 fold path’ - Ashtangika Marga ( right observation, right
determination, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right awareness, right concern)
- once human follows all these then he need not perform any rituals and reach nirvana
- important philosophy- ‘Middle path’- through which humans can achieve Luxury and austerity
- mahavir- strict austerity; budha- flexible
-Made Code of conduct for his followers- do not commit violence, covert prop of others, use intoxicants,
do not lie, do not indulge in sexual misconduct and adultery

216. Comparison with Jainism

- both believe in cycle of birth and death till enlightenment (nirvana- in budh) (based on good and bad
deeds- jain)
- B does not define sin, J- harm to others
-B- Sufferings of humans- can get relief through 8 fold path; J- concentrates on equal respect of all
- 2 main sects of Budhhism- Mahayana, Hinayana; J- Shvethambaras, Digambaras

217. Features of buddhism and causes of its spread

- denied the existence of ‘soul’ and ‘god’, attacked varna system- therefore attached with lower varnas
- liberal and democratic compared to brahmanas
- appealed mainly non vedic areas
- language used by budhhist monks that helped it to reach common people is- PALI
- organised Sanghas ( religious order)- also admitted women, all caste, creed into these sanghas
- continence, poverty, faith- were necessary to join the sanghas
- 3 principle elements of buddhism- Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha
- Magadha, Koshala, Kousambi- rulers and common ppl started to adopt buddhism
- Ashoka - embraced budddhism 200yrs after death of buddha- spread to central asia, west asia, srilanka

218. Buddhist councils (were set to organise the principles of buddha after his death)
- 1st council was organized by- King Ajatshatru- 483 BC- presided by Monk Mahakasyapa- took place in
Sattapani cave in Rajgir (UP)
- it divided the teachings of budha into- 3 pitakas
- 2nd council- organised by King Kalasoka- 383 BC at Vaishali- presided by Sabakami
- 3rd council - under patrionage of king Ashoka in pattaliputra- presided by moggaliputta tissa
- 4th council under patrionage of king Kanishka- in Kashmir- presided by vasumitra- during this council
buddhism was divided into 2 sects

219. Schools of Buddhism

- Mahayana- ‘Great vehicle’- considers budha as god and promoted idol worship of buddha- originated in
haryana and kashmir- spread to central asia, east asia, south east asia
- Hinayana- ‘lesser vehicle’ - stressed upon original teachings of Buddhism- rejected idol worship- self
discipline and mediation is only way through salvation can be attained
- Theravada- part of hinayana school- developed in srilanka and spread to south east asia- dominant in
cambodia, laos, myanmar, thailand
- Vajrayana- ‘ Tantric buddhism’- started in india in 900 CE- gave importance to socialized and
knowledged ppl- followed strict rituals

220. Major Buddhist texts

- teaching of budha was oral- which was memorised by members of sangha- recited in spl occasions
- 1st council divided it into 3 pithakas-
Vinaya pithaka (rules for monks and nuns- for religious discipline)
Sutta pithaka (compilation of buddha’s teachings - Dhamma- divided into 5 nikayas- Digha nikaya,
Anguttara, Khuddaka, Samyutta, Majjhima);
Abhidhamma pitaka- philosophical analysis of teachings of buddha and monks
- other important buddhist texts- Divyavandhana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Milind Panha

221. Causes of decline of Buddhism

- 12th CE - Buddhism became extinct in India
- Brahmans reformed their religion to fight against Buddhism- spoke of preservation of cattle wealth,
gave assuarance of admission of women and shudras in heaven
- Buddhist monks started to cut off from the common people, they also abandoned pali and adopted
sanskrit
- from 1st CE started the practice of idol worshiping- rich offering, royal grants- encouraged Buddhist
monks to live comfortable life styles at monasteries
- 7th CE- monasteries became centers of ease loving ppl rather than religious institutions- this new type of
Buddhism is known as- Vajrayana
- Brahman ruler Pushyamitra Shunga- one of the reason of decline
- king Mihirakula- killed 100s of Buddhists
- Gauda’s Shashanka- caused falling down of Bodhi tree
- according to Hsuan Tsang- 1600 stupas were demolished and 1000 of Buddhism followers were
prosecuted
222. Significance and importance of Buddhism
- views of Buddhism on inequality and poverty - the growth of economy due to agriculture trade and
coins- gave birth to economic inequalities
- Buddhism’s views were against accumulation of wealth- according to Buddhism Hatred, cruelty and
violence led to poverty
- Buddhism - varna system is a classification of ppl based on individual action and qualities- unlike
brahmanismwhich was based on birth

223. Stage of women and shudras

- Buddhism was open to women and shudras- women did not have right to read vedas and wear sacred
thread therefore they started to convert to Buddhism

224. Buddhism did not oppose manual labour and promoted it- sculpture found in bodh gaya in 2nd ce- of
buddha plouging
225. Buddhism advocated for increasing the cattle wealth- early Buddhist text- Suttanipata- declares
cattle as- Food (Annada), Beauty (Vannada), Strength (Balada), Happiness (Sukhada)- the sacredness of
cow in Brahmanical philosophy seems to be inspired from Buddhism
226. Rationalism in Buddhism- promoted rationality and reasonableness
227. Contributed to development of - Apabhramsa language- blend of Bali and Sanskrit
228. Buddhist monasteries emerged as learning centers- residential universities- Nalanda, Vikramsheela
(bihar), Vallabi (guj)
229. Contribution of Buddhism in indian culture-
- concept of ahimsa
- influenced ancient indian art- first human statue on earth which was worshiped was of Buddha
- Bodh Gaya, Sanchi, Mathura, Krishna delta- Buddhist artistic sculputes
- taking inspiration from Buddhism, Indians and Greek sculptures developed new style of art- Gandhara
art
- cave architecture in india was initialised in india by Buddhism- where monks were given rooms to stay
in western ghats- Barabar hills, Nashik, Gaya
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MAHAJANAPADAS
230. Meaning- ‘Large territorial states’
231. Origin- 6th ce BC- Buddhist text- ‘Anguttara Nikaya’ and Jaina text- ‘ Bhagavati Sutra’ gives info
about 16 Mahajanapadas
232. Geography- north Vindhya mountain till bihar- spread from north west frontier to bihar
233. 16 Mahajanapadas mentioned in Buddhist text- ‘Anguttara Nikaya’- Kashi, Kosala, magadha, Anga,
Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vamsa/ Vatsya, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja,
Kuru

234. Factors for rise of Mahajanapadas

- from later vedic period- agri- dominant occupation and settled lifesyle patterns began
- migration towards lower Gangetic plains ( Eastern UP, Bihar)- source of rich iron ores- started using in
agri and weaponry- led to surplus in agri
- religious developments of Buddhism and Jainism also helped in promotion of agri- increased cattle
wealth
- Surplus production was collected as taxes- used for military and administrative needs- warrior classes
became powerful with use of iron weapons- resulted in expansion and log time settlement of ppl in the
region
- Janapada- ‘ Foothold of a tribe’- I.e.- taking land to live the settled life of a tribe
- 1st phase of urbanisation- IVC, 2nd phase- Mahajanapadas

235. Kashi- located near varanasi district- famous for cotton textiles- between ganga and gomathi rivers-
all important religions of ancient india were associated with kashi-
236.