Theoretical Framework for the Philosophy of Teaching

How Students Learn Students learn in a variety of ways through a multitude of complex, cognitive processes that assist in their understanding and comprehension of pertinent course material. The effectiveness of different learning theories has been debated as well as their relevance in a classroom setting. In the classroom environment three of the most appropriate theories (when applied properly and their theorists include information processing theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin), social constructivism (Vygotski), and behaviorism (Skinner). Information processing theory deals with several assumptions regarding thought processes that learners go through as they construct knowledge. Constructivism, in any theoretical perspective (e.g. information processing theory or social constructivism), proposes that learners do not simply absorb knowledge, but instead construct knowledge through experience. This means that students are not sponges constantly internalizing lectures or notes because they devote attention. Attention is the first step to moving data into memory, but this wont necessarily lead to learning, or even to maintenance of the raw memory. Moving this knowledge into the long-term memory requires in-depth processing, in many cases connecting the new event to something previously learned. Another assumption is that learners have a degree of selectivity about that they process and learn. The high prevalence of stimuli at any given moment requires individuals to devote attention to some while, whether consciously or subconsciously, ignore others. The final assumption that will directly relate to the classroom is the role of prior knowledge and beliefs when learners construct knowledge. These beliefs can both enrich and impede the learning process as will be discussed later (Ormrod, 2008, p. 193-196). Another theory that should be applied to every classroom, especially with middle-level students, is social constructivism which, focuses on peoples collective efforts to impose meaning on the world (Ormrod, 2008, p.235). This theory relies on not only the teacher-student dynamic, but also the collaborative efforts between students as they learn new concepts and build on previously learned information. Vygotskis concept of the zone of proximal development explores the range of tasks that a learner can perform with assistance and guidance of others (i.e. teacher or classmates) but cannot yet perform independently. It is assumed that repeating rudimentary tasks the learner can already perform independently provides infinitesimal learning experiences. The classroom practice of scaffolding uses a support mechanism to assist learners to successfully perform a task that is within their zone of proximal development. Working within this zone builds upon what the learner is able to accomplish independently (actual developmental level) and moves the learner closer to the threshold of tasks that they cannot perform even with the assistance of others (level of potential development). Behaviorism is the final concept discussed that affects the way that students learn. This theory, unlike the other two mentioned, explains learning and behavior through observable stimulus/response relationships. The power of reinforcement and operant conditioning will be explored; however, there are several limitations to this theory and will therefore be used to a lesser degree in the classroom. Reinforcement is the consequence of a response which ultimately leads to increased frequency of the response. This can be achieved either by the removal of a stimulus (negative reinforcement) or the presentation of a stimulus (positive reinforcement). In either case, the chances of the behavior occurring again will increase (meaning the reinforcer must be something that the learner perceives as desirable). Examples of how to effectively utilize reinforcement (operant conditioning) will be further discussed in the next section. Theories Affect on Teaching

Information Processing Theory: Instruction in the classroom will be guided by information processing theory in several ways. In understanding that individuals construct knowledge, and thus construct knowledge differently, there should be a variety of methods utilized by the teacher to ensure that students arrive at the appropriate result. Instruction should include class discussion so that the teacher can monitor the understanding of students as they learn. Questions should be asked by the teacher so that they can understand what information the student has processed correctly and assist the student in constructing an alternate meaning if they have arrived at an incorrect result. During any given class there is absolutely no way that the student will be able to process every piece of information that the teacher is attempting to convey. Knowing this, there should be certain places during instruction that the teacher ensures that the student is aware of the relevance of the information presented. This can be accomplished by providing comprehension questions that should be completed after a reading or major concepts that should be focused on while reading (presented prior to the reading). Another method that can be implemented is an occasional pause to reiterate important concepts and explicitly tell students that the information covered will be crucial to success on the impending test, essay, project, life, etc This will give students additional time to process important information and catch the attention of students that may not have been paying attention (as long as success in the class is important to the student). Making sure that students see that the information is relevant to their lives will also provide an increase in the amount of attention that they pay to the material. Engaging the students in topics that are relevant/prevalent in their everyday lives will be paramount. If the school lies in a lower socioeconomic urban setting with many students being exposed to gang violence, use literature that addresses these same issues (e.g. violence, gangs, drugs, poverty). Another way to engage students is to be creative with the educational methods used. A variety of daily activities that cover major concepts will help keep students attention while learning the most important pieces of information. Being selective about what is being learned should not be seen as a barrier to learning; instead, teachers can use this knowledge to make sure to use their best activities during times when attention is most crucial.

Relating new ideas to what the student already knows is a major component of information processing theory. Atkinson and Shiffrins model of memory requires in-depth processing for information to move from working memory to long-term memory. This can often involve the connection of new information to what has been previously learned (Ormrod, 2008, 198). When instructing teachers are not only presenting new information but they are building on what the student already knows/assumes. Inevitably, there will be misconceptions that the student will have and will therefore need to be modified by the teacher. By relating information to what the child already knows the teacher will be able to uncover these misconceptions and help the student make appropriate changes that what they already think that they know so that they can expand their knowledge base. An activity in the classroom can be when a new vocabulary word is learned, have the students list three words that they feel have the same (or similar) meaning. Social Constructivism: Social constructivism materializes in the classroom in a variety of ways and is a major component of the classroom environment. Small group work can help bring out a collective effort and contribute to knowledge construction. Students can see how classmates are arriving at certain ideas (metacognition) and develop their own strategies. Learners that are more shy and dont contribute as much in class can also have an opportunity to contribute in less macro of a setting. This can help students develop social skills and confidence in sharing their ideas. Also, when working with the entire class, the teacher should increase their wait time between asking questions and receiving student responses. This will give students more time to process the question and give them the opportunity to respond to each others comments. The more interactive the classroom becomes, the more opportunities the students will have

to construct knowledge as a class. Gaining perspectives of classmates will bring a plethora of cultural insight and create a diverse learning environment. Scaffolding should be a regular classroom practice to keep children working within their zone of proximal development. When asking students to perform a more complex task the teacher should break it down into smaller, more manageable pieces and demonstrate how the task should be completed. This will allow the class to imitate the instructors method and not feel overwhelmed by having such a large task to complete. The teacher can check in after each step to ensure that the student is on the right track to success in completing the overall assignment. Behaviorism: Information processing theory and social constructivism can be used regularly in the classroom while behaviorism can, and should, be used to a lesser degree. Behaviorism should be seen as a way to maintain a positive classroom environment, one that is set up for success. Students can be conditioned to learn appropriate behaviors through operant conditioning (token economy is an excellent example), but this should mostly be used to reinforce behavior and not achievement. Verbal or written praise is a great way to reinforce achievement but physically reinforcing these behaviors (e.g. a piece of candy after doing well on a test) should be avoided. Both are examples of extrinsic reinforcement but if a child does well on a test and then is reinforced with a piece of candy, they will expect the same reinforcement if they do well on the next exam. If this is not provided, they may become disengaged and not perform as well because they know that they may not receive the candy. Instead of doing well on the test because it is important to them (intrinsic reinforcement) they are now doing it because they want the candy. To avoid this, teachers should find other ways to reinforce achievement that does not take way from the intrinsic reinforcement that many students gain when they succeed in the classroom. Getting to know each student will be crucial in determining which type of reinforcer should be implemented. Some students may not like verbal praise because they do not wish for other students to view them as high achieving. In this case a written note may be a more viable medium to covey your support of their efforts. Using positive reinforcement this way will allow students to see what behaviors are appropriate for the classroom while not taking away the intrinsic reinforcement of academic achievement. Negative reinforcement should also be used sparingly in the classroom because teachers should create an environment where students do not wish to remove any variables.