AS German Liberalism Part1
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18635AS German Liberalism Part1
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18635AS Level Paper 1
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1 Question
Candidates answer one two-part document question on one of the options given.
Externally assessed 40% of the AS Level
Liberalism and nationalism in
Germany, 1815–71
What were the causes of the Revolutions in 1848–49?
heRevolutions of 1848-49were driven by two powerfuland interlinked ideologies:
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LiberalismandNationalism. These ideas played a crucialrole in shaping the demands and
aspirations of revolutionaries acrossEurope, particularlyin France, the German
Confederation, Italy, and the Austrian Empire.
Liberalism in the Context of 1848-49
Definition:
iberalism in the mid-19th century was an ideology that soughtpolitical freedom,
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constitutional government, and individual rights.It was inspired by theEnlightenment,
theAmerican Revolution (1776), and theFrench Revolution(1789-99).
Key Features of Liberalism (1848-49):
1. D emand for Constitutional Rule– Liberals wantedconstitutionalmonarchiesor
republicsinstead ofabsolute monarchies.
○ Example: The French revolutionaries of 1848overthrewKing
Louis-Philippeand established theSecond Republic.
2. Expansion of Civil Liberties– They called forfreedomof speech, press, and
assembly, as well asan end to censorship.
3. Representative Government– Liberals supportedparliamentselected by the
people, rather than rule by divine right.
○ Example: In theGerman Confederation, revolutionariespushed for a
unified, constitutional Germanyat theFrankfurt Parliament(1848-49).
4. Economic Freedoms– Many liberals, influenced byclassicaleconomic theories
(Adam Smith), supportedfree trade and capitalismover state-controlled
economies.
5. O
pposition to Feudalism and Aristocracy– They wanted to abolishserfdom and
feudal privileges.
○ Example: InAustria, liberal revolts led tothe abolitionof serfdomin 1848.
Impact of Liberalism on the Revolutions:
● In many states, liberals played a leading role inwriting constitutionsandforming
temporary governments.
● However, they oftenclashed with conservatives andradicals, leading todivisions
that weakened the revolutions.
Nationalism in the Context of 1848-49
Definition:
ationalism was the belief thatpeople who share acommon language, culture, and
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history should have their own independent nation-state.It was a powerful force for
unificationin places likeGermany and Italy, andforindependencein multi-ethnic empires
likeAustria-Hungary.
Key Features of Nationalism (1848-49):
1. U nification Movements– Nationalists inGermany andItalywanted to unify their
fragmented states into single nations.
○ Example: TheFrankfurt Parliament (1848-49)triedto create aunited
Germanybut failed due to opposition from Prussiaand Austria.
○ Example: InItaly, nationalist leaders likeGiuseppeMazziniled revolts
against Austrian rule.
2. Independence from Foreign Rule– Nationalist groupsinHungary, Poland, and
Italyfought against foreign domination.
○ Example:Hungarians (led by Lajos Kossuth)demandedindependence
from theAustrian Empire.
3. Ethnic and Cultural Identity– Nationalists emphasizedshared language, history,
and traditionsas the foundation of a nation.
4. Tensions with Liberalism– Some nationalists wereliberalswho wanted
democracy, while others wereconservativeswho soughtnational unity under
monarchies.
Impact of Nationalism on the Revolutions:
● N ationalist revoltsspread across Europe, but manyweresuppressedby
conservative rulers.
● InAustria, EmperorFranz Joseph Iused military force(with the help of Russia) to
crush Hungarian nationalists.
● InItaly, revolts were defeated by Austrian troops,delaying unification until the 1860s.
Comparison of Liberalism and Nationalism in 1848-49:
Aspect Liberalism Nationalism
Main Goal olitical freedoms, constitutional
P National unity and independence
government
Key Demands C
onstitutions, elected nification (Germany, Italy) or
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parliaments, civil liberties independence (Hungary, Poland)
Supporters iddle class, intellectuals, some
M thnic groups, national leaders,
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workers some liberals
Opponents bsolute monarchs, aristocrats,
A ulti-ethnic empires (Austria,
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conservative landowners Russia), foreign rulers
utcome in
O any constitutions were revoked M
M ost nationalist revolts were
1848-49 by conservative rulers crushed, but ideas remained strong
Why Did the 1848-49 Revolutions Fail?
Althoughliberals and nationalists had common goals,theirlack of unityled to failure:
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● iberal governments lacked mass supportfrom peasantsand workers.
● Nationalists were dividedbetween different ethnicgroups.
● Conservative rulers regained controlusing militaryforce (e.g., Austria and
Russia).
owever, the ideas ofliberalism and nationalism didnot die—they resurfaced in the
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unification of Germany (1871) and Italy (1861-70),and in later independence movements.
1.Impact of Metternich’s System on the States of Germany
etternich's system was aconservative, anti-revolutionary,and pro-monarchical policy
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frameworkimplemented by Austrian ChancellorKlemensvon Metternichafter the
Congress of Vienna (1815). It aimed tomaintain Austriandominance in Germany,
suppressliberalism and nationalism, and prevent anyrevolutionary movements that could
threaten the existing order.
1. Political Impact: Suppression of Liberalism and Nationalism
A. The German Confederation (1815) and Austrian Control
● A fter Napoleon's defeat, theHoly Roman Empire was not restored. Instead, the
German Confederation (Deutscher Bund)was createdin1815, consisting of39
independent states, withAustria as the dominant power.
● TheBundestag (Federal Diet)was set up inFrankfurt,but it was weak and
controlled byAustria and Prussia.
Impact:
● T he Confederation was designed toprevent German unification,ensuring Austria
remained the strongest state.
● The smaller German states were dependent on Austria and lacked political
independence.
B. Carlsbad Decrees (1819) – Crushing Revolutionary Ideas
● M etternich feared thatliberal and nationalist movements(especially among
students and intellectuals) would threaten Austria’s control.
● TheCarlsbad Decrees (1819)were introduced tosuppressopposition:
○ Universities and schools were monitoredto preventliberal teachings.
○ Student societies (Burschenschaften) were banned.
○ Press censorshipwas tightened to stop revolutionarywritings.
○ Secret police expandedto arrest and silence critics.
Impact:
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● iberalism and free speech were heavily restrictedacross Germany.
● Many intellectuals and students were arrested or exiled,which increased
resentment towards Austria.
● German nationalists were forced underground, but theirideas continued to
spread.
C. The Congress System and the Suppression of Revolts
● M etternich used theCongress System (Concert of Europe)tocrush revolutions
in Germany and other parts of Europe.
● Revolts in1820 (Spain and Naples), 1830 (France,Belgium, Poland), and 1848
(Germany and Austria)weresuppressed with militaryforce.
● Austrian troopsintervened in various German statestoprotect conservative
rulersfrom revolutionary uprisings.
Impact:
● M aintained stability and conservative rulebut atthe cost of widespread
repression.
● Delayed German unification by ensuringAustrian dominanceover Prussia.
2. Economic Impact: Limited Growth Due to Political Repression
A. Stagnation of Economic Reforms
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● etternich’s systemprioritized political controlover economic development.
● Many German states wantedeconomic liberalization(free trade,
industrialization, and economic cooperation), butMetternich discouraged these
reforms.
● Austriablocked economic modernization in the GermanConfederationto
prevent Prussia from gaining too much power.
Impact:
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● ermany’s economic development wasslower comparedto Britain and France.
● German industries and businesses suffered due toalack of a common marketand
trade restrictionsimposed by Austria.
B. Prussia’s Economic Independence and the Zollverein (1834)
● P russia ignored Austrian restrictions and created theZollverein (Customs Union) in
1834, afree trade areafor German states.
● TheZollverein excluded Austria, allowing Prussiato gain economic dominance
over Germany.
● Over time,Prussia became stronger than Austria economicallyand attracted
more German states to its sphere of influence.
Impact:
● T heZollverein laid the foundation for German unificationunder Prussia, rather
than Austria.
● Austria’s economic policiesweakened its influenceover the German
Confederation.
3. Social and Cultural Impact: Fear and Resentment Among Germans
A. Growing Nationalist Sentiments
● M etternich’sharsh repression of nationalismled togreater resentment among
German intellectuals, students, and the middle class.
● Poets, writers, and philosophersspread nationalistideas despite censorship.
● By the 1830s and 1840s, Germannationalism had growntoo strong for Austria
to control.
Impact:
M
● any Germans beganto see Austria as an obstacle tonational unity.
● Calls for aunified Germany (without Austria)increased,leading to the1848
Revolutions.
B. The Role of Education and Press Censorship
● U niversities were strictly controlled, and professors had to teachconservative
values.
● Books and newspapers that promotedliberalism or nationalismwerebanned.
● Secret societiescontinued spreading revolutionaryideas, despite government
crackdowns.
Impact:
M
● any students and young professionalsbecame radicalized.
● The censorship failed to stop nationalist movements; instead, it made themmore
determinedto overthrow Austrian control.
4. Impact on Prussia and German Unification
A. Prussia’s Growing Power
● W hile Austria suppressed liberalism, Prussia wasmodernizingits economy and
military.
● ThePrussian armybecame stronger, while Austria’smilitary became outdated.
● TheZollverein (1834)made Prussia theeconomic leaderof Germany, sidelining
Austria.
Impact:
● P russia emerged asthe true leader of Germany, whileAustria’s influence
weakened.
● This set the stage for theAustro-Prussian War (1866)and the eventualunification
of Germany under Prussian leadership (1871).
B. The Failure of Austrian Control in 1848
● T he1848 Revolutions in Germanyshowed thatAustriancontrol was
unsustainable.
● In 1848, German nationalists tried to create aunifiedGermany (Frankfurt
Parliament)but failed due to Austrian opposition.
● By1866, Prussia was strong enough todefeat Austriain war, marking the end of
Austrian dominance in Germany.
etternich’s systemdelayed but did not preventGermanunification. While his policies
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maintained Austria’s dominancefor several decades,they ultimatelyfailed due to
growing nationalism, economic changes, and Prussia’s rising power.
2.The Influence of Liberal Ideas and the Emergence of a
Middle Class
heRevolutions of 1848–49were driven by a combinationofliberalism, nationalism, and
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economic grievances. One of the key causes was thespread of liberal ideasand the
emergence of a politically conscious middle class,who demanded greaterpolitical
rights, constitutional governance, and economic reforms.
1. The Influence of Liberal Ideas
● Liberalismin the 19th century was a political ideologythat emphasized:
○ Individual freedoms(speech, press, religion).- JohnLocke
○ Equality before the law.
○ Constitutional governmentwith elected representatives.
○ Abolition of absolute monarchyand autocratic rule.
○ Economic freedom(free trade, capitalism).
Spread of Liberal Ideas in Europe
● F rench Revolution (1789–99): Inspired liberals bypromotingdemocracy, rights,
and an end to feudal privileges. Enlightenment ideals.
● Napoleonic Reforms (1804–1815): Spreadlegal equalityand constitutional
ideasacross Europe.
● Congress of Vienna (1815): Restored conservative monarchies,butliberalism
survived underground.
● 1820s–1840s:Newspapers, books, and political clubsspreadliberal and
nationalistideas.
Demand for Constitutional Governments
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● any European states were still ruled byabsolutemonarchs.
● Liberals wantedwritten constitutionstolimit royalpowerandprotect individual
rights.
● Some countries hadpartial reforms, but rulers oftenrevoked them (e.g., France’s
July Monarchy, Austrian censorship).
Examples of Liberal Political Demands in 1848:
● F rance: People wanteduniversal male suffrageandan end to the corrupt
monarchy.
● Germany: Liberals wanted aunified nation-statewithconstitutional rule.
● Italy: Calls fornational unificationand an end toAustrian control.
● Austria-Hungary: Ethnic minorities demandedself-ruleand civil liberties.
2. The Emergence of a Politically Conscious Middle Class
A. Growth of the Middle Class Due to Industrialization
● By themid-19th century,industrializationhad createda new class of:
○ Merchants
○ Bankers
○ Factory owners
○ Professionals (lawyers, doctors, journalists, teachers, bureaucrats)
● Thismiddle classhadeconomic powerbutlacked politicalrepresentation.
● They were frustrated byaristocratic privileges andgovernment corruption.
B. The Role of the Middle Class in the 1848 Revolutions
● T he middle classorganized protests, published newspapers,and demanded
reforms.
● Theyresented monarchies that protected aristocratsandblocked economic
reforms.
● They were themain leaders of revolutionary movements,pushing for
constitutional government and free markets.
Examples of Middle-Class Influence in 1848 Revolutions:
● F rance: Middle-class professionals played a leadingrole in overthrowingKing
Louis-Philippe.
● Germany: TheFrankfurt Parliament(1848) was led bymiddle-class liberals trying
to create a unified German state.
● Austria: Middle-class reformers pressuredMetternichto resignand demanded
constitutional monarchy.
3. The Conflict Between Liberals and the Working Class
A. Middle-Class and Working-Class Differences
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● he middle classfavored gradual reformslike constitutionsand free trade.
● Theworking class (urban laborers, artisans, and peasants)demanded:
○ Better wages
○ Shorter working hours
○ Cheaper bread (end to food shortages)
○ Right to vote (universal suffrage)
● Inmany revolutions, workers and middle-class liberalscooperated at firstbut later
splitdue to different priorities.
B. Example: Division in France
● InFrance (1848), the middle class wanted aconstitutionalrepublic, while workers
wantedsocialist reforms.
● W hen the new government ignored workers’ demands, they revolted inthe June
Days Uprising (1848).
● The governmentcrushed the revolt, showing thegapbetween middle-class
liberals and the working class.
4. Why Did the 1848 Revolutions Fail?
A. Lack of Unity
● L iberals, nationalists, and socialists haddifferentgoalsand could not form a united
front.
● Middle-class liberals feared working-class uprisings,so they oftensided with
conservative governmentsto restore order.
B. Return of Conservative Monarchies
InAustria, the army crushed revolutions inVienna,Hungary, and Italy.
●
● InPrussia, KingFrederick William IVrejected theFrankfurt Parliament’s plan for a
unified Germany.
● InFrance, the republic collapsed whenLouis-NapoleonBonapartedeclared
himselfEmperor Napoleon IIIin 1852.
hespread of liberal ideas and the rise of the middleclasswere key causes of the
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Revolutions of 1848–49. Although these revolutionsfailed in the short term, theyplanted
the seeds for constitutional government, national unification, and the decline of
absolute monarchiesin Europe.
3.Growth of Nationalist Ideas
he Revolutions of 1848–49 across Europe were significantly driven bynationalist
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movements, as various ethnic and linguistic groupssoughtindependence, self-rule, or
unification. Nationalism challenged the existingmulti-ethnicempires and conservative
order, particularly in the Austrian Empire, the GermanConfederation, and Italy. Below is a
detailed analysis of how nationalist ideas contributed to these revolutions.
1. Background: Rise of Nationalism in Early 19th Century
A. Impact of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars (1789–1815)
● T heFrench Revolution (1789–99)spread ideas ofself-determination,national
identity, and popular sovereigntyacross Europe.
● Napoleon’s conquests (1804–1815)reshaped Europeanborders and promoted
nationalist sentiments, especially inGermany andItaly, by eliminating old feudal
divisions.
● N
apoleon’s rule alsoprovoked nationalist resistanceinSpain, Prussia, and
Russia, where people fought to reclaim their nationalidentities.
Effect on 1848–49:
● T he legacy ofFrench nationalism and Napoleonic reformsremained influential
among revolutionaries.
● Manyliberals and nationalists in 1848 saw their movementsas a continuation
of the French revolutionary ideals.
B. The Impact of the Congress of Vienna (1815)
● T heCongress of Vienna (1815), led by Austria’s Metternich,aimed tosuppress
nationalism and restore monarchies.
● Instead of supporting national unity, the Congressre-established conservative,
multi-ethnic empires, like the Austrian Empire.
● It also created theGerman Confederation (39 statesunder Austrian influence)
anddivided Italy into several kingdoms under foreignrule.
Effect on 1848–49:
● M any ethnic and linguistic groups resented being ruled byforeign dynasties(e.g.,
Italians under Austrian rule, Poles under Russian and Prussian rule).
● The desire fornational self-rulegrew amongGermans,Italians, Hungarians, and
Slavs, leading to revolutionary demands.
2. Nationalist Causes of the Revolutions in Key Regions
A. Germany: Push for Unification
● G ermany was divided into39 separate statesundertheGerman Confederation,
dominated by Austria.
● TheZollverein (1834), acustoms union led by Prussia,promotedeconomic
unityand strengthenedPrussian influence over Germany.
● Nationalist movements demanded aunified German nation-staterather than
fragmented rule under Austrian dominance.
● The Frankfurt Parliament (1848)attempted to createaunified Germany with a
constitutional monarchy, offering the crown toPrussia’sKing Frederick William
IV, who rejected it.
Effect:
● T he failure of the Frankfurt Parliament showed thatnationalism alone was not
enough—it needed military and political backing.
● The nationalist dream ofGerman unificationpersistedand later led toPrussia’s
unification of Germany in 1871.
B. Italy: The Risorgimento (National Awakening)
● Italy was divided into severalstates, many underAustrian control(e.g.,
Lombardy-Venetia).
● Nationalists, likeGiuseppe Mazzini, sought touniteItalyand end Austrian rule.
● The Revolutions of 1848 in Italywere inspired bynationalism:
○ Lombardy and Venice revolted against Austria.
○ Rome declared itself a Republic (1849) under Mazzini and Garibaldi.
○ King Charles Albert of Piedmont declared war on Austria but was
defeated.
Effect:
● A ustrian troopscrushed nationalist uprisings, butthe idea ofItalian unity
survived.
● Nationalist effortslaid the foundation for Italy’seventual unification in the 1860s.
C. The Austrian Empire: Ethnic Nationalism and the Fight Against Habsburg Rule
● T he Austrian Empire wasethnically diverse, withHungarians,Czechs, Slovaks,
Poles, Romanians, Croats, and Italiansunder Habsburgrule.
● Hungarians (led by Lajos Kossuth) demanded independence and a separate
Hungarian government.
● Czechs demanded autonomy in Bohemia, whileItaliansfought Austrian control
in Lombardy-Venetia.
Effect:
● N ationalist uprisings threatened tobreak apart theempire, but Austrian forces
brutally suppressedthem with Russian help.
● TheHungarian revolution (1849) was crushedby theAustrian army with
Russian intervention.
● Nationalist discontentweakened the Austrian Empire,forcing it toadopt reforms
in the 1860s, leading to theAustro-Hungarian Compromise(1867).
D. France: Nationalism and the Second Republic
● T heFrench Revolution of 1848overthrew KingLouis-Philippeand established the
Second RepublicunderLouis-Napoleon Bonaparte(NapoleonIII).
● Nationalists in France supported arepublican government,inspired by the legacy
ofNapoleon I and the ideals of 1789.
● The revolution in Franceinspired revolts across Europe,as it showed that
nationalism could overthrow monarchies.
Effect:
● L ouis-Napoleonlater declared himself Emperor in 1852,showing that nationalism
could also be used to supportauthoritarian rule.
● TheFrench example encouraged nationalists in Germanyand Italy, who sought
strong leadership for unification(e.g., Bismarckand Cavour in the 1860s).
3. The Failure of the Nationalist Revolutions
Despite widespread uprisings,nationalist revolutionslargely faileddue to:
● L ack of Unity:Different nationalist groups hadconflictinginterests(e.g., German
liberals vs. conservatives, Hungarians vs. Slavic minorities).
● Strong Monarchies:Rulers, likeEmperor Franz Josephof Austria and Prussia’s
King Frederick William IV, refused nationalist demands.
● Foreign Intervention:Russia and Austriacrushed nationalistuprisingsin
Hungary and Italy.
● Lack of Military Power:Nationalists lackedstrongarmies, making them
vulnerable to monarchist forces.
Long-Term Impact:
● Nationalismremained a powerful forceand eventuallysucceeded:
○ Italy unified (1861–1870) under Cavour and Garibaldi.
○ Germany unified (1871) under Prussia’s Bismarck.
○ The Austrian Empirewas forced to reform (1867), creating
Austria-Hungary.
● Thefailure of 1848 made nationalists realize thatmilitary strength and strong
leadership were needed for success.
ationalism was one of theprimary causes of the Revolutionsof 1848–49, as people
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across Europedemanded self-rule, national unity,and an end to foreign domination.
However, thelack of unity among nationalist groups,the strength of monarchies, and
foreign interventionled tothe failure of most nationalistuprisings. Despite this,the
nationalist movements of 1848–49 laid the groundwork for future successes in
German and Italian unificationand the eventual declineof multi-ethnic empires like
Austria-Hungary.
4.The Zollverein as a Key Factor in the 1848–49
Revolutions
heZollverein, acustoms union established in 1834under Prussian leadership, played a
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crucial role in the growth ofeconomic nationalismin Germany. It wasone of the key
economic factorsthat contributed to the1848–49 Revolutions,as it fostered asense of
unity among German states, strengthenedPrussia’sinfluence, and createdeconomic
grievancesthat fueled revolutionary demands.
1. Background: Economic and Political Context of the Zollverein
A. The German Confederation and Economic Fragmentation
● T heCongress of Vienna (1815)created theGerman Confederation,a loose union
of39 independent states, dominated by Austria.
● These states haddifferent currencies, tolls, taxes,and economic policies,
creatingbarriers to trade and industrial growth.
● Austriadid not join the Zollverein, which allowedPrussia to emerge as the
dominant economic power in Germany.
B. Creation and Expansion of the Zollverein (1834–1848)
● P russia established theZollverein in 1834tounifytrade policiesandremove
internal tariffsbetween German states.
● By1848, most German states (except Austria) had joined,creating apowerful
economic bloccentered around Prussia.
● The Zollverein helped to:
○ Increase economic integrationbetween German states.
○ Strengthen Prussia’s positionover Austria in Germanaffairs.
○ Encourage German nationalismby promoting the ideaof aunified
economic and political Germany.
2. How the Zollverein Contributed to the 1848–49 Revolutions
A. Economic Hardship and the Crisis of 1847
● By themid-1840s, Germany facedeconomic problems,including:
○ A major agricultural crisis (1846–47)caused bycropfailuresand rising
food prices.
○ An industrial recession, leading tounemployment andsocial unrest.
○ Economic inequality, as wealthier merchants and industrialistsbenefited
from the Zollverein, while peasants and urban workers suffered.
Impact on 1848–49:
● E conomic suffering led to widespreadsocial discontent,which played a role in the
outbreak of revolutions.
● Many revolutionariesblamed the ruling elites anddemanded political reforms.
B. Strengthening of German Nationalism
● T he Zollvereinencouraged national unityby linkingGerman states economically
under Prussia.
● Nationalists began arguing thatif Germany was unitedeconomically, it should
also be united politically.
● The Zollvereinexcluded Austria, whichweakened Austria’sinfluenceand led to
debates overwho should lead German unification(Austriavs. Prussia).
Impact on 1848–49:
● G erman nationalistsin 1848–49 demanded aunifiedGermany, influenced by the
economic success of the Zollverein.
● TheFrankfurt Parliament (1848–49)attempted to createaunified German state,
offering the crown toPrussia’s King Frederick WilliamIV.
● The division between“Kleindeutschland” (Germany withoutAustria) and
“Grossdeutschland” (Germany including Austria)becamea major issue in the
revolutions.
C. Middle-Class Support for Revolution
● T he Zollverein created anew middle class of industrialists,merchants, and
bankerswho wantedpolitical powerto match theireconomic influence.
● Many middle-class liberals wanted:
○ A constitution
○ A representative government
○ More influence over national policies
Impact on 1848–49:
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● iddle-classliberals played a leading role in therevolutions.
● The Zollverein hadgiven them economic power, butthey now wanted political
rights.
● Manysupported the Frankfurt Parliamentin its effortsto create aunified German
constitution.
D. Weakening Austrian Influence in Germany
● A ustria, led byPrince Metternich,opposed Germanunificationand tried to control
the German Confederation.
● Since Austriarefused to join the Zollverein, itseconomic powerdeclined relative
to Prussia.
● Many German statesbecame more dependent on Prussiafor economic stability.
Impact on 1848–49:
● A ustria’sweakening position encouraged German nationaliststo push for a
Prussian-led unification.
● Thecollapse of Metternich’s rule in Austria (March1848)created an opportunity
for German nationalists to push for change.
3. Why the Zollverein Did Not Lead to Immediate German Unification
A. Prussia’s Reluctance to Lead a Revolution
● A lthough the Zollverein strengthened Prussia,KingFrederick William IV of Prussia
rejected the crown from the Frankfurt Parliamentin1849.
● He did not want to accept power from arevolutionaryassembly, preferring to
maintain hismonarchical authority.
B. Austrian Military Strength
A
● lthough Austria waseconomically weaker, it stillhad apowerful military.
● In 1849,Austria used military force to crush revolutionarymovementsin
Germany and Italy.
C. Lack of Unity Among German Revolutionaries
● The revolutionaries were divided between:
○ Liberals, who wanted aconstitutional monarchy.
○ Radicals, who wanted arepublic.
○ Kleindeutsch (Small Germany) supporters, who wantedaPrussian-led
Germany.
○ Grossdeutsch (Greater Germany) supporters, who wantedAustria to be
included.
● These divisionsweakened the movement, allowing monarchstoreassert control
by 1849.
4. Long-Term Impact of the Zollverein on German Unification
● A lthough the 1848 revolutions failed, the Zollverein continued to expandin the
1850s and 1860s.
● By1866, Prussia had used its economic and militarystrength to defeat Austria in the
Austro-Prussian War, establishing Prussian dominancein Germany.
● In1871, Germany was finally unified under Prussianleadership after the
Franco-Prussian War.
● The Zollverein had helpedlay the foundations forGerman unificationby:
○ StrengtheningPrussia’s leadership.
○ Promotingeconomic and national unity.
○ WeakeningAustrian influenceover German affairs.
● TheZollverein was a major economic factorthat contributedto the1848–49
Revolutions, as it:
Createdeconomic hardship, leading to social discontent.
○
○ Fosterednationalist ideas, encouraging demands forGerman unification.
○ StrengthenedPrussia’s leadershipand weakened Austria’sinfluence.
○ Encouragedmiddle-class demands for political reform.
● However, the1848 revolutions ultimately failed, asPrussia wasnot yet ready to
lead German unification, and Austria was able toreassertcontrol.
In the long term, theZollverein remained a key factorin Germany’s eventual
●
unification in 1871under Prussia.
5.Social and economic problems in the 1840s
he Revolutions of 1848–49 were fueled by widespreadsocial and economic problems,
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which intensified existingpolitical and nationalistgrievancesacross Europe. The 1840s
were a period ofsevere hardship, often referred toas the "Hungry Forties," due to
economic downturns, food shortages, and industrial crises. These hardships
disproportionately affected the working class and peasantry, leading to demands for
economic reform, social justice, and political change.Below is a detailed analysis of
these social and economic issues and their role in sparking the revolutions.
1. The Economic Crisis of the 1840s
he 1840s were marked byeconomic depression, whichcausedwidespread
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unemployment, inflation, and food shortages. The crisisaffected both rural and urban
populations, increasing discontent with existing governments.
A. Agricultural Crisis and Food Shortages
● Bad Harvests (1845–47):
○ Europe sufferedsuccessive crop failuresin the mid-1840s,leading tofood
shortages and rising prices.
○ TheIrish Potato Famine (1845–49)devastated Ireland,killing over 1 million
people and causing mass emigration.
○ InFrance, Germany, and Italy, wheat and rye cropsfailed, leading tomass
starvation and social unrest.
● Impact on Peasantry:
○ Peasants wereforced into debtas they could not affordhigh food prices.
○ Landlords in Eastern and Central Europe continued to demandhigh taxes
and feudal dues, worsening rural poverty.
○ Peasant revolts broke outin Austria, Hungary, Prussia,and France due to
economic hardship.
● Urban Impact:
○ Risingbread pricesled to mass hunger in cities,fuelinganti-government
protests.
○ In Paris, food shortagesradicalized workers, leadingto revolutionary action
in February 1848.
○ InBerlin and Vienna, urban workers demandedeconomic and political
reformsto address food insecurity.
B. Industrial Crisis and Unemployment
● Economic Downturn (1847–48):
○ A majoreconomic depression in 1847led to the collapseof banks and
businesses.
○ Many small businesses failed, leading tomass layoffsin cities across
Europe.
● Decline in Textile and Manufacturing Industries:
○ Britain, France, and the German states suffered fromfalling demand for
goods, causingfactories to close.
○ Industrial workers facedlower wages, longer hours,and unemployment,
increasing revolutionary fervor.
● Growth of an Urban Proletariat:
○ Industrialization had created a new class ofurbanworkers, but they hadno
political rights or job security.
○ Many workersjoined socialist and radical movements,calling forlabor
rights, better wages, and economic reform.
○ The Revolutions of 1848 in France and Germany were largely
worker-led, demanding government intervention in theeconomy.
● Strikes and Worker Protests:
○ The economic crisis led tomass strikesin France,Germany, and the
Austrian Empire.
○ InParis, unemployed workersstormed the streetsinFebruary 1848, forcing
King Louis-Philippe to abdicate.
○ InVienna and Berlin, industrial workers joined studentsand liberals in calling
forconstitutional reforms.
2. Social Discontent and Class Conflict
he economic crisis intensifiedclass tensionsbetweenthe aristocracy, middle class, and
T
working class.
A. Middle-Class Grievances
● T hebourgeoisie (middle class), especially professionalsand business owners, felt
politically excludedby conservative governments.
● Economic liberalismhad gained popularity, with callsforfree trade, lower tariffs,
and government support for industry.
● Many middle-class liberals supported the revolutions in 1848, hoping for
constitutional reformsandexpanded political rights.
B. Working-Class Radicalism
● Industrial workers demandedhigher wages, better working conditions, and
universal suffrage.
● Socialist ideas, promoted by thinkers likeKarl Marxand Louis Blanc, spread
among workers.
● In France, radicals establishedNational Workshopsto provide jobs, but their
closure in June 1848 led toviolent worker uprisings(June Days Revolt).
● Worker uprisings also occurred in Berlin, Vienna, and Milan, showing the
influence ofeconomic hardship on revolution.
C. Peasant Unrest in Rural Areas
● M any peasants were still subject tofeudal dues andhigh taxes, especially in
Austria, Prussia, and Italy.
● During the revolutions,peasants in Austria and Hungaryrevolted against
landlords, demanding the end of feudal obligations.
● The Austrian government was forced toabolish serfdomin 1848to prevent further
uprisings.
3. Government Responses and Political Failures
onservative governments failed to address social and economic problems, increasing
C
popular anger.
A. Repressive Policies of Conservative Governments
M
● any European states were ruled byabsolute monarchswho resisted reform.
● Governments usedcensorship and secret policeto suppressdissent, worsening
public discontent.
● In Prussia and Austria, liberals and nationalistswere arrested for criticizing the
government.
B. Failure of Governments to Implement Reforms
M
● onarchs and aristocrats were reluctant to pass reforms, fearing loss of power.
● In France,King Louis-Philipperefused to extend votingrights, leading to his
overthrow in February 1848.
● In Austria,Metternich ignored economic and socialgrievances, leading to his
forced resignation in March 1848.
4. The Role of Economic Hardship in Revolutionary Outbreaks
The economic crisis directly triggered revolutionary outbreaks in many countries:
A. France (February Revolution, 1848)
E
● conomic hardship and unemployment led to mass protests in Paris.
● King Louis-Philippe abdicated, and theSecond Republicwas declared.
● Radical worker movements called forsocialist reforms,leading to the June Days
Revolt.
B. German States (March Revolutions, 1848)
E
● conomic depression led to uprisings inBerlin, Frankfurt,and Vienna.
● Workers and students demanded aunified Germany withliberal reforms.
● The Frankfurt Parliament was formed but failed to unite Germany.
C. Austrian Empire (March Revolutions, 1848)
P
● easants revolted against landlords, demanding theabolition of serfdom.
● In Vienna, workers and students forcedMetternichto resignand flee into exile.
● Nationalist uprisings occurred inHungary, Italy,and Bohemia, demanding
independence from Austria.
5. Why Did Economic-Based Revolutions Fail?
espite widespread unrest, the revolutionsfailedto bring lasting economic reforms
D
because:
● D ivisions between liberals and radicals:Middle-classliberals wantedpolitical
reform, while workers wantedsocialist economic policies.
● Lack of organization:Worker uprisings were oftenspontaneous and lacked strong
leadership.
● Military repression:Governments used force to crushrevolts—France crushed the
June Days Revolt, Austria suppressed Hungarian independence efforts, and
Prussia crushed worker uprisings.
● Conservative counter-revolutions:By1849, monarchsand aristocrats regained
control, reversing many of the revolutionary gains.
heeconomic crisis of the 1840splayed amajor rolein causing the Revolutions of
T
1848–49.Food shortages, industrial decline, massunemployment, and government
inactionfueled widespreadworker uprisings, peasantrevolts, and middle-class
demands for reform. However,internal divisions amongrevolutionariesandstrong
conservative resistanceled to the eventual failureof most uprisings. Nevertheless, the
revolutions exposed thedeep social and economic inequalitiesin Europe and set the
stage for future changes, includingthe rise of socialism,the abolition of feudalism, and
later nationalist movements.
What were the consequences of the 1848–49 Revolutions?
1. Initial responses of the German States to the 1848–49 Revolutions
he1848–49 Revolutionssignificantly impacted theGerman Confederation, leading to both
T
initial reformsandeventual conservative backlash.Below is an analysis of how the
German states initially respondedto the revolutionsand how this shaped the
consequences of the revolutionsin the region.
1. Revolutionary Uprisings and Concessions (March 1848)
● W idespread revoltsbroke out in various German states,includingPrussia,
Bavaria, Saxony, Baden, and Austria.
● Kings and princes, fearinglosing power, madeconcessionssuch as:
○ Grantingliberal constitutions.
○ Establishingrepresentative assemblies.
○ Expandingfreedom of the pressandcivil liberties.
● Prussia:KingFrederick William IVdismissed his conservativeministers, promised
aconstitution, and adopted theblack-red-gold tricolor(symbol of German unity).
● Bavaria:KingLudwig I abdicateddue to revolutionarypressure.
● Saxony and Baden:Liberal governments were formed,but were later suppressed.
2. Frankfurt Parliament and the Attempt at German Unification (May 1848–March 1849)
● T heFrankfurt Parliament(May 1848) was formed asthefirst attempt at German
unification.
● It was aliberal and nationalistassembly that aimedto:
○ Draft aconstitutionfor a united Germany.
○ Decide between aKleindeutschland (Small Germany withoutAustria)or
Grossdeutschland (Greater Germany including Austria)solution.
● Outcome:
○ InMarch 1849, the Parliamentoffered the German crowntoFrederick
William IV of Prussia.
○ Herejected it, calling it a "crown from the gutter,"refusing to accept power
from a popular assembly.
3. Conservative Counter-Revolutions and Repression (Mid-to-Late 1849)
● O nce monarchs regained control, they beganrollingbackthe reforms granted in
early 1848.
● Militaries crushed uprisings, restoring conservativerule.
● Austria (under Franz Joseph)regained power andreimposedabsolutist rule.
● Prussia introduced a constitution (1850), but it maintained royal control.
● Prussia:
○ In 1849, Prussian troopsdissolved the Frankfurt Parliament.
○ T he newPrussian Constitution (1850)created athree-class voting
systemfavoring the aristocracy.
● Baden & Saxony:Republican uprisings were crushedbyPrussian and Austrian
armies.
Austria:
●
○ TheHungarian Revolution (1848–49)was defeated withRussian help.
○ Constitution revoked (1851); Austria remained a conservativeautocracy.
4. Long-Term Consequences on German Unification
● Failure of Liberal Nationalists:
○ The Frankfurt Parliament's failure proved thatliberalismalone could not
unify Germany.
○ Bismarck later used "Blood and Iron" (war and diplomacy) to achieve
German unification (1866–1871).
● Rise of Prussian Power:
○ The revolutionsweakened Austriaand showed Prussiaas the future leader
of German unification.
○ The1849 Erfurt Union, led by Prussia, tried to unifynorthern Germany, but it
failed due toAustrian opposition.
● Shift Toward Conservatism:
○ Monarchs now knew how tocontrol revolutionsthroughmilitary force.
○ Prussia and Austriamaintained absolute ruleuntilthe late 19th century.
Initial Success but Ultimate Failure
G
● erman states initially responded by granting liberal reforms, fearing revolution.
● However,conservative forces soon regained control,suppressing democratic
movements.
● Thefailure of the 1848 revolutions meant that Germanunification would not
come through democracy, but through Prussian military power in the
1860s–1870s.
hus, while1848–49 failed in the short term, itsetthe stage for future German
T
unification under Prussia, rather than Austria or liberal nationalists.
2. The collapse of the Frankfurt Parliament
Key Reasons for the Collapse of the Frankfurt Parliament
1) Lack of Clear Leadership & Authority
● T
heParliament had no real executive power, meaningit depended on thesupport
of German monarchsto enforce decisions.
● N
o central army: It had no military force to implement its policies or suppress
opposition.
2) Divisions Between Liberals and Radicals
M
● oderate Liberalswanted aconstitutional monarchywith individual rights.
● Radicals (Democrats)wanted arepublicwith full democracy.
● Thisinternal division weakened the movementand preventeddecisive action.
3) The Debate Over ‘Kleindeutschland’ vs. ‘Grossdeutschland’
● K leindeutschland (Small Germany): A GermanyexcludingAustria, led by
Prussia.
● Grossdeutschland (Greater Germany): A GermanyincludingAustriaunder
Habsburg rule.
● The Parliament eventually chose theKleindeutschlandsolution, alienating Austrian
supporters.
4) Rejection of the German Crown by Frederick William IV of Prussia (April 1849)
● InMarch 1849, the Parliamentoffered the imperialcrownof a united Germany to
King Frederick William IV of Prussia.
● Herejected it, calling it a"crown from the gutter",refusing to accept a title from a
popular assembly.
● Without Prussian leadership, theParliament had noreal power or legitimacy.
5) Opposition from Conservative Monarchs & Austrian Resistance
● A ustrian Chancellor Felix Schwarzenbergopposed Germanunification under
liberal leadership.
● Monarchs of smaller German statessaw the Parliamentas athreat to their
power.
● Prussia and Austria both rejectedthe Parliament’sauthority.
6) Conservative Counter-Revolutions and Military Suppression (1849)
B
● y mid-1849, theconservative rulers had regainedcontrolover their states.
● Austria and Prussia launched military campaignstocrush remaining
revolutionary uprisingsin states likeBaden, Saxony,and the Palatinate.
● TheFrankfurt Parliament was dissolved in May 1849as its members fled or were
arrested.
Consequences of the Frankfurt Parliament’s Collapse
1) The Failure of Liberal Nationalism
● T hecollapse of the Parliament proved that Germanunification would not
happen through democracy and liberal ideals.
● The idea of aunited, democratic Germany was abandoned.
2) Strengthening of Conservative Monarchies
● M onarchs regained controland rolled back the limitedreforms they had granted in
early 1848.
● Austria reasserted dominance over the German Confederation,preventing
Prussia from leading unification.
● Prussia introduced a conservative constitution(1850),maintaining royal control.
3) Shift Toward Prussian-Led Unification (‘Blood and Iron’)
● T he failure of the Parliamentpaved the way for Bismarck’sstrategy of unification
through war and diplomacyrather than democracy.
● Prussiadefeated Austria in 1866andFrance in 1870,leading to theformation of
the German Empire in 1871under Prussian control.
3. Reassertion of Austrian Power and the ‘Humiliation of Olmütz’ (1850)
As a Consequence of the 1848–49 Revolutions
he 1848–49 Revolutions led to widespread nationalist and liberal uprisings across Europe,
T
including in the German states. However, by 1850, Austria had successfully reasserted its
power in Central Europe, culminating in the Humiliation of Olmütz—a key moment where
Prussia was forced to abandon its ambitions for German unification under its leadership.
1. Background: Austria’s Weakness During the 1848 Revolutions
During the revolutions:
A
● ustria faced revolts inVienna,Hungary,Italy, andthe German Confederation.
● Chancellor Metternich was forced to resign (March 1848), weakening Austria’s
influence.
● Austria was distracted by internalnationalist uprisings(especially in Hungary).
● Prussia, underKing Frederick William IV, saw an opportunitytotake leadership of
Germany.
2. Prussia’s Attempt to Challenge Austrian Influence (1849–1850)
The Erfurt Union (1849–1850)
● A fter the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament, Prussia attempted to unify Germany
under its leadership through the Erfurt Union (1849).
● This was a "Kleindeutsch" (Small Germany) solution, excluding Austria.
● Several northern and central German states supported Prussia’s plan, hoping for a
strong, Protestant-led Germany.
● However, Austria strongly opposed this, as it would end Austrian dominance over
Germany.
The Growing Conflict: The Hesse-Cassel Crisis (1850)
In 1850, a political crisis erupted in the German state of Hesse-Cassel.
●
● The local ruler soughtAustrian supportagainst liberalopposition, butPrussia also
intervened, claiming the right to protect German states.
● This led to adirect confrontation between Prussianand Austrian forces, raising
the possibility of war.
3. The ‘Humiliation of Olmütz’ (November 1850)
A
● ustria, backed by Russia, pressured Prussia to abandon its unification attempt.
● Prussia, unwilling to fight both Austria and Russia, was diplomatically forced to
withdraw from the Erfurt Union.
● On November 29, 1850, Prussia signed the Treaty of Olmütz, agreeing to:
○ Dissolve the Erfurt Union (ending its unification attempt).
○ Accept Austrian leadership over the German Confederation.
○ Withdraw its troops from Hesse-Cassel, avoiding war.
● This event became known as the ‘Humiliation of Olmütz’, as Prussia was publicly
forced to accept Austrian dominance in Germany.
Consequences of the Humiliation of Olmütz
1) Austria Reasserted Its Power in Germany
T
● he German Confederation (led by Austria) was restored in 1851.
● Austria regained control over the smaller German states, ensuring that German
unification would not happen under Prussian leadership—for now.
2) Prussian Resentment and the Shift in Power (1850–1860s)
P
● russia was deeply humiliated by its forced retreat at Olmütz.
● Many in Prussia saw this as a temporary setback rather than a permanent defeat.
● Prussian leaders, including Otto von Bismarck (future Chancellor of Germany), saw
Olmütz as a sign that Prussia had to defeat Austria to unify Germany.
3) The Long-Term Rivalry Between Austria and Prussia
● A ustria had won the diplomatic battle in 1850, but Prussia was growing stronger
economically and militarily.
● The rivalry between Austria and Prussia continued until the Austro-Prussian War
(1866).
● In 1866, Bismarck defeated Austria at the Battle of Königgrätz, finally ending
4. Economic developments after 1849: the growth of industrialisation
and the Zollverein
fter the revolutions of 1848–49, Germany entered a period of significant economic
A
development. The rapid expansion of industrialisation, the strengthening of the Zollverein
(Customs Union), and increasing Prussian economic leadership laid the foundation for
German unification in 1871.
1. Industrial Growth After 1849
a) Expansion of Heavy Industry (Coal, Iron, and Steel)
● Coal Production:
○ The Ruhr Valley (in western Prussia) became Germany’s industrial heartland.
○ Coal production increased dramatically, fueling railways and industry.
○ By the 1860s, Germany’s coal output rivaled Britain’s.
● Iron and Steel:
○ Krupp (a major steel producer) expanded, supplying weapons and industrial
machinery.
○ The demand for iron and steel increased due to railway construction and
military expansion.
b) Railway Expansion and Transportation Growth
T
● he railway network expanded rapidly, linking German states and increasing trade.
● By 1865, Germany had over 8,000 km of railway tracks, improving communication
and economic integration.
● Railways helped transport coal, iron, and manufactured goods, further boosting
industrialisation.
c) Urbanisation and the Rise of an Industrial Workforce
G
● rowth of industrial cities such as Essen, Dortmund, and Berlin.
● Increased migration from rural areas to industrial centers.
● A growing working-class population led to new social and political tensions.
2. The Zollverein: The Economic Unification of Germany
a) What Was the Zollverein?
● T he Zollverein (German Customs Union) was an economic alliance of German states
led by Prussia.
● It removed internal tariffs and allowed free trade among member states.
● This helped integrate the economies of German states, excluding Austria.
b) Growth of the Zollverein After 1849
B
● y 1854, the Zollverein included almost all German states except Austria.
● It allowed German states to trade without customs duties, making goods cheaper and
boosting industrial growth.
● It also unified the German economy, making Prussia the economic leader of
Germany.
c) Austria’s Exclusion from the Zollverein
● A ustria was excluded from the Zollverein because it relied on high tariffs to protect its
industries.
● This weakened Austria’s influence in Germany, allowing Prussia to dominate
economically.
● By the 1860s, Austria’s economic isolation made it politically weaker, contributing to
its defeat in the Austro-Prussian War (1866).
3. Prussian Economic Leadership and German Unification
T
● he Zollverein strengthened Prussia’s position as the leader of Germany.
● Prussia controlled the German railway network, which helped during later military
conflicts.
● By the 1860s, Prussia had the strongest economy in Germany, while Austria was
economically struggling.
● Otto von Bismarck used Prussia’s economic strength to achieve German unification
in 1871.
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