FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Only the causes (political, socio-religious, economic and military) and

consequences will be tested. [The events, however, need to be mentioned in
order to maintain continuity and for a more comprehensive understanding.]
The process of British Conquest of India which began in the mid-18 th century and
the subsequent consolidation of British rule was resented by the Indians
belonging to all segments of Indian society. This resentment to the British rule
culminated in the First War of Independence in 1857, in which millions of
peasants, artisans and soldiers participated. It shook the British government to
its very foundation.

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Political Causes
1. Policy of Expansion: The British policy of territorial expansion and gradual
annexation of the native Indian States was one of the major grievances of the
Indian rulers. The British tried to expand their political power in India by four
ways that is by outright wars by the system of Subsidiary Alliance, by adopting
the Doctrine of Lapse and on the pretext of alleged misrule. (this can be written
as an independent point)
a) By Outright Wars: To expand their territorial power in India and to
safeguard their economic and political interests the British waged many wars
against the Indian rulers of different states. The Battle of Buxar established the
British as masters of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. The Punjab was annexed after
the Sikhs were defeated in the Second Anglo Sikh War.
b) By Subsidiary Alliance: Introduced by Lord Wellesley, this alliance was a
method by which some Indian States were brought under the British control
without actually annexing them. The Alliance was an agreement between the
British East India Company and the Indian Princely States by virtue of which,
these states lost their sovereignty (the power of a ruler to rule independently
without any outside interference) to the British. Under this system, the Indian
rulers who agreed to the Subsidiary Alliance-
 Accepted the British as the supreme power.
 Surrendered their foreign relations to the British East India Company and
agreed that they would not enter into any alliance with any other power
and would not wage wars.
 Agreed to maintain British troops at their own cost.
Example of States which entered into Subsidiary Alliance- Nizam of Hyderabad,
the Rajput State of Jodhpur.

(c) By using the Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie, the Governor General of
India, annexed many Indian States to the Company using the Doctrine of Lapse.
According to this Doctrine, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his
kingdom would ‘lapse’, that is, it would come under the Company’s territory in
India.
When the ruler of Jhansi died leaving no natural heir, the widowed rani was
pensioned and their adopted son, Anand Rao was not recognised as a lawful
successor to the throne.
(d) On the Pretext of Alleged Misrule’: Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh to
the Company’s dominions on the pretext of alleged misrule. He declared that
Awadh was being misgoverned, and the British rule was needed to ensure proper
administration. Enraged by the humiliating way in which the Nawab of Awadh
was deposed, the people of Awadh joined the uprising.
2. Disrespect shown to Bahadur Shah: Bahadur Shah, the Mughal ruler, was
under the protection of the Company and received a pension from the British.
The name of the Mughal King was removed from the coins minted by the
Company.
Lord Dalhousie announced that successors of Bahadur Shah would not be
permitted to use the Red Fort as their palace. They were required to shift to a
place near the Qutab Minar. Lord Canning announced that after the death of
Bahadur Shah, his successors would not be allowed to use the imperial titles with
their names and would be known as mere princes. This decision of the British
hurt the feelings of the Mughals. Consequently, Zeenat Mahal, the wife of
Bahadur Shah, began plotting against them.
3. Treatment given to Nana Saheb: Nana Saheb was the adopted son of Baji
Rao II, the last Peshwa. The British refused to grant Nana Saheb the pension they
were paying to Baji Rao II. Nana Saheb was forced to live at Kanpur, far away
from his family seat at Poona. This was widely resented in the Maratha Region.
4 Absentee Sovereignty of the British: It means that India was being ruled
by the British government from England, at a distance of thousands of miles.
This was resented by the Indians. The earlier rulers like the Mughals had settled
in India. The revenue they collected from the Indians were spent in India only.
But in the case of Britain, the Indians felt that they were being ruled from
England and India’s wealth was being drained to England and not utilised for
their welfare.
Socio-Religious Causes
1. Interference with Social Customs: Some of the social reforms introduced
by the British in India were aimed at improving the conditions of the people.
However, while introducing such reforms the feelings of the people were not
taken into consideration. The result was that reforms like the Abolition of sati,
the introduction of Widow Remarriage act and the opening of Western Education
to girls were not welcomed by the masses.
2. Apprehensions about Modern Innovations People were suspicious of the
introduction of modern innovations like railways and telegraph. There were
rumours that the telegraph poles were erected to hang those who were against
the British rule. Similarly orthodox Indians noted that in the railway
compartments, the higher and lower castes were made to sit side by side. They
believed that the British had introduced such practices to defy their caste and
religion.
3. Policy of Racial Discrimination: The British believed that they were
superior to Indians and followed a policy of contempt towards the Indians. Some
European officers ill-treated and insulted Indians. Such acts of unjust
discrimination alienated the British from the Indian masses.
4. Oppression of the Poor: Flogging, torture and imprisonment of the
cultivators for their inability to pay arrears of rent, land revenue and interest on
debt were quite common. Thus, the growing poverty made the poor desperate
and led them to join a general uprising in the hope of improving their lot.
5. Activities of Missionaries: In the 18th century, the British showed a friendly
attitude towards Indian religions. However, in the 19 th century, this attitude
underwent a change. The British began to interfere with the local religious and
social customs. They denounced idol worship and dubbed local beliefs as
ignorance. The Charter Act of 1813 led to an increase both in numbers and
activities of the Christian missionaries. The Indians thought that the Government
was supporting missionaries who would convert them to Christianity.
6. Fears Regarding Western Education: The Western System of education
was introduced in a number of schools. The shifting of emphasis from oriental
learning to Western education was not received well by the people, especially
the Pandits and the Maulvis. They saw in it an attempt to discourage traditional
Islamic and Hindu studies. People started suspecting that the aim of Western
education was not to promote literature and sciences but to encourage their
children to become Christians.
7. Taxing Religious Places: Religious sentiments of the Indians were hurt by
the official policy of taxing lands belonging to temples and mosques.
8. Law of Property: The Religious Disabilities Act of 1850 changed the Hindu
Law of Property. It enabled a convert from Hinduism to other religions to inherit
the property of his father. The Hindus regarded this as an incentive

Economic Causes
1. Exploitation of Economic Resources: The British made agricultural India
an economic colony to serve the interests of industrial England. India was forced
to export, at cheaper rates, raw materials like raw cotton and raw silk that the
British industries needed urgently; plantation products like indigo and tea; and
food grains which were in short supply in Britain. Export of raw materials and
food grains deprived India of her agricultural surplus and raised the prices of raw
materials. India was made to accept readymade British goods either duty free or
at nominal duty rates. The Indian handmade goods were unable to compete with
the cheaper, machine-made British products.
2. Drain of wealth: After the conquest of Bengal, the British began to purchase
raw material for their industries in England from the surplus revenues of Bengal
and profits from duty free inland trade. The transfer of wealth from India to
England for which India got no proportionate economic return, is called the Drain
of Wealth. The drain included the salaries, incomes and savings of Englishmen,
the British expenditure in India on the purchase of military goods, unnecessary
expenditure on the Army etc.
3. Decay of Cottage Industries and Handicrafts: Heavy duties on Indian silk
and cotton textiles in Britain destroyed Indian industries. On the other hand,
British goods were imported into India at a nominal duty. By the middle of the
19th century, export of cotton and silk goods from India practically ceased. The
art of spinning and weaving, which for ages had given employment to thousands
of artisans, became extinct. The misery of the artisans was further compounded
by the disappearance of their traditional patrons and buyers- the princes,
chieftains and zamindars.
4. Economic Decline of the Peasantry: The peasants were discontent with
the official land revenue policy and the consequent loss of their land. It was the
peasantry that bore the heavy burden of taxes. Not even a part of this revenue
was spent on the development of agriculture or on the welfare of the cultivator.
Increase in the land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness or into
selling their lands.
5. Growing Unemployment: When the native states were annexed to the
British dominion, thousands of soldiers and officials in administrative, military,
judicial posts became unemployed because British policies excluded Indians from
high posts. All these people became bitter enemies of the British rule in India.
6. Inhuman Treatment of Indigo Cultivators: Indigo trade was highly
profitable to the British but the conditions under which the peasants had to work
were inhuman. The peasants were forced to cultivate only indigo in the fields
chosen by the British planters. If they planted anything else, their crops were
destroyed, and their cattle were carried off as punishment.
7. Poverty and Famines: British economic exploitation, decay of indigenous
industries, high taxation, drain of wealth, stagnation of agriculture and
exploitation of poor peasants reduced the Indians to extreme poverty. Famines
ravaged the country in the second half of the 19 th century. The famines were the
result of drought, other natural calamities as well as bad administration. The
British government did nothing to lessen people’s misery.
8. Decline of Landed Aristocracy: The landed aristocracy which included the
taluqdar and hereditary landlords were deprived of their estates. According to
the provisions of the Imam Commission, 20,000 estates were confiscated when
the landlords failed to produce the title-deeds by which they held the land. These
confiscated lands were sold by public auction to the highest bidders. Such
estates were usually purchased by merchants and moneylenders who did not
understand the needs of the tenants and exploited them. This droves the landed
aristocracy to poverty without befitting the peasantry which suffered under the
weight of exorbitant land revenue.
Military Causes
1. Ill treatment of Indian Soldiers: The East India Company established the
British Empire in India with the help of Indian soldiers. Despite the fact that
Indian soldiers were as efficient as their British counterparts, they were poorly
paid, ill-fed and badly housed. British military authorities forbade the sepoys
from wearing caste or sectarian marks, beards or turbans; and they showed
disregard for the sentiments of the sepoys.
2. General Service Enlistment Act: According to traditional belief, it was a
taboo for a Brahmin to cross the seas. The British Parliament passed the General
Service Enlistment Act. As per this Act, Indian soldiers could be sent overseas on
duty. The Act did not take into account the sentiment of the Indian soldiers. The
Brahmin soldiers saw in this a danger to their caste. This led to a feeling of
resentment among them.
3. Larger Proportion of Indians in the British Army: The number of British
troops in India was never very large with the British in the ratio as low as one in
four thousand. Thus, it made it easier for the large number of Indian soldiers to
take up arms against the British.
4. Bleak Prospects of Promotion: All higher positions in employment were
reserved for the British, irrespective of their performance. Even the Indian
soldiers formerly occupying higher positions in the armies of native princes could
not rise above the rank of a Subedar.
5. Deprivation of Allowances: They were required to serve in areas away
from their homes without extra payment and additional Bhatta (foreign service
allowance). The Post Office Act withdrew the privilege of free postage enjoyed by
sepoys.
6. Faulty Distribution of troops: Places of strategic importance like Delhi and
Allahabad had no British armies and were wholly held by the Indian soldiers.
Besides, England was engaged in several wars outside India. Indian soldiers had
the feeling that the British were in difficulty and the safety of her Indian Empire
depended on them. They were, therefore, determined to strike at them at a
suitable time.
7. Poor Performance of British Troops: The British Army suffered major
reverses in the First Afghan War, Punjab War, Crimean War etc. The Santhal
tribesmen of Bihar and Bengal rose up against the British, temporarily sweeping
away the British rule from the area. The disasters they suffered broke the myth
that the British were invincible. It further revealed to the Indian soldiers that the
British army could be defeated by the determined Indian Army.
8. Lower salaries: The British soldiers received more than eight times the
salary of the Indian soldiers.

Immediate Cause:
Introduction of the Enfield Rifle
In 1856, the British authorities decided to replace the old-fashioned musket,
(called the ‘Brown Bess’) by the new ‘Enfield rifle’. The loading process of Enfield
rifle involved bringing the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top greased
paper with the teeth.
In January 1857, there was a rumor in the Bengal regiments that the greased
cartridges had the fat of cow or pig. The sepoys were now convinced that the
introduction of greased cartridges was a deliberate move to defile Hindu and
Muslim religions as the cow is sacred Hindus and the pig is a taboo to Muslims.
So, both the Hindus and Muslim soldiers refused to use these cartridges and
staged an uprising when they were forced to use them.
Consequences of the First War of Independence.
1. End of Company’s Rule: The most significant result of the Uprising of 1857
was the end of the rule of the East India Company and the assumption of the
Government of India directly by the Crown. This was done by the Government of
India Act of 1858 which had the following provisions:
 It transferred the power to govern India from the East India Company to
the British Crown.
 The Company’s Board of Control and Court of Directors were abolished. A
member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India
and made responsible for all matters related to governance of India. Thus,
the ultimate power over India remained with the British Parliament.
 Actual governance was to be carried as before by the Governor -General
who was also given the title of Viceroy, that is, a personal representative
of the Crown. Lord Canning was appointed as the first Viceroy under this
Act.
 Appointments to the civil Service were to be made by open competition
under rules made by the Secretary of State.
2. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation: The Queen’s Proclamation incorporating
the transfer of governance from East India Company to the British Crown was
made public at Allahabad by Lord Canning, the first Viceroy of India. The
proclamation promised that the Government of India would-
 follow a policy of non-intervention in social and religious matters of
Indians.
 treat all subjects- Indians and Europeans as equals (education and ability
would be the basis of all appointment).
 grant a general pardon to all those who had taken part in the War except
those who were found guilty of murder of British subjects.
 do its best to advance industries in India; and
 promote works of public utility in India to ensure the material as well as
moral progress of the people.
3. End of Mughals and Peshwas: With the death of Bahadur Shah II who was
deported to Yangon, the Mughal Dynasty came to an end.
Nana Saheb, the last Peshwa had taken an active part in the Uprising and had
fled to Nepal after the failure of the Uprising. So, the office of the Peshwa also
came to an end.
4. Relation with the Princely States: The Policy of Annexation and the
Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned. Some of the Indian princes had remained
loyal to the British and had helped them in suppressing the Uprising. Their
loyalty was rewarded with the announcement that their right to adopt heirs
would be respected and the integrity of their territories guaranteed against
future annexation.
5. Policy of Divide and Rule: After 1858, the British continued their policy of
‘divide and rule’ by turning the princes against the people., province against
province, caste against caste, Hindus against Muslims. The British also
encouraged hatred and ill-feeling among the Hindus and the Muslims so that
they could never challenge the British Empire in India.

6. Racial Antagonism: After the Uprising of 1857, racial bitterness increased.

The British dubbed all Indians as unworthy of trust and subjected them to insults
and humiliation. The British believed in their racial superiority, and they thought
that a social distance was to be maintained to preserve their authority over the
Indians. Railway compartments, parks, hotels, clubs etc., reserved for ‘Europeans
only’ were visible manifestations of this racialism.
7. Foreign Policy: India’s foreign policy was dictated by the interests of the
British Government. It fulfilled the two aims of the British-
(a) protection of its Indian Empire and
(b) expansion of British economic and commercial interests in Asia and Africa.
8. Religious Changes: The British rulers declared emphatically their policy of
non-interference in the religious affairs, customs and traditions of the Indians.
9. Changes in the Army: the Indian army was reorganized after 1858, to
prevent the reoccurrence of another uprising in the following manner:
 The strength of European troops in India was increased.
 European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions.
 To desist the Indian soldiers from rising again against the British rule, the
sophisticated weapons and ammunition were never placed under the
charge of Indians.
 Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was practiced in
the recruitment of the army. In order to discourage nationalism, measures
such as the introduction of caste and community in most regiments were
taken.
 Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from
reaching the soldiers to keep the Indian army separated from the life of
the rest of the population.
10. Economic Exploitation: The Uprising ushered in the era of economic
exploitation.
 India was turned into a typical colonial economy, exporting raw materials
and importing finished goods.
 The salary and allowances of the Secretary of State and members of the
India Council, the civil servants and military officers were a large drain on
the country’s resources.
 Peasants were impoverished under the British rule.
 Rural artisan industries such as handicrafts, spinning and weaving
collapsed.
  The Indians had to pay heavy interests and dividends on the British capital
invested in India. The British invested their surplus capital in India in
railways, plantations, coal mines, jute mills, shipping etc.

11. Rise of Nationalism: The Uprising of 1857 was the first struggle of the
Indian people for freedom from British Imperialism.
12. Widening of the Gulf Between Hindus and Muslims: The British policy
of ‘Divide and Rule’ sowed the seeds of dissension between the two
communities. After the Uprising, the gulf between the two communities
widened.
 Growth of Nationalism
Factors leading to the growth of Nationalism – economic exploitation, repressive
colonial policies, socio-religious reform movements (brief mention of contribution
of Raja Rammohan Roy and Jyotiba Phule) and role of the Press. Foundation of
the Indian National Congress - the Indian National Association (Surendranath
Banerjee) and the East India Association (Dadabhai Naoroji) as precursors.
Immediate objectives of the Indian National Congress - the first two sessions and
their Presidents should be mentioned.
One of the most distinguishing features of the second half of the 19 th century
was the birth of national awakening in India. It originated from the following:
 the concept of nationalism and the right of self-determination initiated by
the French Revolution;
 the socio-religious reform movements in India:
1. as an offshoot of modernization introduced by the British in India; and
2. as a reaction of the Indians to the British colonial policies.
This trend culminated in the establishment of the Indian National Congress in
1885, which marked the formal beginning of organized national movement in
India.

Factors Leading to The Growth of Nationalism.

Nationalism refers to the feeling of oneness and common consciousness that
emerges when people living in a common territory share the same historical,
political, and cultural background, have the same cultural values, and consider
themselves as one nation.
There were many factors which contributed to the growth of nationalism in India.
These included the following:

Economic Exploitation
The economic discontent of different sections of society were as follows:
(i) The Peasants: The government took away a large part of their produce in
the form of land revenue and other taxes. These exorbitant taxes led the
peasants into the clutches of landlords and moneylenders.
(ii) The Artisans and Craftsmen: The English East India Company used its
political power to destroy Indian handicrafts and industry. India became a source
of raw material for the industries in Britain and a market for its finished products.
This policy crippled the artisans and the craftsmen as they were devoid of their
sources of livelihood.
(iii) The Working Class: The growth of modern industries led to the birth of a
new social class in India- the working class. They were exploited by the factory
owners, who were Englishmen.
(iv) The Educated Indians: The only employment available to the educated
Indians was government service in which competition was high, and chances of
promotions were bleak. Thus, all sections of the society felt that their economic
salvation lay in freeing themselves from the British rule.

Repressive Colonial Policies

The British followed repressive policies to make India subservient to the needs of
Britain. Some of these repressive policies especially those followed by Lord
Lytton, Viceroy of India acted as a catalyst for the growth of nationalist
movement of India. These included the following:
 India was in the grip of famine when Lord Lytton spent lakhs of rupees to
organize a Grand Delhi Durbar to proclaim Queen Victoria as the
Empress of India.
 Lord Lytton introduced the Vernacular Press Act and Indian Arms
Act. The Vernacular Press Act forbade vernacular papers to publish any
material that might incite feelings of dissatisfaction against the British
Government. The Indian Arms Act made it a criminal offence for Indians to
carry arms without license.
 The maximum age limit for the Indian Civil Service examination was
reduced from 21 to 19 years thus making it difficult for the Indians to
compete for it.
 The import duties on British textiles were removed for the benefit of the
British cloth industry which proved harmful for the Indian industry.
 The Ilbert Bill provided for the trial of British or European persons by
Indians. By this Act, the British tried to introduce equality between British
and Indian judges in India. This was resented by the British and they
started a Defense Association to defend their special privileges. This
reaction provoked counter-agitation by educated Indians. The government
ultimately withdrew the Bill. The event highlighted the racist attitude of
the British.

Socio-Religious Reform movements

The Socio-religious movements of the 19 th century were pioneers of Indian
nationalism. Prominent reform movements were started by Raja Rammohan Roy
(Brahmo Samaj), Swami Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj), Swami Vivekananda
(Ramakrishna Mission) and Jyotiba Phule (Satya Shodhak Samaj).

Raja Rammohan Roy:

 He was one of the greatest social and religious reformers of the 19 th
century. According to Rabindranath Tagore, he was the father of Indian
Renaissance and the prophet of Indian nationalism.
 He founded the Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj believed in
Monotheism or worship of one God.
 It was because of the efforts of Raja Rammohan Roy that William Bentick,
the Governor-General of India, passed a law making the practice of Sati
illegal and punishable by law.
Jyotiba Phule
 He was an urban-educated member of a so-called low caste.
 He worked for the upliftment of women. He, along with his wife, Savitribai
Phule started one of the first girls’ school in Pune.
 He founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj with the aim of securing social
justice for the weaker sections of society.

Effect of the Socio-religious Reform Movements on the Growth of

Nationalism:
 Swami Dayanand and Swami Vivekananda proclaimed the superiority of
Indian culture and civilization.
 The reformers condemned untouchability and the caste system and
spread ideas of brotherhood and equality among the lower castes.
 The reformers taught people not to ignore the importance of women who
could participate in the national movement
 They protested the British domination of India. Swami Dayanand Saraswati
was the first to use the word Swaraj and to raise the slogan ‘India for
Indians.’
 The reform movements created a consciousness of a new society devoid
of privileges based on caste, creed or religion.

Role of the Press

Large number of newspapers were started in the latter half of the 19th century.
Some of the prominent newspapers were The Bengali, The Times of India, the
Statesman and so on. Many other newspapers and magazines in the vernacular
languages were also brought out. These newspapers played a significant role in
developing a strong national sentiment among the Indians. It did so in the
following manner:
 It was through the press that the message of patriotism and modern
liberal ideals of liberty, freedom, equality, home rule and independence
spread among the people
 The press carried on daily criticism of unjust policies of the British
government and exposed the true nature of British rule in India.
 It made possible the exchange of views among different social groups
from different parts of the country and to organise political movements.
 It made Indians aware of what was happening in the world.

Precursors of the Indian National Congress

By the second half of the 19th century there emerged a consciousness among
Indians that the British were exercising control over the resources of India and
the lives of its people and until this control was ended India could not be a
sovereign nation. This consciousness led to the formation of a number of political
associations led by English educated professionals. Associations like East India
Association and Indian association served as a base for the formation of the
Congress - an All India political organization.

East India Association:

 The East India Association was founded in London by Dadabhai Naoroji.
 The Association provided information on all Indian subjects to British
citizens and Members of Parliament.
 It voiced the grievances of Indians and suggested remedial measures.
 Dadabhai Naoroji the grand old man of India was of the opinion that the
British were basically just and good. He wanted to place the true state of
affairs in India before the people of England so that the problems of the
Indians may be resolved.
 The association had its branches in Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai.

Indian Association
The Indian Association was meant to be an All-India movement.
It was headed by Surendranath Banerjee. The association had lawyers,
professionals and educated middle class as its members. This association had
branches in Bengal as well as in towns outside Bengal.
The objectives of the Indian association included:
 Creation of a strong body of public opinion.
 Integration of Indian people based on common political interests.
 Promotion of friendly relations between Hindus and Muslims.
Mass participation in public movements.
Achievements: It launched agitation against the oppressive acts such as the
License Act, The Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act and against lowering the
age limit from 21 to 19 years for the Imperial Civil Service Examination.
However, the association failed to attain and All India character.
Formation of the Indian National Congress
 Various political organizations mentioned earlier where local in character
however their activities had prepared the ground for the creation of all-
India political association.
 While the Indian leaders like Surendranath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji
we're moving towards the formation of an all-India political body.
 Luckily for them help in this direction came from a strange source that is
from A.O. Hume, retired British member of the Indian civil service.
 He wanted to set up an organization that would draw the government's
attention to the administrative drawbacks and suggest means to rectify
them.
 In 1884 Hume, in consultation with the Indian leaders, laid the foundation
of Indian National Union. The meeting of the union was held at Gokuldas
Tejpal Sanskrit College Mumbai under the presidentship of Womesh
Chandra Bonerjee.
  On the suggestion of Dadabhai Naoroji, the name of the Union was
changed to the Indian National Congress. Thus the foundation of the
Indian National Congress was laid on December 28th, 1885.
 The Viceroy Lord Dufferin favoured the formation of the Congress because
he wanted it to act as a safety- valve for popular discontent thereby
safeguarding the British interest in India.
 The Congress stood for the hopes and aspirations of the people who
accepted its leadership in launching the freedom movement.

Aims of the Indian National Congress

In his presidential address at the first session of the Indian National Congress
WC Bonnerjee declared the following as the aims of the Indian National
Congress:
 To promote friendly relations between nationalist political workers from
different parts of the country;
 To develop and consolidate the feelings of national unity irrespective of
caste, religion or province;
 To formulate popular demands and present them before the government;
 To train and organise public opinion in the country.

The Congress held its sessions every year in December to chalk out
programmes to achieve its aims.
The first session of the Congress under the presidentship of WC Bonnerjee
was attended by 72 delegates from all parts of India including such eminent
persons as Dadabhai Naoroji.
The second session of 1886 was held at Kolkata under the Presidentship of
Dadabhai Naoroji.
 First Phase of the Indian National movement

First Phase of the Indian National Movement (1885-1907) - objectives and

methods of struggle of the Early Nationalists. Any two contributions of Dadabhai
Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

The history of the Indian national movement can be broadly divided into three
phases.
1. The Early Nationalist Phase. (1885-1907)
2. The Assertive Phase (1907- 1916)
3. The Gandhian Era (1915-1947)

The Early Nationalists

 In its initial years the Congress was led by a group of leaders known as the
Early Nationalists.
 The members of this group were drawn from the educated middle class
consisting of professionals like lawyers, barristers, teachers, and officials,
who drew inspiration from Western thought.
 Many of them were educated in England and believed that the British
intended to be just to Indians.
 They were however unaware of the true state of affairs in India.
 The Early Nationalists had leaders like Surendranath Banerjee, Dadabhai
Naoroji, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
 They were staunch believers in open-minded and moderate politics.
 They believed in loyalty to the British Crown.

Objective of the Early Nationalists.

  They wanted that the Indians should have their proper and legitimate
share in the Government.
 They asked for Constitutional and other reforms within the framework of
the British rule as they had faith in the British sense of justice and fair
play.

Methods of the Early Nationalists.

Educate people in India in modern politics, to arouse national political
consciousness and to create a united public opinion. For this they held meetings
and made the use of the Press.
They followed the Constitutional Agitation Method in which they made use of
three P’s that is Petitions Prayers and Protests.

Contributions of prominent Early Nationalist Leaders.

1. Dadabhai Naoroji
 He was popularly known as the Grand Old Man Of India.
 He edited the newspaper Rast Goftar (Speaker of truth) and started a
magazine ‘Dharma Marg Darshak.’
 During his stay in England, he was looked upon as India’s unofficial
ambassador, fighting for the cause of his country.
 He founded the East India Association in London.
 He took an active part in the foundation of the Indian National Congress.
 The credit for demanding Swaraj from the Congress platform for the first
time goes to him.
 Dadabhai’s views on Indian economy are given in his work entitled Poverty
and Un-British rule in India. His famous ‘Drain Theory’ explained how
India’s wealth was being ‘drained’ to England through various ways.

2. Gopal Krishna Gokhale

 Gopal Krishna Gokhale became the most popular leader of the Indian
National Congress.
 He made a strong plea for the reform of the Legislative Councils and
separation of judiciary from the executive.
 He played an important role in the passage of Morley Minto reforms.
 During his visit to England, he tried to persuade the British statesmen not
to give effect to the Partition of Bengal.
 Gokhale set up the Servants of India Society. The main aim of the
Society was to train national leaders who would dedicate themselves to
the service of India.
 As a member of the Imperial Legislative Council, he pleaded for the
reduction in Salt Duty and the abolition of excise duty on cotton goods.
 Gopal Krishna Gokhale is also considered to be the political mentor of
Mahatma Gandhi.

3. Surendranath Banerjee
 Surendranath Banerjee was a nationalist leader, popular journalist, and
dedicated educationist. He is popularly known as the Father of Indian
Nationalism.
 He established the Indian Association to fight against the wrong policies of
the British.
 Banerjee edited the newspaper Bengalee, which served as a powerful
medium for mobilizing public opinion.
 He started agitation against the License Act, Arms Act, Vernacular Press
Act, lowering of age eligibility for ICS Examination.
 He also opposed the division of Bengal by Lord Curzon.
 Second Phase of the Indian National Movement
Second Phase of the Indian National Movement (1905-1916) - Brief mention of
the causes of the Partition of Bengal and its perspective by the
Nationalists. Brief mention of Surat Split of 1907; objectives and methods of
struggle of the Radicals.
Any two contributions of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat
Rai.

Partition of Bengal
 Lord Curzon’s Partition of Bengal in 1905, was considered as a concealed
attack on Indian nationalism.
 The Presidency of Bengal was the most thickly populated province in
British India. It comprised Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Chota Nagpur and some
other remote areas. Lord Curzon announced the division of the province of
Bengal into the following two provinces.
1. Bengal which included the western districts of Bengal proper Bihar and
Odisha.
2. Eastern Bengal and Assam which comprised the eastern districts of Bengal
proper and Assam.
 The province of Eastern Bengal was dominated by Bengali Muslims and
the Province of Bengal was dominated by non-Bengali population.
 In both the provinces, the Hindu-Bengali population became a minority.

Causes of Partition of Bengal

The main motive for the partition of Bengal according to the British rulers, was
administrative necessity. They said that the province of Bengal was too big to be
efficiently administered by a single provincial government.
However, they had other concealed motives.
 Bengal was the nerve center of Indian Nationalism at that time. So, the
British hoped to stop the rising tide of Nationalism by partitioning Bengal.
 The Partition of the state was intended to curb Bengali influence by not
placing Bengalis under two administrations but by reducing them to a
minority in Bengal itself.
 The Partition was meant to foster division on the basis of religion. East
Bengal would be predominantly a Muslim majority state and West Bengal
would have a Hindu majority.
 The Indian nationalists clearly saw the design behind the Partition and
condemned it.
 They saw that it was a deliberate attempt to divide the Bengalis on
religious and territorial ground thereby disrupt and weaken nationalism in
Bengal.
 They felt that administrative efficiency could have been better secured by
separating them based on language.
 The manner in which the announcement of partition was made without
any regard for the public opinion, hurt the sentiments of sensitive
Bengalis.
  The Anti Partition movement was initiated. The ideas of Swadeshi and
Boycott became popular.
 The Swadeshi movement cast its shadow on the growing differences in
Congress.
 The Early Nationalists wanted the agitation to be confined to Bengal
whereas one group of Congressmen wanted to extend Swadeshi and
Boycott to the rest of India.

Surat Split
 At the Congress session in Surat in 1907, the Assertive (Radical)
Nationalists proposed the name of Lala Lajpat Rai as President while the
Early Nationalists proposed the name of Rashbehari Ghosh.
 This led to the split in the Congress and the Assertive Nationalist leaders
were expelled.
 The split in the Congress was unfortunate because it gave an opportunity
to the British to exploit the situation to their advantage.
 They adopted a policy of ‘concession and repression’- concession for the
Early Nationalists as well as the Muslims and repression to the Assertive
Nationalists.
 The Surat Split also weakened the National Movement.

The Assertive (Radical) Nationalists

In the second phase of the national movement, there emerged a new and
younger group of leaders within the Congress. This group of leaders came to be
known as Assertive Nationalists. Three prominent leaders of this group were Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal. They are famous as the
Lal-Bal-Pal trio.

(i) Objective of the Assertive Nationalists

 Immediate achievement of Swaraj to be achieved by more self-reliant
methods.
 They wanted to have a mass-base for their movement.
(ii) Methods of the Assertive Nationalists
The Assertive Nationalists adopted the policy of non-cooperation and resistance
to unjust acts of the British Government. The methods used by them can be
grouped into four categories.
1. Swadeshi: It means producing necessary item in one’s own country and
using them for one’s use without being dependent on imported goods. This idea
was popularised by occasional bonfires of foreign cloth, salt and sugar.
2. Boycott: Economic boycott of British goods use of swadeshi was designed to
encourage Indian industries and provide the people more opportunities for
employment. It also proved to be the most effective weapon for harming British
interests in India.
3. National Education: National leaders advocated national universities that
were free from government control. The DAV Movement made considerable
effort in spreading education through various schools and colleges. Efforts were
also made to give education a national orientation in the vernacular languages.
3.Passive Resistance: The assertive leaders believed in adopting the policy of
non-violent resistance and vigorous political action to achieve their aims.

4.Other methods:
(i) Revivalism: Assertive Nationalists revived self-respect by referring to India’s
past glory. They presented Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Rana Pratap and Shivaji
as national heroes, whose memory could inspire the masses to fight for their
country.
(ii) Personal sacrifices: The followers of the movement used self-reliance and
were ready for self-sacrifice, suffering and hardships to achieve their goal.
(iii) Mass involvement: They had an abiding faith in the strength of the
masses and proposed to win freedom through mass action.

Comparison between Early Nationalists and Assertive Nationalists.

Early Nationalists Assertive Nationalists

1 They wanted to achieve self- They aimed at nothing short of Swaraj.

government and they strove for
autonomy within the Empire and not for
absolute independence.

2 They believed in Constitutional methods They were assertive in their approach.

and worked within the framework of the Used methods like swadeshi, mass
law. involvement.

3 They had faith in the British sense of They rejected British rule and held it
justice and fair play. responsible for poverty of the Indian
people.

4 They received their support from the They drew inspiration from India’s
intelligentsia. masses.

Leaders of Assertive Nationalism

Bal Gangadhar Tilak
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak is known as the ‘Father of Assertive Nationalism.’
 He was the first to openly declare the demand for Swaraj. He said, ‘Swaraj
is my birth right and I shall have it.’
 In order to inculcate courage, self-defense and patriotism, he organized
many akharas and lathi clubs where physical training were imparted.
 Tilak started using the traditional religious Ganapati festival to propagate
nationalist ideas through songs and speeches.
  Tilak set up a Home Rule League at Pune to attain self-government within
the Empire by constitutional means.

Bipin Chandra Pal

 He is known as the ‘Father of Revolutionary Thought in India’.
 As a journalist, he worked for newspapers like Bengal Public opinion to
propagate his brand of nationalism.
 He wanted National Education to be the base of the freedom movement.
 As a social reformer, he opposed the caste system and advocated widow
remarriage.
 He stressed the need to develop indigenous industries.

Lala Lajpat Rai

 He was popularly known as ‘Punjab Kesari’ or ‘Sher-e-Punjab.
 He was a prolific writer. When he was in USA, he started a monthly
magazine ‘Young India’ to spread the message of the right of India to
attain Swaraj.
 As a social reformer he was associated with the Arya Samaj Movement. He
set up Servants of the People Society for the welfare of the downtrodden
and out castes.
 He went abroad to mobilize opinion in favor of India’s struggle for
freedom. When he went to America, he joined the Ghadar Party there.
 While leading a procession against the Simon Commission he was injured
in a lathi charge. He succumbed to his injuries.