Mineral and Energy Resources

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance with a definite chemical composition and physical
properties.
Types of Mineral Resources:
 Metallic Minerals: Iron, Copper, Bauxite, Manganese.
 Non-Metallic Minerals: Limestone, Mica, Gypsum.
 Energy Minerals: Coal, Petroleum, Uranium, Thorium, Natural Gas.
Major Mineral Belts in India
1. North-Eastern Plateau Region
 Covers Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, and Chhattisgarh.
 Key Minerals: Iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.
2. South-Western Plateau Region
 Covers Karnataka, Goa, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
 Key Minerals: High-grade iron ore, manganese, bauxite, limestone.
 Coal Deposits: Present only in Neyveli (lignite coal).
 Unique Deposits: Kerala (monazite, thorium, bauxite, clay), Goa (iron ore).
3. North-Western Region
 Covers Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat (associated with Dharwar system of rocks).
 Key Minerals: Copper, zinc, sandstone, granite, marble.
Iron Ore in India
Significance
India has abundant iron ore reserves, making it one of the world's largest producers. Iron ore is the
backbone of the steel industry and plays a crucial role in economic development.
Geological Occurrence
 Found mainly in Precambrian rocks of the Dharwar and Cuddapah systems.
 Major deposits are located in the peninsular plateau region.
Types of Iron Ore (Based on Iron Content)
1. Magnetite – 70-72% iron content (Highest grade, black in color).
o 92% of India's magnetite reserves are in Karnataka.
2. Hematite – 60-65% iron content (Most abundant, reddish in color).
o Widely found across Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka.
3. Limonite – 40-50% iron content (Yellowish-brown, contains water).
4. Siderite – Less than 40% iron content (Low-grade, rarely used).

Iron Ore Reserves & Production

 India has the 4th largest iron ore reserves in the world.
 Over 95% of total reserves are concentrated in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Karnataka, Goa, and Rajasthan.
 Major iron ore producing states (2024 update):
1. Odisha – 55% (Largest producer).
2. Chhattisgarh – 17%.
3. Karnataka – 14%.
Major Iron Ore Deposits in India
1. Odisha (Largest producer – 55%)
 Keonjhar, Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj districts.
 Famous mines:
o Badam Pahar, Suleipat, Gorumahisani (India’s first iron ore mine, 1910 –
Mayurbhanj district).
o Khandadhar, Bolani, Tomka, Daitari.
2. Chhattisgarh (17%)
 Bastar, Dantewada, Durg districts.
 Key mines:
o Bailadila (Bastar) – High-grade ore (exported to Japan).
o Dalli-Rajhara (Durg, now Balod district) – Supplies Bhilai Steel Plant.
3. Karnataka (14%)
 Bellary, Chitradurga, Tumakuru, Chikmagalur districts.
 Important mines:
o Kudremukh – Was India's largest mechanized mine (now closed due to
environmental concerns).
o Bababudan Hills, Kemmangundi, Sandur, Hospet.
4. Jharkhand
 West Singhbhum, Ranchi, Palamu districts.
 Major mines:
o Noamundi, Chiria, Gua, Barajamda (High-grade iron ore).
5. Maharashtra
 Ratnagiri, Chandrapur, Sindhudurg districts.
 Low to medium-grade iron ore.
6. Goa
 Rich in iron ore but low in iron content (50-55%).
 Mostly exported to China & Japan.
7. Rajasthan
 Iron ore deposits are found in the Aravalli range, particularly in:
o Neemrana (Alwar district).
o Banol (Jaipur district).
o Udaipur, Bhilwara, Sikar (Other notable regions).
 Rajasthan has low-grade iron ore deposits but plays a crucial role in domestic consumption.
Precious Minerals in India
Gold
Global Scenario
 Until 2006, South Africa was the world's largest gold producer.
 Top gold-producing countries (2024 update):
1. China
2. Australia
 3. Russia
Gold Production in India
 Karnataka is the largest gold-producing state in India.
 India's total primary gold ore resources (as of 2015) – 501.83 million tonnes, containing
654.74 tonnes of gold metal (as per the National Mineral Inventory).
 Bihar has the largest gold ore deposits in India – 222.885 million tonnes (44%), containing
37.6 tonnes of gold metal.
 Gold ore in Bihar is concentrated in the Sono area of Jamui district.
 Gold grade in Jamui: 0.17 ppm (17 grams per tonne of ore).
 Minimum requirement for underground gold mining: 2 ppm.

Gold Distribution in India

1. Karnataka (Largest Producer)
 Kolar Gold Fields (Kolar district) – Historically significant but currently closed.
 Hutti Gold Mines (Raichur district) – Only operational gold mine in India.
2. Andhra Pradesh
 Ramgiri Gold Fields (Anantapur district).
 Chittoor & Kurnool districts – Minor deposits.
3. Bihar
 Sono region, Jamui district – Largest primary gold ore deposit in India.
4. Placer Deposits (Alluvial Gold Deposits)
 Found in rivers like the Sone and Subarnarekha, containing trace amounts of gold.

Silver
Global Scenario
 Top silver-producing countries (2024 update):
1. Mexico
2. Peru
3. China
 Silver is rarely found in a pure state and is usually associated with lead, zinc, and copper
ores.

Silver Distribution in India

1. Rajasthan (Largest Producer – 80% of India’s Silver)
 Zawar Mines (Udaipur district) – Largest silver-producing region in India.
 Khetri Mines (Jhunjhunu district) – Contains some silver along with copper.
2. Andhra Pradesh
 Cuddapah, Guntur, and Kurnool districts – Minor silver deposits.
3. Karnataka
 Raichur, Kolar, and Chitradurga districts – Found along with gold deposits.
4. Jharkhand
 Tundi and Bokaro districts – Contains silver as a byproduct in lead-zinc ores.
Diamond Resources in India & the World
Global Scenario
 Top Diamond-Producing Countries (2024 update):
1. Russia
2. Botswana
3. Australia
 Top Diamond-Exporting Countries:
1. India (World’s largest diamond exporter, mainly due to Surat's cutting & polishing
industry)
2. Belgium
3. Israel
 Hyderabad’s 'Caravan Area' (Telangana) has emerged as the world's largest diamond
harvesting and trade hub.

Diamond Production in India

1. Madhya Pradesh (Largest Producer)
 Panna Mines (Mazgawan Mine, Panna District) – Largest diamond-producing region in
India.
 Bunder Diamond Block (Chhatarpur District) – Contains 53.70 million tonnes of
Kimberlite Ore with 34 million carats of rough diamonds.
o Originally explored by Rio Tinto Exploration India Pvt Ltd.
o Now under Essel Mining and Industries Ltd. (Aditya Birla Group).
o Located in Buxwaha Protected Forest, ~80 km from Chhatarpur.
2. Andhra Pradesh
 Kollur Mines (Guntur District) – Produced legendary Golconda diamonds, including:
o Koh-i-Noor ("Mountain of Light") – 105.6-carat diamond, now part of the British
Crown Jewels.

Recent Major Diamond Discoveries (Global)

 Second-largest diamond ever found – 2,492-carat rough diamond discovered in Karowe
Mine, Botswana (Owned by Canadian firm Lucara Diamond).
Coal Resources in India
Importance of Coal
 Essential for thermal power generation and smelting of iron ore.
 India is the 2nd largest producer and consumer of coal after China.
 India ranks 4th in global coal reserves.
 As of 1 April 2021, India's total coal reserves were 352.13 billion metric tons.

Types of Coal & Their Distribution

Type of Coal Carbon Sulfur Major Locations
Content Content
Anthracite 80-95% Low Jammu & Kashmir (Neechom, Kalakot)
 Bituminous 40-70% High 80% of India's coal – Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal
Lignite (Brown 30-50% Low Tamil Nadu (Neyveli), Rajasthan (Palna),
Coal) Gujarat (Umarsar)
Peat Stage of Low heat Found in marshy areas, not mined
processing content commercially

Geological Classification of Coal

1. Gondwana Coal Deposits (250 Million Years Old)
o Major deposits (98% of India's coal reserves)
o Found in river valleys: Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, Godavari
2. Tertiary Coal Deposits (55 Million Years Old)
o Found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Jammu & Kashmir

Major Coalfields in India

1. Gondwana Coalfields
 Damodar Valley
o Jharkhand – Jharia (largest coalfield), Bokaro, Karanpura, Daltonganj, Hazaribagh,
Tata Pani
o West Bengal – Raniganj (Bardhaman district)
 Sone River Valley
o Uttar Pradesh – Singrauli (Sonbhadra district)
o Madhya Pradesh – Singrauli, Sidhi, Umaria, Sohagpur
 Mahanadi River Valley
o Chhattisgarh – Korba, Jhilmil, Chirmiri, Vishrampur (Ambikapur)
o Odisha – Talcher, Rampur (Sambalpur)
 Godavari River Valley
o Telangana – Singareni (Khammam district)
2. Tertiary Coalfields
 Assam – Makum, Jaipur, Nazira
 Meghalaya – Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong, Langrin
 Arunachal Pradesh – Namchik–Namphuk
 Jammu & Kashmir – Kalakot

Lignite (Brown Coal) Deposits

 Tamil Nadu – Neyveli
 Rajasthan – Palna
 Gujarat – Umarsar
 Jammu & Kashmir – Small deposits

Coalfield Fires
 Jharia Mines Fire (Jharkhand)
 o First reported in 1916 at Bhowra Colliery.
o Uncontrolled burning due to underground coal seams catching fire.
o Attempts to douse the fire since nationalization in 1972-73 have not been
successful.
Petroleum (Crude Oil)
 Definition: A naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of hydrocarbons found in
geological formations.
 Formation: Fossil fuel formed from dead zooplankton and algae buried under sedimentary
rock, exposed to heat and pressure over millions of years.
 First Extraction in India: 1867, Makum (Assam).
Major Petroleum Reserves in India
India's petroleum reserves are classified into Onshore and Offshore belts.
1. Onshore Reserves
 Gujarat: Ankleshwar, Mehsana, Kalol, Cambay
 Assam: Digboi, Naharkatiya, Numaligarh, Moran
 Rajasthan: Mangala, Bhagya, Aishwarya, Rajeshwari, Tanot, Barmer
 Tamil Nadu: Cauvery Basin (Narimanam, Kovilkalappal)
 West Bengal: Bakreshwar
2. Offshore Reserves
 Western Offshore (Arabian Sea): Mumbai High, Heera, Neelam, Bassein, Daman
 Eastern Offshore (Bay of Bengal): KG-D6 (Krishna-Godavari Basin), Rawa, Dhirubhai
Fields

Natural Gas Reserves in India

 Krishna-Godavari (KG) Basin – Major deepwater gas field (Reliance Industries, ONGC)
 Gulf of Cambay (Khambhat Basin) – Tapti, Hazira gas fields
 Assam-Arakan Basin – Found in Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran
 Rajasthan Basin – Barmer-Sanchor region
 Tripura Gas Fields – Discovered in Agartala Dome

Atomic Minerals in India

1. Uranium (U)
 Silvery-gray metallic, radioactive element.
 Symbol: U, Atomic Number: 92.
 Naturally formed in supernova explosions.
 Main Contributor to Natural Radioactivity: Uranium, Thorium, Potassium.
 Main Uranium Isotopes:
o U-238 (99.27%) – Non-fissile
o U-235 (0.72%) – Fissile, supports chain reaction
Major Uranium Deposits in India
The Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) under Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) has identified major uranium reserves in India.
State Location
 Jharkhand Jaduguda (oldest uranium mine), Bhatin, Narwapahar, Bagjata, Turamdih,
Mohuldih, Banduhurang
Andhra Pradesh Tummalapalle (largest reserve), Pulivendula, Kadapa, Lambapur, Peddagattu
Rajasthan Rohil (Sikar district)
Meghalaya Domiasiat, Wahkyn (South West Khasi Hills)
Telangana Nalgonda (Lambapur-Peddagattu), Somairpeta, Tulagudem
Karnataka Gogi (Yadgir district)
Chhattisgarh Bodal (Rajnandgaon district)
Himachal Kullu
Pradesh
 Tummalapalle Mine (Andhra Pradesh) is the largest uranium reserve in India, with
estimated 1.5 lakh tonnes of uranium.
 Jaduguda (Jharkhand) is India's first uranium mine, operational since 1967.
 Meghalaya's Domiasiat deposits were once considered India's largest but remain
underdeveloped due to local resistance.

2. Pitchblende
 Primary uranium ore containing U-238 and U-235 isotopes.

3. Thorium (Th)
 Symbol: Th, Atomic Number: 90.
 Silvery metal, tarnishes black in air.
 Weakly radioactive; all isotopes are unstable.
 Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope (accounts for nearly all natural thorium).
 Thorium is 3-4 times more abundant than uranium in Earth's crust.
 Extracted from Monazite sands (contains 2.5% thorium).
Thorium Reserves in India
 India has 10.70 million tonnes of Monazite, containing 9,63,000 tonnes of Thorium Oxide
(ThO₂).
 India holds 25% of global Thorium reserves.
Global Thorium Reserves (USGS, 2011)
Country Reserves (tonnes)
India 963,000
United States 440,000
Australia 300,000
Canada 100,000
South Africa 35,000
Brazil 16,000
Malaysia 4,500
Other Countries 90,000
World Total 1,913,000
State-wise Thorium (Monazite) Reserves in India (AMD, 2014)
State Monazite (Million tonnes)
Andhra Pradesh 3.72
Tamil Nadu 2.46
Odisha 2.41
Kerala 1.90
West Bengal 1.22
Jharkhand 0.22
Total 11.93
 Kerala's Chavara, Tamil Nadu’s Manavalakurichi, Odisha’s Gopalpur, and Andhra
Pradesh's Bhavanapadu have rich monazite sands.

India's Nuclear Power & Future Plans

 India follows a 3-stage nuclear power program to utilize its vast thorium reserves.
 Nuclear Power Plants in India:
o Tarapur (Maharashtra)
o Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu)
o Kakrapar (Gujarat)
o Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu) – Fast Breeder Reactor
o Kaiga (Karnataka)
o Rawatbhata (Rajasthan)
 Thorium-Based Reactors like AHWR (Advanced Heavy Water Reactor) are being
developed.

Key Takeaways
✔ India has vast petroleum & atomic mineral reserves crucial for energy security.
✔ Mumbai High, KG Basin, Rajasthan fields are key for petroleum production.
✔ Jaduguda (Jharkhand) and Tummalapalle (Andhra Pradesh) are major uranium reserves.
✔ India has 25% of global Thorium reserves, mostly in Monazite sands (Kerala, TN, Odisha).
✔ Thorium-based nuclear power is India's long-term energy strategy.
Other Minerals
Mineral Uses Major Deposits in India
Manganese Used in iron smelting and Found in Dharwar system rocks. Major states:
(Ferrous ferroalloys manufacturing. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha,
Minerals) Also used in batteries, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
paints, and chemicals. Jharkhand.
Bauxite Used in aluminum Major states: Odisha (Kalahandi, Koraput,
production. Found in laterite Sundargarh), Chhattisgarh (Surguja, Bilaspur,
rocks. Jashpur), Maharashtra (Kolhapur, Ratnagiri),
Gujarat (Kheda, Jamnagar), Jharkhand
(Lohardaga), Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh.
Copper Used in electrical industry Madhya Pradesh – Malajkhand (Balaghat),
(wires, motors, Bargaon (Betul). Rajasthan – Khetri (Jhunjhunu),
Kho Dariba (Alwar), Dilwara (Udaipur).
 transformers, generators), Jharkhand – Ghatshila, Musabani (East
alloying with gold and brass. Singhbhum).
Nickel Used in stainless steel, Odisha – Sukinda Valley (Cuttack).
batteries, and alloys.
Tin Used in electronics, welding, Chhattisgarh – Bastar district.
and packaging.
Tungsten Used in light bulb filaments, Rajasthan – Degana (Nagaur), Bhakri. Tamil
military applications, and Nadu – Nayakkarpatti (Madurai) (on hold).
high-strength alloys.

Non-Metallic Minerals
Mineral Uses Major Deposits in India
Mica Used in electrical and electronics Jharkhand (Koderma, Giridih), Rajasthan
industry due to heat resistance (Ajmer, Bhilwara, Jaipur), Andhra Pradesh
and insulation properties. (Nellore, Vishakhapatnam).
Limestone Used in cement industry, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra
steelmaking, and chemical Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka,
industries. Tamil Nadu.
Dolomite Used as a flux in iron and steel Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka, Gujarat,
industry and in glass & ceramics. Rajasthan.
Phosphate Used in fertilizers and chemicals. Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Jharkhand.

Transport in India
A well-integrated and efficient transport system is crucial for the sustained economic growth of a
country. India has a diverse transport network comprising railways, roads, coastal shipping, and air
transport. Over the years, the transport sector has expanded significantly in terms of network coverage
and efficiency.
Road Transport (Land Transport)
Road transport is a key infrastructure component influencing the pace and structure of development.
 India's road network: 58.98 lakh km (second-largest in the world).
 Traffic share: Roads carry 85% of passenger traffic and 70% of freight traffic annually.
 Road density: 1.94 km/sq km (higher than the U.S., China, and Russia).
 Road availability: 5.13 km per 1,000 people (lower than the U.S. but higher than China).
 Historical development:
o Before World War II, road transport was limited.
o 1934: Indian Roads Congress (IRC) formed on Jayakar Committee's
recommendation.
o 1943: First major initiative - Nagpur Plan.
o 1961: Post-independence, Twenty-Year Road Plan launched.
Types of Roads in India
Type of Road Length (km)
National Highways (NH)/Expressways 1,34,380 km
State Highways (SH) 1,54,814 km
Other Roads (District, Rural, Border, etc.) 56,08,477 km
 Total Road Length 58,97,671 km

National Highways (NH)

 Constructed and maintained by the Central Government.
 Facilitate inter-state transport and defense movement.
 Connect state capitals, major cities, ports, and railway junctions.
 Constitute 2% of total road length but carry 40% of road traffic.
State Length of NH (km)
Maharashtra 17,757
Uttar Pradesh 11,737
Rajasthan 10,342
Madhya Pradesh 8,772
Karnataka 7,335
Total India 1,32,500

National Highway Numbering System (2010)

 North-South highways: Even numbers (increase from east to west).
 East-West highways: Odd numbers (increase from north to south).
 Single/double-digit numbers: Major highways.
 Three-digit numbers: Branch highways (e.g., NH-244, NH-344).
 Suffixes (A, B, C, D): Minor spin-offs (e.g., NH-244A).

Major National Highways

1. Longest and Shortest National Highways
 Longest NH: NH 44 (Srinagar – Kanyakumari) (4,112 km) – Connects the northernmost and
southernmost parts of India.
 Shortest NH: NH 766E (Hettikeri – Belekeri Port, Karnataka) (4.27 km) – Crucial for port
connectivity.
2. Major National Highways by Route and Importance
NH Route Length Significance
No. (km)
NH Srinagar – Kanyakumari 4,112 Longest NH, connects North to South
44 India
NH Gujarat – Assam 3,507 Major east-west corridor, trade
27 connectivity
NH Delhi – Chennai 2,807 Links major cities, boosts trade &
48 tourism
NH Kolkata – Chennai 1,533 East Coast Highway, former NH-5,
16 crucial for ports
NH Mumbai – Kanyakumari 1,622 Coastal connectivity, trade, and tourism
66
NH Delhi – Kolkata 1,465 Part of Grand Trunk Road, key
19 industrial link
 NH 8 Delhi – Mumbai 1,428 Connects political and financial
capitals
NH Edappally (Kerala) – Panvel 1,269 Parallel to western coastline, aids
17 (Maharashtra) regional trade
NH Gwalior – Ranchi 650 Enhances central and eastern India’s
75 connectivity
NH 1 Delhi – Amritsar 456 Important for defense and trade in
Punjab
NH Almora – Tanakpur (Uttarakhand) 200 Supports tourism in the Himalayan
125 region
NH Kalamboli – JNPT (Maharashtra) 5 Shortest NH, key port connectivity
548
3. Other Important Highways
 NH 1: Srinagar – Leh (Crucial for strategic defense connectivity).
 NH 2: Assam – Nagaland – Manipur – Mizoram (Northeast connectivity).
 NH 3: Atari (Punjab) – Leh via Manali (Vital for Ladakh region).
 NH 4: Andaman Trunk Road (Port Blair – Diglipur, essential for island transport).
 NH 5: Firozpur (Punjab) – Shipki La (China border, strategic importance).
Key Insights
 NH 44 and NH 27 are the longest highways in north-south and east-west corridors,
respectively.
 NH 548 and NH 766E are the shortest highways, yet crucial for trade and port connectivity.
 NH 19 and NH 8 play significant roles in industrial and financial connectivity.
 NH 1, NH 3, and NH 5 hold strategic importance for defense and border security

National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)

 Established in 1995 under the Ministry of Surface Transport.
 Responsible for development, maintenance, and operation of NHs.
Major Road Development Projects
1. Golden Quadrilateral (GQ):
o Length: 5,846 km
o Connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata.
2. North-South and East-West Corridors:
o North-South Corridor: Srinagar - Kanyakumari (4,076 km)
o East-West Corridor: Silchar (Assam) - Porbandar (Gujarat) (3,640 km)
State Highways (SH)
 Maintained by state governments.
 Connect state capitals with district headquarters.
 Share in total road length: 4%.
District Roads
 Link district headquarters with other key locations.
 Share in total road length: 14%.
Rural Roads
  Provide connectivity in rural areas.
 Share in total road length: 80%.
Other Roads
 Border Roads: Built for defense and remote area connectivity.
 International Highways: Connect India with neighboring countries.
 Border Roads Organisation (BRO):
o Established in 1960 for strategic road development.
Expressways in India
Expressways are India's highest-class roads, designed for high-speed, controlled-access travel. Speed
limits are up to 120 km/h with restricted entry and exit.
Key Statistics (July 2023):
 Operational Length: 5,930 km
 Under Construction: 11,127 km
Major Expressways:
 First Expressway: Mumbai–Pune (2002)
 Longest: Delhi–Mumbai (935 km, 2023)
 Widest: Delhi–Gurgaon section of Dwarka Expressway (16 lanes, 2024)
Administration & Funding:
 NHAI & MoRTH: Oversee planning and policies.
 State Governments: Manage state expressways (e.g., Yamuna, Purvanchal).
 Funding Models:
o BOT (Toll): Private firms recover costs via tolls.
o BOT (Annuity): Government pays investors periodically.
o HAM: Cost-sharing between government & private sector.
Railways in India
Overview
 Indian Railways (IR) is the primary mode of freight and passenger transport.
 Has played a crucial role in national integration, economic growth, and industrial
development for over 165 years.
 India’s first railway line (1853): Bombay to Thane (34 km).
 Largest government undertaking in India (as per NCERT).

Rail Transport – Global Comparison

Country Total Length (km) % Electrified Ownership
United States 220,044 0.84% Mostly private
China 159,000 75.20% Nationalized
Russia 105,000 51.48% Nationalized
India 68,584 93.75% Nationalized

Railway Track Gauges in India

1. Broad Gauge (1.676 m) – 60,510 km (March 2016).
2. Metre Gauge (1.000 m) – 3,880 km (March 2016).
 3. Narrow Gauge (0.762 m or 0.610 m) – 2,297 km (March 2016) – found mostly in hilly
areas.

Railway Zones & Headquarters

Zone Headquarters Zone Headquarters
Central Mumbai South Central Secunderabad
Eastern Kolkata South Eastern Kolkata
East Coast Bhubaneshwar South East Central Bilaspur
East Central Hajipur South Western Hubbali (Hubli)
Northern New Delhi Western Mumbai
North Central Prayagraj West Central Jabalpur
North Eastern Gorakhpur Metro Railway Kolkata
Northeast Frontier Maligaon (Guwahati) Konkan Railway Navi Mumbai
North Western Jaipur

Konkan Railway (1998)

 760 km rail route connecting Roha (Maharashtra) to Mangalore (Karnataka).
 Engineering marvel: Crosses 146 rivers, 2000 bridges, 91 tunnels.
 Partners: Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka.
 Railway density is lower in hilly states, North-East, Central India, and Rajasthan.

Urban Rail Transit in India

1. Rapid Transit (Metro)
 High-speed urban transport in metropolitan cities.
 Examples: Delhi Metro, Mumbai Metro.
2. Suburban Rail
 Links cities to suburbs and integrates with Indian Railways.
 Examples: Mumbai and Chennai Suburban Rail.
3. Monorail
 Feeder service for congested areas.
 Example: Mumbai Monorail (operational since 1 Feb 2014).
4. Tram Systems
 Low-speed surface transport, operational only in Kolkata.

History of Urban Rail in India

1. First Suburban Rail (1853)
o Mumbai: Bori Bunder (now Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus) to Thane (34 km, 75
min).
o Asia’s first suburban railway.
2. First Metro System (1984)
o Kolkata Metro (Operational since 24 October 1984).
3. Delhi Metro
 o Conceptualized in 1969, construction started 1 October 1998.
o First operational line: 24 December 2002.
o Largest metro system in India (348.12 km).

India’s Metro Network (as of July 2024)

 17 operational metro systems across 17 cities.
 Total length: 939.18 km (3rd largest in the world after China and the USA).
 Management:
o Kolkata Metro – Managed by Indian Railways.
o All others – Managed by local authorities.
Operational Metro Systems in India
1. Delhi Metro (Delhi NCR)
2. Namma Metro (Bengaluru)
3. Hyderabad Metro (Hyderabad)
4. Mumbai Metro (Mumbai)
5. Kolkata Metro (Kolkata)
6. Ahmedabad Metro (Ahmedabad)
7. Chennai Metro (Chennai)
8. Nagpur Metro (Nagpur)
9. Pune Metro (Pune)
10. Noida Metro (Noida)
11. Kochi Metro (Kochi)
12. Lucknow Metro (Lucknow)
13. Rapid Metro (Gurgaon)
14. Jaipur Metro (Jaipur)
15. Navi Mumbai Metro (Navi Mumbai)
16. Kanpur Metro (Kanpur)
17. Agra Metro (Agra)

UNESCO World Heritage Railway Sites in India

1. Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (1999)
 West Bengal, known for innovative engineering in tough terrains.
2. Nilgiri Mountain Railway (2005)
 Tamil Nadu, uses a rack-and-pinion system to tackle steep gradients.
3. Kalka-Shimla Railway (2008)
 Himachal Pradesh, known for scenic views and engineering marvels.
4. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (2004)
 Mumbai, a blend of Gothic Revival and Indian architectural styles.
Water Transport in India
Inland Waterways
 Waterways were the primary mode of transport before railways but later faced competition
from road and rail.
  Diversion of river water for irrigation reduced navigability in many areas.
 India has 14,500 km of navigable waterways, contributing about 1% to transportation,
including rivers, canals, and backwaters.
 Currently, 5,685 km of major rivers are navigable by mechanized vessels.
 The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI), established in 1986, oversees the
development and regulation of national waterways.
 In 2016, 106 National Waterways (NWs) were declared under the National Waterways Act,
bringing the total to 111 NWs, spanning around 20,275.5 km for inland water transport.
National Waterways of India
Waterway Stretch Specification
NW 1 Allahabad–Haldia One of the most important waterways in India. Navigable
(1,620 km) by mechanical boats up to Patna and ordinary boats up to
Haridwar. Divided into three sections for development: (i)
Haldia–Farakka (560 km), (ii) Farakka–Patna (460 km),
(iii) Patna–Allahabad (600 km).
NW 2 Sadiya–Dhubri (891 Brahmaputra River waterway, navigable by steamers up
km) to Dibrugarh (1,384 km). Shared between India and
Bangladesh.
NW 3 Kottapuram–Kollam Includes 168 km of the West Coast Canal, along with
(205 km) Champakara Canal (14 km) and Udyogmandal Canal (23
km).
NW 4 Godavari & Krishna Covers specified stretches of the Godavari and Krishna
rivers and Kakinada- rivers along with the Kakinada–Puducherry canal system.
Puducherry canals
(1,078 km)
NW 5 Brahmani, Matai, and Covers specified stretches of the Brahmani and Matai
East Coast canals (588 rivers, delta channels of the Mahanadi and Brahmani
km) rivers, and East Coast canals.

Oceanic Routes
 India has a vast coastline of approximately 7,517 km, including islands.
 13 major ports and 217 non-major ports provide infrastructural support to oceanic routes.
 Approximately 95% of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70% by value moves through
ocean routes.
 The capacity of Indian ports increased from 20 million tonnes of cargo handling in 1951 to
over 837 million tonnes in 2016.
Major Ports of India
No. Port Name Estb. City State Cargo Handled
Year (MTPA, FY2022-23)
1 Chennai Port 1881 Chennai Tamil Nadu 51.88
2 Cochin Port 1928 Kochi Kerala 37.34
3 Deendayal Port 1965 Kandla Gujarat 129.10
(Kandla)
4 Jawaharlal Nehru Port 1988 Navi Mumbai Maharashtra 78.06
 5 Kamarajar Port 2001 Ennore Tamil Nadu 11.08
(Ennore)
6 Mormugao Port 1985 Mormugao Goa 19.57
7 Mumbai Port 1873 Mumbai Maharashtra 62.08
8 New Mangalore Port 1974 Mangaluru Karnataka 36.65
9 Paradip Port 1966 Paradeep Odisha 148.75
10 Kolkata Port Trust 1977 Haldia West Bengal 107.77
11 Syama Prasad 1870 Kolkata West Bengal 66.41
Mookerjee Port
12 Visakhapatnam Port 1933 Visakhapatnam Andhra 67.43
Pradesh
13 V. O. Chidambaranar 1974 Thoothukkudi Tamil Nadu 52.33
Port

Major Indian Ports Overview

Mumbai Port
 Natural harbour and largest port of India.
 Strategically located near Middle East, Mediterranean, North America, and Europe trade
routes.
 Handles petroleum, chemicals, and containerized cargo.
Kandla (Deendayal) Port
 Located in the Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat.
 Developed to cater to western and northwestern India and to reduce pressure on Mumbai
Port.
 Handles petroleum, fertilizers, and crude oil imports.
 Offshore terminal at Vadinar reduces congestion.
Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva)
 Largest container port in India.
 Developed as a satellite port to ease congestion at Mumbai Port.
Marmagao Port (Goa)
 Natural harbour at Zuari estuary.
 Major iron ore export hub for Japan and other countries.
 Hinterland: Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
New Mangalore Port (Karnataka)
 Handles iron ore, petroleum products, edible oils, coffee, and fertilisers.
 Karnataka is the major hinterland.
Cochin Port (Kerala)
 Natural harbour, known as the Queen of the Arabian Sea.
 Strategic location near the Suez-Colombo route.
Kolkata Port
 Located on the Hooghly River, 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal.
 One of India's oldest ports, developed by the British.
 Faces siltation issues, affecting navigability.
  Serves Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Northeast India.
 Also caters to Nepal and Bhutan.
Haldia Port (West Bengal)
 Constructed 105 km downstream from Kolkata to reduce congestion.
 Handles iron ore, coal, petroleum, fertilisers, jute, and cotton.
Paradip Port (Odisha)
 Deepest harbour in India.
 Specially designed for large iron-ore exports.
 Hinterland: Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand.
Visakhapatnam Port (Andhra Pradesh)
 Land-locked harbour, connected to the sea by a man-made channel.
 Outer harbour handles iron ore, petroleum, and cargo.
 Serves Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Chennai Port (Tamil Nadu)
 Artificial harbour built in 1859.
 Shallow waters restrict large ships.
 Hinterland: Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.
Ennore Port (Tamil Nadu)
 Developed 25 km north of Chennai to reduce its burden.
Tuticorin (V.O. Chidambaranar) Port
 Handles coal, salt, food grains, chemicals, and petroleum products.
 Developed to ease pressure on Chennai Port.

Sagarmala Programme
 Launched on March 25, 2015, to boost port-led development.
 Aims to reduce logistics costs for domestic and EXIM cargo.
 Utilizes India's 7,517 km coastline and 14,500 km navigable waterways.
 Linked with Make in India and Bharatmala for trade efficiency.
Air Transport
 Air transport is the fastest mode of travel, significantly reducing distances and travel time.
 It is crucial for India's vast and diverse terrain and climatic conditions.
 The Airports Authority of India (AAI) oversees air traffic management and aeronautical
communication in Indian airspace.
History of Indian Aviation
 1911 – First air transport service in India started between Allahabad and Naini.
 1947 – Air services were operated by four major companies: Indian National Airways, Tata
Sons, Air Services of India, and Deccan Airways.
 1951 – Four more companies joined: Bharat Airways, Himalayan Aviation, Airways India,
and Kalinga Airlines.
 1953 – Air transport was nationalized, forming Air India International (for international
flights) and Indian Airlines (for domestic flights).
 2007 – Indian Airlines merged with Air India; now operates as Air India.
Oil and Gas Pipelines
Pipelines are the most efficient way to transport crude oil, petroleum products, and natural gas
over long distances.
 Oil India Limited (OIL), under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, manages oil
and gas transportation.
 India has an extensive pipeline network connecting major oilfields, refineries, and
consumption centers.
Major Pipelines in India
1. Mumbai High–Mumbai–Ankleshwar–Koyali Pipeline
 Connects Mumbai High oilfields and Gujarat refineries (Koyali).
 Includes a 210 km double pipeline linking Mumbai with offshore oilfields.
 The Ankleshwar–Koyali segment (completed in 1965) transports crude oil to Koyali
refinery.
2. Salaya–Koyali–Mathura Pipeline
 Connects Salaya (Gujarat) to Mathura (U.P.) via Viramgam.
 1,256 km long, supplies crude oil to refineries at Koyali and Mathura.
 Extended to Panipat (Haryana) and Jalandhar (Punjab).
3. Naharkatia–Numaligarh–Barauni Pipeline
 India’s first cross-country crude oil pipeline, also Asia’s first.
 1,167 km long, connects Naharkatia oilfield (Assam) to Numaligarh (Assam) and
Barauni (Bihar).
 Later extended to Kanpur (U.P.).
 Constructed by Oil India Limited (OIL).
4. Mundra–Panipat (Kandla–Bhatinda) Pipeline
 India’s largest oil pipeline, started in 1993 and operational since 1996.
 1,443 km long, capacity of 6 million tonnes per year.
 Owned by Indian Oil Corporation (IOC).
5. Hazira–Bijapur–Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline
 India’s first inter-state natural gas pipeline.
 Built by Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL).
 1,750 km long, connects Hazira (Gujarat) to Bijapur (M.P.) and Jagdishpur (U.P.).
 Supplies 18 million cubic meters of gas per day to power plants and fertilizer units.
Agriculture in India
1. Agriculture as a Primary Activity
 Agriculture includes crop cultivation, horticulture, and livestock rearing.
 Globally, 50% of people depend on agriculture, while in India, two-thirds of the population
rely on it.
 Factors like soil, climate, and topography are crucial for agriculture.
 Arable land is land suitable for farming.
2. Characteristics of Indian Agriculture
 Monsoon Dependency: About 50-60% of farmland relies on rainfall, making agriculture
vulnerable to droughts and floods.
 Subsistence Farming: Most farmers grow crops for self-consumption.
  Food Crop Dominance: Major crops include rice, wheat, and pulses.
 Small & Fragmented Landholdings: Due to inheritance laws, land is divided, reducing
productivity.
 Traditional Farming Methods: Many farmers still use old techniques.
 Low Productivity: Due to outdated technology and poor irrigation.
 Diverse Cropping Patterns: Different climates allow for varied crops (e.g., rice in humid
areas, wheat in temperate zones).
3. Crop Intensity in India
 Definition: The number of crops grown per year on a piece of land.
 India’s Average: 140-150% (1.4-1.5 crops per year).
 Regional Variations:
o High: Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh (better irrigation).
o Low: Rajasthan and central India (rainfed areas).
 Factors Influencing Crop Intensity:
o Irrigation: More water availability increases multiple cropping.
o Soil Fertility: Rich soil supports intensive farming.
o Climate: Long growing seasons allow more crops.
4. Types of Farming in India
 Rainfed Farming:
o Dryland Farming: In areas with less than 75 cm rainfall (e.g., ragi, bajra, gram).
o Wetland Farming: In areas with excessive rainfall (risk of floods, soil erosion).
5. Major Crops in India
Foodgrains
 Cereals (54% of cropped area): India ranks 3rd in global cereal production.
 Pulses (11% of cropped area): Important for protein intake, mostly grown in drylands.
Crops in India by Season
Season Sowing Harvesting Major Crops
Period Period
Rabi (Winter October - March - April Wheat, Barley, Gram, Mustard, Peas,
Crops) December Lentils
Kharif June - July September - Rice, Maize, Bajra, Jowar, Cotton, Jute,
(Monsoon October Sugarcane, Groundnut, Soybean, Tur
Crops) (Arhar)
Zaid (Summer March - June May - July Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Bitter
Crops) gourd, Pumpkin, Fodder crops
Explanation of Cropping Seasons in India
1. Rabi Season (Winter Crops)
o Sown in winter (October - December) and harvested in spring (March - April).
o Requires cooler climate for growth and warm climate for ripening.
o Mostly irrigated crops as they rely less on monsoon rainfall.
o Major producing states: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Bihar.
o Examples: Wheat, Barley, Gram, Mustard, Peas, Lentils.
 2. Kharif Season (Monsoon Crops)
o Sown with the arrival of monsoon (June - July) and harvested in September -
October.
o Requires hot and humid climate with abundant rainfall.
o Major producing states: West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh.
o Examples: Rice, Maize, Bajra, Jowar, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Groundnut,
Soybean, Tur (Arhar).
3. Zaid Season (Summer Crops)
o Grown in summer months (March - June) between Rabi and Kharif seasons.
o Requires high temperature and longer day duration for growth.
o Mostly short-duration crops that need irrigation.
o Major producing states: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
o Examples: Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Bitter gourd, Pumpkin, Fodder
crops.
Crops in India: Key Details and Production
1. Rice
 Rice is the staple food for the majority of India's population.
 India ranks second in global rice production after China, contributing 21.6% to the world’s
total (2016).
 About one-fourth of India's total cropped area is under rice cultivation.
 In West Bengal, three rice crops are grown: Aus, Aman, and Boro.
 In the Himalayan region and northwestern India, rice is cultivated as a kharif crop during
the southwest monsoon.
Top Rice-Producing States in India
Rank State Production (Million Tonnes)
1 West Bengal 15.75
2 Uttar Pradesh 12.50
3 Punjab 11.82
2. Wheat
 Wheat is India's second most important cereal crop after rice.
 India contributes 12.3% to the world's total wheat production (2016).
 A rabi crop, primarily grown in winter due to its temperate climate requirements.
 Covers 14% of India's total cropped area.
 Major producing states: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan.
 Punjab and Haryana have high yields (above 4,000 kg/ha), while Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, and Bihar have moderate yields.
Top Wheat-Producing States in India
Rank State Production (% of National Total)
1 Uttar Pradesh 32.42%
2 Madhya Pradesh 16.08%
3 Punjab 15.65%
3. Pulses
  Pulses are a vital source of protein, particularly in vegetarian diets.
 Legume crops that enhance soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.
 India is a global leader in pulse production.
 Mainly grown in dryland regions like the Deccan Plateau, Central Plateau, and
Northwestern India.
 Cover 11% of India's total cropped area.
 Since pulses are mostly rainfed, yields are low and fluctuate yearly.
 Major varieties: Gram (Chana) and Tur (Arhar).
 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in pulses: Azotobacter, Clostridium, Rhizobium, Frankia,
Anabaena, Nostoc.
4. Shree Anna (Millets)
 Millets are drought-resistant, highly nutritious grains grown in arid and semi-arid
regions.
 Known as "Shree Anna", highlighting their cultural and nutritional significance.
 Major millets in India:
o Jowar (Sorghum)
o Bajra (Pearl Millet)
o Ragi (Finger Millet)
o Foxtail Millet, Kodo Millet, Proso Millet, Barnyard Millet, Little Millet
 2023 was the International Year of Millets, with India leading the global initiative.
5. Fibre Crops
 Provide fibres for making clothing, bags, and sacks.
 Major fibre crops: Cotton and Jute.
Cotton
 A tropical kharif crop grown in semi-arid regions.
 India lost significant cotton-growing areas to Pakistan during Partition, but acreage has
since increased.
 Grows both:
o Short staple (Indian) cotton
o Long staple (American) cotton called ‘Narma’ in Northwest India.
 Requires a clear sky during the flowering stage.
6. Other Crops
Coffee
 A tropical plantation crop, mainly grown in hilly regions.
 Three varieties: Arabica, Robusta, Liberica.
 India mainly produces Arabica, which has high international demand.
 India contributes 3.7% to global coffee production (2016), ranking 7th after Brazil, Vietnam,
Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia, and Honduras.
 Grown mainly in the Western Ghats:
o Karnataka (over two-thirds of total production).
o Kerala
o Tamil Nadu
Tea
  A plantation crop used for beverages.
 Black tea is fermented, while green tea is unfermented.
 Contains caffeine and tannin.
 Native to Northern China, introduced in India during British rule.
 Grows best in hilly, well-drained areas in humid/sub-humid climates.
 First tea plantations started in Assam (1840s) and later in Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, and
Cooch Behar (West Bengal).
 Also grown in the Nilgiri and Cardamom hills.
 Assam contributes 53.2% of total tea acreage and more than half of India's production.
Green Revolution
 Period: 1960s–1970s
 Key Figure: Norman Borlaug (Global), M.S. Swaminathan (India)
 Impact: Increased food grain production (mainly wheat & rice), made India self-sufficient in
food.
 Failures: Regional imbalance, environmental degradation, widened wealth gap among
farmers.
White Revolution
 Launched: 1970 (NDDB)
 Key Figure: Dr. Verghese Kurien (Amul)
 Impact: India became the largest milk producer globally, surpassing the USA in 1998.
Blue Revolution
 Period: 1970s–1990s
 Key Figure: Dr. Hiralal Chaudhuri
 Impact: Boosted fisheries & aquaculture, improving fish production.
Major Agricultural Revolutions
Revolution Focus Area
Yellow Oilseeds (mustard, groundnut)
Brown Coffee, cocoa, non-conventional crops
Golden Horticulture (fruits, vegetables)
Silver Egg & poultry production
Pink Meat production (poultry, goat)
Purple Aromatic crops (lavender)

INDUSTRIES
Definition & Features:
 Industries involve producing goods, extracting minerals, or providing services.
 They are part of secondary activities, converting raw materials into valuable products (e.g.,
pulp to paper, cotton to cloth).
Factors Affecting Location of Industries
1. Raw Materials:
o Weight-losing industries (sugar mills, pulp, copper smelting) locate near raw
material sources.
 o Iron & steel plants locate near coalfields (e.g., Bokaro, Durgapur) or iron ore
sources (e.g., Bhilai, Rourkela).
2. Power:
o Essential for industries like aluminium and synthetic nitrogen manufacturing, which
are power-intensive.
3. Market:
o Heavy machinery & chemicals locate near high-demand areas.
o Cotton textile industries are found in urban centers (e.g., Mumbai, Ahmedabad).
o Oil refineries are near markets for easy crude oil transport (e.g., Mathura, Barauni).
4. Transport:
o Railways facilitated industrial expansion; major industries lie along trunk rail routes.
5. Labour:
o India’s vast population ensures mobile and skilled labour availability.
6. Historical Factors:
o Colonial-era industrial centers: Murshidabad, Dhaka, Surat, Vadodara, etc.
7. Industrial Agglomeration:
o Alfred Weber's theory highlights clustering of industries for cost efficiency.

Iron and Steel Industry in India

Early Developments:
 First attempt: Porto Novo, Tamil Nadu (1830, unsuccessful).
 First success: Bengal Iron Works, Kulti, WB (1874, later IISCO in 1918).
 First large-scale plant: TISCO (1907) in Sakchi (now Jamshedpur).
Post-Independence Growth:
 Second Five-Year Plan:
o Rourkela (Odisha) – German assistance.
o Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) – Russian assistance.
o Durgapur (WB) – UK assistance.
 Bokaro Steel Plant (1964) – Russian collaboration.
 Steel Authority of India (SAIL) – 1973.
Fourth Five-Year Plan Expansion:
 New plants in Salem (TN), Vijayanagar (Karnataka), Paradip (Odisha), Visakhapatnam
(AP - first port-based plant).
Key Steel Plants & Their Features:
 TISCO (Jamshedpur): Iron ore from Noamundi, coal from Jharia, water from Subarnarekha
& Kharkai rivers.
 Bhilai (Chhattisgarh): Iron ore from Dalli-Rajhara, power from Korba Thermal Station.
 Rourkela (Odisha): Coal from Jharia, iron ore from Sundargarh & Kendujhar.
 Durgapur (West Bengal): Near Raniganj & Jharia coalfields.
 Visvesvaraya (Karnataka): Uses hydroelectricity from Jog Falls, no local coal source.
 Vizag (AP): India’s first port-based steel plant (1992).

Cotton Textile Industry

Historical Background
 One of the oldest industries in India.
 India’s traditional cotton fabrics: Muslin (Dhaka), Chintz (Masulipatnam), Calicos
(Calicut).
 Industrial Revolution shifted textile production to Manchester (Cottonopolis), while India
became a raw cotton supplier.
 The first cotton mill in India was established in 1818 at Fort Gloster near Calcutta but it
was a commercial failure.
 The second cotton mill in India was established by KGN Daber in 1854 and was named
Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company.
Factors Favoring the Industry
1. Raw Material: India is a major producer of cotton (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil
Nadu, MP).
2. Climate: Warm and humid conditions favor cotton processing.
3. Labour: Availability of skilled and unskilled workers.
4. Market Demand: High domestic and international demand.
5. Power Supply: Mills located near hydropower sources.
6. Transport & Ports: Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata act as export hubs.
Major Centers
 Mumbai (Manchester of India)
 Ahmedabad (Manchester of East India)
 Coimbatore (Manchester of South India)
 Kanpur, Surat, Kolkata, Indore, Ludhiana

City State Title/Nickname

Ahmedabad Gujarat Boston of the East
Mumbai Maharashtra Cotton City of India, cottonopolis of india, Manchester of
the East
Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Manchester of South India
Surat Gujarat Silk City of India, Textile City of India
Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Manchester of North India
Ludhiana Punjab Manchester of Punjab
Indore Madhya Mini Mumbai (for trade, including textiles)
Pradesh
Solapur Maharashtra Towel City of India

Government Initiatives
 Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme (TUFS).
 National Textile Policy (2000).
 Mega Textile Parks under PM MITRA scheme.

Aluminium Industry
Significance
  2nd most important metallurgical industry after steel.
 Used in aviation, automobiles, packaging, railways, construction.
 India is the 2nd largest aluminium producer (2024, PIB).
Raw Material – Bauxite
 Main bauxite reserves: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.
 Bauxite to Aluminium conversion: 4-5 tonnes of bauxite → 2 tonnes of alumina → 1 tonne
of aluminium.
Major Aluminium Plants
Location Company State
Korba BALCO Chhattisgarh
Angul NALCO Odisha
Renukoot Hindalco UP
Mettur MALCO Tamil Nadu
Hirakud Hindalco Odisha
Jharsuguda Vedanta Odisha