Parent and teacher perceptions of communication and

language development of toddlers

by

Shezeen Suleman

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS

in the

Department of Early Childhood Education

Faculty of Education

University of Pretoria

SUPERVISOR:

Dr Keshni Bipath

Pretoria

August 2019
 DECLARATION

I, Shezeen Suleman, hereby declares that this dissertation, “Parent and teacher
perceptions of communication and language development of toddlers”, is submitted
in accordance with the requirements for the M. Ed Early Childhood Education degree
at University of Pretoria. It is my own original work and has not previously been
submitted to any other institution of higher learning. All sources cited or quoted in
this research paper are indicated and acknowledged with a comprehensive list of
references.

Shezeen Suleman

August 2019

i
ii
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this research study to my parents who always believed in me and made all
of this possible. Thank you for your unwavering support and encouragement and for
helping me to believe in myself when my spirits were low. I can hardly describe how
blessed I am to have you both as my parents. My love and respect for you are never-
ending and I am infinitely grateful for all that you do for me. To me, you are both
perfect.

Mummy, I sincerely cannot thank you enough for the days when you comforted me
and the nights you sat up with me as I worked on this project. There are no limits to
my appreciation for your own sacrifices. You encouraged and empowered me to
believe in myself. There is no one else I would rather be like than you.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to extend my gratitude to the following people who have supported me

throughout my studies and for assisting me in completing my thesis:

Special thanks go to my parents, Nasreen and Iqbal Suleman, to whom I am

indebted for their never-ending and unconditional love and support, and for always
keeping me strong. Thank you so much for always believing in my potential and
never letting me settle for less. Thank you for being my inspirational mentors who
provided me with the strength, knowledge and perseverance that I needed to
complete this study.

My siblings Shaazmeen, Shariq and Nabeela: Thank you for being so patient
throughout my studies and supporting me. Thank you, Shaaz, for always cheering
me up whenever my motivation began to wane.

My career role model, Nerosha: Thank you for keeping me company through these
years, and for providing the caramel popcorn while we figured how to approach the
next phase.

My friends, Ayesha and Megan: Thank you for allowing me to vent my frustrations
and always making sure that I take a break whenever I needed it most.

My supervisor, Doctor Keshni Bipath: Thank you very much for giving me this
prized opportunity to gain experience in the field of Early Childhood Education. I
appreciate all your guidance, advice, motivation and support; you truly went beyond
the call of duty in assisting me.

My dearest fiancé, Muhammed: This research has finally ended. I cherish the
support you gave me through all the good and bad times. I look forward to writing
many chapters with you as we write our lives together… “You mustn’t be afraid to
dream a little bigger, darling!”

“We’ve always defined ourselves by the ability to overcome the impossible.”

iv
 DECLARATION BY EDITOR

This is to testify that I, JS Wium (B.A. Hons Linguistics, UP, and Certificate: Editing
Practices), edited the following dissertation paying close attention to all linguistic
components of the original text. No edits were made to change the meaning of any
sentences or passages written by the author.

PARENT AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF COMMUNICATION AND

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF TODDLERS

by Shezeen Suleman

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

Magister Educationis

at the Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria.

Please note:
i) Where referring to age or years, numbers below 10 were kept in number format;

ii) To preserve the integrity of the raw data, transcribed quotations in Chapter 4
received minimal editing.

Signed
…………………………………

Date 26 August 2019

…………………………………

v
 ABSTRACT

Early childhood development is a crucial factor in determining the later successes in

a toddler’s life. The active involvement of parents and teachers provide toddlers with
the support and confidence to use language effectively early in their lives, which
strengthens future development and communicative skills. In reality, parents and
teachers often neglect opportunities to provide the support that toddlers rely on for
their cognitive growth. Toddlers exposed to risk conditions – such as a lack of adult
knowledge, education and stimulation – are likely to experience a language delay.
Other influential factors include the levels of adults' education and families' socio-
economic statuses. Six cases (toddlers) comprised the study's focal centre and were
observed in their learning environments by the researcher. The parents and teachers
of these toddlers captured photographs and agreed to be interviewed to share their
perceptions of toddlers' developmental prowess. Thematic analysis of the obtained
data enabled the formulation of themes and subthemes that were instrumental to the
research questions and subsequent findings. Conclusions were based on similarities
and differences with existing literature and data. The study participants – six parents
of the toddlers (study cases) and three teachers at ECD centres – were aware that
they are the toddlers' primary guides of communication and language development,
and that they need to continually support and stimulate their toddlers to ensure
progress. Although some participants' teaching styles and views differed from others,
each displayed abilities to nurture their children's innate yearning to learn about
languages and communication. The study finds that toddlers benefit most when they
are in the company of responsive adults who encourage them to learn new words
and sentences in a variety of stimulating and joyful ways. It is vital too that parents
and teachers have access to information that relates to effective ways of supporting
children in their quest to become capable communicators.

Key Terms: Communication, Early childhood, Language development, Toddler.

vi
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

CDS Child-Directed Speech

DBE Department of Basic Education

DHET Department of Higher Education and Training

DoH Department of Health

DSD Department of Social Development

ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education

ECD Early Childhood Development

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

ICT Information and Communications Technology

LoLT Language of Learning and Teaching

Policy of Minimum Requirements for Programme Leading to

MRQECCE Qualifications in Higher Education for Early Childhood
Development Educators
NCF National Curriculum Framework

NDP National Development Plan

NELDS National Early Learning and Development Standards

NPC The National Planning Commission

NPO Non-Profit Organisations

NQF National Qualifications Framework

PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study

RNCS Revised National Curriculum Statement

ZPD Zone of proximal development

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration................................................................................................................................... i

Clearance certificate ................................................................................................................... ii

Dedication .................................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... iv

Declaration by editor ................................................................................................................... v

Abstract...................................................................................................................................... vi

List of abbreviations .................................................................................................................. vii

List of tables ............................................................................................................................. xiii

List of figures ........................................................................................................................... xiv

1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF STUDY ................................................... 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 2

1.2 RATIONALE ........................................................................................................... 3

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................................ 5

1.4 PURPOSE STATEMENT AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................ 7

1.4.1 Main research question.................................................................................... 8

1.4.2 Secondary research questions ......................................................................... 9

1.5 CLARIFICATION OF KEY CONCEPTS .................................................................. 9

1.6 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 10

1.6.1 Parent and toddler interaction and communication ........................................ 10

1.6.2 Teacher and toddler communication and interaction ...................................... 11

1.6.3 Communication and language development globally ..................................... 11

1.6.4 Communication and language development nationally .................................. 11

1.7 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................. 12

1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...................................................... 13

1.8.1 Research design ............................................................................................ 13

viii
 1.8.2 Research paradigm........................................................................................ 14

1.8.3 Research method .......................................................................................... 15

1.9 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 20

2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................. 21

2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 22

2.2 EMERGENT CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................ 23

2.2.1 Vygotsky’s theory bordering communication and language development....... 23

2.2.2 The zone of proximal development ................................................................ 24

2.3 COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ...................................... 25

2.3.1 Communication and language development globally ..................................... 25

2.3.2 Communication and language development nationally .................................. 30

2.4 PARENT INTERACTION WITH TODDLER .......................................................... 31

2.4.1 Toddlers' acquisition of listening as a basic literacy skill................................. 31

2.4.2 Toddlers' acquisition of speaking as a basic literacy skill ............................... 32

2.4.3 Toddlers' acquisition of meaning making as a basic literacy skill .................... 33

2.5 REQUIRED TRAINING FOR TEACHERS' ABILITY TO INTERACT WITH TODDLERS ... 34

2.6 TODDLER INTERACTION WITH PARENTS AND TEACHERS ........................... 36

2.6.1 Listening as a skill to be nurtured by parents and teachers ............................ 36

2.6.2 Speaking as a skill to be nurtured by parents and teachers ........................... 36

2.6.3 Meaning making as a skill to be nurtured by parents and teachers ................ 38

2.7 FACTORS THAT AFFECT COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ....... 39

2.7.1 Enhancement of language through responsive adults .................................... 39

2.7.2 Technology, communication and language development ............................... 40

2.7.3 Guided participation focusing on communication and language development 41

2.7.4 Factors effecting communication and language development through listening,

speaking and meaning making..................................................................................... 42

2.8 STRATEGIES FOR PARENTS AND TEACHERS TO SUPPORT TODDLERS IN

EXPRESSING THEMSELVES ........................................................................................ 49

2.8.1 Building relationships ..................................................................................... 49

ix
 2.8.2 Responding and taking turns with toddlers ..................................................... 49

2.8.3 Responding to non-verbal communication ..................................................... 50

2.8.4 Using self-talk and parallel talk ...................................................................... 50

2.8.5 Talking often while using a rich and varied vocabulary ................................... 50

2.8.6 Using joint attention strategies ....................................................................... 51

2.8.7 Using the 4 E’s approach ............................................................................... 51

2.8.8 Using semantically responsive talk ................................................................ 52

2.8.9 Using child-directed speech ........................................................................... 52

2.8.10 Reading, singing, using finger plays and social games .................................. 53

2.9 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 53

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 55

3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 56

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................... 57

3.2.1 Multiple case study methodology ................................................................... 57

3.2.2 Selection of sites............................................................................................ 58

3.2.3 Selection of participants ................................................................................. 59

3.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD.................................................................. 59

3.4 RESEARCH PARADIGM ...................................................................................... 61

3.5 DATA GENERATION INSTRUMENTS AND PROCESS....................................... 62

3.5.1 Visual method ................................................................................................ 63

3.5.2 Individual interviews as a data generation method ......................................... 66

3.5.3 Observations as a data generation method.................................................... 68

3.5.4 The use of field notes..................................................................................... 69

3.6 DATA-ANALYSING TECHNIQUES ...................................................................... 69

3.7 TRUSTWORTHINESS .......................................................................................... 71

3.7.1 Research quality ............................................................................................ 72

3.8 ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER ............................................................................ 73

3.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 73

x
 3.10 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 75

4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ............................................................................ 76

4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 77

4.2 MOVING FROM CONTENT TO THEMATIC ANALYSIS....................................... 78

4.3 THEMATIC STAGES OF ANALYSIS .................................................................... 79

4.4 PARTICIPANTS AND DATA GATHERING ........................................................... 82

4.4.1 Description of cases....................................................................................... 84

4.5 RESULTS OF THE THEMATIC ANALYSIS .......................................................... 87

4.6 THEMES AND SUBTHEMES ............................................................................... 88

4.6.1 Theme 1: Factors that enhance communication and language development . 89

4.6.2 Theme 2: Parent interaction with toddler ........................................................ 99

4.6.3 Theme 3: Teacher interaction with toddler ................................................... 103

4.6.4 Theme 4: Toddler interaction with parent and teacher ................................. 107

4.7 INTERPRETATION OF MAIN FINDINGS ........................................................... 114

4.7.1 Participant responses connected to Vygotsky’s theories .............................. 116

4.8 SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 118

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................ 120

5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 121

5.2 LITERATURE CONTROL SUPPORTING THE RESEARCH RESULTS ............. 121

5.3 LITERATURE IN CONTRADICTION TO THE RESEARCH RESULTS ............... 129

5.4 UNIQUE INSIGHTS TO HAVE EMERGED FROM THE DATA ........................... 131

5.5 RESPONSES TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS ..................................................... 133

5.5.1 Secondary research questions ..................................................................... 133

5.5.2 Main research question................................................................................ 140

5.6 INTERPRETATION THROUGH CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ........................ 142

5.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 144

5.8 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 146

5.8.1 Recommendations for the Department of Basic Education .......................... 148

xi
 5.8.2 Recommendations for the departments of Social Development and of Health ........ 148

5.8.3 Strategies to support and promote communication and language development

of toddlers .................................................................................................................. 148

5.8.4 Recommendations for further studies and research topics ........................... 150

5.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS ................................................................................. 151

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 152

ADDENDUM 1 ........................................................................................................................161

ADDENDUM 2 ........................................................................................................................162

ADDENDUM 3 ........................................................................................................................165

ADDENDUM 4 ........................................................................................................................166

ADDENDUM 5 ........................................................................................................................168

ADDENDUM 6 ........................................................................................................................170

ADDENDUM 7 ........................................................................................................................171

ADDENDUM 8 ........................................................................................................................172

xii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Applied characteristics and relevance of qualitative research ................................. 60

Table 3.2: Summative table of data gathering instruments ....................................................... 69

Table 3.3: The data analysis process ...................................................................................... 70

Table 4.1: Keys used in the analysis ........................................................................................ 78

Table 4.2: Research participants and cases ............................................................................ 82

Table 4.3: Profiles of the three teacher participants ................................................................. 82

Table 4.4: Profiles of the six cases ........................................................................................... 83

Table 4.5: Profiles of the three parent participants .................................................................. 83

Table 4.6: Summary of themes and subthemes ...................................................................... 88

Table 4.7: Summary of parents' and teachers' perceptions ................................................... 114

Table 5.1: Existing literature comparisons with results of this research .................................. 121

Table 5.2: Study findings that contradict existing literature ..................................................... 130

Table 5.3: Ideas and suggestions to promote communicative development .......................... 149

xiii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Development theories ............................................................................................ 12

Figure 1.2: Data generation strategy ........................................................................................ 17

Figure 3.1: Elements of data generation................................................................................... 62

Figure 3.2: Multiple case study research triangulation .............................................................. 72

Figure 4.1: Stages of content analysis ..................................................................................... 78

Figure 4.2: Prominent themes that emerged during data analysis ............................................ 81

Figure 4.3: Flat screen television in Playroom 3 ....................................................................... 90

Figure 4.4 & 4.5: Toddlers singing and dancing ...................................................................... 92

Figure 4.6: Ethan playing guitar .............................................................................................. 96

Figure 4.7: Social interaction between assistants and toddlers ................................................ 96

Figure 4.8: Assistants talking to toddlers ................................................................................. 96

Figure 4.9: Toddler busy with a Wacky Box activity ..................................................................97

Figure 4.10: Toddler playing in the mud ................................................................................... 98

Figure 4.11: Vinolia and her sister hugging ........................................................................... 108

Figure 4.12: Nolan pointing ................................................................................................... 112

Figure 4.13: Ethan pretending to ride his father’s motorbike .................................................. 114

Figure 4.14, 4.15 & 4.16: Three pictures presented to participants ........................................ 117

Figure 5.1: Illustration of families promoting communication ................................................. 147

xiv
 Chapter 1:
1INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF STUDY

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Problem
RATIONALE

PROBLEM STATEMENT

PURPOSE STATEMENT

Main research question:

How do parents and teacher

perceive the communication
and language development
of toddlers?
Data
generation LITERATURE REVIEW

Multiple case
Research design studies

Research paradigm Interpretivism

Results Research method

 Photovoice and
interviews
 Observations
 Thematic
analysis

Qualitativ
e

1
1.1 INTRODUCTION

The acquisition of language is one of the most astonishing achievements to occur

during early childhood. Children master the sound system and grammatical aspects
of their languages by the age of 5, acquiring a vocabulary that may comprise
thousands of words in the process (Hoff, 2009). Toddlers are able to advance from
hesitant single words to fluent sentences within a matter of months, and can
increase their vocabulary rapidly by adding about six new words per day without any
explicit instructions (Johnston, 2010). Early childhood years are crucial in a child’s
communication and language development. According to the National Curriculum
Framework’s guidelines for children from birth to 4 years old (DBE, 2015), adults
need to make a special effort to listen to their children and to interpret what they say
– and respond to it – if they want to guide toddlers to become good communicators.
As children develop their communication skills largely through imitation, adults need
to model such good communication habits for them.

With the introduction of the Policy of Minimum Requirements for Programmes

Leading to Qualifications in Higher Education for Early Childhood Development
Educators (MRQECCE) (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2017),
attention was given to the importance of training ECCE teachers for communication
and language development of young children. Communication and language
development of toddlers is, therefore, an exciting field for research.

The primary purpose of language is communication. Ideally, communication involves

the learning all forms of languages and applying them in communication from the
early stages onwards. Children progress in communication during the toddler phase
through babbling, using keywords and expanding their vocabulary continuously.
They are exposed to the written language from infancy by seeing McDonald’s or
Kentucky Fried Chicken signs and the writing on cereal boxes, for instance.
Children’s adeptness with written languages relates to the degree that their
parents/practitioners/teachers expose them to printed texts and experiential learning
through oral reading sessions (Johnston, 2010; Law, Charlton, Dockrell, Gascoigne,
McKean & Theakston, 2017). As their vocabularies enlarge, toddlers can progress to
forming complex sentences that uncover their literacy skills. Skilled guidance in the
effective use of language from an early age will secure the level of communication

2
skills needed to thrive academically and socially in the future (O’Carroll & Hickman,
2012). This study seeks to understand the perspectives of parents and teachers in
communication and language development of young children.

Language delay, characterised by late developmental milestone achievements,

affects 5–8% of children, aged 4 to 5 (Ukoumunne, Wake, Carlin, Bavin, Lum, Skeat,
Williams, Conway, Cini & Reilly, 2012). A study on language development,
conducted with children between the ages of 8 months to 4 years, concluded that
notably high levels of maternal education, vocabulary and socio-economic status
influence children’s language development. It further indicates that children from
socially advantaged backgrounds are likely to have reached higher levels of
language development in comparison to children from disadvantaged backgrounds
(Law et al., 2010; Michael, 2013; Ukoumunne et al., 2012).

According to Michael (2013), early care and education professionals recognise that
parental involvement in communication and language development strengthens a
child’s communicative prowess during the years before they enter school. Several
households, however, lack an understanding of the types of experience they should
provide. Their children, consequently, lose the opportunity to become sufficiently
adept at using languages before entering school.

1.2 RATIONALE

Various research studies have been conducted regarding teachers’ perspectives of

language development; this element also lies at the core of this study. Some studies
centred on the relationship between teachers’ and parents’ understanding of
communication and language development and young children’s language
development. The results indicated that interaction between parents, teachers and
toddlers directly enhanced children’s communication and language development
(Otto, 2014).

Early childhood teachers, therefore, play vital roles in providing opportunities for
toddlers to develop their language competencies by establishing learning
environments suited to language contexts. A toddler’s language development, for
instance, could be encouraged by a teacher’s understanding of the importance of

3
verbal interaction. This situation illuminates the importance of parents as children’s
first teachers of language and communication methods.

Unfortunately, a lack of policies, research and examples for effective language

development exists in many countries. English, generally, is valued in non-English
speaking countries. Such countries may perceive English as a route to advanced
living (Henning, 2012; Li & Rao, 2005). In South Africa, with its diverse population
and multilingual society, policies regarding the languages of learning and teaching
are still being contested (Atmore, Van Niekerk & Ashley-Cooper, 2012).

Considering my interactions with relatives who have young children, I concur with
Rvachew (2010) who states that limited education, parental knowledge and
stimulation can negatively affect a toddler’s acquisition of communicative skills,
resulting in academic delays. Awareness of language development thus ought to be
nurtured in the public’s consciousness. A parent’s knowledge, teaching methods and
financial resources concerning their toddler’s development may differ from those
close to them, depending on the respective ways their parents raised them.

The title of this study, Parent and teacher perceptions of communication and
language development of toddlers, signifies the insight of parents’ and teachers’
views of exposure to various instruments, activities and experiences that may
enhance a toddler’s communication and language development (amongst other
factors). By instigating the initial processes of acquiring knowledge that may assist
parents and teachers in the future, this study ultimately aims to bolster knowledge
and awareness levels relating to the major communicative elements involved in a
toddler’s language development. The intention is to strengthen the processes that
begin in a child’s early childhood years.

More research will assist in providing teachers and parents with the necessary
insight and capabilities to strengthen a toddler’s communication and language
development. A toddler’s family provides learning experiences and support towards
their development and education, and an informed approach by parents will improve
the odds of their children having sufficient communication skills before entering
school (Michael, 2013).

4
A toddler’s brain undergoes dramatic development during the first 3 years after birth.
This allows them to gain the ability to think, speak and reason (Wittmer & Petersen,
2014). If parents do not nurture this early development, the architecture of the
toddler’s brain will be affected, impeding the child’s development. Behavioural
aspects of parental involvement, including frequent participation in learning activities,
environments and materials that favour a toddler’s language development, are
explored. The quality of interaction between the caregiver and toddler are
investigated in respect of the caregiver’s vital role in supportive communicative
interactions. Language learning occurs within the context of these communicative
interactions. The quality of these interactions predicts subsequent language abilities
(Levine, Strother-Garcia, Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2016). These interactions begin at
birth and continue throughout early childhood, influencing language and literacy
development (Otto, 2014). Teachers, practitioners and parents are the main
participants within this study.

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

According to Howie et al. (2017), the National Development Plan (NDP), as stated in
the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), recognises that early
childhood development is crucial for stimulation and success in a toddler’s future life.
Universal access should be provided towards early childhood development in the
form of training for parents and guardians, and via information through various
printed or online media outlets. Adults subconsciously speak to toddlers when they
are amongst other adults, thereby commencing the toddlers’ process of acquiring
their linguistic competence in a unique way. This talk is commonly termed “baby talk”
or child-directed speech (CDS), which is a universal phenomenon (Whyatt, 1995).
Researchers have debated whether CDS constitutes a conscious manner of
language teaching, or whether it is an adult’s intuitive response to the effort of
communicating with their toddlers at the commencement stage of language
instruction (Otto, 2014).

Children progress in communication throughout the toddler years with babbling,

saying keywords, whilst continuously expanding their vocabulary (Johnston, 2010).
This originates through a mimicking of the vocalisation done by their parents.
Babbling occurs at the age of 4 to 6 months and comprises duplicated sounds, such
5
as ba-ba-ba-ba, and involves fewer varied sounds with higher frequencies (Reich,
1986). A child’s babbling develops an echoing quality at 8 to 10 months old. It is
otherwise termed echolalic babbling. This babbling appears to echo the phonation
and rhythm of an adult’s speech, as if the child is entertaining a conversation (De
Boysson-Bardies, 1999).

According to Rvachew (2010), learning to speak is among the most notable and
important achievements during early childhood. Toddlers learn to talk through
attempts at conversing with their parents and teachers. Subjectively, the quality of
such 'conversations' becomes crucial during the process of language development
(Whyatt, 1995). New learning instruments and experiences during the initial stages
of language development can create new opportunities for social understanding,
global knowledge and sharing of experiences, pleasures and needs. Young children
who do not develop strong language and communication skills are less likely to
become academically proficient at school (Gardner-Neblett & Gallagher, 2013).
Toddlers’ interactions with adults influence how they develop and learn. Parents and
teachers who provide toddlers with sufficient language stimulation during their first
years of life bestow improved language and communication skills on them. An
improved literate environment stimulates children’s tendency to read, which
strengthens future language development (Garbe et al., 2016).

When toddlers are exposed to risk conditions – such as negative stimuli or lack of
parental knowledge and feedback – then they will likely experience developmental
and communication acquisition delays or disorders (Rvachew, 2010). When delays
in communicative learning remain undetected, their social-emotional, educational,
academic and interactive abilities with their environment are likely to be reduced,
prompting long-term negative implications in psychological, financial and other terms
(Van der Linde et al., 2015). Roberts, Burchinal and Durham’s study (1999),
involving 18–30 months old toddlers from low-income families, finds that children
who grew up in more stimulating environments and responsive households have
larger vocabularies, use more nouns and verbs and can, resultantly, utter longer
sentences and phrases. Toddlers from less responsive and stimulating home
environments lack those learning opportunities, which results in their deficient
language development.

6
According to O’Carroll and Hickman (2012), the national and provincial assessment
indicates a high percentage of children in South Africa who are unable to acquire
basic literacy skills during their first 3 years at school. This is largely due to a lack or
neglect of communications and language development processes. The cause of this
circumstance is not confined to classrooms; it instead commences at birth. Most
children in the country have access to formal schooling, but the problem remains that
underprivileged children will be less successful in learning how to read and write.

When underprivileged children fail to reach their developmental potential, they have
to suffer negative consequences concerning their growth, socio-emotional
competence and cognitive skills (Vally et al., 2015). To provide the country’s
underprivileged children with a fair chance to read and write, assistance by
foundations needs to be harnessed before they enter school (O’Carroll & Hickman,
2012). An innovative approach is required to negate many parents’ assumption that
all forms of acquisition and development commence in school. Parents need to be
informed that early language development leads to later developmental successes
(Dodici, 2002; O’Carroll & Hickman, 2012).

Conversely, in several South African communities, young children are enrolled in

English preschools without them possessing prior knowledge of English (Du Plessis
& Louw, 2008). In rural areas, teachers often 'smuggle' English into their teachings in
the foundation phase. They perceive it as providing opportunities towards improved
lives for the children, although it creates a challenging environment for the children
(Henning, 2012). Parents from disadvantaged communities likely lack the
knowledge, skills and resources to allow them to be contributors to the
communication and language development of their child. In this study, I included
toddlers from high, medium and low socio-economic societies.

1.4 PURPOSE STATEMENT AND OBJECTIVES

Language development and communication during a child’s early years lead to

improved levels of understanding, communication and academic wellness, which
relate to future growth and success (Dodici, 2002; Howie et al., 2017; O’Carroll &
Hickman, 2012). The purpose of this research was to understand the perceptions of
parents and teachers relating to toddler’s communication and language

7
development. It aimed to determine the factors that influence communication and
language development of toddlers, and to explore what is known globally and
nationally in those aspects. The research uncovered parents’ and teachers’
perceptions and knowledge about toddler’s development, as well as the factors that
influence communication and language development of toddlers.

The significance of this study is found in the promotion of early communication

methods and language development skills. To achieve that, the research had to
examine the skills and knowledge that toddlers acquired during the early childhood
years. The study included a focus on the contributions made by parents and
teachers in relation to their home and classroom settings, their understanding of their
surroundings through social structures and roles, and how they perceived each
other’s roles concerning their toddler’s communication and language development.

The study aimed to raise parents’ awareness of the importance of their

communicating efforts with their toddlers, and of methods to strengthen their
language development. The research, therefore, needed to find answers to relevant
questions that relate to toddler communication and language development. The
study hence included elements of support strategies, the potential of parents and
teachers to improve responsive parenting and teaching techniques, storytelling,
shared book reading and responsiveness. All of those aspects can be utilised to
benefit a toddler’s language development and socio-emotional wellbeing (O’Carroll &
Hickman, 2012). The research also examined strategies to train parents and
teachers to engage in social interactions with toddlers, and to encourage them to
vocalise frequently and produce sophisticated vocalisations in the presence of their
children (Law et al., 2017).

I formulated the following guiding primary and secondary research questions:

1.4.1 Main research question

How do parents and teachers perceive the communication and language

development of toddlers?

8
1.4.2 Secondary research questions

To comprehensively answer the main research question, I formulated the following

secondary questions:

 How do parents perceive the communication and language development of

their toddlers?
 How do teachers perceive the communication and language development of
their toddlers?
 Which factors influence communication and language development of toddlers?

The objectives of the research were to:

 Explore how parents and teachers perceive the communication and language
development of their toddlers;
 Enhance the field of research by establishing the factors that influence the
communication and language development of toddlers;
 Raise awareness among parents and teachers regarding the importance of
strengthening the communication and language development of their toddlers.

1.5 CLARIFICATION OF KEY CONCEPTS

Communication: This is the process of transmitting information through speech,

signs, cues or gestures as discussed throughout the study. It also refers to the
understanding between two individuals (Lunenburg, 2010; Wittmer & Petersen,
2014). In this study, it involves respective understanding between toddler and their
parent and teacher respectively.

Language development: This is the process of young children progressing in

understanding and communicating language throughout their early childhood years
(Rvachew, 2010), as assisted by parents and teachers who continuously converse
with them.

Toddler: A toddler is a child between 12 and 36 months old (Colson & Dworkin,
1997; DBE, 2009). During this stage, a toddler characteristically strives to become
independent while their understanding and use of words increase rapidly. Toddlers

9
are also referred to as children in this study. The sample population consist of
toddlers from 18 to 36 months old.

Early childhood: Early childhood comprises the beginning stages in human

development and mainly includes toddlerhood, the following preschool stage and the
first 3 years at primary school – from birth to 8 years of age (UNICEF, 2001).

1.6 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

This section introduces published views on parent-toddler and teacher-toddler

interactions as well as relevant national and global strategies to support toddlers'
development. These elements will be extensively discussed in Chapter 2.

1.6.1 Parent and toddler interaction and communication

Language is acquired through interaction within the environment (Otto, 2014). The
home learning environment is vital during a child’s first 3 years, according to the
European Union High Level Group of Experts on Literacy (2012). The quality and
quantity of stimuli and interactions in their environments significantly influence their
language development. The interaction between a toddler and the primary caregiver
– the most influential agent of language development – allows the toddler to express
his feelings about his daily experiences, which illustrates the importance of parents’
and guardians’ involvement in the exchange of information via spoken language.
'Experience-dependent creation synopses' reaches its highest level during the first 3
years of a child’s life. The more words introduced to a toddler, the more they learn.
The quality of parent-toddler interaction influences the ability of toddlers to learn by
affecting their self-esteem, motivation and general knowledge. Otto (2014) and Law
et al. (2017) confirm that an adult’s responsiveness to a toddler’s behaviour (verbal
and non-verbal) fulfils an important function in a toddler’s early social development.
Parents should be the initial teachers of toddlers and supporters of their
development by being responsive, thus enhancing their children’s language and
communication abilities. Garbe et al. (2016) agree that parents represent an
important commencement factor in communication and language learning. This is
more extensively discussed in Chapter 2.

10
1.6.2 Teacher and toddler communication and interaction

South African teachers are perceived as crucial participants in children’s acquisition

of English, widely used as the language of teaching and learning (Du Plessis &
Louw, 2008). This is a consequence of children spending several of their waking
hours with English-speaking teachers, who guide the children’s experiences and
help to shape their social, cognitive and language development (Henning, 2012).
Environmental factors influence the brain and its structures. Some negative factors
include stress, disease, under-stimulation and malnutrition. Children with
disadvantaged backgrounds are the most vulnerable to risk conditions, such as
psychosocial (violence, trauma, stress) and biological (HIV/AIDS, poor nutrition,
childhood growth stunting) conditions. In many cases, teachers are considered as
second parents, which mean that their interaction with toddlers is also very
important.

1.6.3 Communication and language development globally

Published research emphasises the importance of developing communicative skills

in a child before they enter school and throughout their early years. English is often
prized as a valuable asset in non-English speaking countries (Li & Rao, 2005). For
many, it denotes a route to an advanced style of living. In some countries, curricula
are designed to promote cognitive and social development among learners and may
include strategies like learning through participation. For instance, Italian and Finnish
specialists have developed teaching policies promoting early language and
communication. This steered new professional development campaigns in Italy.
Communication and language development of various countries are discussed in
greater depth in Chapter 2.

1.6.4 Communication and language development nationally

A lack of clear policy, research and examples of language development techniques

exists in South Africa. Many South African parents enrol their children in urban
schools where English is the only language of learning and teaching (LoLT) (Du
Plessis & Louw, 2008; O’Connor & Geiger, 2009). English is generally perceived in
non-English speaking countries to denote a higher standard of living (Li & Rao,

11
2005). According to the MRQECCE (2017), qualified ECD practitioners should be
capable of using at least one South African official language as the LoLT and able to
have a basic conversation in one other South African official language. The South
African context is further discussed in Chapter 2.

1.7 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This study will incorporate the variables in a child’s environment that determine and
control verbal behaviour. For this purpose, Vygotsky’s theories appear to be the
most applicable. The conceptual framework will hence revolve around Vygotsky’s
zone of proximal development (ZPD).

Vygotsky (1986) emphasises the importance of the social environment, allowing a

social and cultural driven process for language development. The family is an
important element in the language-learning environment (Vygotsky, 1978). Several
theories and arguments over the years relate to the language development of
children and the contributions of various external stimuli (Vygotsky, 1978). The
association between language acquisition and human behaviour became the source
of various disputes (Chomsky, 1981; Piaget, 1926; Skinner, 1957; Vygotsky, 1980).

Zone of proximal
development • Socialising
• Educational resources
• Being an active
participant, responsive
and reciprocal
Vygotsk • CDS and speaking in
y an adult manner
• Constant conversing
Guidance from • Being attentive
parent and • Speaking mother
teacher tongue

Figure 1.1: Development theories

12
Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development centres on a child’s
interaction with adults (Vygotsky, 1978). As shown in Figure 1.1, it embraces all the
stages from children's actual developmental levels and what they know to the levels
of potential development as determined by problem-solving skills and learning from
adult guidance. Vygotsky argues that children’s language development occurs during
social interactions.

1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The research design, research paradigm and research method is introduced in this
section and further explained in Chapter 3.

1.8.1 Research design

A research design is a plan that moves from its philosophical assumptions to

strategies that include participant selections, data generation and data analysis
(Maree, 2016). While selecting a research design, the researcher must be mindful
that their ontology, epistemological perspectives, research skills and practices all
influence the data generation methods. The research design serves as a guide and
framework for planning and implementing the study, which includes analytical
strategies for obtaining valid answers to the research questions.

I used a non-experimental method as part of the qualitative approach towards an in-

depth understanding of cases (toddlers) in their real-world contexts (within ECD
centres). As a qualitative researcher, I ventured into the toddlers’ natural
environment. This made an understanding of the research subject possible, which
resulted in insights into innovative education techniques relating to toddlers’ real-
world behaviour, and how it all relates to their communication and language
development. This approach was well suited for this study in which I spent time
observing the sample population. This kind of research favours data generation
within a natural setting, which allowed me as the researcher to improve my insight
into the behaviour of the toddlers and learning how parents and teachers control
their communication and language development skills.

The proposed research design was suitable to the multiple case studies as required
by this study, since its method is by nature qualitative and involves interviews. Yin

13
(2009) defines a case study as an inquiry into a phenomenon in its real-world context
using observational methods to establish a set of valid data. Multiple case studies
are bounded systems that allow multiple sites to be investigated while preventing the
researcher from extensive involvement and straying from the research focus (Maree,
2016). I employed multiple case study methods that were suited to a qualitative
research design. This allowed me to obtain an understanding of the toddlers’ ways of
communicating and related strategies to support their language development. This
research design enables participants to share their experiences and stories,
necessitating a close collaboration between researcher and participants (Maree,
2016). It allows the researcher to capture data within real-world situations, which
would then be analysed to explain the complexity of these real-world situations.
Experimental research designs may not be suited to projects of this nature.

I applied a variety of sources and techniques during the study. According to Cohen,
Manion and Morrison (2013), multiple case studies can reveal educational elements
of the research, widening the existing knowledge base. By observing the toddlers in
their environments, I was able to discover new aspects of their communicative
abilities and processes of language development.

1.8.2 Research paradigm

A paradigm comprises a set of beliefs or assumptions related to reality and functions

to establish global views on a topic. It represents related thoughts and actions as
well as the links between knower and known (Maree, 2016). It is employed in
research to provide frameworks of understanding, knowledge, values, truths and the
nature of being. It allows storytelling via the researcher’s observations of a
meaningful and functional domain that may be culturally subjective, such as the
perceptions of parents and teachers.

I employed paradigm in this study as the research device to apply order to the
principles used in the interpretations of reality, and used interpretivism as the
epistemological lens through which the study could be interpreted. This technique
enabled me to gain insight into the views, understandings and experiences of the
participants (Athanasou & Maree, 2012). It also links to multiple case studies and
qualitative research methods (Maree, 2016).

14
I further employed an inductive method of studying different cases, helping me to
identify the various qualities of the studied phenomenon. The interpretive paradigm
enables the understanding of human experiences from within (Maree, 2016). As an
interpretive researcher, I endeavoured to understand the parents’ and teachers’
respective interpretations of their worlds. I adopted interpretivism as a means of
investigating case realities and participants’ views, opinions and beliefs (Sefotho,
2015).

This interpretivist paradigmatic approach enables enhanced understanding of

situations, allowing the researcher to gain knowledge on a studied phenomenon.
Furthermore, it fosters an understanding of the meanings and connectedness of
elements in the same environment. The method of studying individuals in their social
and natural environments presents the researcher with a clearer understanding of
the various perceptions of their own activities among the sample population. That
was made possible in this study by the opportunity to observe parents and teachers
in their real-life natural environments, in which they were allowed to freely express
their thoughts about their toddlers’ communicative prowess and language
development. This situation allowed me, as the researcher, to compare these cases
and understand individual thoughts and perceptions of communication and language
development.

Interpretivists state that they cannot understand individuals’ actions without grasping
the true nature of their perceptions, attitudes and interpretations of their worlds
(Hammersley, 2012). I hence needed to identify the reasons why individual
participants performed certain actions and to understand how they perceive those
activities in relation to their toddler’s communication and language development. I
used interpretivism as the lens through which I could describe the situations that are
influential in a toddler’s communication and language development, and to explain
their meaningfulness in the social context. Interpretivism allows the reality that
several truths may be uncovered in pursuit of the understandable.

1.8.3 Research method

The study harnessed the qualitative approach, focusing on a linguistic form rather
than numerical values, which prompted a meaning-based data analysis (Maree,

15
2016). I addressed concerns about the quality of this research by dealing with the
issues relating to validity, effectiveness and practicality. The research sought to
provide answers to questions through an investigation of several social settings and
the participants within those settings (teachers, parents and toddlers). An advantage
of this approach is the depth and richness made possible by the explorations and
analytical possibilities. According to Maree (2016), the research process of extracting
meaning from data lies at the heart of qualitative research. Conclusions were linked
to the meanings of individuals’ situations and their social experiences as well as the
meanings of toddlers’ observed behaviour. This qualitative methodology provided
me, as the researcher, with the relevant instruments to study these toddlers in their
developmental contexts through observation.

1.8.3.1 Selection of research site and participants

I selected the research sites first, which comprised three ECD centres from high,
medium and low socio-economic statuses within the Pretoria region. These centres
contained toddlers, parents and teachers with diverse backgrounds in terms of
language abilities, race and gender. The selection of participants involved three
teachers, six toddlers and six parents.

1.8.3.2 Data generation

Figure 1.2 illustrates the data generation strategy used in this research. Six cases
(toddlers) were selected for research observations, while photovoice methodology
was also employed during the data analysis processes.

16
Figure 1.2: Data generation strategy

Researchers frequently use visuals as research possibilities. I adopted photovoice

for this study to incorporate with the interviewing phase. Photovoice is a qualitative
process that combines pictures and words while capturing situations (Palibroda et
al., 2009). The purpose of photovoice was to clarify observations and actions
performed by parents and teachers. The teachers and parents were requested to
capture their toddler’s responsive behavioural expressions that later served as
instruments for interviews with the relevant participants. The parents and teachers
provided their permissions before capturing any photos on behalf of the study.
Photos included interactive and non-interactive moments that were randomly
performed and reflected instances of communication. By using this research device I
managed to gain a deeper understanding of the toddler’s communicated responses.
It contributed other data for wider analysis.

According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2013), observations through case

studies are less reactive compared to other methods of data generation. Observation
involves the recording of behavioural patterns of participants without any interaction,
communication or disturbances in the conversation (Maree, 2016). It allows deeper
insight and understanding into a phenomenon observed. Six children from three
different ECD centres were selected for observation by using the child tracking
observation sheet (presented in Addendum 3). Observations included me taking
notes of a toddler’s communication and language development during various times
of the day within school hours. Observations included toddlers’ communications with

17
their parents who brought them to school and collected them afterwards. The
researcher conducted observations for one week using the tracking observation
sheet.

1.8.3.3 Data analysis

Qualitative data analysis endeavours to establish methods that participants use to

signify a certain phenomenon by analysing their attitudes, perceptions, knowledge,
feelings, values and experience to gain a rough understanding of their construction
of the phenomenon (Maree, 2016). It is a continuous process ensuring that data
generation, processing, analysis and reporting are meaningfully linked and that they
are not merely successive steps. It comprises three essential interlinked and cyclical
elements: observing, collecting and reflecting. The goal during data generation was
to summarise what was seen or heard concerning communal words, phrases,
patterns and themes. This was necessary to enhance the understanding and
interpretative processes during data analysis.

The proposed data analysis method favoured a thematic analysis. It is a type of

qualitative analysis used to analyse themes or patterns, including classifications
related to the data. This allows associated analyses of the frequency of themes
within data sets (Alhojailan, 2012). This approach mainly involves analysis of
research aspects, text and interpretations to ensuring meaning. Poorly conducted
analyses or inappropriate research questions can inhibit the appropriateness of the
research. The flexibility of this method may lead to broad data sets that may have
limited interpretative power if they are not used within existing conceptual
frameworks that anchor the analytical claims. Alhojailan (2012) believes that, apart
from certain limitations, this association signifies accuracy and intricacy, which
enhances the value of the research.

A thematic analysis, interlinked with qualitative research, provides an opportunity to

understand the potential of an issue in broader terms. It promotes an understanding
of the diverse aspects of the collected data. A thematic analysis was used in this
research to illustrate the data in fine detail while dealing with diverse subjects
through interpretations. It focused on the identification and descriptions of implicit
and explicit ideas. Codes that were developed for ideas, themes and patterns were

18
linked to raw data for further analysis. It was used to determine the relationships
between concepts and to compare them with collected data elements. The study’s
thematic analysis linked the various concepts, opinions and perceptions of
participants as recorded in a variety of situations, including the responses noted
during the interviews, as well as additional data from other relevant sources.

1.8.3.4 Role of the researcher

As the researcher, I established a partnership with the selected respondents. I then

collected and analysed the data to foster a progressive understanding of the studied
phenomenon. The collected data related to the communication and language
development of toddlers. Interview questions (presented in Addendum 1) – and the
information collected from these – were used to provide answers to certain
secondary research questions. My duties hence included the compilation of interview
questions: the preparation, structuring and conducting of interviews, data generation
and analysis and the crystallisation of the research results.

1.8.3.5 Ethical considerations

Maree (2016) emphasises the necessity to adhere to ethical principles throughout

any study. This research followed these considerations:

 Protection of all participants’ identities: Information collected from participants

during the study and interviews remained confidential at all times. Participants
were assured that no information provided by them would be disclosed to third
parties. The transcribed audio recordings and data sets were filed at the
University of Pretoria for safekeeping. The researcher familiarised herself with
the Ethics and Research Statement provided by the University of Pretoria’s
Faculty of Education, and conducted the research accordingly.
 Letters of consent and permission: Permission was obtained from participants
before they were interviewed. The consent forms (presented in Addendum 2)
were read and explained to each participant. Participants were allowed to direct
questions if further clarity was needed. Permission was obtained from the
toddlers’ parents, teachers and the principals of the ECD centres to take photos
of the toddlers. Thereafter, all willing participants were requested to complete

19
 and sign the consent form. Participants were informed that they may withdraw
from the study at any point. Interview dates were discussed at the convenience
of participants.
 Further protection: The researcher endeavoured to be sympathetic, respectful
and honest to all participants throughout the study, thereby avoiding
possibilities of physical, emotional and psychological harm.

1.9 SUMMARY

Relevant research sources indicate that toddlers who were afforded opportunities to
engage in language and communication endeavours tended to be better prepared
for school and academic success. The chapter provided an overview of the study
aims. The research design and research paradigm were explained in relation to this
study. South African studies that focus on parent and teacher perceptions of the
communication and language development of toddlers are sparse at present, and,
therefore, this study may add value to the field of ECCE research. Chapter 2
contains the literature review and discusses the conceptual framework.

20
 Chapter 2:
2LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION

CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK

Italy COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION AND

Hong Kong LANGUAGE LANGUAGE
Finland DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT
Philippines GLOBALLY NATIONALLY

PARENT INTERACTION
WITH TODDLER

TEACHER INTERACTION
WITH TODDLER
Listening
TODDLER INTERACTION Speaking
WITH PARENT AND Meaning making
TEACHER

FACTORS AFFECTING
COMMUNICATION AND
LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIES
SUPPORTING
TODDLERS TO EXPRESS
THEMSELVES

21
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1 introduced the study’s topic by explaining the background, problem

statement and research questions, followed by an overview of the conceptual
framework, research design and methodological approaches employed in this study.
It also provided an overview of how data were generated, documented and
analysed. This chapter contains a literature review with extracts from empirical
studies as well as an overview of publications relevant to Parent and teacher
perceptions of communication and language development of toddlers. A literature
review, according to Maree (2016), shares with the reader the results of former
studies that are closely related to the one being conducted. It establishes the
importance of the study and serves as a benchmark in the comparison of respective
research results.

Research suggests that a child is born into an environment of various writings and
images and where it is surrounded by a complex network of sounds and symbols
(Reunamo & Nurmilaakso, 2004). Children learn to imitate the sounds spoken to
them throughout their first 3 years (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). They learn how to
combine sounds into words and later words into sentences. This means that they
subconsciously learn about the syntax, prosody and pragmatics of language. They
grasp the meanings of numerous words and learn how to communicate in a variety
of ways. As children become more proficient in English (as an example), they learn
how to add morphemes to words to indicate plurality and tenses. They manage to
form sentences never heard before and use words and sentences for various
purposes, such as requesting food, demanding attention, learning to say “no” to
adults, expressing feeling and informing others of their needs. Toddlers that grow up
in environments where adults engage in meaningful conversations with them quickly
develop knowledge of how language works (Dixon, 2006). Research shows that
mother-child interactions prompt linguistic responsiveness in toddlers, thereby
assisting their language development. Communicating is toddlers’ primary means of
learning how to socialise during the phase of childhood when they most desire
human connection (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). During periods of social interaction,
the toddlers, using their biological linguistic capacities, begin to understand that
sounds combine to form words, words combine to form sentences, and gestures and

22
words communicate meaning. Toddlers are not only affected by their immediate
social environment but also through the emotional and physical support available.

The following section documents and discusses the emergent conceptual

framework, communication and language development globally and nationally,
factors that affect communication and language development, parent interaction with
toddler, teacher interaction with toddler and toddler interaction with parent and
teacher.

2.2 EMERGENT CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Vygotsky’s comprehensive insights into research (Close, 2010) oblige a potential

core investigation to validate and uncover the complex processes of communication
and language development. The focus of the study embraces Vygotsky’s zone of
proximal development concept.

2.2.1 Vygotsky’s theory bordering communication and language development

Vygotsky observed language development as resulting from complex interactions

between children and their environments and influenced by social and
communicative development (Close, 2010). He argues that children develop
linguistic abilities throughout their developing stages. Initially, they develop a symbol
system that helps them to understand the world.

Vocal expressions initiate the first stage in a child’s development of reasoning skills.
Vygotsky’s theory stresses that opportunities for toddlers to communicate with others
are a vital element in the stimulation of their reasoning (thinking) and communicative
potential. Language develops through social constructions and instructions (Hulit,
Howard & Fahey, 2011). Vygotsky believed that children are active in their quest for
knowledge and that adults’ participation in this pursuit has an important effect on
their language development. Vygotsky hence theorised in 1986 that social
interactions are fundamental elements of cognitive development. He further
proposed that toddlers’ development is guided by their interaction with the adults
who are involved in their lives.

23
2.2.2 The zone of proximal development

Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development centres on a child’s

interaction with adults. Vygotsky (1978, p. 86) describes it as “the distance between
the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and
the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under
adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers”. This zone of proximal
development and scaffolding is seen when parents and teachers teach a child new
skills (Vygotsky, 1986).

Children learn how to do things and process their thoughts by interacting with the
adults around them who are already familiar with those aspects (Hulit, Howard &
Fahey, 2011). Children often handle tasks independently without direct assistance.
However, various other tasks exist that children cannot manage on their own.
Assistance is then required from adults who have already acquired more knowledge,
experience and skills than they possess. Those tasks belong to the ZPD, and
assistance is usually provided in the form of language. When a child wants to learn a
skill, the child will usually communicate with an adult. The child will then retain
language elements used in such exchanges and incorporate them in his future
speech. During a later stage, the child will use this enhanced speech to solve
problems by himself. The social interactions that support children’s language
development may include other activities where children are reliant on adult
knowledge (Vally et al., 2015). Parents may use books to initiate and encourage
children’s acquisition of new words, thereby scaffolding the children’s mastery of
language. Adults can achieve this by engaging in the labelling of objects or
commenting on pictures in books.

Vygotsky was convinced that children’s development is reliant on their environment

from the first stages of knowledge acquisition (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011). The
ZPD allows parents and teachers to provide children with the help they need to
progress in their development. While a child develops language skills, their social
and communicative skills will increase, which allows for more mature and
sophisticated interactions. The higher level of interactions prompts more complex
language usage from the adults; this cycle continues until a child’s language levels
and social skills reach that of adults.

24
To illustrate this process: A baby boy, wanting a piece of chocolate, may make “uh
uh uh” sounds while reaching for it and making eye contact with the parent.
Recognising the communicative intent, the parent says, “Do you want chocolate?
Say ‘chocolate… chocolate’.” When the child is 2 years old, he may then be able to
issue a request for chocolate by saying “Mummy, want chocolate”. This utterance is
then met with a piece of chocolate and an expanded language form from the parent
saying, “Say, ‘Mummy I want chocolate’.” A few years later the child may politely ask
for chocolate without the parent having to guide his speech along. This illustrates
that young toddlers, before knowing how to speak, are able to interact with others
and make requests. As child acquire language skills while growing up, their
interactive and communicative abilities improve and they become able to make their
requests known in more social, adult-like ways.

2.3 COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

The communication and language development of toddlers were determined on

national levels to explore the variety of insights and strategies that are deployed in
countries abroad. This section describes educational policies as practised in Italy,
Hong Kong and the Philippines to illustrate a variety of existing perceptions globally.

2.3.1 Communication and language development globally

2.3.1.1 Italy

"Reggio Emilia" denotes a preschool approach to education and contains a

philosophy that focuses on the children. Although it emerged in Italy, the approach is
utilised worldwide (Arseven, 2014). The Italian Ministry of Education adopted and
integrated it into their early childhood curriculum. The Reggio Emilia approach is
based on Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist theory stating that children create
knowledge from the relationships they establish with other people and the
environment around them (Valentine, 1999). It allows a learning relationship to form
between teacher and child and demonstrates a strong bond between a school and
the community by providing professional development programmes. Every child’s
social, intellectual and emotional potentials are guided while the teachings are
executed in healthy and accommodating settings (Edwards, Gandini & Forman,

25
1998). Children are encouraged to discover the environment they are in and to
express themselves using words, play or music.

This approach emerged after the Second World War because of Italian citizens’
desire to create a better society for their children to live in (Valentine, 1999). A
teacher from the first ECD centre to have adopted the Reggio Emilia approach
remarked that “even the youngest children are social beings”, having had 20 years of
experience working with toddlers (Edwards, Gandini & Forman, 1998, p. 40). She
added that the children at the centre were open to the idea of bonding with other
caretakers – apart from their parents – who ought not to neglect their educational
responsibilities. She then declared that relationships correspond with the processes
of education, that interactive play with toddlers enhances their experiential learning,
and that the quality of the parent-toddler relationship is relatively more important than
the quantity of time spent together. The children in her ECD centre manage to learn
primarily through communicating and experiencing. She emphasised that the ways in
which parents and teachers interact with toddlers influence their motivations and,
ultimately, how much they learn.

Adult-child roles complement each other through asking questions, listening and
giving answers. An interviewed parent of a toddler at an ECD centre that utilised the
Reggio Emilia approach expressed her pleasant surprise when she saw how her
child played in a pool with others, which contrasted with how she behaved in a bath
at home. She found it “beautiful” that her toddler, encouraged by the social
interactions, did things he would not usually do (Edwards, Gandini & Forman, 1998).
It is prudent to note, however, that the children in Italy all speak one native language,
which enables natural interactions – without any cultural barriers – amongst them.

Today, those ECD centres implement progressive policies that allow educational
projects to revolve around the children. Teachers at the ECD centres are instructed
how to listen to the children and to guide them in productive ways (Edwards, Gandini
& Forman, 1998). The Reggio Emilia-based policies place listening at the heart of a
teacher’s function. This also means being fully attentive to children entering the
active learning that occurs by using dialogue with them and joining their curiosity and
excitement. Teachers should have 3 years of training to receive their diploma. The
creation of an exhibition called The Hundred Languages of Children was developed
26
to make parents and teachers well aware of the advantageous of education for
younger children. “The Centre for the Promotion and Defence of the Rights of
Children” aims at sharing nationally and globally their expertise promoting research
within the field (Valentine, 1999). It also aimed at creating programmes throughout
the country for professional development.

2.3.1.2 Hong Kong

The Hong Kong Government published the Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum in
1996, promoting a child-centred approach, focussing on a child’s total development
(Li & Rao, 2005). Early childhood education enters a positive era within the country,
progressing concern improving the quality of early childhood education. It supports
the view of effective early teaching and learning, personal facilitation, communicative
and language development. The curriculum includes communicative, language
development and social aspects of development through comprehensive
developmental, child-centred and mother tongue language instruction activities.
Parents in Hong Kong perceive ECE as a programme that prepares children for
primary school (Wong & Rao, 2015). Child centeredness is the core value of ECE in
Hong Kong acknowledging early language and development rates where teachers
assist children in assembling their own experiences in active learning tasks rather
than transmitting knowledge on them (Rao & Li, 2009). Teachers enrich the social
experiences of children strengthening their interpersonal and communicative skills
during ECE (Curriculum Development Council, 2017). Consequently, young children
in Hong Kong are attached to electronic products affecting their social and
communicative abilities. Hong Kong parents perceive education as providing their
children with as much knowledge and developmental approaches as possible during
that time. Yuen and Grieshaber (2009, p. 270) state that these Hong Kong parents
believe “spoon-feeding is only a matter of time” and that “sooner is better than later”.

The majority of the population in Hong Kong speaks Cantonese as their first
language (Li & Rao, 2005; Wong & Rao, 2015). Parents and teachers also
encourage them to learn English from an early age since they perceive English as a
route to advancement in education and society. Certain schools in Hong Kong teach
in English. However, non-Chinese speaking children who are new to the lifestyles in
Hong Kong may meet challenges in communication and learning (Curriculum
27
Development Council, 2017). According to Li and Rao (2005), Cantonese and
English are regularly combined during communicating and learning, resulting in a
poor standard of both languages. The policy in Hong Kong is not to request children
between the ages of 3 and 4 to write or perform mechanical copying exercises, and
they are not taught in a one-way lecturing format (Education Department, 1999).
Instead, Hong Kong’s policymakers promote the principle of learning-through-play as
a core curriculum element. Some institutions, though, keep stressing the intellectual
aspects rather than children’s developmental abilities, needs and interests (Wong,
Wang & Cheng, 2011). In relation to this study, the MRQECCE (DHET, 2017, p. 18)
highlights that ECCE teachers should have the “ability to use appropriate play-based
pedagogies to support the development of early learning such as oral and written
stories; play; rhyme; fantasy; exploration; music; arts and crafts and movement”.

2.3.1.3 Finland

According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2000),

the objective of preschool education in Finland is to improve a child’s learning
conditions. It also advances a child’s opportunities to participate in education and to
develop their selves throughout their lives. A central tenet in the Finnish curriculum
involves language and communication skills (Reunamo & Nurmilaakso, 2004). Its
main objectives are to develop children’s interactive skills, awaken their motivation
for early literacy and literature, enrich their vocabulary and promote their usage of
various media.

Pre-primary education involves activities to facilitate learning, growth and

development. It allows a child the opportunity to interact with classmates in diverse
ways. Reunamo and Nurmilaakso (2004) found that Finnish teachers perceive
language and interaction as cognitive forms and not mere features of everyday life. A
child’s language development is important in understanding their views and
development. It involves understanding how a child’s subjectivity of self-perception
takes shape. A supportive developmental environment exists in homes in Finland,
which encourages children’s language and communicative development (Reunamo
& Nurmilaakso, 2004).

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According to Garbe et al. (2016), Finnish parents generally harbour positive attitudes
about the task of reading to their preschool children, and they usually have reading
material and other educational resources available at their homes. They add,
however, that the parents need to be aware of the function of the household in a
child’s development. Parents should continue to read to their children after school,
because it encourages children to engage in various other language developmental
practices such as games that involve words and shapes and verbal interaction with
others.

The European Union High Level Group of Experts on Literacy (2012) states that an
investment in high-quality ECCE – in terms of future human capital – requires highly
qualified staff using a curriculum that focuses on learning through participation and
language development to nurture children’s social development and other emerging
developmental skills. The new Finnish national curriculum highlights the introduction
of Information and Communications Technology (ICT). This signifies an updated
approach to digital learning that will assist children in various contexts and situations
with text and language development activities (Finnish National Board of Education,
2014). However, critics take into account the fact that Finland has a homogenous
society with one predominant language, which means their models cannot be
applied everywhere else.

2.3.1.4 Philippines

Early years schooling in the Philippines is play-based and activity-oriented, which

prompts children to actively explore their worlds (UNESCO, 2006). The learner-
centred curriculum encourages interaction and nurtures the toddler’s social, linguistic
and cognitive experiences. Cognitive development includes the fostering of
communicative competencies such as the ability to express ideas in both Filipino and
English. The childhood learning experience in the Philippines, therefore, offers
various opportunities to engage in communication through sessions that include
group play, storytelling, and arts and craft. Their Department of Education’s
kindergarten curriculum mainly focuses on the children’s school readiness.

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2.3.2 Communication and language development nationally

The National Development Plan recognises the importance of investing in early

childhood development (ECD). The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) stresses
the child’s voice: “I need to experience an environment where I can learn to listen
attentively, speak openly, learn to love books, stories and reading, record and to
write, and get ready for formal reading and writing as I grow and develop” (DBE,
2015, p. 41). The NCF also states that most children are born with the ability to
communicate. However, as most ECD practitioners in SA are underqualified, public
trust that the toddlers are feeling at home and being adequately prepared for school
is not at the level it should be.

An additional challenge in South Africa is that an estimate of 333 000 children are
infected with HIV, which is linked to an increased rate of delayed language
acquisition (Henning, 2012). This circumstance is associated with impaired cognitive
development and low school achievement. Large numbers of South African children
grow up in low socio-economic contexts and broken homes, face social-emotional
difficulties and experience violence. Many children are raised by single parents who
have to work all day long, which means those parents have little time available for
interaction with their toddlers.

In this context, ECD centres became a prized environment for the nurturing of
children’s early learning. According to the National Planning Commission’s (NPC)
report, the quality of ECD and care in poor communities is generally inadequate
(NPC, 2011). The government underfunds ECD and donors usually provide the
necessary financial support. This situation indicates poor government policies and
research, causing a lack of examples for effective implementation of language and
literacy development programmes.

Toddlers’ social-emotional wellbeing allows them to learn, be curious, concentrate

and form an awareness of their environment. These are critical stages of early
learning. The NCF (DBE, 2015) calls for diversity and the inclusion of indigenous
African experiences in toddlers’ lives. Lifelong learning, reflective practitioners, family
inclusion and the levels of transitions, such as activity-to-activity, are considered as
elements of South African toddlers’ learning and development experiences. The

30
NCF’s section on early learning focuses on communication for various reasons that
include the strengthening of a toddler’s voice.

2.3.2.1 Home language

Many parents in South Africa enrol their children in urban schools where English is
the only Language of Learning and Teaching (LoLT) (Du Plessis & Louw, 2008;
O’Connor & Geiger, 2009). These children attend crèches where a language other
than their first language is spoken (O’Connor & Geiger, 2009). In many communities,
young children are enrolled in English crèches without any prior knowledge of the
language (Du Plessis & Louw, 2008). Teachers at such schools are then expected to
prepare those children for formal preschool in English and are pressurised by
parents who demand that their children become fluent in English by the time they
enter preschool. This abrupt change from mother tongue to English instruction,
however, creates a challenging environment for both child and teacher.

South Africa has 11 official languages, which creates logistical difficulties in

education. Because of the general desire for education in English due to increased
future employment opportunities, the Revised National Curriculum Statement
(RNCS) language policy is only partially implemented (O’Connor & Geiger, 2009).
This policy adopts a multi- and bilingual approach wherein the first language is used
as a basis to learn a second language. The NCF (DBE, 2015) states that children
who receive education in their mother tongue learn new words and ideas faster,
while the use of their mother tongue also fosters a sense of identity.

2.4 PARENT INTERACTION WITH TODDLER

Typically, the first place a toddler is exposed to language is their home (Scribner,
2013). It is the environment where they are first introduced to interactions, activities,
communication and involvement, so the home environment should naturally include
several positive opportunities.

2.4.1 Toddlers' acquisition of listening as a basic literacy skill

Parents who allow a child to lead provide their children with opportunities to express
their feelings, needs and interests (Manolson, 1992). An ineffective way to guide a

31
child to talk and communicate is for the adult to do everything for the child, as
opposed to letting the child do things by himself. This can happen when the parent is
constantly focused on teaching the child new skills. The parent may mean to be
helpful by completing a task on behalf of the toddler, but it deprives the child of the
chance to express his curiosity, feelings and needs, and it denies him the opportunity
to learn by trying and saying things for himself.

A responsive adult, conversely, provides limitless opportunities for interactions with

their toddlers and to guide them towards learning about their worlds. Toddlers learn
best by doing rather than being told what to do or to merely observe. They earn
fewer opportunities to learn when an adult performs most of the communicating and
doing. By allowing toddlers to lead and adapting behaviour to share the moment, the
parents will encourage their toddlers to connect, communicate, feel recognised, and
to add languages and experiences to their minds. Adults’ undivided attention and
welcoming responsiveness to toddlers’ attempts at communication bolster their
feelings of self-confidence, power and satisfaction. Adults who invest time to share
experiences with toddlers provide them with the skills to form the human connections
necessary for learning prowess (Manolson, 1992).

2.4.2 Toddlers' acquisition of speaking as a basic literacy skill

Toddlers bring a strong biological drive in developing language to the acquisition

process but will not acquire language unless they are exposed to language models
(Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011). Simply hearing language is not enough. The
communicative interactions with adults facilitate the acquisition of vocabulary and
language development. When parents respond to their toddlers’ utterances, for
instance, they expand those facets. It appears that when adults sense a toddler is
old enough to develop speech patterns, they pay greater attention to the lengths and
complexities of conversations to give the toddler clear and attainable language
targets. Parents who frequently read to their toddlers, or take them to puppet shows,
stimulate their abilities to learn about letters and to read, thereby guiding them to the
zone of proximal development (discussed later in this chapter). Scribner (2013)
noted how a toddler that achieved a high score on the language development scale
was able to tell coherent stories while using a textless picture book. This illustrates
how parents who provide adequate reading material and are proficient reading role
32
models can influence their children’s attitudes to reading and learning. When
toddlers receive all the essentials at home that prepare them for preschool, they will
also be better prepared to be successful during formal schooling. Therefore, parent-
toddler interaction and conversation are considered as effective strategies to
promote early language skills.

The sharing of songs between a parent and toddler allows several aspects of human
development to occur (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011). Parents convey emotional
information to their toddler through CDS-type singing that prompt the toddler to either
focus on them or shift attention. Singing allows parents and toddlers to synchronise
their emotional states in a form of social regulation. Songs contribute to language
acquisition by means of the arousal of their attention (through emotional aspects)
and the enhancing of phonological discrimination via pitch contours (since a syllable
change accompanies a change in pitch). The constant mapping of linguistic and
musical structures optimises toddlers’ learning mechanisms. Parents utilise certain
acoustical properties such as higher pitches, sustained vowels, slower tempos and
glides between pitch levels – akin to song structures – as well as emotional
expressions in speech directed at toddlers. Parents employ those musical
characteristics to match their toddler’s state. A cycle interaction occurs from the
toddler’s behavioural response to their parents. Those toddlers show preference to
their parents’ voices and reveal higher levels of attention to CDS-singing than to
CDS itself. When toddlers listen to music they engage their auditory channels,
paying simultaneous attention to the music and the words that are repeated within
the songs. Songs are, therefore, particularly beneficial to learning on account of their
emotional and linguistic functions.

2.4.3 Toddlers' acquisition of meaning making as a basic literacy skill

According to a socio-cultural perspective of toddler development, toddlers acquire

their skills largely through adult-toddler interaction and communication (Dodici,
2002). The development of skills requires an apprenticeship-type relationship that
involves two parties: the teacher (parent) and a learner (toddler). High levels of
maternal responsiveness result in toddler’s eventual comprehension of speech and
receptiveness to language communication (Garbe et al., 2016; Levine et al., 2016).

33
Toddlers form part of a social environment from birth. This social environment
supports language development and growth. Parents are essential to their toddler’s
developmental stages. Meaningful communication is vital from birth. Parents’ verbal
and non-verbal responses towards a toddler’s behaviour provide important initial
stages in the construction of a communication foundation. Parents’ responses shape
their toddlers’ language and communicative abilities, which means they are
effectively their first teachers. Toddlers who have had stimulating communicative
interactions with their parents are in advantageous positions at school in comparison
to toddlers who have had limited access to meaningful conversations (Dixon, 2006).

2.5 REQUIRED TRAINING FOR TEACHERS' ABILITY TO INTERACT WITH

TODDLERS

Toddlers spend many of their waking hours with teachers while their parents are
working. As a result, teachers need to substitute the roles of parents when toddlers
are in their care. This involves teachers assuming all the relevant and necessary
responsibilities needed to support the toddlers in their academic and developmental
processes. Therefore, toddlers’ experiences under the guidance of their teachers
influence their social, emotional and development prowess (Du Plessis & Louw,
2008). Teachers spend a lot of time with toddlers and engaging in activities and
diverse social interactions with them.

According to the National Early Learning and Development Standards (NELDS) for
Children Birth to Four Years, Section 3 (DBE, 2009), teachers should sing, speak,
read and listen to their toddlers in order to support them at a time when they learn
how to speak and listen. Toddlers listen and respond while teachers communicate
with them. Teachers who communicate well through regular use of a simplified
language and language games expose toddlers to a wide array of words, such as
nouns, verbs and pronouns. Under the tuition of a good teacher, a toddler may
increase his vocabulary with up to 50 words daily and learn how to connect two to
three words in conveying meaning. It is imperative for teachers to pay attention to
toddlers whenever they speak. Toddlers react to songs and stories read to them;
therefore, teachers should be encouraged to join in on singing sessions, read to their
toddlers frequently and encourage reading to prompt toddlers to discover new books
that could help them to learn new words.

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Teachers need to be trained to provide relevant services and quality learning
programmes for young children (Govindasamy, 2010). Vitally, professional
practitioners need to acquire specialised knowledge in ECD including theories of
child development, knowledge and skills as incorporated in ECD programmes
(Govindasamy, 2010; Human Sciences Research Council, 2009). These
qualifications for ECD are attainable through full or intensive programmes
established by the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) of the South African
Qualification Authority (Atmore, 2013; Meier, Lemmer & Niron, 2015). Non-Profit
Organisations (NPO’s) as well as Further Education and Training colleges present
the relevant courses. The minimum acceptable qualification needed for ECD
teaching is NQF Level 4 (a Further Education and Training certificate) as determined
by the Department of Social Development (DSD) in collaboration with the Economic
Policy Research Institute (DSD, 2014). Teachers should be qualified and trained at
this level to ensure they possess the necessary skills to implement effective teaching
methods and support the development of toddlers (Atmore, 2013). A lack of qualified
ECD practitioners exists in South Africa, especially in rural areas (DSD, 2014).
Toddlers enrolled in these centres are entitled to quality education and care. The
denying of this service to children constitutes a disservice to the South African
community (Meier, Lemmer & Niron, 2015).

To ensure the continual development of new skills and language growth, teachers
need to keep participating in professional development and training programmes,
thereby gaining updated knowledge on toddlers’ needs throughout the ECD period.
This is critically important in keeping South Africa’s ECD centres on par with
recurring developments in the ECD field. The new policy of minimum requirements
for qualifications of early childhood and care educators (MRQECCE) is relevant to
this issue (DHET, 2017). This MRQECCE policy puts into place relevant
qualifications for ECD educators who wish to deliver ECD programmes, including the
NCF.

ECD teachers play the primary role in presenting a standard of early learning to
toddlers high enough to meet their required needs for development (DSD, 2014). A
planned outlay of every week’s activities is a key requirement in ensuring a
structured and smooth learning programme and securing the availability of

35
resources. Planning also ensures the efficiency and coherency of the learning
programme.

2.6 TODDLER INTERACTION WITH PARENTS AND TEACHERS

Toddlers use various strategies to become conversational partners with the people
around them (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). These include recognising the voices of
people important to them, predicting when one word ends and another begins and
focusing on words with specific meanings. Similar to adults, toddlers employ non-
verbal gestures and facial expressions to communicate their thoughts and feelings.

2.6.1 Listening as a skill to be nurtured by parents and teachers

Learning a language takes time. Toddlers need time to absorb information and
become able to understand the words and sentences spoken to them (Manolson,
1992). Similarly, before toddlers are able to talk, they learn about connecting and
communicating from the adults around them. The process of communication entails
firstly experience, then understanding and finally language. Adults encourage
experience when they talk about what is happening or what is about to happen. They
stimulate toddlers to use language by constantly repeating certain words in familiar
situations. At first, a toddler may not understand or say words used by their parents,
but the more frequently the toddler hears words associated with particular objects,
the sooner he can grasp what is being said. With more experience, the toddler can
anticipate what comes next and begin to use those words.

2.6.2 Speaking as a skill to be nurtured by parents and teachers

Toddlers, near 18 months old, accomplish fast mapping by quickly attaching names
to objects (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011; Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). At that age,
toddlers learn both gestures and words as object names, but at approximately 24
months old they interpret only words as names for objects. The process of using
words and gestures as symbols for objects becomes refined as the toddler learns
that words are more often used to name objects during social interactions.
Impressively, most toddlers focus on learning words rather than gestures because
they observe that the people around them mostly use words, instead of gestures, to
communicate. As a result, toddlers start to participate more effectively in their social

36
groups. Toddlers want to share their stories, tell people what is bothering them, ask
them where to look, inform others what to feed them and tell them how to dress
them. They wish to inform others of their discoveries and want adults to share those
experiences with them. They need the parents to be emotionally and linguistically "in
the moment" with them.

Toddlers demand, request, describe their world and inform as they develop
autonomy. Their language is sometimes clear and sometimes foggy. They try to
make sense of the language they are hearing, from saying sounds to saying words
to putting these words together. At the age of 2 years, toddlers do not only imitate
what they hear, but they also apply some rules that they have discovered by
themselves while occasionally making linguistic mistakes. They may apply the word
"dog" to all four-legged creatures. Toddlers simply listen to what people are saying
and their minds fast map the words to an object, animal or person. Other than over-
generalising, toddlers also under-generalise words when they, for instance, identify a
cat only if it is a black cat. When the toddler notices a white cat, they think it is
named differently. The minds of toddlers work extensively while they try to figure out
the names of all objects, the characteristics that differentiate them and how to talk
about them. Parents strengthen the learning process when they encourage their
toddlers to talk about all the exciting things around them such as their new shoes,
what they had eaten and how a puppy is different from a kitten, as well as their
emotions.

Many adults, unfortunately, place their toddlers in front of television sets to coax
them to hear and start grasping a language in that way. This does not work for
language development, as the toddler is not receiving the necessary auditory and
visual feedback required to learn a language (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). Toddlers
progress from saying mostly one-word and two-word sentences at 18 months old to
multiword sentences at 36 months. Toddlers often use telegraphic speech, leaving
out words – similar to telegram messages – to use only the essential parts of speech
to communicate meaning such as “Kitty eat food”. Toddlers can say wonderfully
creative and full sentences at the age of 3 years.

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2.6.3 Meaning making as a skill to be nurtured by parents and teachers

Toddlers demonstrate a rudimentary language sophistication when they respond to

different facets of language, such as when an adult uses an adjective instead of a
noun (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). They can correctly point to any body part and
follow simple directions. Their gestures, such as pointing or shaking their heads, are
important precursors to subsequent language and speech development (Law et al.,
2017). In Wittmer & Petersen’s study (2014), toddlers between the ages of 13 and 18
months heard a word nine times in five minutes and were then able to demonstrate
their understanding of the word even after a 24-hour delay. Toddlers can
comprehend the meaning of new words rapidly during this age period.

From 12 months of age, toddlers begin to intentionally point to objects and people in
their attempts to obtain attention. They may add a squeal to direct another person’s
attention towards the object they are pointing to. The habit of pointing towards
objects illustrates their awareness of objects being separate from themselves, and
their understanding – in terms of communication – that they can direct adults’
attention towards that object in that way. They have become able to share their
experiences with others to some extent, as they have tuned in to others and allowed
others to tune in with them. This attunement relates to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal
development (as explained later in this chapter). Toddlers also point their fingers to
gain information (Begus & Southgate, 2012). When adults tune in and respond to the
toddlers’ pointing, the toddlers will enthusiastically continue to point and gain
communicative satisfaction. Over time the toddlers will begin to use sounds and
words in conjunction with pointing to direct attention to a person or object (Wittmer &
Petersen, 2014).

Toddlers between 15 and 18 months old will protest or shake their heads to indicate
“no”, request objects to be handed to them with either open or closed hands, request
actions through pointing, take an adults hand, give an object, comment through
pointing and use other gestures to signify emotions such as hugging and clapping
(Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). The speed of a toddler’s vocabulary growth is near
miraculous during this time. The rapid learning of words, generally between the ages
of 12 and 15 months, is called a language explosion and denotes a surprising
increase in language development. It also demonstrates toddlers’ desire to learn how

38
to label people, places and things in social contexts (Woodward, Markman &
Fitzsimmons, 1994). Toddlers learn during sessions of joint attention and
conversation that every object and action has a name and that they can make use of
this wonderful array of words to explore their worlds (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014).
When adults respond to toddlers’ pointing, they coax them towards a language
explosion. Parents are often surprised when new words suddenly appear in their
toddlers’ vocabulary; we know today that responsive parents are enablers of that
process because of frequent interactions with their toddlers. Toddlers at 18 months
old learn as many as nine new words a day and use phrases with two or more words
such as “more milk” and “Mama, bush (brush) teeth”.

Gestures are effective and overlooked ways of helping toddlers to understand

language (Manolson, 1992). Gestures appear naturally in the forms of a smile, shiver
or shrug. They capture toddlers’ interest, focus their attention, reveal emotion,
convey attitude and provide information to them (such as shaking a head to indicate
"no"). Gestures stimulate a toddler’s imagination and creativity, which is important for
language development. Importantly, they provide toddlers with the means to express
themselves before they are able to talk.

2.7 FACTORS THAT AFFECT COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT

This section discusses how the enhanced use of language, technology and guided
participation by responsive adults can support the communication and language
development of toddlers. It also explains the factors that influence toddlers'
communication and language development through listening, speaking and meaning
making.

2.7.1 Enhancement of language through responsive adults

The language learning process in the first 3 years of a child’s life is remarkable. An
infant’s auditory map is established at 1 year old resulting from the responsive
language experiences with adults during their first year (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014).
The capacity for toddlers to learn languages forms part of their biological makeup. As
an adult name an object, describe what he/she is doing, sing a song or talk about
what they are doing, an axon on a neuron in the toddler’s brain sends an electrical
39
signal and connects that neuron’s dendrite to another neuron’s dendrite to form a
synapse. These synapses connect with more neurons to enhance their language use
and other cerebral functions during the course of a life, such as thinking while
speaking. Toddlers, however, need responsive adults around to properly master a
language.

Early experiences with language fulfil an essential function in toddlers’ development

and strengthen their abilities to share information, categorise knowledge and play
with words and ideas verbally. Toddlers need to hear adults speaking directly to
them and being allowed to respond. This process assists the development of the
neurons and synapses in the brain related to language. For illustration, a toddler
says “tttt” while playing with a toy truck. His parent replies, “Yes, that is a truck”,
whereupon the toddler imitates the sound by saying “tuk” (Wittmer & Petersen,
2014).

2.7.2 Technology, communication and language development

With ever-advancing technology, toddlers aged one year – before being able to talk -
can master smartphones, electronic games, tablets and iPads (Birken, 2017). A
toddler’s 'on-screen time' relates to their parents’ busy schedules and lack of one-on-
one interactions. Birken (2017) finds that daily screen-time spent on non-educational
applications may have negative consequences for toddlers’ development. Her study
involved toddlers between the ages of 6 months and 2 years and found that children
who spend large amounts of time using handheld devices are more likely to suffer
delays in expressive speech. Birken’s findings indicate a difficulty for toddlers to
connect the two-dimensional world of an electronic screen with the 'real world' they
are exposed to during the rest of their time. Every 30 minutes of screen time
contributes a 94% increase risk of expressive speech delay. Birken states that
smartphones and other technological devices have already become fixed entities in
the communal lives of babies and toddlers. Paediatric guidelines, though,
recommend less screen time for young children.

Nowadays, fast-paced stories constitute a large percentage of the material that

children see on television. Even children’s programmes jump quickly from one topic
to the next, while the graphics, voices and actions are delivered in fast manners

40
(Manolson, 1992). This assault of information overwhelms a child and causes them
to tune out. Radio broadcasts, which are seldom toddler oriented, also prompt
toddlers to tune out. Toddlers need sounds and images they can comfortably absorb
and assimilate, which will help them to make sense of the world they inhabit. Hulit,
Howard and Fahey (2011) found that 1-year-olds spend an average of 80 minutes
per day watching television and 2-year-olds spend 2 hours per day. Their findings
reveal that children aged 2 months to 4 years significantly decrease their
vocalisations when in the presence of television. The authors conclude that the
resultant reduction in speech and conversation exercises is potentially harmful to
toddlers’ language acquisition and development skills. Therefore, adult attention
benefits learning prowess more than television programmes and other forms of
screen time.

In terms of language learning, toddlers do not relate well to non-human characters,

because their lip movements do not precisely match the word formations, thus
masking phonological information about new words. Mere exposure to language,
therefore, does not simply trigger an improved understanding of a language.
Toddlers need active engagement with their parents and teachers who can guide
their focuses and maintain their attention spans. However, once a child has
established a foundational vocabulary and can focus uninterruptedly on television
programmes – generally after 22 months – then the acquisition of new language
information via educational media is possible (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011).

2.7.3 Guided participation focusing on communication and language

development

Rogoff (1990) introduced the idea of guided participation – in terms of adult-toddler

interactions – during every-day experiences and activities, as opposed to structured
learning regimes. According to The National Institute of Toddler Health and Human
Development (1999), supportive and engaging adult-toddler interactions promote
toddlers’ competencies in their social domains. Dodici (2002) finds that toddlers who
grow up in low-income households hear prohibition statements by their parents twice
as many times as toddlers who live in medium- or upper-income households. These
prohibition statements have lasting negative effects on the toddlers’ language and
cognitive abilities. Similarly, toddlers from low-income households are exposed to

41
fewer words than toddlers from higher-income families. The number of words said to
a toddler per hour by an adult relates to their language abilities. Among the main
elements of parent-toddler engagement are joint attention opportunities as well as
the amount of time that parents and toddlers focus on the same topics. These
aspects play significant roles in communication and language development.

2.7.4 Factors effecting communication and language development through

listening, speaking and meaning making

2.7.4.1 Listening as a factor in communication and language development

According to the NCF (DBE, 2015), toddlers learn to communicate by listening to the
sounds around them, and especially the sounds made by others such as adults.
Toddlers listen to the volumes and pitches of the sounds they hear and make
meaning of those sounds. They are attentive when spoken to and can understand
some of what they hear during conversations. They enjoy listening to stories read to
them and imitate sounds heard in their environment. They follow verbal instructions
and like hearing answers to their questions. Toddlers thrive in their learning when the
other persons listen to them intently and engage their own attention – they learn with
their ears as well as their eyes (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). They learn that a
conversation entails persons taking turns to talk and listen, so they will intently look
at adults and wait patiently for them to finish talking before responding.

Manolson (1992) describes how many parents’ react when their children appear
disinterested; it involves them taking over, retaliating or withdrawing, and asserting
their own positions during the situation. Adults usually increase a toddler’s resistance
when they try to break it down. When toddlers do not respond easily, adults often
respond on their behalves, thinking that they are making things easier. An adult’s
undivided attention, however, provides the toddler with the security and
encouragement to make any effort worthwhile. Toddlers need time to collect their
thoughts and decide how they want to respond. When a parent gives a child
adequate time to respond, the parent signals to them that they have an opportunity
to say something. The act of listening to children allows parents to understand
children and respond sensitively. Parents who take the time to observe, who
recognise their children’s feelings, who wait and give their children opportunities to

42
express themselves in their own ways and who listen all encourage children to
advance their communicative abilities.

Books, according to Manolson (1992), are powerful sources of communicative

development. When toddlers listen to stories read out loud to them, their
concentration span strengthens. This confirms that an adult’s involvement
encourages a toddler to learn a language. By reading and rereading a familiar story
to a child, a parent reinforces the meaning of newly learned words. Imitating,
expanding, labelling and taking turns occur naturally when parents share reading
experiences with toddlers. Toddlers’ interactive skills can be enhanced when they
are encouraged to find or name objects in a book. This interaction can be
established by the serve and return principle, explained below (Reynolds & Burton,
2017).

John Bowlby (Reynolds & Burton, 2017) founded the serve and return concept that
encourages back-and-forth responsive and attentive interactions between adults and
children, thereby building foundations for later development and learning. A serve
occurs when a child points at something, moves a body part, makes a facial
expression or utters a sound. The returning of the serve involves five steps: noticing
the serve and diverting own attention to the child, engaging the child by showing
interest, naming something, keeping the conversation going by taking turns to
communicate, and finally acknowledging endings of the interactive sessions, such as
when the child appears ready to move onto some other activity. It is at all times
important to let toddlers know they are being listened to.

2.7.4.2 Speaking as a factor in communication and language development

According to the NCF (DBE, 2015), toddlers speak through making meaningful
sounds to the people around them by trying out new words and saying sentences.
Toddlers hear words and sentences and copy the sounds. They have fun playing
games with sound, like when they can sing and participate in an activity. Oftentimes
toddlers speak by singing. They talk to others and themselves about their
experiences, and they call their scribbles "writing" that they can "read". Toddlers can
keep simple conversations going and are able to use various single words when they
are 18 months old. They can use two- to three- word phrases by the age of 2 years.

43
Play is one of the best ways for toddlers to learn how to communicate since they
prefer to learn by doing (Manolson, 1992). Play teaches toddlers how to take turns,
which is important since taking turns with actions and words is an element of
communication. Toddlers learn and remember objects and words when they see,
hear, feel, smell and taste during the experiences. Learning is strengthened when
various senses send the same message to the brain.

Parents can harness their toddlers’ playing hours to the benefit of their language
learning. While they play, the parents can think of realistic communication goals and
plan their communicative activities. They can participate in a playing session with a
toddler to help the learning process along. Early social games help toddlers to learn
because they use limited actions, sounds and words. The games are repetitive and
hence predictable, which allow toddlers to understand the basics of communication:
Who does what, what happens and when to take turns (Manolson, 1992). When
language elements combine with experience, toddlers can learn fast and start to take
the lead in conversations. When they have mastered the art of focusing their
attention, imitating actions and sounds, taking turns and anticipating what comes
next, they are ready to absorb new words. Toddlers can further their pre-language
communicative skills through music activities such as singing to nursery rhymes and
humming lullabies. Musical structures help them to anticipate what comes next and
to concentrate on that, which is among the foundations of learning to communicate.
Musical activities encourage physical contact, repetition, taking turns, non-verbal
responses, vocal play, action, speech and timing of words.

Adults and older children talk, interact and communicate with toddlers. Toddlers
learn that their vocalisations influence the social behaviour of those they interact with
(Levine et al., 2016). Otto (2014) distinguishes between the two key interaction
patterns of communication loops and shared references. A communication loop
comprises a cyclical exchange of the participation of speaker and listener. These
include speaking, listening and responding. A shared reference denotes the
communication between two individuals about a certain event. When parents
respond to toddlers’ non-verbal behaviour and maintain their attention, they create a
situation where linguistic exchange can occur.

44
Manolson (1992) explains that parents who expand on their toddlers’ messages help
them to understand more about their experiences and to learn to say new words. For
instance, when a toddler says, “Mummy work”, the parent can respond with “Yes,
Mummy went to work” (Manolson, 1992). Such exchanges expose toddlers to new
ideas about how they can connect language to whatever interests them. They begin
to understand how events and objects are associated, and learn to use language to
express more complete ideas. Therefore, by expanding toddlers’ sentences, parents
assist their acquisition of language by guiding them to understand the grammatical
functions and rules by which words are combined. Just by adding a word or action to
something a toddler just said reveals linguistic information to the toddler at a stage
when they are interested in learning.

The greatest gift that adults can give to toddlers is by assisting them in learning to
communicate and connecting with their worlds. It takes two to talk. At times, an adult
may become frustrated with a toddler who is unable, uninterested or impossible to
understand, causing fewer opportunities for encouraging the toddler to improve
his/her ability to communicate. Toddlers often fail to communicate, not because they
are uninterested, but because they are unsure of how to respond (Manolson, 1992).
At times, while the toddlers may know how they want to respond, they fear the adults
would not understand what they are communicating and then withdraw from
communicating. To the parents, it may appear as if the toddlers are being
unreasonable, but the toddlers do not yet know of other measures of communicating
and are simply using the skills they currently have.

When adults communicate face-to-face with toddlers, they guide them to learn more
about them, their facial expressions and state of alertness (Manolson, 1992). The
toddlers focus then on the way the adults’ mouths move to form the words they hear.
They also experience adults’ acceptance of their attempts to communicate. An adult
who talks to a toddler – and not at a toddler – teaches the toddler about the give-
and-take processes of communication. In this way, toddlers learn when to lead and
follow in conversations.

By visibly interpreting their attempts at communication, adults assure toddlers that

their messages have been received; this scenario provides toddlers with a language
model to learn from (Reynolds & Burton, 2017). When adults interpret for toddlers,
45
they say a word as the toddlers would if they could, which allows them to hear the
correct word for what they are trying to say. Waiting with anticipation for a toddler to
respond allows the toddler to take an active part in the conversation (Law et al.,
2017; Levine et al., 2016; Manolson, 1992). Commenting on a toddler’s message
also encourages them to share information on everyday activities, as they become
aware that others have an interest in their messages. The further toddlers progress
in their communicative endeavours the more conversations they will want to have,
and the more turns they take the more opportunities they have to learn (Manolson,
1992).

Toddlers communicate daily through gestures, words and phrases, and they may
construct simple sentences to convey messages that could sometimes be difficult to
understand (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). Toddlers may develop a unique jargon and,
for instance, utter a sequence of sounds such as “ba bad a da to le?” with their own
intonations to communicate what seems to be a very important piece of information
to them. They may place repeated emphasis on different sounds, yet their utterances
may be difficult for adults to understand. Toddlers can then get highly frustrated in
those instances, though adults can defuse such situations calmly by encouraging the
toddler to take their hand and show them what they want, for example.

Lots of recent speculation in various media sources centred on the advice to parents
to refrain from speaking to their toddlers in 'baby talk', but parents and teachers still,
subconsciously, use a special language when interacting with children. Toddlers also
appear more attentive when it is used (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). Most adults use
this form and in doing so they signal to the toddlers that they are partners in
communication partners. They also establish language models for their toddlers and,
in many cases, child-directed speech (CDS) builds affectionate relationships
between adults and children.

Adults can use questions to either start a conversation, take a conversational turn or
gain information from toddlers (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). True questions are asked
when the adult does not know the answer. Closed questions are asked to test the
toddler and have only one correct answer (“What is that?”). Open-ended questions
have more than one acceptable answer (“What song would you like to hear next?”).
Choice questions (“Do you want juice or milk?”) are excellent questions for toddlers
46
who are learning to exercise some independence from adults. Toddlers benefit and
enjoy interactions with parents and teachers who use conversation-eliciting styles of
communication. Such styles promote conversational turns, maintain mutual interests
in topics and cancel the use of directives. In contrast, directive styles are
characterised by infrequent questions, frequent directives, monologues, rapidly
changing topics and low degrees of maintaining a conversational topic. The issuing
of frequent prohibitions for behaviour – such as “Stop that!” or “Don’t! – results in
less favourable learning outcomes for toddlers in comparison to active listening
strategies that involve repeating, paraphrasing and extending of toddlers’
statements.

2.7.4.3 Meaning making as a factor in communication and language development

Babies between 10 and 11 months old can follow an adult’s gaze. The duration of
that gaze predicts language scores at the age of 2 (Levine et al., 2016). Similarly, a
toddler’s ability to point and vocalise in redirecting parental attention at the age of 10
to 13 months predicts language comprehension at 15 months (Law et al., 2017;
Levine et al., 2016). Another critical aspect of communication is the process of turn-
taking or interactive dialogue. Toddlers become partners in communicative dialogues
whilst participating in turn-taking (non-verbal or involving speech) (Otto, 2014).
Bruner (1990) asserts that language is acquired through active participation in
language use, which is a method preferred to being a spectator. Exposure to the flow
of language through an outside source is helpful but not as important as doing
(talking). A toddler’s continuous participation in communication loops is critical to
language development and social interaction (Otto, 2014). The frequency of speech
directed to toddlers, the range of words used and the way new words are presented
to them influence toddlers’ development of their word-learning attributes.

Taking turns with a toddler during conversations encourages longer conversations

and hence allows more opportunities for meaning making (Manolson, 1992; Otto,
2014; Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). A turn can be an expression, sound or gesture. As
a toddler matures, their turns during conversations progress to words, phrases and
sentences (Manolson, 1992). Daily life provides ample opportunities to share
experiences, take turns, exchange ideas and maintain conversations with toddlers.
These conversations allow toddlers to express their thoughts and to discover that it
47
can be a useful device in obtaining new information about their worlds. Adults need
to keep those conversations going for as long as possible. They can extend
conversations by asking questions to show interest and create anticipation.
Questions serve to extend toddlers’ thinking, guides them in learning how to make
decisions and stir their curiosity levels. It is best to avoid questions that stop
conversations such as “What is this?” that could confuse a toddler and elicit no
response. It is better to prompt their responses with “What is next?”, “What is
happening” or “What if …?” types of questions. Toddlers naturally differ in their
respective interests and abilities to communicate. By being sensitive to their
changing moods, behaviours and agendas, parents and teachers can adapt their
own behaviour to share experiences with toddlers effectively. Adult sensitivity to
toddlers’ behaviour creates shared moments that are critical to toddlers’ feelings of
security and confidence.

Newman and Hussain (2006) suggest that 13-month-old toddlers need more than
just child-directed speech. They need adults to responsively talk about past and
present events, feelings and their reasons for actions. They also require adults to
use sentence structures that are slightly above the toddler’s level of language. In
summary, adults should adopt as many as possible of the following strategies:

 Use responsive talk

 Use decreased vocabulary and shorter sentences
 Direct communication towards the toddler
 Elongate the vowels in words (“Ooooh, whaaat is that?”)
 Talk about what is immediately present
 Exaggerate voice pitch and intonation
 Label words, nouns and actions
 Use questions to elicit speech
 Paraphrase previous utterances (toddler says “We go”, then adult rephrases
with “Yes, we are going”)
 Repeat words and phrases frequently
 Use longer pauses between words and utterances
 Repeat words in sentences (“The bird is a blue bird”).

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2.8 STRATEGIES FOR PARENTS AND TEACHERS TO SUPPORT TODDLERS
IN EXPRESSING THEMSELVES

Wittmer and Petersen (2014) identify the following strategies for parents and
teachers to support toddlers in their efforts to learn how to express themselves and
become competent communicators:

2.8.1 Building relationships

When people care about others, they usually want to communicate with that person.
Toddlers communicate when they feel that it is pleasant to do so, when they are in
loving and warm environments and when they know that others will respond to their
communicative efforts. They will want to communicate when they feel safe and cared
for. Adults need to be empathetic language partners (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014).

MRQECCE (DHET, 20I7, paragraph 15) suggests that ECD educators should
embrace “transformative pedagogy which respects the contributions of families and
culture in the lives of babies, toddlers and young children; which views children,
educators and families as learners, which considers learning as occurring through a
co-constructed, collaborative and interactive process and which views the child as
competent in communication”. When adults allow the voice of a child to be heard,
they ensure that literacy opportunities would occur through a “co-constructed,
collaborative and interactive process”.

2.8.2 Responding and taking turns with toddlers

By interacting with toddlers, adults assist children in learning how to use language to
communicate (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). Toddlers learn that communication is an
effective way of meeting their needs when they receive responses to their gestures
and utterances. When toddlers use words, adults need to respond and, in turn, wait
for them to respond again. This conversational dance of talking in turns helps
toddlers to grasp the pragmatics of conversation in social contexts. Such
conversations build toddlers’ vocabularies and enhance their abilities to become
proficient communicators and conversational partners.

49
Adults should be mindful not to dominate conversations with toddlers or to flood their
minds with too much language information. They ought to be interactive language
partners who focus simply on responsive interactions and equal give-and-take style
conversations. According to NELDS (DBE, 2009), among a toddler’s competencies
is the uttering of simple sentences, which is enabled when adults respond to them.
Adults should also invite conversation, according to the NCF, as toddlers pay
attention to and can comprehend much of what is said during conversations (DBE,
2015).

2.8.3 Responding to non-verbal communication

Toddlers often use actions to convey messages (Begus & Southgate, 2012; Wittmer
& Petersen, 2014; Law et al., 2017). When toddlers run towards adults, it could
mean they wish to connect with the adults. When toddlers kick their feet, it could
mean they are uncomfortable. When adults understand and respond to toddlers’
non-verbal communication, they assure them that they are communication partners.

2.8.4 Using self-talk and parallel talk

Self-talk, in terms of communication with toddlers, is the talking that an adult does in
the presence of a toddler that describes what the adult is doing. Parallel talk is the
talking that an adult does to describe to the toddler what the toddler is doing at that
moment in time (Hart & Risley, 1999; Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). This strategy ties
language to objects and acts, allowing words to come alive and contain meaning for
a toddler.

2.8.5 Talking often while using a rich and varied vocabulary

Prior research studies have revealed that the quality and number of conversations
between adults and toddlers directly affect how toddlers learn to talk (Whyatt, 1995;
Hart & Risley, 1999; Honig, 1996; Shonkoff & Meisels, 2000; Wittmer & Petersen,
2014; Levine et al., 2016). The daily number of different words used by adults in the
presence of toddlers, the number of conversations and positive affirmations all relate
to toddlers’ language development (Hart & Risley, 1999).

50
Researchers have found differences in the ways that parents talk to their toddlers;
some parents expose them to more words than others. Toddlers with talkative
parents at the age of 3 tend to talk more and have a richer vocabulary, averaging
three times the amount of statements and twice as many words used per hour in
comparison to toddlers with less talkative parents. Hart and Risley (1999) confirm
that parents who spend more time talking, using language-rich routines and
interacting with their toddlers enable the rapid expansion of toddlers’ vocabularies. A
parent who talks to a toddler while changing a diaper, or who shows a toddler his
ears, nose, knees and toes at opportune moments, further the toddler’s knowledge
of different words.

2.8.6 Using joint attention strategies

A toddler learns best when an adult talks about an object while the toddler’s attention
is fixed on that object (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). Joint attention occurs when the
adult and toddler simultaneously focus on the same object. Adults who name the
objects when toddlers look at or point at those objects help the toddlers to attach the
correct language labels to various objects (Law et al., 2017; Levine et al., 2016;
Manolson, 1992; Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). These sessions of shared attention
enhance toddlers’ language development.

2.8.7 Using the 4 E’s approach

This approach comprises the following four elements: First, for adults to encourage
toddlers by listening and responding to them, and by refraining from correcting their
use of grammar (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). Adults can expand the syntactic and
semantic elements of the toddlers’ conversational turns, and then elaborate and
extend the words, sounds and sentences used.

Imitation of the sounds of words and the expansion of their language models
constitute the next step in toddlers’ development. When toddlers hear expanded
word forms, they are then more likely to adopt those forms into their language
models (Manolson, 1992; Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). The benefit of this process is
that toddlers then feel like they have become the language equals of adults. This is

51
an effective method of promoting toddlers’ further use and development of their
language skills.

2.8.8 Using semantically responsive talk

The habit of taking speaking turns (Manolson, 1992; Reynolds & Burton, 2017) and
staying on topic translates to toddlers being more likely to continue conversations
than the occasions when adults respond but by changing the topic (Otto, 2014;
Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). An adult’s semantic elaboration, while staying on topic,
supports toddlers’ tendencies to stay on topic as well. For instance, when a toddler
talks about an aeroplane and the adult responds with other relevant information
about the colour or shape of the aeroplane, then the toddler is more likely to stay on
topic and continue the conversation.

2.8.9 Using child-directed speech

As mentioned in Chapter 1, baby talk or child-directed speech (CDS) is a special

language – used by adults and older children – used in the presence of toddlers, and
is signified by shorter sentences and decreased vocabularies. Parents and teachers
use significantly different speech patterns when conversing with toddlers in
comparison with their speech in the company of other adults. The adults simplify
their language to maintain the toddlers’ attention and hence facilitate their acquisition
of language models. When the baby talk is continued for too long while the toddlers
grow up, it can limit their development (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011; Manolson,
1992; Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). Adults using CDS direct toddlers’ attention to
themselves, or they can direct their attention to other objects by pointing to it.

Although prior research has focused on ways that baby talk may slow toddlers’
language development down, other studies indicate that adults who use baby talk
are modelling bite-size pieces of language that toddlers can digest and practice,
while they are at the commencement stage of communication (Whyatt, 1995; Otto,
2014; Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). Toddlers tune in to pitch variations, speech
sounds, stresses on syllables, words, gestures, expressions and the rhythms of
adults’ utterances, especially when they engage in face-to-face interactions with
adults (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011). When speaking to toddlers, adults place more

52
emphasis on their pitch, loudness, stress, rhythm and intonation than on the words
themselves. CDP is produced with higher than normal pitch levels, with intonational
patterns involving greater extremes of low and high pitches than are typically used in
adult-to-adult conversations.

Hulit, Howard and Fahey's study (2011) examined toddlers’ responses to two speech
conditions. They were first exposed to high-pitched speech and the exaggerated
prosodic elements usually associated with CDS, but without a sense of happiness or
joy in the voices. The toddlers then listened to speech delivered in an adult-to-adult
style, but expressed joyfully. The study results indicated that children prefer joyful or
happy speech, even if it lacks the high pitches and prosodic elements characterised
by CDS.

2.8.10 Reading, singing, using finger plays and social games

Playful activities, such as peek-a-boo, are useful to ensure enjoyable language

experiences for toddlers (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). NELDS (DBE, 2009) lists other
ways to pleasantly stimulate toddlers’ learning processes, such as using language
games, employing various volumes and tones while telling stories, creating relaxing
and fun conditions while reading from children’s books and by creating new stories
together.

2.9 SUMMARY

The reviewed literature indicates that parents participate in their children’s literacy
development by helping to mould their language and communication abilities, which
renders parents as the initial teachers. Parents represent an important
commencement factor in communicative growth and language learning (Garbe et al.,
2016).

Globally, specialists have developed teaching policies to accommodate early

learning and communicative development. This prompted a campaign to develop
updated teaching programmes to improve the skills of ECD practitioners as well as
families. A lack of coherent policies and research examples exists in South Africa.
This circumstance causes a gap in the local knowledge base that affects the quality
of training of both parents and ECCE teachers in relation to toddlers’ communication
53
and language development. The competent use of language allows a young person
to develop a sense of personal identity as an individual in society. Language
competency is, therefore, vitally important in ensuring a learner’s future successes in
classrooms and beyond (Scribner, 2013).

Toddlers who are frequently engaged in conversation by their parents and teachers
are further advanced in language learning than toddlers who receive fewer
opportunities to hone their communication skills. Literature revealed that parents and
teachers should utilise all forms of language – via songs, rhymes and stories – to
strengthen toddlers’ social interaction prowess and to provide the necessary access
to language sources that could further assist toddlers in their learning endeavours.
Chapter 3 bellow explains the research methodology.

54
 Chapter 3:
3RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Qualitative methodological
approach
Research questions
Gathering data from parents, teachers
and toddlers, prioritising the situations
and existing world views naturally

Selection and
design of cases and
participants
Interpretivist paradigm
Understanding how participants make
sense of the world around them

Data generation
instruments and
Multiple case study research Photovoice process
design Interviews
Observing participants over time and
Observations
activity through multiple collection
procedures to gather detailed data and Field notes
information over a set period

Generation of data,
analysis and
interpretation

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3.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2 contains reviews of relevant literature sources relating to the

communication and language development of toddlers and the roles that parents and
teachers play in those processes. Chapter 3 details the research design and the
interpretive method used to complete the multiple case studies included in the
research plan. This chapter further outlines the techniques involved in utilising the
methods, instruments, and data generation and analysis processes (Rule & John,
2011). Multiple data generation techniques were used, as explained in this chapter.

This qualitative study’s objective was to gain an understanding of parent and teacher
perceptions regarding the communication and language development of toddlers in
their natural setting. I afforded due weight to participants’ experiences and views to
obtain rich explanations of their understanding of the topic. To allow the views of the
sampled parents and teachers to rise to the surface, I conducted my investigations in
their natural environments and by employing visual media.

The study addressed the following research questions:

Main research question

 How do parents and teachers perceive the communication and language

development of toddlers?

Secondary research questions

These questions assist in producing a comprehensive answer to the main research

question:

1. How do parents perceive the communication and language development of

their toddlers?
2. How do teachers perceive the communication and language development of
their toddlers?
3. Which factors influence the communication and language development of
toddlers?

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3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

The study’s research design included multiple case studies that were investigated
within the parameters of a qualitative approach. The characteristics of this design
include being naturalistic, descriptive, interpretive and rational (Maree, 2016).

3.2.1 Multiple case study methodology

A multiple case study, as defined by Rule and John (2011), is a systematic and in-
depth investigation of certain instances, in their contexts, for knowledge production.
It offers rich insight into situations, events and people. By using this method, I
developed an in-depth analysis of multiple cases that included toddlers, parents and
teachers (all being the primary participants). These multiple cases entailed the
observation of research participants over time in terms of their perceptions and
activities, while various methods of data generation produced detailed information for
analysis. Furthermore, multiple case studies involve the exhibition and systematic
categorisation of related but unstructured information as obtained from various
participating sources.

Hitchcock and Hughes (1995) list the features of multiple case studies as follows:

 They contain detailed descriptions of events relevant to the involved individuals

 They illuminate and offer narratives of events relevant to the case
 They offer combined descriptions and analysis of events
 They formulate individual perceptions of events
 The researchers collect and assemble all the essential pieces of the case
 They explore current situations
 They focus on one setting where interrelated issues are present
 They use large quantities of the case data.

According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2013), multiple case studies enable
researchers to grasp the nature of experiences in specific circumstances more
clearly than through the sole application of theories and principles, which make it an
important foundation of research data. Multiple case studies depict the how and why,
the cause and effect. They promote intense probing and analysis of phenomena that
allows valid generalisations and conclusions relating to sample populations. They

57
provide a multi-perspective analysis since they consider views from various
performers instead of limiting perspectives to a single voice within a situation (Maree,
2016). Multiple case studies comprise extraordinary samples of real people (Cohen,
Manion & Morrison, 2013), which is an important facet in this study where real
parents and teachers expressed their views with sincerity, thereby allowing me to
obtain an in-depth understanding of the research topic.

The power of multiple case studies lies in witnessing and recording the effects of
events, as they are, and in actual circumstances (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2013).
They identify circumstances as both cause and effect. It is hence essential for
researchers to develop a thorough understanding of the studied phenomenon to do
justice to a multiple case study format. Multiple case studies promote the
development of peoples’ powers of comprehension (Maree, 2016). Researchers,
however, should avoid any internal biases to influence the research findings and
conclusions, and guard against the forming of unjustified generalisations. For this
reason, I employed multiple data generation methods to gather a variety of
perspectives.

3.2.2 Selection of sites

I formulated a criterion to identify six study cases from three ECD centres. These
cases involved observations of six toddlers (three girls and three boys) at three
different ECD centres in Centurion, Midstream and Mamelodi, within the Tshwane
municipal region. I selected the specific ECD centres because they contained
diverse toddlers from various cultures such as different religions, socio-economic
backgrounds and race. The range of socio-economic backgrounds included higher-
income, medium-income and poor areas. The selected ECD centres also reflected
this distribution. The availability to time, finances and resources dictated the size of
the sample population.

The toddlers’ parents agreed to capture information and report on language and
communication interactions within their households. A single teacher from each
school was selected, on condition that the selected toddlers attend their classroom
sessions. These toddlers were observed and their interactions recorded on tracking
observation sheets.

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3.2.3 Selection of participants

I used criterion sampling to select the ECD centres where the study was conducted.
This form of sampling involves the selection of cases that meet a criterion of
importance and was used when specific criteria are stated for the selection of cases
involved in the study (Creswell, 2013). Various required characteristics were
formulated before deciding which cases to include in the study. According to Bertram
and Christiansen (2014), all cases should meet the required criteria set for the study.
The selected participants, therefore, needed to have the relevant experiences
necessary to answer the research questions.

Similarly, the sites chosen for interviews and observations should not overwhelm the
researcher with political or ethical issues. As researcher, I needed to first consider
the economic status of each ECD centre before identifying the sample population
members within this larger population. The teachers, who knew the toddlers well,
selected the most appropriate and available children for each case study. I obtained
consent from the parents as well as assent by the toddlers themselves, either
indirectly or directly (when communication was possible). Each teacher needed to
have had at least two years’ experience with 18 to 30 months old toddlers at their
respective ECD centres. This study primarily harnessed the parents’ and teachers’
responses and contributions.

3.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD

Qualitative research is a collection of research built up over time (Maree, 2016). The
strength of this approach is that it yields depth and richness of descriptions and
explorations. The qualitative method was suitable for the study as it led me to
understand participants’ meanings in relation to specific contexts of their lives. This
approach relates to non-experimental methods and procedures, as illustrated by the
strategy to collect data from the parents, teachers and toddlers in their natural
environments and by prioritising their natural ways (Maree et al., 2012). The data
generation was given meaning through interpretation. The data – collected by means
of pictures, symbols, words, non-numerical forms, artefacts and materials – were
qualitatively harnessed to enable understanding, interpretations and analyses. This
process of qualitative research is inductive, non-positivist and theory-gathering

59
(McNabb, 2015). The toddlers were observed in their natural learning surroundings
(by their parents at their homes) while the parents and teachers were interviewed at
the toddler’s ECD centres. This means that the parents’ and teachers’ views were
similarly heard and interpreted.

I, as the researcher, assigned meaning to the collected data through interpretation

thereof (Creswell, 2013) and used interpretivism as the epistemological lens through
which I interpreted information and obtained insights into participants’ understanding,
views and experiences (Athanasou & Maree, 2012). The utilisation of an inductive
method assisted my investigation of cases; I could focus on identifying the
characteristics of phenomena to provide me with in-depth understanding and valid
interpretation of data. I strived to enrich the study’s identified theory with an accurate
analysis of the data with its phenomenology qualities that needed to be recognised
(Rule & John, 2011). For these reasons, a qualitative approach was best suited to
gain a thorough understanding of the studied phenomenon. The research findings
represent the participants’ voices, views, interpretations and perspectives of relevant
phenomena (Creswell, 2013). The participants expressed their opinions and
perspectives in interviews conducted by myself.

Table 3.1: Applied characteristics and relevance of qualitative research (adapted

from Creswell, 2013)

Characteristic Relevance to this study

Data collected in a natural Data was collected at the centres where teachers worked
setting and parents delivered and fetched their toddlers.
Researcher as primary Data was collected through interviews and photovoice with
research instrument parents and teachers using open-ended questions. The
researcher conducted all interviews.
Reasoning through inductive The purpose of the data analysis was to gain deeper
logic understanding of parent and teacher perceptions of the
communication and language development of toddlers. I
also observed toddlers for trustworthiness purposes.
Reflection of participants’ All research findings represented the participants’
perspectives perceptions.
Sensitivity to researcher bias I, as researcher, was aware that the research findings
(reflexivity) needed to reflect the participants’ true perceptions of
toddlers’ communication and language development, and
that the researcher needed to constantly reflect objectivity.

60
Research presented The aim was to present research findings that reveal an in-
holistically depth understanding of the investigated phenomenon
(participants’ perceptions on the topic).

3.4 RESEARCH PARADIGM

Reality is perceived from an interpretive paradigm concerning the individual during

this study. The interpretive paradigm mainly revolves around how participants make
sense of the world around them (Bertram & Christiansen, 2014). Interpretivist
researchers study phenomena through the eyes of the participants in their natural
context. The purpose of this paradigm is to understand the world of human
experience and to retain the phenomena’s integrity while being investigated (Cohen,
Manion & Morrison, 2013). It involves the researcher entering (going inside) the
participant’s world and comprehending the studied phenomenon from within.

Researchers need to be direct in understanding and valuing the research topic to

construct the research theory. Participants are the main source of data, which is
generated by their purposeful and meaningful contributions. According to Maree
(2016), interpretive researchers attempt to understand phenomena through the
meanings that people assign to the phenomena. He adds that the human mind is
understood in different ways, such as from within or from an external (but not
independent) social context (Maree, 2016). A crucial aim is to analyse an
investigated situation to obtain a clear understanding of the ways that people create
meaning in relation to certain phenomena.

As researcher, I employed an interpretive lens to investigate how various interactions

(in a determined context) influence the participants’ perceptions of reality. Reality is
defined by the construction of meaning or through the interpretations of perspectives.
Theory follows research, which was generated throughout the study and used as a
lens to obtain an understanding of the phenomenon (Cohen, Manion & Morrison,
2013; Creswell, 2013). I attempted to set aside any existing assumptions and
followed the principles of phenomenology by inspecting the studied phenomenon as
experienced and described by the research participants. My purpose was to obtain
additional insight and new interpretations of known knowledge about toddlers’
communication and language development (Rule & John, 2011).
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3.5 DATA GENERATION INSTRUMENTS AND PROCESS

The following figure represents the strategy of data generation as used in this study.

1. Data
sources:
Participants
Documents
Articles

2. Method of
4. Data data
generation generation:
process Data Photovoice
Organisation generation
Narrative
and classification interviews
of data
Observation

3. Collection
instruments:
Interview
questions
Child tracking
observation
sheets
Recorded audio

Figure 3.1: Elements of data generation

Figure 3.1 represents the activities of the researcher and research participants.
Firstly, the parents and teachers, as participants, displayed their understanding of
toddlers’ communication and language development by capturing photos of the
selected toddlers in their natural environments during moments of communication or
signs of language use. Secondly, they attributed meaning to these photographs by
narrating the events. Thirdly, they expressed their views and opinions on these
events and answered other applicable questions during the interview. Fourthly, the
researcher gained a thorough understanding of the lives and views of these

62
participants through these activities. The following are methods that were used when
generating data:

3.5.1 Visual method

The visual methodologies had a key function in the collection and analysis of data.
These are collections of methods used to interpret and understand images,
prompting a sense of patterns to emerge out of participants’ visual works and
producing a narrative outcome that contributes to the researcher’s insight and
knowledge base (Pink, 2012). Visual methodology was used to strengthen the
understanding of the phenomena in this study. This was achieved by using
photographs to illustrate what participants know and understand and to capture
participants’ truths and reality. Visual methodology, therefore, constituted a rich
source of data for this study.

This method was successfully utilised as a discrete means of collecting data while
the participants were comfortable in their environments. Participants were afforded
the opportunities, by means of the visual imagery, to directly express their truthful
perspectives and understanding. This method is creative since it captures an
onlooker’s attention visually (Creswell, 2013). This study harnessed the participants’
knowledge of the researched phenomenon to add depth to existing insights and
knowledge. This method further allowed the participants to view their own opinions of
the phenomenon, making them even more aware of what goes on around them
concerning their toddlers’ communication and language development.

Participants captured the visual research data during their contact sessions with the
toddlers. The capture and examination of the variety of images served to be vital in
finding answers to the secondary research questions. I conducted the field research
processes in my individual capacity by enabling the generation of research data
through photography, making transcriptions of voice recordings and analysing the
visual and textual evidence. It is beneficial to a study when the researcher is familiar
with every element of the collected material (Mohangi, 2008), as was the case in this
study.

63
Visual media data can easily be interpreted incorrectly (Creswell, 2013). This
potential problem was avoided by interviewing the participants and recording their
narratives and views concerning the images. This process made it easier to obtain a
clear understanding of the collected data.

Triangulation can improve the interpretations of qualitative research data by utilising

multiple methods or data sources to develop an understanding of the phenomenon
(Carter et al., 2014). I utilised various sources of information for this purpose – as
suggested by Athanasou and Maree (2012) – in terms of participants, time and
settings. Researchers should consider asking several questions when they use
visual imagery and attempt to perceive the information in multiple ways (Cohen,
Manion & Morrison, 2013). Even though this may be considered a limitation, the use
of a variety of visual captures provided me with a wider and more open way of
conducting the research. Certain criteria need to be met, however, when employing
visual methodology, such as treating the images with serious respect and refraining
from reducing them to a single context (Rose, 2012). Moreover, other tools for
gathering data were incorporated, which helped to clarify participants’ true meanings
and ascertain exactly what they wished to reveal.

The parents and teachers of toddlers were asked to (and agreed to) capture the
moments during their daily lives that relate to their toddlers’ communicative learning
efforts. The participants brought their photographs to the interview sessions during
which they narrated the captured moments and shared their views on those events
and situations.

3.5.1.1 Photovoice as a visual method

Photographs are used in educational research because of the way they realistically
present moments and events and serve as captured evidence or data. This form of
visual methodology was harnessed for this study as a particularly strong medium of
data generation.

Photovoice is a qualitative process of combining pictures and words as well as

capturing situations (Palibroda et al., 2009). Wang (1999), while conducting
community-based research, developed this process to empower community

64
members to collaborate and enhance their communities through photographic
techniques. It creates photographic evidence and symbolic representations of a
community to indicate how they observe the world. Photographs convey real-life
visuals, depicting meaning. They provide accurate data, considerations,
significances and surface evidence. Photographs can convey the 'mood' of real life
since they can capture diverse places, atmospheres, drama and sentiments. They
have documentary and interpretive value and meaning, serving as sources of data
as well as supportive evidence of different texts and data sets. They add value to the
endeavours of both researchers and participants. A single picture can convey what a
thousand words do in text (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2013).

Participants were requested to use their mobile phones to capture the selected
toddlers’ activities and communicative efforts. The pictures were first e-mailed to me
for initial evaluations and later used during interviews when the participants could
narrate and explain those captured moments. The parents and teachers were briefed
a week before the observations were due to commence on how to capture photos
relevant to the toddlers’ communication and language development. While I
observed and got the toddlers used to my presence to avoid their treating me as an
intruder, I explained to the parents and teachers what I required for the photos and
what I expected from the interviews.

The parents and teachers were informed about seven parameters, listed below, to
validate pictures as useful research data. The eighth point is a question I posed to
the participants. When I met with participants during the research periods, they could
narrate the captured events and answer some of these printed questions.

The photos taken by parents and teachers needed to address or illustrate the
majority of the following questions:

1. How does the toddler communicate that they want food?

2. How does the toddler communicate that they need to go to the toilet or need a
diaper change?
3. How does the toddler ask for their choice of clothing to wear in the morning?
4. How does the toddler communicate their choice of toys to play with?
5. How does the toddler communicate to have stories read to them?

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6. How does the toddler respond to games and songs?
7. How does the toddler communicate their happiness or sadness?
8. Look at these three pictures. Of the three images, which one do you think
portrays the most communication? Which one do you perceive to be more
advantageous for your toddler’s development, and why do you say so?

3.5.2 Individual interviews as a data generation method

Researchers conduct face-to-face interviews with participants during qualitative

research. The interviews involve asking limited open-ended and unstructured
questions anticipated to reflect the understanding and perceptions of the interviewed
participants (Creswell, 2013). Interviews are followed by the making of transcriptions
(text versions) for data analysis and archiving purposes (Maree, 2016).

Participants who are not comfortable expressing opinions in groups have the
opportunity to present their individual views during one-on-one interviews. A
controlled line of questioning assisted me in this study to probe and search for
information related to the studied phenomenon. Each interview was conducted on an
individual face-to-face basis within the perimeters of each ECD centre. This personal
approach encourages participants to openly discuss a variety of topics, which solves
the potential problem of shyness or reserved behaviour among participants
(Creswell, 2013). Participants could construct their own meaning of the subject
matter since the interview questions were broad, open-ended and general in nature,
which helped to establish a friendly and spontaneous atmosphere for the interviews.

Each open-ended interview was recorded on audiotape and later converted to

transcripts for analysis. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2013) mention that meaningful
elements of interviews can get lost if the research relies only on transcribed versions
of verbal data. Therefore, to enhance the value of the fieldwork and capture rich
data, I noted additional feelings and gestures exhibited by the participants as well as
any significant environmental factors like the atmosphere and detail about the
settings.

Interviews are social encounters. However, I needed to obtain permission from the
participants before I could make recordings of the interviews. The audio recordings

66
were used to capture any responses that may have been overlooked during an
interview. The recordings were also used to review participants’ answers and to
compile additional questions in the case of follow-up interviews. The use of a voice
recorder to transcribe interviews transformed these interviews into rich data. My
corresponding notes concerning participants’ gestures and the environment were
added to the text transcriptions.

Although interviews are valuable sources of information, they may be time

consuming, costly, biased, occasionally interrupted, and participants’ attention spans
may vary due to environmental conditions. In this study, I needed to be mindful that
interruptions were likely to happen since the participants were in an environment
where toddlers were present. Participants can also provide indirect information if
they, perhaps subconsciously, adopt the view of the researcher and provide answers
they think are expected of them. To prevent this situation, I made sure that the
participants remained unaware of my views and that I do not formulate questions to
nudge the participants’ responses in a certain direction.

When researches analyse, categorise, interpret and report data, they come across
various decisions and issues (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2013). Keeping the above
in mind and by using different sources of data, I managed to keep any internal
biases in check. I also called upon another researcher to evaluate the gathered
information and to identify any possible pre-dispositions.

I asked the following questions at the end of the interview sessions to gauge the
frequencies that the toddlers were exposed to communication and language
development activities at their homes and the ECD centres:

1. How often do you read to your toddler?

2. How often do you listen to your toddler?
3. How responsive are you to your toddler?
4. How often do you expose your toddler to books?
5. If English is not the toddler’s home language, do you speak English more often to
your toddler than their home language?

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3.5.3 Observations as a data generation method

Observations, in research terms, entail the process of recording participants’

behaviour and activities, including related events and objects within the study
settings, without being in continual contact with them (Maree, 2016). Observations
are conducted over time during which researchers employ their senses and intuitive
skills to gather qualified data. This strategy is useful when the research topic may be
sensitive or too complicated to discuss (Creswell, 2013). Observations are powerful
tools for gaining insight into situations.

On-site and first-hand experiences with the various cases (toddlers) were recorded
through various means, with the information made readily available to the
researcher. The mode of 'complete observer', meaning the researcher is a non-
participant observing from a distance, was used in this study (Maree, 2016). The
researcher identifies behavioural patterns, within a specific community, to
understand participants’ values, assumptions and beliefs while being mindful of the
social dynamics and participants’ backgrounds. Maree (2016) adds that the observer
should adopt a passive role and that data should not be aggressively searched and
harvested (to avoid a lack of focus). In this study, all the research-related events
were observed in the toddlers’ natural environment within the ECD centres.
Observations were recorded on child tracking observation sheets.

Entwistle (2013) points out that it is a weak strategy to merely rely on experiences to
gain an understanding of educational developments. Because events are not fixed
and always predictable, understanding them mainly relies on intuition and
experiences that are subjective by nature. Other factors that potentially could affect
studies of this nature include situations where participants regard researchers as
intruders in their domains, researchers not having adequate powers of observation
and the injudicious handling of private and sensitive information. Furthermore, a
participating toddler may want the researcher’s attention while the researcher should
remain uninvolved, thereby diverting natural occurrences during an observational
research period.

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3.5.4 The use of field notes

Field notes contain incidental observations that are recorded in lesser-structured

ways. Field notes can contribute narrative explanations about observations and
hence create new insights (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2013). Such notes assisted
me during interviews and observational sessions to saturate and support other data
elements. For instance, at times I made note of special words, remarks, impressions,
emotions or any other displays by participants that struck me as potentially useful
and relevant information to the research aims.

3.6 DATA-ANALYSING TECHNIQUES

Data analysis involves discovering meaning from text and image data (Creswell,
2013). The process involves taking apart and segmenting the data as though
“peeling back the layers of an onion” (Creswell, 2013, p. 195). This means that
qualitative analysis of the data is not independent of any other phase of a research
project. Some already-gathered data elements can be analysed while other data
segments are being collected for memos to be included in the final report. Even
though image and textual data are rich, they often cannot all be included for analysis.
As a result, I evaluated the collected data and extracted only the information relevant
to the research questions. I discarded the extraneous data mainly because they did
not contribute to achieving the research aims or influenced situational aspects under
review. This may be regarded as a limitation to this study; the discarded data,
however, can still be used in future related studies.

I collected data at the three ECD centres for one week each and interviewed parents
and teachers in-between. All interviews took place within the ECD centres. Tables
3.2 and 3.3 below summarises the data generation processes and instruments
employed during the fieldwork phase of research.

Table 3.2: Summative table of data gathering instruments

School 1 School 2 School 3

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6

Duration: 08:00–16:00 08:00–16:45 07:45–15:00 07:50–15:10 08:11–15:00 08:00–16:00

69
Observation 1      

Observation 2      

Observation 3      

Observation 4   

Observation 5 

Parent 2.1
Parent 1 Parent 3 Parent 4 Parent 5 Parent 6
& 2.2

Duration: 15 minutes 20 minutes 5 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes

Interview      

Photovoice    

Teacher 1 Teacher 2 Teacher 3

Duration: 15 minutes 8 minutes 15 minutes

Interview   

Photovoice  

Table 3.3: The data analysis process (adapted from Creswell, 2013)

Procedure Explanation

Interviews were recorded, then transcribed into digital

Organising the data
documents and saved for later use.

After evaluating the data, I identified emerging patterns and

Reading and memo-ing
themes and their connections.

I coded the data, organised the elements into categories

Interpreting data by
and assigned a name to each. These themes were used to
organising and categorising
answer the research questions.

Deeper meaning was explored by studying the emerging

themes in the data set. Similarities, differences and
Interpreting the findings
relationships between themes were important to determine
the findings that explain the studied phenomenon.

70
 Findings were presented and compared with findings from
Representing the findings other research sources to establish similarities and
differences.

3.7 TRUSTWORTHINESS

This aspect of the study became more crucial as the fieldwork progressed.
Trustworthiness was attained by gathering descriptions, observing the toddlers,
conducting interviews with participants to substantiate their views and asking critical
peers to review the study. Multiple cases, methods and sources supported the
study’s findings that, in turn, strengthened the study’s trustworthiness. The
incorporation of additional methods and data gathering techniques into the study
helped to prevent issues with validity and reliability. The strategies also allowed for
triangulation of data.

Gunawan (2015) believes that trustworthiness is indicated by high-quality data and

research strategies, and that it is strengthened by findings that are worth reading.
This description relates to the ways that individual researchers can convince their
audience of the legitimacy of their research. The researcher needs to gain the trust
of participants, which indicates that a degree of persuasive skills is necessary. This
study accomplished its targets of accuracy and truthfulness by following the
strategies below:

 Triangulation: Triangulation, according to Carter et al. (2014), refers to

multiple methods or data sources utilised in developing a comprehensive
understanding of the phenomenon being studied. A qualitative research
strategy tests the study’s own validity by converging information through
various sources. During this study, the researcher achieved triangulation by
employing multiple data generation methods and analytical strategies through
observations (photovoice) and interviews, thereby enhancing the study’s
trustworthiness. Triangulation helps to secure a high quality, reputable and
rigorous research regime. The following diagram represents the triangulation
cycle of multiple case study research:

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Figure 3.2: Multiple case study research triangulation (Rule & John, 2011)

 Mechanically recorded data: Each semi-structured interview was recorded on

an audiotape with the permission of the participants. The recordings were
transcribed and analysed to provide accurate and complete records (Maree,
2016).
 Fieldwork: Observations were combined with semi-structured interviews to
match findings and gain detailed insights into the reality of the participants
(Maree, 2016).
 Member checking: Participants were provided transcripts of the interviews to
verify their accuracy and truthfulness.

3.7.1 Research quality

The transferability of this research confirms the study’s integrity. I continually

endeavoured to detect possible biases throughout the course of this study, staying
mindful of the many explanations of truth (Thomas, 2010). The use of multiple case
studies generated my detailed and interconnected recognition of the situation. The
interviews and multiple case study method allowing me, as the researcher, to
discover meaning and build descriptions to be explored for analytical purposes.
Transferability is a substitute for generalisation and need to be well developed in
qualitative research (Rule & John, 2011). Clear descriptions of each stage of the

72
research process and detailed specifications of the research methods and
investigative contexts enhance the study’s degree of transferability (Thomas, 2010).

3.8 ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER

Qualitative researchers collect data themselves and are, therefore, the key
instruments in their own studies. Researchers collect data by observing behaviour,
examining documents and interviewing participants (Creswell, 2013). All of those
strategies were utilised to gather data by employing data generation instruments
such as observations, interviews and visual media (wherein data was captured in the
form of audio voice notes).

According to McMillan and Schumacher (2010), an involved researcher invests in

experiences that require direct interactions with participants, interpretive skills and
cooperative relationships to obtain participants’ views on the investigated
phenomenon. This introduces personal and ethical issues to the research.
Researchers should ensure that their own values, backgrounds, cultures, genders,
socio-economic statuses and biases – everything that shapes their perceptions of
the world – do not influence participants or affect the research in any way.

The researcher’s function is to gain admission to the research sites while paying
heed to the relevant ethical issues that arise as the study progresses (Creswell,
2013). As the researcher, my ethical duty was to investigate the multiple case
studies, interviews and observations that I conducted to gain insight into the views of
parents and teachers and to determine how much they know about their toddlers’
communication and language development.

A qualitative researcher’s commitment to accurately reflect a real-world situation is

important, considering that the researcher records the highs and lows in real-life
contexts (Maree, 2016). My role as the researcher was to listen to the views of
parents and teachers without influencing any personal viewpoints of the participants.

3.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

At the University of Pretoria, the Faculty of Education’s Ethics Committee stated in

the 2007 policy guidelines that researchers should abide by certain prescribed

73
principles while conducting their research. Some principles relate to the participation
of sample population members whose identities and rights to privacy should be
safeguarded. Their participation hinges on the principles of consent and trust
(Human-Vogel, 2007). In relation to the matter of informed approval, the policy is that
a parent or caregiver should accompany children under the age of 18 months during
all stages of research studies. These policy guidelines were strictly followed and
applied during this study. The Ethics Committee at the University of Pretoria
approved my application for ethical clearance to perform data generation involving
toddlers.

Typically, research ethics committees at higher education institutions give

researchers clearance to allow them to collect data through observations and
interviews (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2013). The Ethics Committee at the
University of Pretoria permitted me on 20 February 2019 to conduct this study; the
clearance certificate is placed near the beginning of this document. Furthermore,
data generation can only commence after sample population members had given
informed consent to participate in the study, having been informed first that they may
withdraw from the study at any time if they choose to do so. Overt research was
conducted throughout the study, which means that the participants were, at all times,
aware when data was being collected. Letters of consent were drafted to request
parental consent for observations of their toddlers in their natural environments.
These letters were signed by all the involved parents during March 2019, before any
observations were done on the toddlers selected as participants.

Observational procedures run the risk of causing disturbances in the selected

research sites, which should be avoided by adherence to ethical guidelines (Cohen,
Manion & Morrison, 2013). During this study, I, as the researcher, followed the code
of ethical practices and took special care to avoid disturbing the toddlers or teachers
as they went about their daily activities in the ECD centres. This involved the
responsibility not to disclose any of the participants’ identities or any personal
information of any description, and to explain the study’s purposes and procedures
to participants before commencing with the fieldwork. Any recognisable faces were
blanked out in the photographs appearing in this document to prevent recognition of
any participants or children.

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Since this research focused on the perceptions of parents and teachers, which could
potentially include controversial elements, I endeavoured to conduct the research as
neutrally as possible. Hence, the participants' privacies were respected and they
were aware of their rights to decline any further participation at any time. If any
ethical dilemmas arose, the involved parties could approach the university's ethics
committee to help resolve the dilemma.

The ethical codes of conduct prompted me, as the researcher, to be disciplined in

the execution of my research activities (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2013). Those
guidelines benefit research as it identifies the researcher as a member of an open
community with responsibilities to uphold ethical values in terms of communal rights.
Therefore, since tasks could be performed to obtain legitimate data while being
mindful of ethical and moral standards, the door remains open in communities for
future researchers to continue research in this field.

3.10 SUMMARY

Chapter 3 explained the study’s qualitative approach through the utilisation of an

interpretive research paradigm. The research design entailed multiple case studies
while the collection of data involved visual media, observation and interviews. The
data was interpreted by means of content and thematic analyses. Relevant ethical
considerations were addressed and the researcher’s role was explained to
participants during the research processes. The researcher endeavoured to
minimise any internal biases. Chapter 4 will describe the execution of data
generation and analytical procedures.

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 Chapter 4:
4DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Stages of analysis

Participants and data

gathering

Description of cases

THEME 1: Factors that enhance

communication and language
development

THEME 2: Parent interaction with

toddler

THEME 3: Teacher interaction with

toddler

THEME 4: Toddler interaction with

parent and teacher

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 3 explained the research methodology of my study. Three ECD centres

within Pretoria, with high-, medium- and low socio-economic statuses respectively,
were selected through criterion sampling. Participants (6 parents and 3 teachers)
answered questions during interview sessions while the six toddlers (the cases) were
observed to monitor their communicative development. The purpose of the
interviews was to collect sufficient data on parents' and teachers' real-life
experiences and views on their toddlers’ communication and language development.
The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. The multiple case studies,
together with the data obtained through the interviews, created a large data set,
which necessitated the formulation of strategies to sensibly manage and organise
the data (Rule & John, 2011). The data analysis process comprised the following
steps:

 The recorded interviews were transcribed from the audiotapes. The tapes were
replayed until I was sure the participants' answers were correctly transcribed.
 Transcriptions were handwritten and filed.
 Observations were handwritten and filed.
 The transcribed data and observations were later analysed, dissected and
coded to identify emerging themes.
 Themes from observations and interviews were interlinked to reveal
relationships.

Chapter 4 presents the strategies used to transcribe and sort the collected data, and
to identify the themes and subthemes. The chapter includes general descriptions of
all the stages of active research. I use the term playroom in this chapter rather than
'ECD centre' or 'classroom', in accordance with MRQEECE (DHET, 2017)
terminology, since the pedagogy of play – rather than formal education – is
continuously highlighted throughout in terms of the subject matter. This chapter
further describes the nine participating adults' perceptions, experiences and
understanding of their toddlers' communication and language development, and links
those descriptions to the observations of the six toddlers (study cases). The chapter
concludes by interpreting the main findings. Table 4.1 below lists the keys used in
Chapter 4.
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Table 4.1: Keys used in the analysis

Key Description

Observation

Field notes made during data generation procedures

HIP-P1 High-income playroom – Parent 1

MIP -T1 Medium-income playroom – Teacher 1

LIP-C1-B Low-income playroom – Case 1 – boy

4.2 MOVING FROM CONTENT TO THEMATIC ANALYSIS

Figure 4.1 displays the six stages of content analysis (Flick, 2009).

Content analysis stages

Combine
Deleting
and Develop a Revise new
Outline the Note the repetition
integrate for sorting sorting
unit relevant text through data
data system system
reduction
reduction

Figure 4.1: Stages of content analysis

This process involves the summarising and textual reporting of data analysis
according to main study topics. Text is any communicative material meant to be
read, interpreted and understood. A content analysis comprises the units of analysis,
textual summaries, paraphrasing of textual elements, data reduction through the
discarding of replicated information, data reduction through combining paraphrases,
placement of new text into classification systems and the reviewing of new
classifications relative to the original data (Flick, 2009). Content analysis denotes an
interactive process where relationships and contrasts within data sets can demerit or
confirm a scientific theory. I applied this process to my research.

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Measures of findings provide themes (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2013). Themes
involve comparative data analysis after multiple case studies are done (Flick, 2009).
A short description of every case should follow the analysis that utilises the themes.
This description allows the researcher to recheck and modify any data
interpretations. The researcher groups the themes together by studying the
transcribed data and sorting related elements into manageable units. Data fragments
are grouped and labelled with symbols, descriptive words or unique names.

I used gathering and sorting points during thematic categorisation for prominent data
recognition. These themes functioned as indicators that directed me towards the
development of my understanding of the studied phenomenon, hence enabling me to
make deeper discoveries about realities reflected by the data.

4.3 THEMATIC STAGES OF ANALYSIS

Data analysis, according to Rule and John (2011), is an intellectual and creative
process through which meaning is derived from data sources. This study allowed me
to consciously distinguish between the data’s invisible layers, which guided me to
make connections between data points during analysis (Joubert, Hartell & Lombard,
2016). I continually interpreted available data during the data generation processes –
this process did not commence only after all the data was collected. I utilised an
inductive methodology while investigating the cases and interviews to identify
emerging characteristics within the data set and to gain deeper insights into the
studied phenomenon. This process allowed me to enrich the study's identified theory
that involved Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development (Joubert, Hartell
& Lombard, 2016).

Content is ideally analysed by first organising and separating the data elements in
manageable and interconnected sections. The researcher can then recognise
patterns and themes, and code them with suitable descriptions. The researcher
should also discard any extraneous data bits to maintain a clear focus (Rule & John,
2011). Importantly, the researcher needs to be mindful of the main and secondary
research questions during this whole process (Joubert, Hartell & Lombard, 2016).

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I first sorted my research data according to the six cases of this multiple case study,
with subsections to distinguish between bits of information gained from the
respective parents and teachers of each case. I investigated the data by means of
the research tools, which were the child tracking observation sheets (Addendum 3),
transcriptions of the recorded views and thoughts of interviewed parents (Addendum
4) and teachers (Addendum 5) and field notes. While I analysed each case, I
summarised my evaluations of each case and connected significant data elements
obtained during the interviews with the observed behaviours and activities of the
toddlers (Addendum 6). I then comprehensively analysed the transcribed interviews
with parents (Addendum 7) and teachers (Addendum 8).

At first, I rudimentarily grouped the main ideas that emerged from the raw data, then
dividing them into themes. Every recorded remark by participants was scrutinised to
find valid ways of linking it to remarks made by other participants in the effort to
establish significant themes based on interconnected features of the data elements. I
then matched the themes to the respective cases to develop a multilevel
understanding of the toddler's individual and communal behaviour. I used the more
prominent and established themes to validate other emerging themes during this
cyclical process, which helped me to recognise and discard redundant data. I finally
constructed a thematic hierarchy based on the prominence of each identified theme.
I repeatedly studied the data categorisations and evaluated my analysis to refine my
understanding of the inherent meaning of the analysed research data.

Figure 4.2 illustrates the hierarchy and interconnectedness of the most prominent
themes.

Thematic analysis is an interactive process that considers the similarities, differences

and relationships contained in a data set, which can be related to the study's theory.
This process is vital in obtaining a clear and coherent understanding of the studied
phenomena (Grbich, 2012). Content analysis benefits qualitative research since it
simplifies data by sorting the whole into manageable sections. It allows the
researcher to accurately gauge participants’ attitudes, emotions and perceptions.

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 Theme 1
Factors that
enhance
communication
and language
development

Theme 4 1. Listening
Theme 2
Toddler 2. Speaking
Parent
interaction with 3. Meaning interaction
parent and making and with toddler
teacher
communication

Theme 3
Teacher
interaction with
toddler

Figure 4.2: Prominent themes that emerged during data analysis

I employed the content analysis strategies – as an analysis unit (Joubert, Hartell &
Lombard, 2016) – to identify and sort thematic data elements. Using a thematic
analysis allowed internal validation of the data as well as a comparative analysis of
data obtained from interviews and observations respectively (Cohen, Manion &
Morrison, 2013). I stayed mindful of the research questions, conceptual framework,
study methodology and the knowledge gained from my literature review during the
analytical processes, which guided my decisions taken while mapping the data. Each
step along the way contributed to the study's value (Grbich, 2012).

Data mapping not only enabled me to clarify, explain and understand the studied
phenomenon, but it also opened doors to further discoveries concerning deeper
realities embedded in the data (Maree, 2007; Rule & John, 2011). The cyclical
processes undertaken during data analysis coaxed me to continually revisit aspects
of data, theories, concepts, literature and analysis. This process was a driving force
in the maintenance of my focus during the phases of content analysis and thematic
interpretation (Joubert, Hartell & Lombard, 2016).

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4.4 PARTICIPANTS AND DATA GATHERING

The research participants comprised six parents and three teachers of the six
toddlers (6 case studies). The following four tables display the profiles of each
participant and information of the toddlers as respective focal points. Pseudonyms
(coded here) were used during the sampling and analytical procedures to protect the
identities of each member of the sample population.

Table 4.2: Research participants and cases

Participants Cases

Parents Teachers Toddlers

 3 male toddlers
 6 parents of the 6 cases observed  3 teachers of the 6 cases observed
 3 female toddlers

Table 4.3: Profiles of the three teacher participants

Teacher code Gender Qualifications

At time of research, she studied to earn her degree in

Education. She has already obtained a degree in
Psychology, a diploma in the Ministry of Education for kids

ECD centre 1 HIP-T1 Female and various certificates for education courses. She studied
Mandarin and taught primary and high school students in
China for one year. She wants to further her studies in the
medical field as well. She began teaching at this centre at
the start of this year (2019).

She had completed a course in Early Childhood and

ECD centre 2 MIP-T2 Female
Adolescent Development She is in her second year of
teaching at this centre.

She obtained a HRE–N6 certificate in Human Resource

Management and has prior experience in office
ECD centre 3 LIP-T3 Female
administration. She began teaching at this centre during
November 2018, and is therefore still in her first year of
teaching.

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Table 4.4: Profiles of the six cases

Toddler Toddler Age in Position in

Gender Race
code name months family

HIP-C1-B Ethan 28 M Caucasian Only child

ECD
centre 1
HIP-C2-G Liyah 26 F Indian Only child

MIP-C3-B Nolan 19 M Caucasian 2nd of 2 children

ECD
centre 2
MIP-C4-G Zoe 18 F Caucasian 2nd of 2 children

LIP-C5-B Mulalo 18 M African Only child

ECD
centre 3
LIP-C6-G Vinolia 24 F African 2nd of 2 children

Table 4.5: Profiles of the three parent participants

Parents occupation
Socio- and education
Parent Toddler Parent
Religion economic
code name interviewed
status
Mother Father
ECD centre 1

HIP-P1 Ethan Christian Mother High Lawyer Salesman

ETA ETA
HIP-P2 Liyah Hindu Both High
connection connection

Data and
ECD centre 2

IT learning business
MIP-P3 Nolan Christian Mother Medium
specialist development
specialist

MIP-P4 Zoe Christian Mother Medium Housewife Pharmacist

ECD centre 3

LIP-P5 Mulalo Christian Mother Low Accountant Media

LIP-P6 Vinolia Christian Mother Low Unemployed -

According to NELDS (2009) and the NCF (2015), a toddler ranges between the ages
of 18 and 36 months. However, for the purpose of this study and its relevance, I
included toddlers between the ages of 18 and 30 months old, and who attended an
ECD centre. The ages of parents and teachers were irrelevant to this study. This
study revolved around the participants’ perceptions of their toddler’s communication
83
and language development. Criterion sampling was used to select appropriate ECD
centres as research sites. Criterion sampling was useful for this type of study since
the research sites, participants and cases needed to meet certain criteria in terms of
regions, socio-economic statuses, families, ages, and teaching experience.

Participants’ exact words uttered during interviews (and recorded on audiotape) were
captured to maintain the authenticity of their thoughts, which enhances the study's
trustworthiness. The abovementioned names are not the actual names of the
observed toddlers; they are pseudonyms used to protect their identities. This chapter
contains only those pseudonyms.

4.4.1 Description of cases

Codes replace the names of the parents and teachers who participated in this study
to protect their identities. Similarly, the six cases here are indicated by pseudonyms.

4.4.1.1 Ethan (28 months)

According to HIP-P1, Ethan demands attention and receives exposure to two

languages (English and Afrikaans) daily. He has the freedom to choose his own
clothing and fetches it himself. He enjoys playing the guitar by watching a video and
imitating what he sees and hears – a playful habit since he was 1 year old. His
parents share his responsive fun activities from the Wacky Box every weekend.
Ethan has the ability to specify what he wants and can request certain things from
his parents by name, such as the name of a book he wants them to read. His
parents read books to him ever since he was 3 months old. Books serve as a
developmentally stimulating resource for the education of Ethan. Ethan is able to
recognise when he is naughty and can inform his parents about this. During my
observation sessions, I noticed that Ethan was very responsive to toddlers around
him, interacting and playing with them. He is willing to share his toys with others,
such as on the occasion when HIP-T1 asked him to help soothe a crying toddler in
the playroom. Ethan is a loving, happy toddler who enjoys playing by himself though
he loves the company of other toddlers during playtimes. He has also been observed
to break up fights among others. Occasionally, Ethan's attention wanders when HIP-
T1 talks to all the toddlers together; he then plays with either his legs or the toddler

84
next to him, for instance. He is good at singing along or mouthing every word HIP-T1
sings or songs he hears on a compact disc (CD). Ethan knows the names of every
toddler in the playroom and calls them by name if he wants someone to play with
him.

4.4.1.2 Liyah (26 months)

HIP-P2 listens to Liyah and states that she does not have a choice in this matter.
Liyah speaks English and can speak a few words in Afrikaans. According to HIP-P2,
Liyah demands frequent attention and they sometimes need to listen very carefully to
what she is saying to try to understand her. Liyah has a variety of resources readily
available to her at home and chooses her own stories to read before bedtime. Liyah
knows exactly what she wants and specifies her needs in detail, such as when
requests a type of food she wants to eat, or the exact toy she wants to play with.
Liyah enjoys scribbling and is able to say complete sentences, making it very clear
exactly what she wants. She uses the technique of repetition to understand things
from books. She can explain pictures and retell stories. She is able to make meaning
through technology and can use a technological device to find pictures she wants to
see. She enjoys listening to music and loves to sing, especially songs from Disney
movies. She repeats songs sung by HIP-T1 in the playrooms, such as a cleaning-up
song and other songs while I observed her. She does this on her own without
anyone else requesting her to sing. I noticed that Liyah is regarded as the mini-
“mummy” of the playroom since she likes to care for her fellow toddlers, like dusting
sand off them, kissing their “eina” and instructing them what to do after HIP-T1
initiates an activity. Liyah likes to pick her own spot to sit, even if another toddler is
already sitting there. She constantly calls HIP-T1 for attention or requests. She
enjoys talking to herself and has one good friend that she calls by name throughout
the day, though she knows the names of the other toddlers as well.

4.4.1.3 Nolan (19 months)

Nolan has an older brother with who he shares activities with such as reading,
according to MIP-P3. Nolan and his brother share a room and they like to page
through the books they have on their shelves. Nolan is exposed to only Afrikaans at
home but occasionally, visiting friends of his parents may speak to him in English.

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MIP-P3 taught him sign language to ease communication processes and less
frustrating. Nolan is a quiet toddler – he listens more than he talks – though he does
not mind being around other toddlers. He can show that he needs a diaper change
by pulling on his diaper and saying “doek doek”. He takes the initiative in choosing
his toys at playtime and he is independent enough to fetch his toys by himself. Nolan
generally points to what he wants. According to MIP-P3, Nolan enjoys music and
expresses his emotions well. During my observations, I noticed that Nolan plays and
smiles to himself. He did not seem to mind that other toddlers play around him,
although he gets distracted easily.

4.4.1.4 Zoe (18 months)

According to MIP-P4, Zoe occasionally cries when she wants something but at other
times she simply picks the object up or points to it to indicate what she wants. Zoe
only hears her mother tongue at home. She pats her diaper when she wants it to be
changed and can imitate animal sounds when looking at their pictures. She enjoys
dancing to music and can express her emotions well. During my observations, Zoe
would frequently wave at anyone and she likes to smile. Some days she was very
quiet, mostly playing by herself, but on other days she would sing and repeat words
to herself. She has a caring disposition and would walk over to other toddlers when
they cried. She liked watching other toddlers play. Sometimes she would shake her
head to indicate 'no' or she would say no when she meant 'yes' instead. She seemed
confused about 'yes' versus 'no'.

4.4.1.5 Mulalo (18 months)

LIP-P5 said that Mulalo speaks in full sentences and always has her attention. At
home he is exposed to his mother tongue 80% of the time and to English during the
other 20%. He is surrounded daily by relevant resources such as books and is easily
prompted to converse when LIP-P5 asks him questions about a book's contents. He
is able to refer back to the book when answering those questions. He is an
independent toddler who fetches his toys to play with; he knows exactly which ones
he wants and where they are. He enjoys playing games and loves music so much
that he would even ask LIP-P5 to turn the volume up when he hears a song he
enjoys on the television. I noticed that Mulalo would randomly start singing a song in

86
the playroom whereupon other toddlers would join him in song. I noticed, during my
observation sessions, that Mulalo is a highly social and friendly toddler who speaks
to and plays with everyone. Mulalo enjoyed my presence in the playroom, frequently
talking and playing games with me, even though I was new to the environment. He is
very creative and loves to sing into a block (toy) that he imagines is a microphone.
He simply enjoys being active and singing with whoever is around him. Occasionally
he would randomly start counting, utter all the vowel sounds or make shapes. Mulalo
displays knowledge of music and TV programming by his ability to recall musicians'
names, song lyrics and names of television shows. During an observation session, I
saw him noticing a picture of a South African actor in a magazine whereupon he
gave the actor’s full name.

4.4.1.6 Vinolia (24 Months)

According to LIP-P6, Vinolia is an active toddler and would rather draw than listen to
stories from books. She will, however, listen to a story when it is read to her older
sister. She also prefers watching television to reading books. Vinolia is exposed to
her mother tongue and English at home. She would ask her mother in baby talk to
have her nappy changed, while she loves matching her clothing with her sisters'
clothes. LIP-P6 said that Vinolia prefers playing on 'scooters' and with cars rather
than dolls. She thrives on attention. Vinolia, according to LIP-P6, can become quite
aggressive when she is upset and makes sure that everyone notices that she is
angry. I noticed, during my observations, that Vinolia has her moments when she
wants to share her toys with others, while at other times she prefers to play on her
own. Her favourite 'toy' is a puzzle and she can sit for minutes just figuring out how
to complete one part before moving on to another part. She follows her sister around
and occasionally talks to her. Her sister seems to be her security or “other mum” in
the playroom.

4.5 RESULTS OF THE THEMATIC ANALYSIS

During the data analysis, themes and subthemes emerged from the data collected
from the transcribed interviews and observation sessions. While scrutinising the raw
data for patterns, subthemes became evident and I could begin to classify and
connect the recurring themes. The strongest subthemes were generated by the

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transcribed interviews, some of which would then become prominent in the
observational data as well. These processes are described and discussed in the
following section.

Toddlers progress in communicative abilities through various means such as

babbling, focusing on keywords and continuously expanding their vocabularies.
Those endeavours are enabled when parents stimulate the toddlers' learning
energies, like when, for instance, they read a children's story from a book out loud
(Johnston, 2010; Law et al., 2017). As vocabularies expand, so do the toddlers'
abilities to construct multi-word sentences. Parental encouragement strengthens a
toddler's confidence to use language effectively, which can relate to quick success in
communicative growth, setting the child up to thrive academically and socially in later
life (Michael, 2013; O’Carroll & Hickman, 2012).

4.6 THEMES AND SUBTHEMES

The first main theme is “Factors that enhance communication and language
development”. It reflects situations that can influence a toddler’s communication and
language development. The second theme, “Parent interaction with toddler”, reflects
the communication between parent and toddler. The third theme, “Teacher
interaction with toddler”, reflects the teachers' communication with toddlers, while the
fourth theme, “Toddler interaction with parent and teacher”, reflects toddlers' ways of
communicating with their parents and teachers. Table 4.6 below summarises the
four themes and subthemes.

Table 4.6: Summary of themes and subthemes

Theme 1 Subthemes Categories

 Socialising
1.1 Speaking
 Music and singing
Factors that enhance
communication and  Educational resources
language development  Being responsive, reciprocal, and an active participant during
1.2 Meaning making
play
 Parents understanding toddlers' social needs

Theme 2 Subthemes

Parent interaction with 2.1 Listening  Types of attention given to toddler by parents

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toddler
 Speaking in an adult manner rather than CDS
2.2 Speaking  Keeping conversations going
 Speaking home language

2.3 Meaning making  Showing comprehension

Theme 3 Subthemes

3.1 Listening  Attentiveness

 Constant conversing
Teacher interaction
 CDS and speaking in an adult manner
3.2 Speaking
with toddler  Responsiveness
 Home languages

3.3 Meaning making  Teachers' understanding of toddlers

Theme 4 Subthemes

4.1 Listening  Listening to a parent's request

 CDS and the use of words

Toddler interaction  Manipulation
4.2 Speaking
with parent and  Being specific
 Seeking communication
teacher
 Using words or gestures to communicate
4.3 Meaning making  Recalling information learned
 Role models

Note that, for the reason explained in this chapter's introductory paragraphs, the term
"ECD centre" is replaced by "playroom" in the rest of this chapter.

4.6.1 Theme 1: Factors that enhance communication and language

development

While analysing the data, I found statements from parents and teachers respectively
that triangulated with my observations of toddler behaviour in terms of any factors
that may enhance the communication and language development of toddlers. These
factors include televisions, periods of socialising, music and song, educational
resources, responsiveness, and active participation through play. Data elements
provide the evidence that supports the inclusion of each factor.

Televisions were available in Playrooms 1 and 3 where they were used as sources
of entertainment. When the televisions were used, the teachers were less interactive,
and only interacted with toddlers when approached by them.
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 Figure 4.3: Flat screen television in Playroom 3

Playroom 1 had a flat screen TV and full board DSTV subscription. The toddlers
observed were not interested in watching TV and would prefer talking or playing with
the other children around them compared to Playrooms 2 and 3, where toddlers
were less interactive. (20, 26 & 27 March 2019)

The following field notes contain supporting evidence of Mulalo and Vinolia's actions
in Playroom 3, while the television was switched on.

Mulalo Observation 2 (11:32) – Watches TV but looks around from time to time. Walked
to a teacher; she lifted him up and put him on her lap.

Vinolia Observation 2 (11:37) – She stopped watching TV, started looking at others and
copied them.

LIP-P5 and LIP-P6 regularly expose their toddlers to television broadcasts, showing
how Vinolia “most of the time ... like to e-tunes ... ya, she concentrates a lot more than
like to read to her – TV more” (LIP-P6), and Mulalo “specifically ask for songs and
when it’s his favourite song he’ll ask for the volume to go louder” (LIP-P5). According
to LIP-P6, Vinolia “likes to write a lot, she likes a pen and paper ... she likes to draw”.
She prefers to watch TV or draw, and is quite fascinated by graphic aspects such as
audiovisual cues. Vinolia would rather learn through being active (drawing) than to
passively sit and listen to a story being read to her by someone else. LIP-P6
understands this and therefore allows Vinolia to spend her time drawing and

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watching TV on her own. LIP-P6 later acknowledges, however, that bonding –
through interactivity – is an important aspect of development. We revisit those
comments at the end of this chapter.

In narrative terms, the graphics, voices and actions of the TV shows they watched
were fast-paced, meaning there were quick jumps from one scene to the next. This
overwhelmed the toddlers, prompting them to tune out. The restless toddlers
seemed to desire more social interactions. The influences existing in the toddlers'
environments all contribute to (or delay) their communication and language
development.

After the interview with HIP-P1, she mentioned that her toddler has “30 minutes
of TV time and 15 minutes of cell phone time per day” and explained how she does
this so that Ethan is exposed to screen time but just enough per day according to
her. (8 March 2019)

Categories:
Theme 1 Subtheme 1.1: Speaking  Socialising
 Music and singing

4.6.1.1 Speaking

Socialising

Ethan, Liyah, Nolan and Mulalo enjoyed socialising, speaking and interacting with
others. Nolan, according to MIP-T2, was a “social butterfly”. The following
observation illustrates how Ethan socialised and called others by name.

Ethan Observation 3 (10:04 & 15:08) – Found a bug and went around the whole
playground showing all the toddlers the bug. He called them by name and said “Look
goggo”, “Show you goggo”. He tried scaring the toddlers playfully and laughed about it,
saying, “Going bite you”.

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 Music and singing

Music, song and dance provide effective means of encouraging toddlers'

development, as proven by each participant who used the singing of songs and
nursery rhymes to stimulate their toddlers' development. HIP-T1 described how her
toddlers “love it (giggles), they dance all the time (smiles and laughs) and sings with, I
think they get more excited, too excited sometimes (giggles)”. HIP-P2 states that
Liyah “sings a lot ... the nursery rhymes or even to just hum them”.

Figure 4.4 & 4.5: Toddlers singing and dancing (HIP-T1)

Ethan Observation 2 (08:13) – Sung along with teacher in baby talk and did some of the
actions. He tried to copy the teacher as much as he could.

Liyah Observation 3 (14:51) – Songs were played on a cell phone; she listened to it and
watched the video.

HIP-T1 was extremely enthusiastic, laughing and smiling, as she recalls

memories of her toddlers dancing and singing. (7 March 2019)

LIP-T3 exposed her toddlers to movement and words through singing and dancing,
stating that “sometimes I can just switch on my phone eh, switch on the phonic
songs and we’ll just sing and dance”. In Playroom 3, time was reserved every
morning during assembly and just before eating time to sing “songs that we’ve got
on our wall” (LIP-T3). Assembly time was used to “sing before we pray” (LIP-T3),
sing nursery rhymes, hymns, Bible verses in English and Zulu and the national

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anthem. The toddlers did not always need the teachers to start singing songs, as
some would randomly start singing on their own the entire day. Teachers would then
sing with them and encourage another song each time. LIP-P5 wondered how
Mulalo could suddenly sing songs, adding that “other songs he just randomly comes
up with, I don’t know if he learns them from here (in the Playroom) or learns them from
when he’s with my cousins or nephews ... but he just randomly [perform] songs”. She
was amazed at his great vocabulary or language explosion. It is important for
toddlers as well as parents to be surrounded by others who inspire and encourage
toddlers to learn. The situation described here allowed Mulalo to participate in rich
language dialogues through constant interaction. Toddlers enjoy nursery rhymes
because the rhymes allow them to be individuals who can enjoy the moments in their
own ways. This note from an observation session illustrates Mulalo's enjoyment of
music:

Mulalo Observation 2 (10:18) – Started singing a song on his own and did the actions.
The assistant heard him and started singing with him and the toddlers all joined in.

LIP-T3 was extremely active and passionate about singing to her toddlers. She
showed me all the movements to a song that involved a lot of jumping and hand
gestures. She laughed and enjoyed herself as she sang the song, mimicking her
toddlers. (26 March 2019)

LIP-P5 was very enthusiastic talking about Mulalo and his passion for music.
LIP-P5 was astounded at the way her toddler behaves around music. Mulalo is
inspired to learn songs by family members, teachers and peers in school. (20 March
2019)

When talking about how toddlers respond to songs, the parents and teachers
displayed an evident level of excitement and enthusiasm concerning their toddler’s
actions and ways of doing things. This was not the case in the discussion of other
aspects when the participants simply answered the questions. The participants'
energetic discussions of this activity reveal their own joy in the energy they invest to
prompt their toddlers to learn through musical games and other song-related

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activities. This is evidenced by transcribed responses such as, “They love it!” and
“[…] like it”. Their excitement encourages their toddlers to learn and develop.

Categories:
 Educational resources
 Being responsive, reciprocal, and an
Theme 1 Subtheme 1.2: Meaning making
active participant during play
 Parents understanding toddlers' social
needs

4.6.1.2 Meaning making

Educational resources

Toddlers learn through repetition, enabling them to remember basic but important
concepts in their worlds, and as their memories improve, an ability develops to make
meaning of the stories read to them. This last aspect is made possible through the
availability of books and related educational resources.

HIP-T1 described how her toddlers analyse her stories. Some may ask “questions
like uhm ‘what is that?’ or they’ll need explanations of what I just read” to understand
the story. MIP-T2, however, said, “usually at this age they just stare at you and enjoy
what’s going on...so it’s more an interesting thing instead of actually listening to the
story, so it’s more a staring competition”. LIP-T3 added, “because they are a bit
younger ... you can see they are listening but not all of them ... as long as you are
doing what you suppose to do I think for their age so that you can get them to focus
on what you are doing, on what you are reading”. These two teachers testify that
toddlers are occasionally not adequately stimulated by the reading sessions and, as
a result, they seem to stare or start doing their own thing while others in the group
could still be listening. LIP-T3 had realised that her toddlers are unable to
concentrate for long periods, and that they may be listening though not necessarily
deriving any meaning from what they hear. MIP-P3, however, stated that Nolan (of
the same playroom as MIP-T2) “actually sits and listens and laughs” at stories that
he listens to.

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 Nolan Observation 2 (08:10) – Listened to MIP-T2 read a story. MIP-T2 had to
constantly tell him to sit still and not clap his hands. After a while got distracted and
started playing with his toes and moving around.

Zoe Observation 1 (08:10) – Listened to MIP-T2 read a story and answered her in baby
talk when teacher asked questions.

Nolan during class time got distracted when MIP-T2 read to him but listened and
laughed when listening to a story read by his mum MIP-P3. (30 March 2019)

HIP-P2 said that Liyah managed to understand the stories read to her by staying
attentive throughout a reading session. Her mother continued, “she’s naming things
from the pictures that we’ve read in the story and if she’s heard the story we’ve read
to her a few times, she sort of remembers what we’ve already read and then she can
tell you word for word bits of what we read to her”. LIP-P5 stated that the stories she
reads to Mulalo at home “are on his day to day activities ... even when he's, like,
playing he can sometimes refer back to the book”.

The more a toddler hears words associated with objects, the easier they understand
what is said. Five of the nine parents and teachers had exposed their toddlers to
books regularly. Reading stories to them, therefore, guided these toddlers to the
zone of proximal development. As seen in other observations, discussed later in this
chapter, some toddlers mutter to themselves while they look at pictures in books.
Even though resources were readily available to MIP-T2, LIP-P5 and LIP-P6, they
chose to push regular reading to the toddlers aside. This means that some toddlers
did not receive the same level of stimulation to read or hear stories as others.

Ethan, as observed by myself and confirmed during an interview, learnt quickly how
to attach names to objects. Ethan “has his own Ukulele since he’s been a year and a
half” (HIP-P1) and would ask HIP-P1, “’Mommy, I want to see the uncle with the
guitar’” who would then “put on YouTube and Joe Black and he’ll play guitar and
sing”. The availability of resources plays a significant role as a determinant in
cognitive development. Ethan, who had been growing up in a high socio-economic
area, was daily exposed to resources like the internet, television and even a musical
instrument owned by him. The opportunities to observe guitarists making music
prompted him to physically imitate what he sees and hear. This circumstance allows

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regular intense stimulation of his cognitive faculties, as indicated by reviewed
literature sources (Chapter 2).

Figure 4.6: Ethan playing guitar (HIP-P1)

HIP-P1 was over-excited to talk about Ethan’s ability to play the guitar. She
quickly opened the picture and started talking proudly about her son’s ability and
later on, after the interview, talking about how much it entertains them when he plays
because of how much he enjoys it. Here HIP-P1 showed me a short video clip of
Ethan playing his guitar and talking further about this experience when the interview
had ended. (8 March 2019)

Being responsive, reciprocal, and an active participant during play

As evidenced by the collected data, parents and teachers who actively share
experiences with toddlers can – through meaning making – positively influence
toddlers’ communication and language development. Toddlers learn when they are
having fun. Therefore, when parents and teachers are present as active contributors
to the moments of fun, then they boost the toddlers' excitement levels and
willingness to carry on with those activities, further stimulating them.

The following two pictures were taken by HIP-T1:

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Figure 4.7: Social interaction between Figure 4.8: Assistants talking to
assistants and toddlers toddlers

These activities allowed toddlers to speak to one another about their experiences
and what they were doing as they did it. HIP-T1 and her assistant teachers would
interact with the toddlers, asking them about what they were doing, requesting them
to make drawings or instructing them to make sandcastles. Every morning, near
08:30, HIP-T1 would sit all the toddlers against the wall and teach them a new word.
They would then do a fun activity that is related to that word. In this way, a desire to
acquire more words takes root. The following two observations illustrate this
phenomenon:

Liyah Observation 1 (10:06) – Told HIP-T1 she’s making a house with the sand.

Liyah Observation 2 (08:31) – Listened to teacher teach about doctors and ambulance.
Followed actions that the teacher made and tried making the sounds.

HIP-P1 takes her toddler’s development very seriously, stating that she has “specific
events with the Wacky Box” that she completes with Ethan “[every] month with 16
activities for Saturdays and Sundays, 4 per weekend”. She enjoys the responsibility
to ensure that her child receives the necessary attention and motivation needed to
develop and grow. She preferred doing activities with Ethan as opposed to leaving
him to his own devices in front of the television, like in the example contained in the
field note of 8 March 2019 (included here at the beginning of this section). In the
picture below, Ethan is busy learning the names of the different colours together with

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some rudimentary mathematics (which can also be regarded as a form of language).
We see thus how HIP-P1 incorporates play and the element of fun in her toddler's
learning activities.

Figure 4.9: Toddler busy with a Wacky Box activity (HIP-P1)

Allowing toddlers the opportunity to explore the world through play prompts them to
adopt different ways of learning and communicating with others. This style of
responsive fun activity frequently allows new words to enter the toddlers'
vocabularies – even complex words like "exfoliate" may stick in a toddler's memory
banks. HIP-P1 describes how “this other picture (shown below) shows him playing in
the mud, its exfoliating (laughs)”. Toddlers may also use playful means to indicate
their needs. HIP-P1 mentioned the time when Ethan said, “‘Mamma my apie is
honger’ (laughs) then he will point to his tummy, his little monkey is hungry and
wants to be fed (laughs)” (HIP-P1).

HIP-P1 really enjoyed answering this and was so proud of her toddler for being
creative. She is a very proud mum. (8 March 2019)

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 Figure 4.10: Toddler playing in the mud (HIP-P1)

During my data generation and analysis procedures, I noticed that the parents and
teachers associated with Playroom 1 eagerly answered questions about their
toddlers' activities, whether they were shared or done by the toddlers on their own.
They were enthusiastic, smiling and laughing when recounting memories of their
toddlers, providing me with more usable data than what I had initially expected to
obtain. Both parents of the two toddlers at this playroom showed me additional video
footage of their toddlers, without me requesting it. Even after our interview sessions
were completed, HIP-P1, HIP-P2 and MIP-P3 kept discussing their children and their
shared adventures. These three parents and HIP-T1 and LIP-T3 seemed very happy
to answer all my questions and to offer additional yet still relevant information. HIP-
T1, HIP-P1 and MIP-P3 appeared to be well educated; those impressions were
confirmed by their teaching and parenting philosophies, which were geared towards
supporting their toddlers' developmental prowess. They could also always explain
why they created and conducted any activity concerning their toddlers.

Parents understanding toddlers' social needs

LIP-P5 described Mulalo as someone who “loves games (laughs), he loves games!”
The games he played improved Mulalo's ability to confidently speak and respond to
others, as illustrated by his successful "pass" request to another toddler when he
wanted a beanbag. He could listen to his teacher's instructions and follow them
correctly. The following two observations represent only a fraction of all observations
taken of Mulalo's joy when playing games with others.
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 Mulalo Observation 1 (09:23) – Assistant threw a beanbag at him; he enjoyed throwing
and catching it. When the assistant threw it to another toddler he asked the toddler to
“pass” the beanbag.

Mulalo Observation 2 (12:12) – Played peek-a-boo with other toddlers.

Mulalo would continuously play peek-a-boo throughout the week I observed him
in Playroom 3. He loved playing this with others and occasionally with me. (19-27
March 2019)

HIP-P2 realised the importance of allowing Liyah to be social with others and to let
her play, explaining that “she’s been spending a lot of time ... with her cousin ... they
keep themselves entertained, so there’s a lot of play. They literally play until they
drop, you know, general imagination and stuff”. Her development during this playtime
is enhanced by the fact that Liyah’s cousin is older, according to HIP-P2, which
means that the cousin can teach her so much more while they play.

During my observations, all toddlers were overjoyed when doing these activities
with their teacher, parents and friends, oftentimes not wanting to stop. (30 March
2019)

4.6.2 Theme 2: Parent interaction with toddler

Theme 2 focuses on parent interactions with their toddlers as described by parent

participants. The subthemes included in this theme focus on the categories of the
types of attention given to toddlers by parents, speaking in an adult manner rather
than CDS, keeping conversations going, speaking in home language and showing
comprehension.

HIP-P1, HIP-P2, MIP-P3 and MIP-P4 declared that they read to their toddlers every
night, while the other parents stated that they read to their toddlers once or twice a
week. HIP-P2 said that “we read to her every night, so every night before bed time
she gets a story”, whereas LIP-P5 read to Mulalo “maybe once a week, sometimes
yeah, once a week”. LIP-P6 believed that Vinolia was “still young, maybe if you read
for her sister yes she listens”. Parents from the high socio-economic areas
understood the importance of reading and felt that their toddlers should be read to

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from a young age. Parents from the low socio-economic areas, however, believed
that their toddlers were still too young to be read stories to, though they appeared to
listen when books were read to their siblings.

In summary, when parents feel their toddlers are old enough, they then provide more
attention to conversations and the sharing of stories. Parents can scaffold toddlers'
mastery of language through book sharing.

Categories:
Theme 2 Subtheme 2.1: Listening  Types of attention given to toddlers by
parents

4.6.2.1 Listening

Types of attention given to toddler by parents

HIP-P1 gave Ethan the necessary attention he needed by listening to him “all day
(laughs) ... so I listen the whole time (laughs) ... he has that need and it has to be
satisfied”, while LIP-P5 simply stated that “he talks, I listen”. Listening to Ethan
helped HIP-P1 to understand him and to respond with sensitivity. HIP-P1 and LIP-P5
noted the importance of communication; they also understood the “need” for
immediate parental attention to their toddlers' efforts to communicate. In those
reassuring environments, toddlers would be comfortable to share experiences and
ideas with their parents.

Other parents stated during the interviews that they respond at their convenience
and that they “don’t have an option” (HIP-P2) or “don’t have a choice” (HIP-P2), and
that they “have to listen” (HIP-P2) because “otherwise he's going to be quite a bit of
a tantrum (laughs)” until they respond. HIP-P1 understood the importance of
responding to her toddler and realised that toddlers should be encouraged to speak
as much as they can. MIP-P3 used the experience gained with her previous child to
strengthen her parenting skills with her second child, stating, “you learn from the first
one”. Her experiences prompted her to respond whenever Nolan sought her
attention.

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 MIP-P3 found it quite funny learning things from her first child and using it as
teaching experience for the next. We both had a laugh about this. (10 April 2019)

Categories:
 Speaking in an adult manner rather than CDS
Theme 2 Subtheme 2.2: Speaking
 Keeping conversations going
 Speaking in home language

4.6.2.2 Speaking

Speaking in an adult manner rather than CDS

HIP-P1, HIP-P2 and LIP-P5 appeared to speak to their toddlers in an adult manner
as opposed to CDS. For instance, HIP-P1 would ask Ethan, “Okay, do you want the
potty or the toilet?” in a full sentence format, though in-between she would also use
simple phrases and terminology. HIP-P2 spoke to her toddler using full sentences
such as “Go to mummy’s phone and look for a picture of [cousin]”. Liyah managed to
make meaning through technology by finding the picture that her mother asked her
to look for.

The toddlers in Playroom 1 could speak in full sentences and competently state what
they wanted. This may be a result of their parents speaking in full sentences to them.
Ethan and Liyah understood what their parents asked and could respond correctly.

HIP-P2 proved to me how intelligent Liyah was with technology in which she
succeeded. It was also fascinating to see that she could recognise her cousin
[among many other] pictures in the gallery. (8 March 2019)

Keeping conversations going

It takes two to talk. Parents should be encouraged to constantly converse with

toddlers to promote their language abilities and increase their vocabularies. Did
participants indeed make an effort to keep conversations with their toddlers going?
Two participants illustrate the results of their efforts:

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HIP-P2 and LIP-P5 found it helpful to ask questions to keep conversations going,
managing to have long conversations with their toddlers as a result. HIP-P2 did so
by asking Liyah what “she wants to eat and she first said where and then I said but
what do you want to eat and she said pasta”. LIP-P5 succeeded by asking questions
such as “do you know this, do you know that” while reading a book to her child.

Speaking in home language

HIP-P1 and HIP-P2 recognised that English is a universal language, hence exposing
Ethan and Liyah to two languages, English and Afrikaans. HIP-P1 said that their
home language is “Afrikaans, but we teach him English because I was brought up
English so it’s quite important, it’s dual”. LIP-P6 mixed “the languages so that they
can understand both, it’s like ‘hlala pansi – sit!’”. LIP-P6 exposed her toddler to her
home language (Zulu) and English, while the other three parents spoke to their
toddlers in their respective home languages only. Even though he was taught
English alongside his first language Afrikaans, Ethan predominantly conversed in
Afrikaans (as shown in Theme 1's discussion) and could express himself creatively,
such as when he told HIP-P1, “’Mamma, my apie is honger’”. The father’s home
language is dominant in their household, and Ethan prefers to speak Afrikaans in the
playroom too, although I observed him occasionally using English to communicate
with HIP-T1 and other toddlers.

Ethan Observation 1 (09:59) – Went to a toddler and told her “eina” (ouch) putting out
the finger where a bee stung him.

Ethan Observation 2 (09:10) – Called another toddler by name and asked him to “come
here, come up here” pointing at the jungle gym.

Mulalo could speak simple English words such as “sign” and “pass” as certain
African words such as “thula” meaning keep quiet or “wena”, which commonly
means 'you'. MIP-P3 declared that they “don’t speak English to them at all, just
Afrikaans but he does understand it though because our friends are English and they
speak to him”. LIP-P5 stated that they “speak to him mostly in his mother tongue,
like 80% of his mother tongue and 20% in English because some words I don’t know
myself. I wanted him to learn his mother tongue before any other language”. These
parents mostly speak to their toddlers in their home languages, but Nolan and Mulalo

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are occasionally exposed to English. LIP-P5 said that she does not speak much
English at home because she does not know many English words. She added that
she would have done so had she been educated in English or exposed to it more
often.

Categories:
Theme 2 Subtheme 2.3: Meaning making
 Showing comprehension

4.6.2.3 Meaning making

Showing comprehension

Interestingly, MIP-P3 “started teaching him sign language, so only the basics ... he
has the please and the milk and getting food as sign language (signs all these as she
speaks). It’s so useful especially with babies because they get so frustrated because
you can’t understand communicate with them and that’s when we started ... just to
communicate”. MIP began teaching him sign language at approximately 7 or 8
months of age. She found she could communicate better with her toddler through
sign language when he was still too small to use words and sentences, and to ease
the frustrations usually associated with this phase of their lives.

MIP-P3 has her psychology degree and is educated in child psychology as well
as taught in a school for a short time, proving useful in her developmental and
educating styles for Nolan. (10 April 2019)

4.6.3 Theme 3: Teacher interaction with toddler

The third theme relates to teachers' interactions with their toddlers in the three
playrooms. Categorised here are the aspects of attentiveness, continual
conversations, CDS and adult ways of speaking, responsiveness, home languages
and teachers' understanding of toddlers.

Categories:
4.6.3.1 Theme 3 Subtheme 3.1: Listening
 Attentiveness

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4.6.3.1 Listening

Attentiveness

HIP-T1 and LIP-T3 were aware of the importance of being attentive and spoke to
their toddlers daily, whereas MIP-T2 was barely present in the playroom. LIP-T3
listened to her toddlers “every day, every second, every now and then. We work with
kids every day so they are always talking ... no time for […] keeping quiet”. Toddlers
in HIP-T1 and LIP-T3’s playrooms appeared open to communicating and did not
hesitate to speak to their teacher whenever they wanted. They were comfortable with
the various interactions while the toddlers in MIP-T2’s were quieter.

LIP-T3 is confident that toddlers speak a lot, knowing its importance and
allowing these toddlers to speak as much as they want. (26 March 2019)

Categories:
 Constant conversing
Theme 3 Subtheme 3.2: Speaking  CDS and speaking in an adult manner
 Responsiveness
 Home language

4.6.3.2 Speaking

Constant conversing:

HIP-T1 expands and adds to the words that Liyah utters, thereby exposing her to
new words and ideas connected to the topic of interest. The following observation is
only a single example of HIP-T1's continual conversations with her toddlers; focusing
on colours in this instance.

Liyah Observation 1 (15:09) – Shows HIP-T1 the colours on the jungle gym and asks
her “what colour?” while pointing to the colours. HIP-T1 extends the sentence by adding
words to the colours such as “green like the grass, blue like the sky”.

Toddlers in this Playroom would absolutely love to talk to HIP-T1, especially to

ask her the colours of the jungle gym. They would do this every day without fail and
HIP-T1 would always reply to them. (7 July 2019)

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 CDS and speaking in an adult manner:

MIP-T2 spoke to her toddlers using child-directed speech. HIP-T1 would talk to her
toddlers as though they were adults but use simple forms of words such as “pee-
pee” or “juicy”. The example below illustrates HIP-T1 conversing with her toddlers in
full sentences while incorporating simple terminology.

Ethan Observation 4 (09:44) – HIP-T1 called him to “pee-pee” and he said “pee-pee
later” and a few minutes after that he wet his pants.

When LIP-T3 spoke to her toddlers in an adult manner, she would always wait for
the toddlers' responses to see if they understood. She explained that she will “give
them the ... magazine ... and then say ‘look at the picture that I’m looking for’ ... I’ll just
say to them ‘can you see, you have your own magazine right?’ they’ll say ‘yes teacha’
(smiles). 'Look for the eyes, for the mouth, look for the ears, I’m gonna come right
next to you and cut it out for you so you can past it on the A4 paper’”. LIP-T3
executes a look-listen-and-apply strategy – she explains in detail exactly what the
toddlers need to do and what is going to happen. In so doing, she ensures the
toddlers do not misunderstand her messages, hence avoiding any delays in their
language development.

Responsiveness

MIP-T2 showed responsiveness and care when talking to her toddlers. She would
“try to look at them. If they want to speak to me I go down on my knees and I speak to
them”, adding that she would “try to be 100%. If I have time, I’m there all the time”.
MIP-T2 would bend down to the toddler's level, using her body language to make
them feel like her equals and creating a comforting communicative environment for
them, which would be beneficial for their development.

The answers given by MIP-T2 contradicted the observations made during the
week of fieldwork. She used time as an excuse. She would be there in presence but
not mind and when present in the classroom, which was rarely, she would be
completing other activities not related to the toddlers. I also observed that the day
after MIP-T2 was interviewed she spent more time communicating with the toddlers.
(13 March 2019)

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The following observation illustrates MIP-T2's – and her assistant’s – general lack of
communicative endeavours with their toddlers.

Nolan Observation 3 (08:18) – Got interested in something teacher was doing and
walked to her, she did not respond to him. Ran to assistant and sat by her, she also did
not do anything with him.

Home language:

The three teachers all considered the toddlers' home languages, being aware that
toddlers need to clearly understand what is communicated to them. This would avoid
frustrations that could delay their development. The school policy at Playroom 2
forced MIP-T2 to converse with toddlers in their home languages. She stated, “With
the school rules we attend to them with their own language but in this case we have
two languages so they do hear both but I speak to them in their home language”.
MIP-T2 hence incorporates dual language teaching in her playroom, which exposes
the toddlers to another language than their own first languages.

During my observations I noticed that she would use Afrikaans terminology

(“bêre bêre” meaning put away) when asking the toddlers to clean. It seemed like
Afrikaans was the dominant language of the classroom. (11 – 15 March 2019)

Categories:
Theme 3 Subtheme 3.3: Meaning making
 Teachers' understanding of toddlers

4.6.3.3 Meaning making

Teachers’ understanding of toddlers

MIP-T2 did not always understand when a toddler needed something. For instance,
she remarked during the interview, “uh ... she doesn’t ask for more so I’m not sure
how she asks for food”. This comment contrasts with the responses of HIP-T1 and
LIP-T3 who appeared to understand their toddlers' needs well. LIP-T3 declared that
she will always “respond... it depends on what’s the issue, what is it that they are
bringing up towards me and then if it’s something like they just say ‘ah she’s hitting
me’ ...I respond immediately so it depends what is it they are telling me mmm”. This

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indicates that LIP-T3’s responses to her toddlers depended on the circumstances
and that she was prepared to deal with every situation on its own merits.

4.6.4 Theme 4: Toddler interaction with parent and teacher

This theme presents the toddlers' interactions with their parents and teachers. The
related categories under the subthemes include the aspects of listening to parents'
requests, CDS and the use of words, manipulation, being specific, seeking of
communication, gestures, memory skills and role models. Each category is
supplemented with extracts from interviews, observations and field notes.

Vinolia preferred to watch televised broadcasts, since she then seemed to

concentrate “a lot more than like to read to her” (LIP-P6). Ethan, conversely, was
always excited to get a magazine; he and Mulalo liked to talk to their teachers about
pictures in the magazines. We can thus deduce that Vinolia preferred a graphic way
of learning, generally using audio-visual means to obtain her information. The
following observations illustrate how Ethan and Mulalo used the playroom's
magazines to develop their own language abilities.

Ethan Observation 1 (16:25) – Opened a magazine and asked the teacher to explain
one of the pictures.

Mulalo Observation 1 (09:40) – Turned pages in a magazine and said, “Mama”, to a

picture of a woman. He showed LIP-T3 and she responded to him, amazed at what he
said.

Some toddlers were more developed than others in the three playrooms selected as
research sites. I observed that the toddlers from the high and low socio-economic
playrooms spoke longer sentences and used a wider range of words compared to
the medium socio-economic playroom whose toddlers generally used gestures to
communicate and were often quiet, playing by themselves. This was interesting
because Zoe, who attended the medium socio-economic playroom, and Mulalo, from
the low socio-economic playroom, were of the same age, and yet, significant
language development differences could be observed. Mulalo and Ethan, who was 9
months older, were observed to share a similar level of communicative prowess.

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 Categories:
Theme 4 Subtheme 4.1: Listening
 Listening to a parent's request

4.6.4.1 Listening

Listening to a parent’s request

Before taking the picture below of Vinolia and her sister, LIP-P6 “told them to hug
each other so you show you love each other”. Vinolia then hugged her sister, as can
be seen in Figure 4.11. Vinolia understood exactly what LIP-P6 wanted her to do and
fulfilled the wish. This illustrates a communicative understanding between toddler
and mother, and illuminates LIP-P6's perception of positive communicative
interaction with toddlers, as portrayed during her interviews. This further illustrates
that toddlers communicate via their bodies as well.

Figure 4.11: Vinolia and her sister hugging (LIP-P6)

Categories:
 CDS and the use of words
Theme 4 Subtheme 4.2: Speaking  Manipulation
 Being specific
 Seeking communication

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4.6.4.2 Speaking

CDS and the use of words

The toddlers of Playroom 1, who were largely spoken to in an adult fashion, tried to
imitate adult speech when they talked to their teacher and assistants. Yet, while
interacting with other toddlers, they then tended to talk in simple ways, as their
partners would respond similarly. HIP-P2 stated, in her interview, that Liyah would
use full sentences with her, such as “‘I want to ride my bike’”. The following
observations illustrate how Liyah used baby talk when speaking to her peers, then
used short sentences in response to adults.

Liyah Observation 3 (09:32) – She had a mini baby talk conversation with a few toddlers
who replied in baby talk as well.

Liyah Observation 3 (10:34) – Told teacher “look another one” and pointed to the ant on
the floor.

Manipulation

When a toddler wanted to gain an adult's attention, the toddler would either
communicate with the participant or manipulate them into getting what they want, as
“at this age they quite demanding” (HIP-P2). For this reason, toddlers like to be
heard, recognised or approved of. As explained in Chapter 2, the quality of the time
spent together are functional in these aspects.

All nine participants mentioned that they adapt their behaviour while listening to their
toddlers. Toddlers seek or, at other times, demand an adult's attention. They may do
so by constantly calling the adult, knowing that the adult will eventually give them the
attention they require. This was illustrated by HIP-P1 when she said that Ethan
“talks a lot and if you don’t respond or even if you do respond he keeps on saying
‘mommy mommy mommy’ so I listen the whole time (laughs) ... if I can’t, I’ll tell him
I’m not the only human being in the house so he can go and ask his dad”. The
following observations reveal more evidence of this behaviour.

Liyah Observation 4 (09:44) – Called “teacher teacher teacher teacher” and HIP-T1
replied.

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 I noticed that HIP-P1 is the focal point and first person the toddler communicates
with because her telling Ethan that he can also go ask his dad shows that Ethan
regularly first seeks his mother's attention. (8 March 2019)

Being specific

Toddlers often differ in their interests and abilities to communicate They may,
occasionally, use telegraphic speech. Ethan and Liyah specified what they wanted to
their parents, while Nolan, Zoe, Mulalo and Vinolia either fetched what they wanted
or pointed to an object until they received it from their parents. HIP-T1 commented
that her toddlers “will say ‘ta’ or ‘more’” when they want something or will […] say
‘blocks’ or ‘teddies’” to specify what they want. In the observation below, Liyah used
telegraphic speech after an accident occurred, telling HIP-T1 that her “mummy [is]
coming” and will change her when she comes. The toddlers also used single and
one-word phrases to issue requests.

Liyah Observation 2 (10:06) – She wet her pants and did not tell the teacher. After
teacher noticed, she said “mummy coming”.

HIP-P1 allowed Ethan to make his own decisions, allowing him the freedom to
become an independent thinker. She explained that Ethan “goes and fetches
clothing himself ... and he’ll tell me he wants the one with the bird or the car, he’ll be
quite specific with the colour as well” (HIP-P1). Some toddlers knew specifically
what they wanted, and could request or communicate their desires with their parents
or teachers. Others, however, did not try to communicate what they wanted, but
were content to have those decisions made on their behalves, such as Zoe who
“doesn’t really have a preference to whatever she wants to wear, she’s just happy”
(MIP-P4).

Seeking communication

Nolan and Zoe craved the attention of MIP-T2 and the assistants at their playroom.
They would constantly try to talk to them or get their attention to play games, but
they were frequently ignored. They experienced almost no responsiveness or care in
terms of their communication needs. The following observations represent a fraction
of the times Nolan and Zoe tried to communicate with MIP-T2 and the assistants.

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 Nolan Observation 3 (08:14) – Walked to assistant and started talking, she smiled at
him. He sat next to her and played by himself and later sat on top of her, she did not
respond to his actions.

Zoe Observation 1 (09:28) – Walked to assistant and pointed to her arm, something was
bothering her. Assistant looked at her arm and just rubbed it. Later on she goes back to
assistant to show her her arm.

Zoe Observation 1 (11:16) – Tried getting teachers attention, she shouted “mamma
mamma mamma” at her until MIP-T2 looked at her.

MIP-T2 was almost never present in the classroom and when she was she
would simply do one activity with the toddlers and leave again or would carry on with
something else and leave the assistants to take care of the toddlers. (11 – 15 March
2019)

Categories:
 Using words or gestures to communicate
Theme 4 Subtheme 4.3: Meaning making
 Recalling information learned
 Role models

4.6.4.3 Meaning making

Using words or gestures to communicate

Toddlers have various ways of expressing themselves, using either words, gestures
or actions to create meaning and communicate. MIP-T2 said that Nolan “always
points at everything. If he wants to show you something or speak to you about
something, he shows to whatever he wants to speak about”. MIP-P3 made a similar
comment, saying that Nolan “shows and points to it until he gets it (laughs) and then
he’ll take it”. The picture and observation below substantiate Nolan’s parent's and
teacher’s responses during interviews, showing him using only gestures to
communicate. Here, Nolan realised that he can direct an adult’s attention towards an
object, which allowed the teacher to tune into and share his experiences.

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 Figure 4.12: Nolan pointing (LIP-T3)

Nolan Observation 2 (08:59) – Teacher started blowing bubbles and he got excited and
pointed at them. He looked at the assistant and pointed at the bubbles trying to show
them to her.

Playrooms 1 and 3's toddlers were capable of relatively refined communication,

which signified their understanding that words, rather than gestures, are used to
name objects. Liyah, according to HIP-P2, wakes “up in the morning and say ‘I want
to put a dress’”, and Vinolia “can tell you ‘ma ma change, ma ma change... she tells
you when she wants something ... ‘mama tsoga ke, milk’ (mama wake up, milk)” (LIP-
P6). Vinolia here mixed her first language, Zulu, with English to communicate with
LIP-P6. These toddlers used short sentences to communicate and create meaning,
which is also apparent in the observations below. The situation was different in
Playroom 2, where the toddlers used mainly gestures to communicate.

Ethan Observation 4 (15:45) – told toddlers that the “goggo gonna bite you”

Liyah Observation 1 (15:43) – one of the toddlers said “mummy” and she told them
“mummy is coming”.

MIP-T2 would not ask her toddlers if they needed a diaper change and simply
pick them up or smell if they need a diaper change. She would not communicate with
the toddler to try to teach them to communicate if they needed a diaper change. (11-
15 March 2019)

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 Recalling information learned

Toddlers learn from parents' and teachers' concepts. They later recall it and use the
learned knowledge. Ethan is used to his parents telling him to sit in a corner when he
is naughty so “he’ll go sit in a corner and then you’ll ask him but why are you there
and he’ll tell you it’s because I’m naughty (laughs)” (HIP-P1). HIP-P1 here revealed
that Ethan now automatically puts himself in a corner when he knows he has done
something naughty.

LIP-T3 gave the toddlers frequent instructions so that they could learn something.
For instance, she would “give them the ... magazine ... ‘look for the eyes, for the
mouth, look for the ears’”. Because of being regularly exposed to this form of activity,
Nolan and Mulalo could recall where their eyes, mouth and ears are. Also, because
they were taught how to distinguish between their mothers and fathers, they could
place other people in similar categories. This is clear evidence that these toddlers
were responsive to their parents and teachers, and hence developed their
communicative skills accordingly.

Nolan Observation 3 (08:39) – pointed to pictures in a magazine and said “mamma

dada” to a woman and a man.

Mulalo Observation 1 (10:18) – he can point to his eyes, ears and nose when asked to.

Role models:

Role models are an important influence on growth and development. Parents and
teachers are likely to become toddlers' role models, which mean that they can
support the toddlers' development in fun and positive ways. HIP-P1 showed me a
picture of Ethan and explained, “This is him on a motorbike pretending to ride it”.
This allowed for pleasant interactions of talking and laughing between Ethan and his
parents. HIP-P1 would tell Ethan to do more, whereupon Ethan would carry on
pretending to ride the motorbike. Ethan thus correctly executed his mother's wish.
Ethan also pointed to some parts on the bike and spoke to himself as if he was trying
to name them. Even in the playground, as shown in the observation below, Ethan

113
copied his father's way of speaking and pretended to ride a motorbike – he already
assumed an adult's role.

Figure 4.13: Ethan pretending to ride his father’s motorbike (HIP-P1)

Ethan Observation 1, 2, 3 & 4 (09:00 – 10:30 and 15:00 – 16:00) – He would always
play on a motorbike around the playground every day. It would be the first thing he ran
to.

The toddler copies his father by riding his motorbike and I noticed that his father
is seen to be a role model in a number of things the toddler does including speaking
Afrikaans at home. (8 March 2019)

4.7 INTERPRETATION OF MAIN FINDINGS

The process of collecting and analysing data illuminated the participants’ true
opinions, thoughts and perceptions of the communication and language
development of their toddlers. Table 4.7 collates the findings of the analysed data.

Table 4.7: Summary of parents' and teachers' perceptions

Toddlers' development Parents’ perceptions Teachers’ perceptions

Ethan was a social, HIP-P1 had strong HIP-T1 firmly believed in

Ethan independent speaker who convictions about her stimulating her toddlers,
could form sentences with a toddler’s brain stimulation. providing them with various
relatively advanced vocabulary. She enjoyed doing activities activities, resources, playtime

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 with Ethan, always and attention they needed to
responding to him and she grow. She would constantly
made sure her toddler move amongst the toddlers
received the necessary and answer their questions.
attention and stimulation She felt that communicating in
needed to develop and grow. the toddlers' home languages
HIP-P1 exposed her toddler would help them to better
to both English and understand what she was
Afrikaans. trying to convey to them.

HIP-P2 always responded to

Liyah, though she felt she did
not have any other choice.
She had seen the importance
of socialising and how that
Liyah was friendly and could
Liyah initiated development in her
form sentences with a relatively
toddler. She also stimulated
advanced vocabulary.
her toddler by keeping the
conversations going and
reading to her every night.
HIP-P2 exposed Liyah to
English and Afrikaans.

MIP-P3 understood that

Nolan needed to
communicate. To ease the
MIP-T2 believed that her
frustrations, she taught him
Nolan Nolan was social but only used toddlers were not old enough
sign language, successfully
gestures to communicate. for such stimulating activities
making the communication
as reading, but performed the
process easier. Only
activity anyway. She spoke to
Afrikaans was spoken at their
her toddlers in their home
home.
languages, though mainly
because the school policies
MIP-P4 responded to Zoe
required her to.
Zoe Zoe was quiet and only used and constantly exposed her
gestures to communicate. to books. She spoke to Zoe
only in her home language.

LIP-P5 listened to her toddler LIP-T3 knew that her toddlers

and encouraged him to learn needed to absorb language,
Mulalo enjoyed music, singing
things in books that related to although they tended to speak
Mulalo and playing games; he was
his daily activities. She continually. She therefore
social at times and used words
allowed him to frequently provided them with the
to communicate.
watch TV - mostly the music necessary attention and
channel and cartoons. She stimulating activities to

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 spoke to Mulalo in his home encourage and strengthen
language but only their development. LIP-T3
occasionally used English spoke to her toddlers in their
words because she did not home languages.
the language well enough.

LIP-P6 felt that Vinolia was

too young to be read to and
Vinolia was quiet, but able to allowed her to watch TV
Vinolia
use words to communicate and often. She spoke to Vinolia in
sing songs. her home language and
English, occasionally mixing
the languages.

4.7.1 Participant responses connected to Vygotsky’s theories

The final question of the interviews prompted the participants to regard three pictures
(stock images, illustrated below) and reveal their opinions of activities that are most
advantageous to toddlers' development. They all selected the third picture showing
playful interaction between an adult, a toddler and a sibling.

(Byrne, 2017) (Renee, 2019)

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 (How kids learn to play, 2019)

Figure 4.14, 4.15 & 4.16: Three pictures presented to participants

As indicated in Chapter 2, stimulating interaction and communication fulfil vital

functions in a child’s development, according to Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of
proximal development (Close, 2010; Mooney, 2013; Vygotsky, 1986). Parents and
teachers largely understand that toddlers may not yet be able to manage certain
tasks on their own, and hence teach them new skills and guide them to complete
those tasks (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011). Vygotsky (1978) further explains how
'book sharing' can scaffold a toddler's language learning ability by encouraging the
acquisition of new words. Some of the participating parents and teachers in this
study frequently read stories to their toddlers, allowing them to recognise narrative
aspects and to learn how to answer questions correctly and explain the pictures in
the books.

Children need to be constantly stimulated and allowed to join social groups. In this
way, an individual’s learning takes place through interactive means (Hartas, 2015).
Most parents and teachers understand the importance of assisting their toddlers in
their quests to develop towards maturity, and that interaction is a key element in that
process (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011). Socialising with siblings and other toddlers
encourage togetherness, scaffolding and the forming of human connections.
Vygotsky (1978) illustrated that adults' interaction with children guides their
development.

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Parents and teachers who participated in this study could recognise the various
advantages of interacting learning, while presenting a variety of views regarding the
development of their toddlers' communicative and language skills. Some parents and
teachers seemed educated, well informed and innovative in relation to the matters of
interaction and development. The participants could also explain the differences
between various methods of supporting toddlers' development, as evidenced by this
selection of recorded comments made by parents and teachers:

“Developing fine and gross motor skills, the child can identify objects and ‘read’”
(HIP-P1).

“Siblings have a major influence on development and so do parents. Spending time

with a child helps them develop faster than parents who don’t spend time with them”
(HIP-P2).

“Interaction is important for me. If you give love and interaction they learn quite
anything. Actions and love make them communicate in what comes naturally. If I
don’t do activities, I still give them love and interaction” (MIP-T2).

“When children watch TV they mimic what happens, especially with accents like
Pepa Pig, children would have a British accent but with playing blocks you see the
way a child responds to things, especially with blocks. If you can’t manage a thing,
you can work around it” (LIP-P5).

“So that they can have the bond with you. For TV it’s TV but you can’t have a bond
with TV but with me or the father you can play with your kid and understand maybe
how to pack things and whatsoever” (LIP-P6).

4.8 SUMMARY

The data discussed in this chapter represents the participating parents' and teachers'
perceptions and understanding of the research topic. An analysis of the empirical
data dissected those perceptions and views, established their methods and
principles, and determined some gaps in their understanding of toddlers'
communication and language development. Understanding is defined as "the

118
knowledge that someone has about a particular subject or situation” (Oxford
Dictionary, 2010).

Chapter 5 revises and applies the literature review, summarises the findings,
answers the research questions and specifies the emerging conceptual framework's
relevance to this study by interpreting the findings and the research questions'
answers.

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 Chapter 5:
5CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Existing literature Contradictory findings

Reseach results comparisons with of this study from
results of this study existing literature

Unique insight
Interpretation through Answering the
emerging from the
conceptual framework research questions
data

Limitations Recommendations

Supporting and
promoting
For further studies Training and practice communication and
language
development

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5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter commences by discussing the reviewed literature's relationships with

the findings that were presented in Chapter 4. Any finding that either verifies or
contradicts existing literature is compared to that body of knowledge, followed by an
outlay of the insights gained and conclusive interpretations of the results. Limitations
of the study are revealed, followed by recommendations on improving ways to assist
parents and teachers in their task to develop the communication and language skills
of their toddlers.

The chapter contains the following sections to present the study’s findings: literature
control, contradictions with literature, existing knowledge contradictions and the
detailed understanding of parents and teacher perceptions of toddlers'
communication and language development that has emerged through finding
answers to the research questions.

5.2 LITERATURE CONTROL SUPPORTING THE RESEARCH RESULTS

The tables presented in this section contain the literature control applied that serves
to explain their links to this study's results. A comparative outlay of existing
literature's relations to this study’s results is presented in Table 5.1. The table
interprets the value of the data within the themes and subthemes of this study
alongside similar elements in existing literature. The third column, therefore, provides
an interpretive discussion of the study’s findings in terms of the existing knowledge
that reflect similar outcomes (second column).

The ECD centres are called playrooms in this section of the chapter, as motivated in
the introduction to Chapter 4.

Table 5.1: Existing literature comparisons with results of this research

Theme 1: Factors that enhance communication and language development

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Birken (2017) Birken states that paediatric guidelines HIP-P1 limited Ethan's screen time to only
Hulit, Howard and suggest less screen time for young 30 minutes of television and 15 minutes of
Fahey (2011) children. cell phone use a day. She filled his days
Wittmer and with various other activities instead, in which

121
Petersen (2014) she participated while conversing with him.
Higher attention from an adult is more
LIP-T3, LIP-P5 and LIP-P6, conversely,
beneficial to learning compared to higher
believed it is normal that their toddlers watch
attention to the children's programme.
television for language learning. LIP-T3
Many adults follow a policy of placing their would place her toddlers in front of the
toddlers in front of television sets to hear television to watch children’s programmes,
and grasp language. which, as I could testify, were all educational
and of high English standards. She did not
intervene or disrupt them when they stood
up and danced or answered questions that
Mickey Mouse asked them.

Manolson (1992) Children’s programmes quickly jump from Mulalo and Vinolia of Playroom 3 were not
one topic to another; the graphics, voices interested in watching the television and
and actions are all fast. This overwhelms preferred having social interactions with
children and causes them to tune out. others around them. Mulalo would stand up
and copy other children around him. Vinolia
would follow her friends around and talk to
them, most of the time in baby talk. Mulalo
occasionally stared at the TV, being in his
own world and tuned out.

Subtheme 1.1: Speaking

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Manolson (1992) Through musical activities, children can The toddlers seemed excited to sing along
Otto (2014) acquire pre-language skills, like learning with their teachers and they clearly enjoyed
how to anticipate what comes next and to the vocal interactive playtime. The teacher in
Wittmer and
Petersen (2014) concentrate – this forms the foundation for Playroom 3 would fall in with songs that the
language learning. Musical activities such toddlers started to sing, and encourage the
as the singing of lullabies encourage quieter toddlers to join in song. Singing is an
physical contact, repetition, taking of turns, initiating process of learning and building on
non-verbal responses, vocal play, action, language. The toddlers in Playrooms 1 and
speech and timing of words. Toddlers 3 could sing all the songs sung by HIP-T1
imitate what they hear. and LIP-T3 or played on a CD. Those
toddlers could use a language fluently,
Hulit, Howard and Songs shared by adults and children allow
Fahey (2011) which perhaps was an outcome of the
several aspects of human development to
influence of all the singing they did. Nolan
occur. Singing allows adults and toddlers to
and Zoe would listen and watch MIP-T2 as
synchronise their emotional states, which
she sang nursery rhymes. The enjoyment
leads to social regulation. Songs contribute
these toddlers had during singing sessions
to language acquisition by increasing levels
was evident, while it also visibly encouraged
of aural arousal and attention (through
them to socialise and mingle with the adults
emotional aspects) and phonological
and their peers in the playroom.
discrimination (enhanced by pitch
contours).

122
Wittmer and The concept of language explosion LIP-P5 was excited to notice how quickly
Petersen (2014) demonstrates toddlers' desires to learn Mulalo's vocabulary expanded thanks to the
Woodward, how to label people, places and things words contained in the lyrics of the songs he
Markman &
accurately. learnt and sang at the playroom. Ethan and
Fitzsimmons
(1994) Liyah would call others by name at their
When an adult demonstrates where ears,
playroom and, as Mulalo did, could point to
noses, knees and toes are, a toddler will
body parts and name them as part of their
soon learn that every part of a body has a
songs.
name, leading to a language explosion.

Subtheme 1.2: Meaning making and communication

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Manolson (1992) Books are valuable "tools" to promote Each participating adult, apart from LIP-P5
Otto (2014) toddlers' communicative development and and LIP-P6, knew the importance of
they can be effectively used in interactive exposing their toddlers to books. Those
Wittmer and
Petersen (2014) partnerships. The rereading of books adults created positive environments for
reinforces newly learned words. Imitating, reading – Ethan was so keen he would even
expanding on, finding and labelling fetch his book of choice to be read at
illustrated objects in a book occurs bedtime. Ethan and Liyah were able to
naturally, while toddlers also learn to take explain, retell and name things in a book
turns as adults read to them, explain things when the story became familiar, as they
or ask questions during their shared grew to understand it better every time a
reading experiences. particular book was read to them. Zoe,
according to MIP-P4, could look at pictures
and imitate the calls of the portrayed
animals. LIP-P5 encouraged Mulalo to
understand the principle of taking turns. She
would ask Mulalo questions about the
stories she read and then connect his
answers with his everyday activities; in that
way, he learnt to relate new information to
his own environment.

Manolson (1992) Adults prompt children to use language Ethan and Liyah managed to memorise
when they frequently repeat words in their stories because the books were frequently
presence. The more a child hears words read to them. Because of the repetition, they
associated with particular objects, the could name things in the book and retell the
easier they understand what is being said stories from what they remembered,
and to anticipate what comes next – they according to HIP-P1 and HIP-P2. Liyah
will soon be ready to use those words. could sometimes do this “word for word”.
Those two toddlers could also say big words
such as 'dinosaur'. Their playroom teacher
constantly referred to a dinosaur displayed
on the wall during my presence in the room.

123
Scribner (2013) Adults who frequently read to their toddlers Each participant, apart from LIP-P6,
stimulate their desires to learn about letters evidently realised the importance – in terms
and the meaning of words. This activity of their development – of regular reading
fosters a healthy attitude to reading, sessions shared with their toddlers. LIP-P6,
guiding them closer to the zone of proximal however, did read to Vinolia’s sister while
development. This becomes evident when Vinolia was present in the room. Hearing
the children begin to tell coherent stories. stories from books appeared to directly
enhance their vocabularies, as well as their
listening and comprehensive skills. I noticed
the effects of the reading sessions during
my daily observations in the playrooms.
Ethan, Liyah, Nolan, Mulalo and Vinolia
would constantly talk to themselves,
especially when they looked at pictures in a
book. Their engagement in stories was
nurtured by their parents who made the
effort to read them stories on a regular
basis.

Vally et al. (2015) Vygotsky explains how the use of book HIP-T1 explained how the toddlers went
sharing scaffolds a child’s mastery of about understanding and analysing the
language through initiating, encouraging stories read to them – they did so by asking
and supporting the acquisition of new questions. The adults in Playrooms 1 and 3
words. This is achieved by engaging in the used the serve and return approach, which
labelling of objects, questioning and resulted in back-and-forth responses after
commenting on pictures. stories were read. As observed by myself,
Liyah would comment on the pictures in
books she opened. Ethan opened a
magazine and asked HIP-T1 to explain one
of the pictures. Nolan pointed to a picture of
a man and woman in a magazine, calling
them “mamma dada”.

Manolson (1992) Early years schooling is play-based and All participant teachers incorporated playing
UNESCO (2006) activity-oriented, allowing children to sessions in their daily activities, during which
explore the topics that emphasise a child’s they would ask the toddlers questions. This
active participation, since children prefer to encouraged the toddlers to speak during the
learn by doing. social activities, to get to know one another
and to talk, thereby strengthening their
communicative development.

Manolson (1992) Play-activities allow adults to set realistic HIP-P1 encouraged Ethan to use play to
communication goals for their children to indicate his needs, like when he told her
attain, to plan their communicative “Mamma, my apie is honger”. She had a
activities and to interactively participate in "wacky box” of activities that she completed
playing with their children to support their with Ethan during weekends. These

124
 learning processes. activities encouraged Ethan to work with his
parents and complete activities that involved
numbers and words. As an example, HIP-P1
used hopscotch to teach Ethan about
different colours (shown in Figure 4.9).

Wittmer and Playful activities, such as peek-a-boo, are Mulalo loved to play peek-a-boo with other
Petersen (2014) crucial for making language learning toddlers. He would first communicate with
enjoyable for toddlers. the toddlers next to him and would soon
start to play with them. After the games,
short conversations would take place.

Theme 2: Parent interaction with toddler

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Hulit, Howard and It appears that, when adults sense a child Most parents constantly read to their
Fahey (2011) is old enough to develop speech, they pay toddlers. LIP-P6, however, felt that Vinolia
Scribner (2013) better attention to the lengths and was still too young to be read stories to. This
complexities of conversations to give their translated into differences in the speaking
children clear and attainable language skills of this toddler, in comparison to the
targets. others. Vinolia tended to be quiet and simply
followed other children around. HIP-P1 and
HIP-P2, conversely, constantly spoke to
their toddlers in an adult manner, resulting in
those toddlers' abilities to form sentences
and rapidly expand their vocabularies.

Subtheme 2.1: Listening

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Manolson (1992) Being responsive provides limitless Even though circumstances may force them
Wittmer and opportunities to communicate with children to be responsive, most adults would
Petersen (2014) and guide them towards learning. understand its importance and respond to
their toddlers. Ethan and Liyah displayed
Parents' and teachers’ use of responsive
excellent language usage at their ages, as
language strategies directly relate to
their parents read them daily stories. HIP-P1
children’s language development.
stimulated Ethan further by performing
Toddlers need responsive adults to activities with him during weekends. HIP-P1
become competent in using languages. was very responsive at other times too – she
played me a video showed her and Ethan
playing together in the mud. Ethan’s use of
language was well developed and he
managed to learn new words every day.

125
Subtheme 2.2: Speaking

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Law et al. (2017) When a parent responds to a child's Liyah's parent (HIP-P2) showed her that she
Levine et al. (2016) message, the child understands that the is interested in Liyah's desires and needs,
adults are interested in their messages. like the kind of food she wanted to eat on
Manolson (1992)
They would thus feel encouraged to share any occasion. She would extend such a
Wittmer and
Petersen (2014) information about their daily activities. It is conversation by letting Liyah choose
helpful when adults can keep any such between a few options for food, and then
conversations going by asking more ask her more questions about the food she
questions. chose. HIP-P1 would prompt Ethan to make
and communicate his own decisions, like
whether he wanted to use the toilet or the
potty.

Subtheme 2.3: Meaning making and communication

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Manolson (1992) Adults need to ask questions, show interest HIP-P1 asked Ethan why he is sitting
and create anticipation, thus exercising against the wall, and he responded. Ethan,
children’s thinking 'muscles'. This teaches therefore, could understand that his parent
children how to make decisions and to was interested in what he was doing and
become curious about things. what he had to say about that.

Theme 3: Teacher interaction with toddler

Subtheme 3.1: Listening

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Manolson (1992) Allowing children to lead conversations LIP-T3 mentioned that her toddlers spoke
about their experiences encourage them to continuously – this was because she
confidently express their feelings, needs allowed them to freely express themselves
and interests. It also prompts them to and to communicate their needs. HIP-T1
connect with others, speak to them and to and LIP-T3 paid attention to the toddlers in
feel recognised. their playrooms and responded to them
whenever they were approached. Liyah went
up to HIP-T1 and spoke to her about a car
outside, saying that it is her mother. HIP-T1
responded by telling her the cars look the
same but that her mother will arrive soon.

126
Subtheme 3.2: Speaking

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Hulit, Howard and Parents and teachers speak to children in MIP-T2 constantly used CDS when
Fahey (2011) significantly different ways than with other communicating with the toddlers, even when
Manolson (1992) adults. They try to simplify their language she sang and read to them. At this
Wittmer and to maintain toddlers’ attention and facilitate playroom, toddlers generally used gestures
Petersen (2014) the toddler's acquisition of basic language to communicate. HIP-T1 and LIP-T3 spoke
skills. in relatively adult ways to the toddlers,
occasionally using simple words such as
Adults continue to use baby talk to respond
“pee-pee”. All the toddlers at those
to children when they can acquire and
playrooms used several words to
learn more words.
communicate, even though one toddler was
only 18 months old.

Hulit, Howard and Toddlers' development is furthered when HIP-T1 used semantically responsive talk in
Fahey (2011) adults use semantically responsive talk; the playrooms, adding more words to the
Manolson (1992) toddlers will gain more language words that the toddlers uttered. This method
Wittmer and information about objects in this way. For exposed Liyah to new ideas and words
Petersen (2014) instance, if a toddler talks about an connected to what she was interested in. For
aeroplane and the adult responds with example, HIP-T1 added words to colours,
other information about the plane, like its like when she said, “Green like the grass,
colour or shape, the toddler will quickly blue like the sky”. On another occasion,
absorb new words related to colours and Liyah went to the jungle gym and asked HIP-
shapes. T1 to tell her the colours painted on it. HIP-
T1 showed responsiveness on such
When responsive adults expand on
occasions. MIP-T2, however, did not do this
messages from children, then they help the
with her toddlers and simply told them the
children to understand their experiences
colours.
better, while it also helps them to learn and
say new words.

Subtheme 3.3: Meaning making and communication

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Manolson (1992) It does not help a child learn to talk when MIP-T2 and LIP-T3 would simply take
adults do everything for them. Children toddlers to change their nappies instead of
learn by doing, therefore, simple and easy communicating with them to find out if any
means of instructing a child in language toddlers needed to change their diapers and
learning deprive them of opportunities hence encourage them to speak for
needed to formulate words by themselves themselves. HIP-T1 would communicate
and give expression to their feelings and with her toddlers and ask them if they need
experiences. to “pee-pee”.

127
Theme 4: Toddler interaction with parent and teacher

Subtheme 4.1: Listening

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Hulit, Howard and Toddlers need active engagement with LIP-P6 asked Vinolia to kiss her sister.
Fahey (2011) adults to guide their focus and maintain Through listening, Vinolia understood the
their attention. instruction and did what was requested of
her. Although Vinolia did not speak during
this communication, she understood.

Subtheme 4.2: Speaking

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Manolson (1992) Children often differ in their interest and Ethan and Liyah demanded prompt attention
Wittmer and ability to communicate. By being sensitive by repeating “teacher teacher teacher
Petersen (2014) to their changing moods, behaviour and teacher” or “mommy mommy mommy” when
agenda, parents and teachers consciously they wanted attention. HIP-T1, HIP-P1, HIP-
adapt their own behaviour to share P2 and LIP-T3 indicated that they modify
experiences with children. their behaviour to listen to their toddlers
whenever they demanded attention. They
Children use words and sentences initially
would stop what they were doing and
for basic purposes such as demanding
prioritise their toddler's needs for a while.
attention or protesting “no”.

Hulit, Howard and Toddlers want to tell you what to feed them The toddlers were able to specify what they
Fahey (2011) and how to dress them. chose what to wear, for instance, by saying
Wittmer and "bird" or "car" or a colour. Liyah could tell her
Petersen (2014)
parent what she wanted to eat, and Ethan
Wittmer and Children use words and sentences for told his parent what he wanted to wear.
Petersen (2014) basic purposes such as requesting food, They were able to form short sentences
learning to say “no” to adults, expressing while speaking to their parents, whereas
feelings and to inform. Nolan and Zoe pointed to objects to convey
their wishes.

Subtheme 4.3: Meaning making and communication

Sources Existing knowledge Interpretive discussion

Wittmer and When a toddler runs towards an adult it In Playrooms 1 and 2, toddlers would often
Petersen (2014) could mean they wish to connect. initiate interaction by going to assistants; the
assistants would then give them the
attention they needed. In Playroom 3,
toddlers would run among assistants, sit
next to them or even on their laps to try to
get their attention, but would end up playing
by themselves because the required
attention was not received.

128
Begus & Toddlers initially familiarise themselves Nolan, as shown in Figure 4.12, and Zoe
Southgate (2012) with communication by using non-verbal only used gestures to capture others'
Law et al. (2017) gestures and facial expressions. At 18 interest, focus their attention, obtain
Levine et al. (2016) months, toddlers begin to intentionally point information or display their emotions. They

Wittmer and to people to obtain attention, or they would pointed to objects in their playroom to inform
Petersen (2014) direct another person’s attention towards MIP-T2 what they wanted.
the object they are pointing at. Toddlers
request to be handed objects with an open
or closed hand, request actions through
pointing, take an adults hand, give an
object and comment through pointing.

Such gestures are important precursors of

subsequent language development.

Toddlers also point to gain information

about something, like a picture in a book.

DBE, 2015 At 18 months, toddlers use gestures and A few months can make a difference on
Hulit, Howard and some words to name objects. At 24 months development. Toddlers in Playrooms 1 and
Fahey (2011) they use mostly words to name objects. 3, aged between 18 to 28 months, used
Wittmer and Toddlers are able to use various single mostly words and sentences when
Petersen (2014) words by 18 months and to use two- to communicating. The toddlers in Playroom 2,
three-word phrases by age 2. Most aged 18 and 19 months, used gestures to
toddlers focus on learning words rather communicate. The people around the
than gestures because they observe that toddlers in Playrooms 1 and 3 were
the people around them mostly use words interactive and constantly conversing,
to communicate. listening to what they had to say and feel.
The people around the toddlers in Playroom
Hulit, Howard and Toddlers want to share their stories, inform
Fahey (2011) 2 barely communicated with them, even
others what is bothering them or where to
after a toddler indicated to them that
Wittmer and look for something. They wish to share
Petersen (2014) something is bothering her.
what they have found and want adults to
share their experiences with them on
emotional and communicative levels.

5.3 LITERATURE IN CONTRADICTION TO THE RESEARCH RESULTS

Table 5.2 contains and discusses findings of this study that contradict the knowledge
as obtained from existing literature on the topic. The ECD centres are again
referenced as playrooms in this table.

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Table 5.2: Study findings that contradict existing literature

Theme 1: Factors that enhance communication and language development

Contradiction to what is Interpretive

Sources Existing knowledge
known discussion

National The standard of ECD in The playroom in the low- The Gauteng Department of
Planning poor communities is income area was surprisingly Education plays a vital role in
Commission
generally inadequate, due well equipped – it contained all the teaching and learning
(2011)
to limited funds. The that the high-income playroom processes, being tasked with
government underfunds had. All equipment was in the responsibility to supply
ECD and support is usually working condition. The schools with essential
provided by donors. This playroom in the medium- resources. Not all the
situation is caused by a income area, however, was not playrooms in this study were
lack of policy, research and stocked to the same extent and adequately supplied,
examples to implement facilities were relatively sparse, however. When children are
effective ways to promote leaving the children to find denied fair opportunities to
language and literacy stimulation and entertainment learn, it negatively affects the
development. Poor on their own for periods during education of South Africa's
implementation of ECD the day. future youth and leaders.
significantly affects the poor
communities.

Du Plessis and Many parents in South The participating teachers at Teachers would speak to
Louw (2008) Africa enrol their children in the three playrooms spoke to their toddlers in their
Li and Rao urban schools where the toddlers in their first respective home languages
(2005)
English is the only languages, whether it was while varying the languages
O’Connor and language of Learning and English, Afrikaans or Zulu. throughout the day. Some
Geiger (2009)
Teaching. Those children participants would
Sarda et al. attend crèches where occasionally expose the
(2016)
languages are used that toddlers to English, but
may not be their first would not enforce the
language. Teachers within language on them.
these schools are expected
to prepare the toddlers for
formal preschool in English,
and are pressurised by
parents who expect their
children to be fluent in the
language by the time they
enter preschool. For many
parents, English denotes a
route to a more advanced
life.

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Theme 2: Parent interaction with toddler

Contradiction to what is Interpretive

Sources Existing knowledge
known discussion

Dodici (2002) Toddlers from low-income I observed that the toddlers in Toddlers in the low-income
households are exposed to both high- and low-income playroom could speak as
fewer words than toddlers playrooms used longer many words and express
from high-income families. sentences and used a wider themselves as clearly as the
range of words compared to toddlers in the high-income
toddlers from the medium- playroom. This included an
income playroom whose 18-month-old toddler who no
toddlers used mostly gestures longer used gestures but
to communicate. The toddlers used words to communicate.
in all the households included The toddler's parent stated
in the study had access to a that this toddler had a
variety of books. collection of books that were
occasionally read to him.

5.4 UNIQUE INSIGHTS TO HAVE EMERGED FROM THE DATA

The parent and teacher participants of this study, as a whole, understood the
importance of encouraging their toddlers' communication and language skills,
knowing that resources, stimulating activities, routines, quality time, expansion of
vocabularies and continuity in conversations are all determining factors in this
developmental process.

Participants were aware that, since they effectively were the toddlers' primary
teachers of language, they needed to provide the sources of communicative
stimulation to set their children on their way to future successes. Although their
respective teaching styles and views differed, each participant showed at least a
single means of promoting their toddlers' communicative and language development,
even if done so through daily life activities.

The participants' responses to the final interview question (as discussed near the
end of Chapter 4) indicated that the parents and teachers instinctively grasped the
crucial role that interaction plays in a toddler's communication and language
development. A parent, whose toddler preferred to watch television and learn about

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languages that way instead of having stories read to her, also stated that adult
interaction with children is crucial for language development.

One research site (ECD centre) was located in a low-income area, known to be a
previously disadvantaged suburb as established during the Apartheid era. Contrary
to stereotypical expectations, this centre was equipped to deliver a high standard of
ECD education. I was impressed with the professional management at the centre
and the competency of the staff members. The educators and assistants were
compassionate and dedicated in fulfilling their classroom duties. They made the
effort to ensure that every child is moulded holistically and guided in his/her own
direction. They regarded the toddlers firstly as children, each with unique capabilities
and talents. Each child’s strengths were identified and enhanced, while their flaws
were accepted without judgement. Each toddler being observed by myself evidently
felt comfortable and filled with confidence in this pleasant learning environment.

Unfortunately, another ECD centre to have served as a research site did not bestow
the same favourable impressions on me. It was a registered, medium-income
suburban ECD centre where the parents paid regular fees. One can reasonably
expect that these centres should have highly capable educators and functioning
facilities, which was unfortunately not the case. I observed minimal levels of
dedication, interaction and communication between the toddlers, educator and
assistants. I saw unsafe toys on the premises, such as empty containers of medical
products and body lotion bottles. The playrooms, apart from the presence of the
teacher and assistants, seemed void of a human factor or element. Responsiveness
and the serve and return technique of interaction were never evident. The centre
appeared to be managed as a babysitting corner rather than a care and
development centre. Some forms of routine to encourage the toddlers to engage in
activities were observed, although they were infrequently implemented and at short
notice, depending on the teacher's decisions on that day. I noted that the toddlers at
that centre yearned to receive some attention and sensitivity from any adult that
walked into the classroom.

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5.5 RESPONSES TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS

My motivation to conduct this research was to obtain answers to the proposed

research questions that address an important facet of early childhood education.
Vitally, I needed to gain fresh insights into parent and teacher perceptions of
toddlers’ communication and language development through valid means of
research. This section presents my answers to the proposed research questions as
supported by the findings from the data analysis. The secondary research questions
are answered first to guide me towards finding a credible answer to the main
research question.

5.5.1 Secondary research questions

5.5.1.1 How do parents perceive the communication and language development of

their toddlers?

The first place a child is exposed to language is their home (Scribner, 2013).
Children bring a strong biological drive in developing language to the acquisition
process, but they will not acquire language unless they are exposed to language
models (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011). Their communicative interactions with adults
facilitate the acquisition of vocabulary and language development.

A research participant, HIP-P1, found it important to constantly stimulate Ethan by

performing fun educational activities with him during weekends. This proved
advantageous as I observed Ethan’s vocabulary and use of sentence structure to be
of a very high standard for a toddler at his age. He used words like “dinosaur”,
constructed full sentences to request things and he applied a vivid imagination
during his days at the ECD centre. Vinolia represented an opposite end of the
communication spectrum. Although she attended a well-functioning ECD centre (in a
low socio-economic area) where children were encouraged to engage in activities,
she still used minimal words when communicating. She had not received the same
levels of communicative stimulation as Ethan, because her parent, MIP-P6, felt that
she was still too young to understand stories read to her. Scribner (2013) found that
adults pay more attention to the length and complexity of conversations when they
sense a child is old enough to acquire speech patterns. LIP-P6 did not believe that
Vinolia was old enough to follow a story read to her from a book. Conversely, the

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parents of toddlers who attended ECD centre 1 constantly read to their toddlers,
regardless of the toddlers' age and understanding.

When songs are sung together – in the parent-toddler context – then several aspects
of human development come to the fore (Hulit, Howard & Fahey, 2011). Parents
convey emotional information to their toddlers through CDS singing, which
contributes to language acquisition. Parents, when speaking, use pitch levels and
emotional expressions that are different from the acoustical properties contained in
singing. The differences between talking and singing prompt cyclical interactions to
occur, which are then reflected in children’s behavioural responses to their parents.
The frequency of speech directed to a child, the range of words used and the way
new words are presented determine a child’s rate of word-learning attributes, while
individual differences need to be kept in mind (Otto, 2014).

A socio-cultural perspective of toddler development is that toddlers learn skills

through adult-toddler interaction and communication (Dodici, 2002). Skill
development requires an apprenticeship-type relationship involving a teacher
(parent) and learner (toddler). Previous studies indicate that high levels of parental
responsiveness enhance children's receptiveness to language at later stages of their
childhood (Garbe et al., 2016; Levine et al., 2016). Parents' verbal and non-verbal
responses to toddlers' behaviour help to construct a communication foundation.
Such a foundation positively influences toddlers' communicative abilities, which
means parents are effectively toddlers' first true teachers. The participating parents
in this research were all very responsive to their toddlers. Most of them said or
implied, “We don’t have an option, we have to listen”, because their toddlers would
be “demanding” and have a “need [that] has to be satisfied”. Toddlers whose
communication interactions were encouraged by their parents would find themselves
in advantageous positions when they've grown up to attend primary school, in
comparison to peers who may have had limited opportunities to enjoy meaningful
conversations as toddlers (Dixon, 2006).

Rogoff (1990) introduced the idea of guided participation that focuses on adult-child
interactions during every-day experiences and activities, as opposed to learning in
more structured ways. HIP-P1 adopted the strategy of learning-through-play, hence
allowing Ethan to play in mud or pretend to ride his father’s motorbike during the fun-
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filled and shared activities. The number of words that parents direct to toddlers over
time correlates directly with their language abilities (Dodici, 2002). Among the main
influences in parent-toddler engagement are the aspects of joint attention and the
amount of time parents and toddlers focus on the same topic. This facet is illustrated
by HIP-P2 when she asked Liyah what she wanted to eat that day. After Liyah
answered, HIP-P2 continued the conversation by asking her other questions about
the food.

All the participating parents perceived their own roles in the education of their
toddlers in terms of their communicative development as important. They
demonstrated this by encouraging their children to engage in stimulating activities
that promoted their toddlers' acquisition of relatively advanced vocabularies and
usage of sentence structures. Other parents were aware of their functions as
enablers of language use, although they perceived their toddlers as still too young to
be learning through stimulation of their senses. This resulted in quieter toddlers who
relied on gestures to convey information. All the parents understood the importance
of song in their toddler’s daily lives, as songs serve as sources for both education
and entertainment.

5.5.1.2 How do teachers perceive the communication and language development of

their toddlers?

Responses to toddlers’ messages encourage them to share information about their

everyday activities, as they realise that the adults are interested in their attempts to
communicate and their stories (Law et al., 2017; Levine et al., 2016; Manolson,
1992). When adults communicate face-to-face, toddlers can learn more about them,
their facial expressions and the way they move their mouths to form words. They
also experience adults' acceptance of their attempts to communicate when give-and-
take, "serve and return" modes of communication occur (Manolson, 1992). When
adults signal to toddlers that they are anticipating them to respond and take their
turn, toddlers become more confident to participate in conversations (Law et al.,
2017; Levine et al., 2016; Manolson, 1992). By teaching toddlers to take turns during
conversations, longer conversations can result, allowing the children to express what
is on their minds. They will also learn that conversations can provide them with new
information about their worlds (Manolson, 1992; Otto, 2014; Wittmer & Petersen,

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2014). The participating teachers were appreciative of the serve and return strategy
of language teaching during the early stages of toddlers' communicative
development.

Teachers have varying teaching styles and, depending on circumstances, each style
works in a different way to accommodate a toddler. The teacher in the low socio-
economic ECD centre seemed to grasp the fact that the toddlers used their voices to
get attention, and thus listened to them when they spoke. She would interact with
them when they started singing by themselves and join them in singing more songs,
always encouraging them to keep singing. This scenario contrasts starkly with the
medium socio-economic ECD centre whose teacher viewed the toddlers as too
young to understand what she said and merely placed toys in front of them.
Communicating with toddlers on their level and in a language that they understand
simplifies toddlers’ learning capacity. These teachers knew the value of the voice in
“listening to sounds” and knew that toddlers would repeat these sounds.

Teachers spend ample amounts of time with toddlers while engaging in their diverse
activities. ECD teachers play a vital role in presenting all the toddlers in their care
with the requisite high standards of early learning that are necessary for their
development (DSD, 2014). During my observations, I noticed that HIP-T1 would
perform stimulating activities with her toddlers, like asking them questions, teaching
them new words and sounds, and giving them enough time to respond. LIP-T3 would
sing with her toddlers every morning during the assembly, while MIP-T2 would
simply let her toddlers play with toys.

When teachers plan the weekly and annual activities, they fulfil the key role of
ensuring that they implement structured learning programmes, that the resources
required will be available and that there is a learning flow to the agenda. Planning
also addresses the efficiency and coherency standards of the learning programme.
HIP-T1 would always have an educational activity planned for the toddlers each
morning, such as issuing photocopied sheets of paper that the toddlers used to
complete specified tasks. Even though this may seem to be a "schoolification"
action, the teachers felt that the toddlers were capable of performing such activities
and wanted to document those capabilities on paper.

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The teachers at ECD centres 1 and 3 seemed to understand the importance of
listening and responding to their toddlers. They would stimulate their toddlers by
performing activities along with them or singing with them. While those two teachers
perceived that strategy as an important concept of effective teaching and learning,
the third teacher perceived individual play with toys as the important aspect.

5.5.1.3 Which factors influence communication and language development of

toddlers?

A toddler’s ability to communicate is affected when adults impose their thoughts and
ideas on them. An adult’s sensitivity towards a toddler’s behaviour creates the
shared moments that bolster their feelings of security and confidence. It had noticed
that the toddlers in ECD centres 1 and 3 were more confident in their communication
endeavours than the toddlers in ECD centre 2, where they were more reserved and
tended to play on their own. The teachers working at ECD centres 1 and 3 appeared
warm and responsive in their general demeanour. Before a child learns how to talk,
they learn a lot about connecting and communicating from the adults around them.
Because they cannot speak yet or know of no other ways, they may run towards an
adult to gain their attention (Manolson, 1992). Several households neglect such
opportunities to return the attention and support the toddlers' efforts to connect with
them, only because they lack the experience or knowledge to understand what type
of encouragement they should provide to their toddlers.

LIP-P5 and LIP-P6 had the resources available to strengthen the language
development of their toddlers but opted not to use them, letting their toddlers watch
television instead. When parents use a television as a means to pacify a restless
toddler, they negatively affect their toddler's language and development – although
they may not be aware of that effect. The process of language acquisition entails
firstly experience, then understanding, and finally language. Repetition of words, as
illustrated by HIP-P1 and HIP-P2, creates understanding in toddlers' minds who
learn how to anticipate what comes next. Ethan and Liyah knew the books that were
read to them, and hence could retell the stories and explain the accompanying
pictures. Furthermore, when an adult repeats a word that a child uttered, then adding
another word or action related to the original word, then children's understanding of
the meaning of words can increase exponentially. This process opens a completely

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new world of information to toddlers. Gestures, too, can be effectively harnessed to
help a toddler to understand words.

Play is one of the best ways for a child to learn (Manolson, 1992). Toddlers learn and
remember objects and words when they see, hear, feel, smell and taste – sensations
that send messages to the brain. Play that includes the imitation of actions and
sound is a vital factor in language and communication development. Musical
activities such as singing lullabies encourage physical contact, repetition, turn-taking,
non-verbal responses, vocal play, action and timing of words. Every observed
toddler thoroughly enjoyed singing and playing games with their teachers,
occasionally not wanting to stop. Liyah and Mulalo knew every word to every song
they sang. The free play sessions in these ECD centres encouraged more social
interaction, even if it only involved gesturing.

Books are valuable sources for encouraging the development of toddlers'

communication (Manolson, 1992). An adult’s involvement allows the child to rapidly
further his/her learning of language. Participating parents and teachers who guide
their toddlers towards the zone of proximal development by being interactive in their
presence, remarked that their toddlers could tell quite coherent versions of stories.
Liyah, for instance, could retell stories read to her and explain the pictures (Scribner,
2013). Ethan constantly spoke to himself while looking at pictures in a book. The
parents clearly understood the importance of talking, storytelling and attentive
conversations with their toddlers.

The South African government underfunds ECD centres, affecting the ability of poor
communities to provide a high standard of education. Donors usually step in with
financial support to keep educational institutions functioning. This situation is the
consequence of the authorities' lack of policy, guidelines, commitment and research
to find effective ways of implementing programmes that support the development of
children. It was, therefore, surprising to discover that the low socio-economic ECD
centre provided toddlers with more effective language and communication
developmental activities than another centre located in a region with a higher socio-
economic status. This centre housed a variety of resources to choose from to
provide stimulating exercises for the toddlers to further strengthen their nascent
communicative abilities. The teacher and assistants were involved in the lives and
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development of the toddlers, whereas the toddlers at the medium socio-economic
centre did not receive the same support from their teaching staff, where assistants
simply placed toys in front of them to keep them occupied.

The parents of the two observed toddlers at the medium-income centre, MIP-P3 and
MIP-P4, provided their toddlers with some activities – such as reading to them – to
support their development, while expecting that the teacher at their centre would
continue this process. Parents tend to think they do justice to their toddlers by
sending them to centres in areas that are perceived to be performing well
economically. Unfortunately, I observed that MIP-T2 was more interested in
completing activities for the sake of the centre's reports than interacting with the
toddlers.

Globally, specialists have developed educational policies based purely on early

language and communication endeavours. This initiated new campaigns and drives
to develop programmes to improve ECD practitioners and services. Children living in
low-income households tend to hear prohibitions as affirmation statements from their
parents twice as many times than children living in medium or upper-income
households (Dodici, 2002). These prohibition statements are reported to have lasting
effects on children’s language and cognitive abilities. Similarly, children from low-
income households are generally exposed to fewer words than children from higher-
income families.

The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (1999) reported that
a warm, supportive and engaged parent-child environment corresponds with
toddlers' language competencies in their social domains. Research reveals that
teachers should be qualified and trained to ensure they possess the necessary skills
required for effective teaching of toddlers (Atmore, 2013). Teachers' continuous
participation in professional development training programmes is important to ensure
that toddlers' language skills keep developing, and to keep ECD centres on par with
recurring global developments in the ECD field. Teachers also need to continually
update their knowledge of toddlers' needs throughout the ECD period (DSD, 2014).
This report contrasts with the data collected during this research. Even though LIP-
T3 was not professionally qualified, she managed to understand every aspect related
to the toddlers' development, while providing her toddlers with suitable activities to
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further their development. It can be argued that, had she been better qualified, she
could then have provided even better methods of supporting the toddlers at the
centre. Yet, her methods were still effective and yielded positive results. South Africa
lacks qualified ECD practitioners, especially in rural areas (DSD, 2014). Still, parents
can contribute significantly to their toddler’s development by showing interest and
tending to their immediate communicative needs. HIP-P1 and MIP-P3 seemed well
informed in terms of supporting their toddlers' growth and development by providing
stimulating activities at home. Both these parents had teaching experience, while
MIP-P3 earnt a psychology degree.

The environment in which a toddler is placed plays a vital role in their communication
and language development, especially when adults constantly communicate and
respond to them. Parents and teachers can apply various educational means and
fun activities to strengthen toddlers' quest to develop their communicative skills.

5.5.2 Main research question

5.5.2.1 How do parents and teachers perceive the communication and language
development of toddlers?

During the early stages of a child’s development, adults should keep their language
use simple when addressing the child. However, if adults continue to use baby talk
when the children grow to understand basic words, they will limit their opportunities
to progress with language acquisition (Manolson, 1992). MIP-T2 would speak to the
toddlers using child-directed speech (CDS) at the ECD centre, where I observed that
the toddlers only used gestures to communicate. In contrast, HIP-T1 and LIP-T3
would use adult language when conversing with the toddlers at their centres, where I
observed the toddlers being able to use words and even form complete sentences
when communicating with the adults.

At times, mutual frustrations during communicative efforts cause a communication

bridge to develop. A toddler's lack of response does not always mean they are
uninterested, but rather that they do not yet know how to respond (Manolson, 1992).
Among the interesting facets to have emerged during my interviews with the parents
was hearing how MIP-P3 crossed the communication bridge with her son, Nolan.

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She taught Nolan sign language when the communicative process became too
frustrating due to misunderstandings. It was an effective solution.

Toddlers should be allowed to do tasks themselves instead of adults doing it for

them, which would deprive them the opportunity to satisfy their curiosity and their
need to learn about the world. Too often an adult takes over a situation, prompting
the child to withdraw or retaliate, and a learning opportunity is lost (Manolson, 1992).
At home and school, toddlers learn best by doing rather than being told what to do.
Many adults, with good intentions, believe that they benefit a child's learning of
languages by placing their toddlers in front of television sets. This is an ineffective
method because the child is not receiving the necessary auditory and visual
feedback required to learn a language (Wittmer & Petersen, 2014). HIP-P1 restricted
Ethan to only 30 minutes a day of television and cell phone time, freeing up more
time for him to play and develop his skills through being active. I indeed observed
how Ethan preferred to play and communicate with others instead of sitting and
watching television at his ECD centre, which illustrates the effectiveness of HIP-P1's
parenting policy.

By placing toddlers in front of televisions, parents do not manage to expose their

children to words and grammatical structures as they might think (Birken, 2017).
Daily screen time with non-educational applications on electronic devices may even
induce negative consequences for toddlers’ development. The fact that toddlers can
quickly master technological devices indicates that they are hungry to learn and able
to grasp a lot at their age. To grasp the intricacies of language, however, remains a
complex process that revolves around interactions.

Teachers and parents should expose toddlers to sounds and images they can
comfortably absorb and assimilate, which would help them to make sense of the
world and not to tune out. During my observations, I noticed that Mulalo and Vinolia
preferred to talk to others rather than sit and watch television programmes. At home,
though, Vinolia preferred to watch television rather than having a story read to her
from a book, according to her mother (LIP-P6). Therefore, her behaviour indicates
that, when she is in the presence of other children, she enjoys being social and
becomes more talkative. Hulit, Howard and Fahey (2011) stated that reduced
opportunities for practising speech and conversation are potentially harmful to
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children's language acquisition and development. Adult attention and
responsiveness are more beneficial to learning in comparison to television
programmes and attempts to converse with peers. Toddlers need active
engagement with their parents and teachers to guide their focuses and maintain their
attention.

According to the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), toddlers learn new ideas
and words and develop their conceptual skills best when educated in their mother
tongues (DBE, 2015). Each toddler observed in this study received communications
in their mother tongues at home as well as at the ECD centres. Teachers would
repeat messages in the relevant languages so that all the toddlers could understand
what they explained. Ethan and Liyah could understand a second language since
they were often addressed in both languages. This bestowed them with the ability to
understand conversations at home as well as future school lessons. When toddlers
receive all the essentials for language learning at home and they are prepared well
for preschooling activities, then they are also prepared to be successful during formal
schooling and should have no disadvantages in relation to their peers (Scribner,
2013).

Considering all of the above, healthy parent-toddler and teacher-toddler interactions

and conversations have to be considered as the most significant influences in the
promotion of toddlers' early language acquisition. Significantly, the interviewed
parents and teachers all selected the interactive-family picture (see Figures 4.14–
4.16 in Section 4.7) as the strongest option to support the development of toddlers.
They have all agreed that it is critically important for them to assist their children
during activities and to respond to them at all times if they wish to enhance their
development. They understood that interaction is a key concept in children's
development.

5.6 INTERPRETATION THROUGH CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This study adopted Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (1986) as its

conceptual framework. This framework blended into the attunement and the serve
and return approach. This framework made it possible to understand the data clearly
and to obtain new knowledge and original insights.

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A toddler’s participatory habits expand while they build on social interactions with
others. Similarly, social interaction can expand a knowledge base and learning skills.
I kept these aspects of the conceptual framework in mind as I followed the research
plan.

Therefore, as researcher, I managed to gain new insights into the studied

phenomenon by applying Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD)
conceptual framework to my research design and my execution of the data gathering
and analytical processes. The framework allowed me to remove any doubt in
determining and confirming the knowledge that toddlers construct meaning of their
worlds through social interactions with others. During the data generation process, it
became noticeable how the participants' perceptions settled on their understanding
that toddlers' communication and language development rely on their respective
social contexts and influences. The interviewed participants spoke about the
importance of listening to and responding to their toddlers, and how bonding with a
toddler can assist and strengthen their communicative development. This perception
emerged strongly in the data and was hence illuminated in Theme 1, featuring the
aspects of social interaction and collaborative engagement.

The ZPD centres on toddlers' interactions with adults, and it is realised when adults
teach children new skills. Toddlers learn how to do things and to process their
thoughts effectively while interacting with the adults around them when, for instance,
tasks need to be completed that are not manageable by toddlers on their own.
Toddlers harness the assistance from adults to develop and expand their knowledge,
experience and skills.

As I journeyed along this research path, I continually reflected on the ways that
toddlers derive their motivations to talk from their parents and teachers. I reflected on
their imitations of adults and how they endeavoured to add more words to their
sentences and vocabularies, and how they tried to ask and answer questions. I
needed to understand how the guidance received from adults constituted a large
step towards children's independence in their thoughts, speech and actions.

This study illustrated how and why children who have more responsive
parents/caretakers and teachers are able to communicate much better – at an early

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age – than other children who receive their guidance from less responsive adults.
Some participants used book sharing to scaffold their toddlers' mastery of language
through initiating and encouraging the acquisition of new words. This occurs when
adults and toddlers engage together to label objects, comment on pictures and ask
questions about the stories.

It became evident during the conducting of this study that the ZPD allows parents
and teachers to provide their toddlers with the help they need to progress in their
development of language skills. The transcribed interviews and observational notes
illustrated how parents and teachers would often expand toddlers’ sentences by
using more words related to something the toddlers had just said. At a later stage,
those toddlers would recall the new information and say new words on their own, not
needing further assistance by an adult – yet ready to learn even more.

5.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Data generation proved to be challenging for a few reasons:

At times during the period of data generation, a Thursday happened to be a public

holiday. Resultantly, many toddlers did not arrive at the centre on the following
Friday, so I had to adapt my schedule and return on two other days to catch up.
Furthermore, the spate of public holidays also caused the general attendance
numbers to drop, so the ECD centre I visited had less than half the regular number
of toddlers present. Consequently, the teachers limited their planned activities for
those days and placed the toddlers in front of the television set. After a while, the
toddlers would grow disinterested in the television programmes and they would tune
out. Those changes in routine made it difficult to observe typical toddler behaviour at
the centres on some days.

At other times the toddlers I needed to observe fell ill and were absent on my
observation days. This placed a further limitation on my opportunities to obtain rich
data for this study, keeping in mind that I needed to spend equal amounts of time
one each toddler participating in the study. The circumstances meant that I had to
focus on a different case on one day to supplement my observational data. At times,
therefore, it became challenging to sensibly connect my observations with the parent

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and teacher interviews respectively. Thankfully, each interviewed participant’s
unique contributions on the views of their toddler's behaviour and development
clarified many of the interpretations of my observations and assisted me to link each
case correctly with their parent's and teacher's recorded comments.

Participants would often misunderstand what I asked during the interviews, causing
me to explain and repeat the questions. Some participants provided vague
responses at other times. After the interviews, however, I did member checking to
ensure that I allocated each data element to the correct participant and align my
observations and interpretations accordingly. In this way, I prevented
misunderstandings or misplaced interpretations to affect my findings.

A limitation of the multiple case study method, as pointed out by Maree (2016), is
that its findings cannot be generalised due to the reliance on single cases as well,
thus limiting the provision of a valid generalised conclusion. However, this is not the
ultimate objective of multiple case study research, since “a well-selected case
constitutes the dewdrop in which the world is reflected” (Maree, 2007, p. 76).
According to Rule and John (2011) cautious generalisations can sometimes be
made during multiple case study research, but then further proof or disproof of
research would be required.

During this study, using multiple case studies as the research method, I provided all
the relevant details of each stage so that peers in research could assess this
research’s validity, transferability and credibility (Baxter & Jack, 2008). The
transferability level is determined by contrasts or similarities between surroundings
or two backgrounds. Gomm, Hammersley and Foster (2000) state that findings can
be generalised to other populations if their surroundings and backgrounds are similar
to those of the original study. This study’s transferability, however, may be limited.
Nevertheless, the collected data, which includes the diverse backgrounds of
participants, could make certain findings transferable.

I assembled and provided rich descriptions during the observations, and I validated
the transcribed information obtained from the parents and teachers via the interviews
and observation notes. I did member checking and generated an audit trail of the
three different ECD centres with field notes. The toddlers' mother tongues were used

145
more frequently in certain centres, constituting a limitation to my use of English as
the dominant language. The purpose of my study, however, was not to investigate
the use of a home language versus the language of learning and teaching. At the
same time, I noticed that some teachers used a variety of languages among different
toddlers (multiliteracy), which helped them all to understand her instructions. Some
interviewed participants’ use of language suggested that they were not fluent in
English, resulting in their toddler not being able to speak the language well either.

5.8 RECOMMENDATIONS

A desired result, as listed in NELDS (DBE, 2009, p. 24), is that “children are learning
to communicate effectively and use language”, with its first standard requiring that
“children listen, understand and respond when communicating with others”. This
study proves that those desired results and standards can only be achieved when
language is communicated to toddlers. Adults' responsibility towards toddlers is to
ensure that they have the necessary tools to develop. Two of the three ECD centres
selected as research sites were well equipped and they evidently provided
stimulating and pleasant environments for toddlers, whereas the third centre
provided empty medication and lotion bottles and some second-hand toys to keep
the toddlers busy. Some of the centres provided appetising meals that the toddlers
enjoyed so much that they even asked for more.

The factors that enhance the development of toddlers' communication and language
skills emerged clearly from the data. The gathered data further indicated that the
study participants largely had an advanced understanding of their toddlers' keenness
to participate in activities that could also be used to stimulate their developmental
inclinations. The NCF's guidelines (DBE, 2015) for children from birth to 4-years-old
stipulate the need for adults to pay close attention to a child's communication skills.
Figure 5.1 depicts how families can promote communication.

146
 1.
They listen to
sounds and
speaches

4.
2.
They record Toddlers' They speak using
experiences and communication different styles
ideas through experiences of
sound and
communication
language

3.
They make
meaning through
"reading" what is
seen

Figure 5.1: Illustration of families promoting communication (DBE, 2015).

The parents and teachers who participated in this study displayed their intellectual
potential, while some had advanced background knowledge of the processes
involved in toddlers' communication and language development. The gathered data
illustrated their abilities to incorporate effective methods in strengthening their
toddlers’ developmental prowess. The transcribed remarks by the majority of
participants revealed that they had at least basic understandings of the phenomenon
investigated by this study. In addition, it is important to provide educational
programmes within ECD centres to update teachers' and parents' knowledge base
and strengthen their abilities to implement advantageous parenting and teaching
methods.

This study strongly recommends that parents and teachers work together to enhance
their toddlers' language learning and communicative skills.

147
5.8.1 Recommendations for the Department of Basic Education

Teachers must be trained on the importance of resources, interaction and scaffolding

of toddlers during the time when toddlers are learning to use language and
communicate effectively. They should also be trained on how to use resources,
fantasy corners, book corners, games, songs and playground walks to stimulate
toddlers' language development. Toddlers deserve opportunities to act out – or
dramatise – what they see and experience, to do things by themselves and to imitate
what others do. Teachers should be educated and qualified, or at least have prior
experience caring for children so that they may understand the psychology driving
the minds of children. All early learning educators need to display knowledge of how
young developing brains function.

5.8.2 Recommendations for the departments of Social Development and of

Health

The Department of Health (DoH) should ensure that they have “mum, dad and tots
classes”. When children are born, both parents must be given ideas, fact sheets and
classes on how to be responsive to their toddlers and allow them the space to
communicate. Children do not only communicate with voices but also through body
language and eye contact. Children must be listened to and given a chance to
communicate and become confident.

5.8.3 Strategies to support and promote communication and language

development of toddlers

Adults can employ the following strategies to support toddlers' development as

suggested by DBE (2009) and Wittmer & Petersen (2014):

1. Recognise toddlers' innate ability to grasp communicative endeavours such as

gestures, sounds, words and facial expressions.
2. Use a variety of voice volumes and pitches to tell stories, which will help toddlers
to make meaning of soft and loud vocal transmissions.
3. Identify language delay early in a toddler’s life to provide immediate support for
the child and energise the development of their language skills.
4. Draw the toddlers' attention to printed forms in their environment.

148
5. Create a relaxing and fun environment during daily storytelling.
6. Use the various strategies mentioned at the end of Chapter 2 – as identified by
Wittmer and Petersen (2014) – that parents and teachers can use to support
toddlers' efforts to hear and understand language, express themselves, and
become competent communicators.
7. Give your toddler the confidence to explain pictures in books.
8. Be mindful that responsive and sensitive language strategies, as well as the
quality of the environment, relate to toddlers' language development.
9. Use routine-based intervention strategies.
10. Introduce toddlers to various learning techniques.
11. Construct stories together.
12. Sing nursery rhymes and other songs toddlers may enjoy.

In promoting effective ways of successfully incorporating communication and

language development in a toddler’s daily lifestyle, a multiple approach to parents,
teachers and ECD centres should be engaged. The table below lists ideas and
suggestions to promote this.

Table 5.3: Ideas and suggestions to promote communicative development

Participants Contents

ECD centres should brighten up their buildings, put up posters and

paint colourful walls to continually stimulate the attending toddlers.

ECD centres should provide playrooms with relevant supplies,

appropriate resources and educational toys to stimulate toddlers’
ECD centres
minds, such as puzzles to complete during free playtime.

ECD centres should host meetings every term to inform parents and
teachers about various ways and activities to strengthen toddlers'
development and language learning.

Headmasters should evaluate teachers and only appoint applicants

Headmasters who are qualified for the job, or who can prove competence. They
should also provide support and training for teachers.

Parents and Parents and teachers should understand the importance of constantly

149
teachers talking to their toddlers and exposing them to new words every day.
They should give toddlers the opportunity to communicate with them
through 'serve and return' talk (thus avoiding tantrums for attention).

Parents can play games with their toddlers and share in activities that
promote learning opportunities and afford quality time together.
Parents
Parents should read new books to toddlers as often as possible to
introduce new words, stories and questions to their lives.

Teachers should be evaluated on their facilitation and teaching styles.

Teachers Teachers need to present stimulating activities to the toddlers, read

them stories and allow singing sessions, preferably daily.

5.8.4 Recommendations for further studies and research topics

Toddlers' best interests should always be prioritised. Placing them in front of a

television is not the best option for a young developing mind. I recommend that
schools and ECD centres provide parents with the necessary information to help
them in strengthening their children's communication and language skills. A clear
message to all parents should be that the reading of stories to toddlers benefits their
language acquisition skills, and that reading sessions should start while they are still
in this fragile age bracket. Communication does not have to be only through talking –
gestures are also beneficial since toddlers often communicate with each other
through gestures alone. Language and communication should be regarded as
equally important in schools and at home. According to NELDS (DBE, 2015), the use
of toddlers' mother tongues in learning have several advantages in the development
of young minds, as toddlers learn new words easier that way. This means that
education in the mother tongue allows toddlers to learn about new concepts and
speeds up their language learning processes.

Further research topics could include:

 How do toddlers communicate?

150
  How do teachers utilise multiliteracies in the language development and
communication of toddlers?
 How do teachers and caretakers of babies stimulate language development
and communication?
 What model could we use to involve both parents and teachers in the effort to
advance communication and language development among young children?
 “Mum and tots” – what are the contents in these groups that enhance
communication and playful language development?
 How do we encourage parents to speak, listen and involve themselves in the
language and communication efforts of young children?

5.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS

During this study, I used observations, interviews and visual methods to focus on
toddlers' interactions with the adults and peers in their environments. I triangulated
the interviews with parents and teachers through observing the toddlers in their
natural playroom surroundings. I listened to parents' and teachers' views to gain a
clear understanding of their perceptions of toddlers' communication and language
development. I also listened to the toddlers during my observation sessions.

As the study progressed, I realised that each participant had various levels of
understanding and knowledge of the phenomenon. Some participants displayed an
in-depth understanding of the research topic, while others conveyed only partial
understanding. It is crucial to foster more awareness among adults and encourage
them to be interactive, responsive and share stimulating activities with their toddlers.
Those policies and parenting methods will strengthen the cognitive development of
their toddlers and help them to become successful communicative beings later in life.
Finally, and not the least, the advocacy of programmes that promote the
development of all toddlers' communicative and language skills will help to level the
playing fields amongst the “haves” and “haves nots”.

“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world” –
Nelson Mandela (UNESCO, 2016)

151
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 ADDENDUM 1

Interview schedule

Interview questions:
1. How often do you read to your toddler?
2. How often do you listen to your toddler?
3. How responsive are you to your toddler?
4. How often do you expose your toddler to books?
5. If English is not the toddler’s home language, do you speak English more to your
toddler than their home language?

Photovoice question guide:

1. How does the toddler communicate that they want food?
2. How does the toddler communicate that they need to go to the toilet or needs a
diaper change?
3. How does the toddler ask for their choice of clothing to wear in the morning?
4. How does the toddler communicate their choice of toys to play with?
5. How does the toddler communicate to stories read to him?
6. How does the toddler respond to games and songs?
7. How does the toddler communicate their happiness or sadness?
8. Look at these three pictures. Between the three, which do you think involves the
most communication? Which one do you perceive to have more advantage for
your child’s development? Why?

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 ADDENDUM 2

A consent letter

Dear teacher,

I am a student studying through the University of Pretoria. I am currently enrolled for my Bed
(Masters) in the Faculty of Education. I have to complete a research module and one of the
requirements is that I conduct a research and write a research report about my work. I would like to
ask you whether you will be willing to participate in this research.

The topic of my research is: Parent and teacher perceptions of communication and language
development of toddlers. The main purpose of language is to communicate and ideally
communication involves learning all forms of language and using them to communicate from birth
seeing that this time is where acquisition begins. All these emanate from parents and teachers
continuously conversing and exposing children to language daily. Strengthening this leads to future
communication skills needed to thrive academically and socially. Several households neglect these
opportunities and neglect providing support for their child resulting in academic delays and personal
conflict. Research has been conducted on a teacher’s perception of development and to strengthen
this gap, we hope to find more information on both parents and teachers perceptions of
communication and language development of toddlers. The research will include observing toddlers
and interviewing the parents and teachers of these toddlers.

If you agree to participate, you will be asked to observe and thereafter interviewed about this topic.

Observations will be done by you, the teacher, and photos will be taken of the various observations of
the selected two toddlers. These observations will be conducted at your own time during the day.
After observations are complete, I would like to conduct a narrative interview related to these
observations. The interview will take place at a venue and time that will suit you, but it may not
interfere with crèche activities or teaching time and will not take longer than an hour. The interview will
be audiotaped and transcribed for analytic purposes. Only my supervisor and I will have access to this

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information and will be regarded as confidential and anonymous. The selected toddler’s
parents/guardians will receive letters to inform them about the research. Parents will also take part in
observations at their own time out of crèche hours.

You do not have to participate in this research if you do not want to and you will not be penalised in
any way if you decide not to take part. If you decide to participate, but change your mind later, you
can withdraw your participation at any time.

Your identity will be protected. Only my supervisor and I will know your real name and any details.
Your crèche will not be identified either. The information you give will only be used for academic
purposes. In my research report and in any other academic communication, your pseudonym
(number/ code) will be used and no other identifying information will be given. Collected data will be in
my possession or my supervisor’s and will be locked up for safety and confidential purposes.

If you agree to take part in this research, please fill in the consent form provided below. If you have
any questions, do not hesitate to contact my supervisor or me using the contact details below.

Signature of researcher: _______________________ Date: ______________________

Name of researcher: Shezeen Suleman Name of supervisor: Dr Keshni Bipath

Contact number: 071 364 7438 Contact number: 083 627 8570

E-mail: shezeens@gmail.com E-mail: keshni.bipath@up.ac.za

Consent form

I, _______________________________________(your name), agree / do not agree (delete what is

not applicable) to take part in the research project titled: Parent and teacher perceptions of
communication and language development of toddlers. I understand that I will be observing
(using photographs) two toddlers during crèche hours and interviewed about this topic and these
observations for approximately one hour at a venue and time that will suit me, but that will not
interfere with crèche activities or teaching time. The interview will be audiotaped.

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I understand that the researcher subscribes to the principles of:

 Voluntary participation in research, implying that the participants might withdraw from the
research at any time.

 Informed consent, meaning that research participants must at all times be fully informed about
the research process and purposes, and must give consent to their participation in the
research.

 Safety in participation; put differently, that the human respondents should not be placed at risk
or harm of any kind e.g., research with young children.

 Privacy, meaning that the confidentiality and anonymity of human respondents should be
protected at all times.

 Trust, which implies that human respondents will not be respondent to any acts of deception
or betrayal in the research process or its published outcomes.

Signature:_________________________ Date:__________________

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 ADDENDUM 3

An example of a Child Tracking Observation sheet

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 ADDENDUM 4

An example of a transcribed interview with a parent

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 ADDENDUM 5

An example of a transcribed interview with a teacher

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 ADDENDUM 6

Sample of an analysis of a single case over the course of a week

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 ADDENDUM 7

Sample of an analysis of the cases – transcribed parent interview

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 ADDENDUM 8

Sample of an analysis of the cases – transcribed teacher interview

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