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 THE CLIO MONTESSORI SERIES
VOLUME 12

FROM CHILDHOOD
TO ADOLESCENCE
Including "Erdkinder" and
The Functions of the University

Maria Montessori

CLIO PRESS
OXFORD, ENGLAND
 © Copyright 1994 by the Montessori-Pierson Estates
Reprinted and Revised 1996 and Reprinted 1997,1999, 2000, 2002
This edition has been licensed for publication by the Montessori-
Pierson Estates with the agreement of the Association Montessori
Internationale, Amsterdam . First published in 1948 . First published
in France by Descl6e de Brouwer in 1958 . Translated into English
from the French by The Montessori Educational Research Center
and first published in English by Schocken Books Inc . in 1973 . A
revised translation was published by Schocken Books Inc . in 1976
and the present edition is based on this second Schocken edition . The
chemical diagrams reproduced in this volume are based on dia-
grams published in the Italian edition Dall'Infanzia all'Adolescenza
(© Garzanti Editore, 1949, 1994) and ABC-Clio Ltd would like to
thank Garzanti Editore for granting permission to reproduce new
versions of these diagrams here .

All rights reserved . No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without
the prior permission in writing of the publishers .

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Montessori, Maria
From Childhood to Adolescence:
Including "Erdkinder" and the Functions
of the University. - New ed. - (Clio
Montessori Series : v . 12)
I . Title II . Series
155 .4
ISBN 1-85109-185-8

ABC-Clio,
Old Clarendon Ironworks,
35a Great Clarendon Street,
OXFORD OX2 6AT, ENGLAND

Typeset and cover design by Columns Design and Production

Services Ltd., Reading, England
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall
 CONTENTS

1 . The Successive Levels of Education 1

2. Metamorphoses 3
3. The Moral Characteristics of the Child from Seven
to Twelve Years 7
4. The Needs of the Child from Seven to Twelve Years 10
5. The Passage to Abstraction-The Role of the
Imagination, or "Going Out," the Key to Culture 17
6. Water 24
7. - Some Chemistry Experiences 36
8. Carbon in Nature 42
9. A Few Ideas of Inorganic Chemistry 48
10. A Few Ideas of Organic Chemistry 51
11. Conclusion 58
Appendices
"Erdkinder" 59
I: Study and Work Plans 71
The Functions of the University 82
Index 95
 y vision of the future is no longer of people taking exams and
roceeding on that certification from the secondary school to the
versity, but of individuals passing from one stage of independence
a higher, by means of their own activity, through their own effort
f will, which constitutes the inner evolution of the individual .
-MARIA MONTESSORI
 1

The Successive Levels of

Education

uccessive levels of education must correspond to the suc-

essive personalities of the child .
Our methods are oriented not to any pre-established
rinciples but rather to the inherent characteristics of the
'fferent ages . It follows that these characteristics themselves
nclude several levels .
The changes from one level to the other at these different
ges could be compared to the metamorphoses of insects .
en an insect comes out of the egg, it is very small and has
particular form and colouring . Then, little by little, it is
ransformed even though it remains an animal of the same
pecies having the same needs and habits . It is an individual
hat evolves . Then one day something new happens. The
sect spins his cocoon and becomes a chrysalis . The chrysalis
turn undergoes another slow evolution . Finally the insect
omes out of the cocoon in the form of a butterfly .
We can establish a parallel between the life of the insect and
hat of the child. But the changing traits are not so clearly
efined in the child as in the insect . It would be more exact to
peak rather of "rebirths" of the child . In effect, we have before
s at each new stage a different child who presents characteris-
cs different from those he exhibited during preceding years .
1 . Our first level of education, then, applies to the small
hild from birth to about seven years of age . Since a number
f transformations take place during this important period,
e have established the following subdivisions :
a) the first two years ;
b) the years from three to five ;
c) the sixth and seventh years .

1
 FRAM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
2. For the period from seven to twelve years-the period
immediately preceding adolescence-which may also be sub-
divided, we provide a different plan of education than for the
preceding period. If the changes produced during the first
period are considered as growth, it may be said that veritable
metamorphoses take place during this one .
3. Twelve to eighteen years : one could say as much for this,
the period of adolescence .
In each period we rediscover a growing being, but one who
is a quite different person every time .
The last two levels will be considered consecutively . The
first level has already been discussed in The Discovery of the
Child and in The Secret of Childhood .
Only a thorough analysis leads to the discovery of the
changes that occur continuously in the child, who grows until
he becomes a man . It is precisely these changes that have the
greatest bearing on the method of education .
The principles that can be applied usefully to the first
period are not the same as those that must be applied to the
second . We thus come to the practical part of education .
Let us use an example: When the small child begins to feel
a loose tooth, it is a sign that the first period of childhood is
over. This event occurs without much fanfare within the
family. When the tooth becomes very loose it is pulled . A
certain amount of fuss is made : the tooth is saved, and that
little ceremony constitutes the first step of a new period in the
life of the child . It will take a long time before all the baby
teeth are gone and the child acquires his new teeth . But if,
unluckily, it is necessary to pull one of the new teeth, more
will be needed than merely a silk thread ; we will have to deal
with the extraction of a strong and fixed part . Loss of the baby
teeth is only one among the many manifestations of this age.
All these traits-physical as much as psychic-constitute the
links of the chain which is the metamorphosis of the child. He
is both stronger and slimmer . His hair is less soft . Psycho-
logically, he is less gentle, less accommodating .

2
 2
Metamorphoses

From seven to twelve years, the child needs to enlarge his

field of action. As we have seen (in The Secret of Childhood), a
limited environment is suited to the small child. There, social
relations are established with others . In the second period the
child needs wider boundaries for his social experiences .
Development cannot result by leaving him in his former
environment.
It is necessary that he come to understand, among other
realities, what money ought to represent . Without money we
could pass among the most marvellous things without ever
being able to touch them. We would be like a bird with a
broken beak dying of hunger on a pile of grain . Money is the
means by which man procures things . That is why it attracts
so much interest. We must consider money as the "golden
key" that opens the door of supra-nature* .
It is therefore necessary that children have first-hand
experience in buying objects themselves and that they come to
realize what they can buy with a unit of the money of their
country.
What can one buy with one small coin? When I have used
the coin to buy paper from the stationer, my coin has not
disappeared . It will again buy more objects of its value . It is
always the same coin that passes from hand to hand, bringing
the needed article to someone every time . How much mer-
chandise can a coin minted fifty years ago have bought during

* Dr . Montessori thus calls the man-dominated and constructed

human environment which man brings into being with the help of
his own inner resources and those of nature .-TR.

3
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
these years? The money we handle is always the result of the
work of men. It must always remain a means only .
The child needs, then, to establish social relationships in a
larger society. The closed school, as it is conceived today, can
no longer be sufficient for him . Something is lacking for the
full development of his personality . We note a certain regres-
sion-manifestations of his character which we call anomalies ;
they are merely his reactions to an environment that has
become inadequate . But we do not notice that. And since it is
understood that the child must do what adults tell him, even
though his environment no longer suits his needs, if he does
not comply we say that he is "naughty" and correct him . Most
of the time we are unaware of the cause of his "naughtiness ."
Yet the child, by his conduct, proves what we have just said .
The closed environment is felt as a constraint, and that is
why he no longer wishes to go to school . He prefers to catch
frogs or play in the street . These seemingly superficial factors
prove that the child needs wider boundaries than heretofore .
"Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to
God the things that are God's ." One part of our life belongs to
God and the other part to man . It depends on him, on the
surroundings of which we form a part, on our social life . When
the child is placed in certain conditions that favour him, he
manifests an extraordinary activity . His intelligence surprises
us because all its powers work together, as is normal for man .
We are no longer dealing with the problem of transforming
the methods of education : it is properly a problem of life that
is being posed .
The spider's web occupies a much larger space than does
the animal itself. The web represents the spider's field of
action in acting as a trap for insects . It is constructed
according to a plan . A thread secreted by the spider joins two
branches, two rocks, two supports of any kind ; then he weaves
the rays . The construction proceeds according to a plan.
Finally the spider weaves the thread around the centre, going
around at an always very carefully calculated distance . If the
points of support are close together, the web is small . The
greater the distance of one from the other, the larger the web
will be. But it will always be woven with the same exactness
according to a precise plan .
4
 METAMORPHOSES
As is the web, so is the mind of the child constructed
according to an exact plan . The abstract construction enables
him to grasp what happens in his field, which was out of his
range heretofore.
Depending on whether the child lives in a simple civil-
ization or in a complicated world, his web will be more or
less large and will enable him to attain more or fewer
objectives .
This is why we must respect the interior construction and
its manifestations, which may at times seem useless to us .
The construction is necessary. It is thanks to this work that
the child enlarges his psychic field and subsequently his
receptive powers .
To consider the school as the place where instruction is
given is one point of view . But to consider the school as a
preparation for life is another. In the latter case the school
must satisfy all the needs of life .
An education that suppresses the true nature of the child is
an education that leads to the development of anomalies .
Scouting, which, outside of school, has brought organized
form of life to children, has therefore always interested us .

The passage to the second level of education is the passage

from the sensorial, material level to the abstract . The need for
abstraction and intellectual activity makes itself felt around
the seventh year . Until that age the establishment of the
relationships between objects is what is important to the
child . This is to say that the child needs to classify and absorb
the exterior world by means of his senses .
A turning toward the intellectual and moral sides of life
occurs at the age of seven .
One could draw a parallel between the two periods . But
they still remain on different levels . It is at seven years that
one may note the beginning of an orientation toward moral
questions, toward the judgment of acts . One of the most
curious characteristics to be observed is the interest that
occurs in the child when he begins to perceive things which he
previously failed to notice . Thus he begins to worry about
whether what he has done has been done well or poorly. The
great problem of Good and Evil now confronts him . This

5
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
preoccupation belongs to an interior sensitivity, the con-
science. And this sensitivity is a very natural characteristic .
The seven-to-twelve-year-old period, then, constitutes one
of particular importance for moral education . The adult must
be aware of the evolution that is occurring in the mind of the
child at this time and adapt his methods to conform with it .
If during the first period of development the teacher has
used a very gentle approach and has intervened as little as
possible in the activity of the child (activity which was above
all motor and sensorial), it is to the moral level that his
delicacy of approach ought now to be oriented . That is where
the problem of this age lies . To think that the problem of
morality only occurs later is to overlook the change that is
already going on. Later, the moral problem becomes a good
deal more difficult unless the child has been helped during
this sensitive period . Social adaptations will become more
thorny. It is at this age also that the concept of justice is born,
simultaneously with the understanding of the relationship
between one's acts and the needs of others . The sense of
justice, so often missing in man, is found during the
development of the young child . It is the failure to recognize
this fact that engenders a false idea of justice .
The justice usually found around the school and in the
family could be called "distributive justice" that is to say,
equality for all, as much in the distribution of punishments as
of rewards . Special treatment of one individual seems to
constitute an injustice ; this introduces the concept of legal
right. There is here an affirmation of individuality in the
sense of egoism and isolation . Such a concept does not
encourage interior development . On the other hand, jus-
tice-although usually not considered in this light-is born
specifically from interior education . The principle of distribu-
tive justice and individual right, purely external, destroys the
inborn, natural sense of true justice .

6
 3

The Moral Characteristics of the

Child from Seven to Twelve Years

The three characteristics we have just isolated for examina-

tion-the child's felt need to escape the closed environment,
the passage of his mind to the abstract, and the birth in him
of a moral sense-serve as the basis for a scheme of the
second period .
Once the child has gone beyond the limited area of the first
period, it is necessary for us to provide him with culture and
to enlarge his social experiences . Let us cite some important
points and note, in passing, the parallel that exists between
this new period and certain aspects of the preceding one .
Actually, the first period saw the child engaged in activities
which we have called "exercises of practical life ." They
constituted an effort to stretch the limits of the activities we
considered possible for him at that age . In this way the child,
who has himself stretched the limits, has won his indepen-
dence. This is what makes these exercises of patience, of
exactness, and of repetition so all-important.
The continuation of these exercises would be useless now
that the child is independent; that is to say, he knows how to
devote himself to an activity for which he will no longer need
to ask help of the adult and for which he has coordination of
movement . But the acts of courtesy which he has been taught
with a view to his making contacts with others must now be
brought to a new level . The question of aid to the weak, to the
aged, to the sick, for example, now arises . This is not a
question of training his movements : we begin the introduction
of moral relationships, of those that awaken the conscience .
If, up to the present, it was important not to bump someone in

7
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
passing, it is now considerably more important not to offend
that person .
If scouting has met with such success, it is because it has
brought moral content to a group of children . It puts the
accent on that which one ought or ought not to do . The
children who belong to these groups generally do not do what
scouting prohibits . In conforming to the rules of scouting, a
new dignity is born in the child.
Physical exercise, such as long hikes, also forms a part of
the activities of these groups . The children become accus-
tomed to greater challenges of a more serious and a harder
form of life .
While the younger child seeks comforts, the older child is
now eager to encounter challenges . But these challenges must
have an aim . The difference between a schoolteacher who
takes children on a hike and an organization of this nature
may be noted here . It is true that the former makes the
children come out of the closed environment of the school and
causes them to use their feet in walking and to see sensorially
that which surrounds them . But this in no way increases the
dignity of the child, who is still kept in a restricted circle . One
may well multiply the number of hikes without changing
anything, because the child's acceptance is passive . On the
other hand, if the children consciously leave the school having
a definite and freely chosen aim in mind, it is quite a different
matter.
Now, scouting involves children who have applied volun-
tarily for membership in the society. And that society
emphasizes, above all, a moral aim such as, for example, to
protect the weak and to maintain a certain moral level ; here
the child may make commitments or not . No teacher obliges
him to enter into the society ; but if he wishes to be a member
he must freely choose to obey its principles if he wishes to
take part . The fact that he finds himself thus united with
other individuals who have freely accepted the principles of a
society constitutes the attraction of that society . Its limits are
no longer the walls of a room but only the restraints of a
moral order.
The scouts accept a regimen the rigours of which go far
beyond what are considered possible for children of this age .

8
 THE MORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILD
Thus the long hikes, the nights in the - open air, the
responsibility for one's own actions, the fire, the camps,
et cetera, all represent collective efforts . The basic moral
principle requires a commitment from the individual : the
commitment of the individual to the group . And that is what
is essential.
As in the first period : We seek the child's consent to receive
a lesson given . The lesson is now abstract when earlier it was
sensorial.
In the second period there exist, then, possibilities superior
to those we used to know in the child . Only, these possibilities
are subordinate not to the command of someone, but rather to
the command of the child's own conscience .

9
 4
The Needs of the Child from
Seven to Twelve Years

What is the practical approach to the education of a seven-

year-old? First of all, let us always keep in mind the scheme
we have outlined, which ought to give us an understanding of
the child and enable us help him in the attainment of his
wishes-wishes he does not express but which we have
guessed . It is this understanding that ought to be present
from the start . We must sympathize with the little boy or girl
who has changed, as much in his physical aspect (manner of
dress, of combing his hair, et cetera) as in his inner person .
He has become a strong being, a being who is entering into a
new world, the world of the abstract . It is a rich world in
which the acts accomplished by men will interest him more
than the things . He has reached a new level, he starts to
express judgements . This is new for him . Before, he was
interested in things (changing the water for flowers, caring for
the little fish, et cetera) . Now he is interested mainly in the
how and the why. All that used to attract him sensorially now
interests him from a different point of view . He is looking for
what needs to be done . That is, he is beginning to become
aware of the problem of cause and effect .
But the adult finds this being, newly born to the world, a bit
annoying. Therefore, without a new pedagogic directive, a
new battle between the adult and this new child arises . The
adult tires and responds by answering the abundance of
questions either by begging the child to keep quiet or by
giving excessively long explanations . He behaves as he did
with the smaller child at the time he began to move : he bids
him to keep still . Or he permits him, without judging
properly, to become overexcited and to do everything he
10
 THE NEEDS OF THE CHILD
wants . The same misunderstanding takes place on the
abstract plane : at each of his new births, the child must
confront a new battle ; at each of his new activities, however
valuable, a' new form of misunderstanding makes him suffer .
It is, however, precisely up to the adult to assist the child's
development by creating an environment adapted to his new
needs . Just as it is necessary to help the baby while he is
taking his first steps, so is it also necessary to help the child
while he is taking his first steps in the world of abstraction .
Education ought to be a guide in this more critical period of
life and of school. The teacher must again be made aware of
his limitations, as we have already established with regard to
the teacher of the smaller child . For the small child, he had to
"count his words." Here he must be sure of what he ought to
do, of what he ought to say, and of the extent to which he
must reply to questions . He must be clearly conscious that his
duty is to say little; to say only what is true, but not the whole
truth in all its details . He must now also say what is
"necessary and sufficient ." It is indispensable to the child to
feel the security the adult can and must give .
It is essential for the child, in all periods of his life, to have
the possibility of activities carried out by himself in order to
preserve the equilibrium between acting and thinking . His
thoughts could, in effect, have the tendency to lose themselves
in abstraction by reasonings without end just as the small
child loses himself in a world of fantasy . We bring specific
objects to the small child in an environment prepared for him .
Here he acquires independence thanks to his own effort . And
the activity gives him dignity. It is his own experience that
brings him exact answers .
The role of education is to interest the child profoundly in an
external activity to which he will give all his potential . We are
concerned here with bringing him liberty and independence
while interesting him in an activity through which he will
subsequently discover reality . And for him this is the means
by which he may free himself from the adult .
Let us examine the principal needs of the seven-year-old
child . Something has changed in the body of this child . We see
the difference at first glance in the teeth and the hair . Let us
teach him dental hygiene and care of the hair . Then the feet

11
 FRAM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
and legs : the child of seven years has strong legs and seeks to
escape from the closed circle . Instead of hemming him in, let
us facilitate his mobility . In times gone by, man used to walk
long distances . The hospitality offered the pilgrim used to
consist first of all in the care of his feet, even before the offer
of food . Let us give our imaginations free rein on the subject
of these fundamentals of the history of humanity . Gabriel
d'Annunzio used these symbolic words : "I kiss your feet that
walk . . ."
Therefore, when the child shows us his desire to escape from
the house, let us attract his attention somewhat solemnly to
his feet. Thus, before setting out, he will be more conscious of
what he is about to do . In attracting his attention to this part
of his body, which may cause him to make a mistake, we lead
him to think of the need to care for it, in order to walk, as
much symbolically as practically.* It is on a higher plane that
all these activities ought to be envisaged, which is to say, we
will now educate the child on the abstract plane .
The foot is noble . To walk is noble . Thanks to the feet, the
child who already walks can expect of the outdoors certain
answers to his secret questions .
But it is necessary to prepare oneself to go out . The child in
flight opens the door and goes . In teaching him the necessity
of preparation, we oblige him to reflect . He understands that
"to go out" consists of an activity that requires first the
acquisition of information and materials .
The use of these things causes a series of practical exercises
to come to mind . While for the very young the care of the
wardrobe remains purely aesthetic, for the seven-year-old,
clothes take on an importance in direct relation to his goal .
The first thing to do is to simplify the outing . It is
necessary, then, to carry as few things as possible and,
consequently, "to choose ." These material concerns eliminate
the idea of flight . But since the instinct which urges flight
exists, it is this instinct itself that excites a very active
interest in the preparations . Step by step the response arises
and the reasoning functions from cause to effect .

* Similarly, many modern schools teach rules of bicycle safety

and maintenance .-TR.

12
 THE NEEDS OF THE CHILD
Let the teacher not lose sight of the fact that the goal
sought is not an immediate one-not the hike-but rather to
make the spiritual being which she is educating capable of
finding his way by himself.
To understand the importance of these exercises, which
ought to permit social experiences, we must not be content to
consider the children's outing a simple health-giving exercise .
It is designed to bring the child's attainments to life for him .
It is only thus that their realities will penetrate him . That is
what we call experience.
A child enclosed within limits however vast remains in-
capable of realizing his full value and will not succeed in
adapting himself to the outer world . For him to progress
rapidly, his practical and social lives must be intimately
blended with his cultural environment . A general objection
may be made that the child's schedule is already too crowded
to introduce activities of a practical nature. This is an error,
because it is a great deal more tiring to employ only half the
faculties nature has bestowed on us . It is as though one were
to walk on only one foot on the pretext that using both would
be twice the work. Knowledge and social experience must be
acquired at one and the same time .
The outing whose aim is neither purely that of personal
hygiene nor that of a practical order, but which makes an
experience live, will make the child conscious of realities . It is
up to the teacher to arrange that the moral teachings of life
emerge from social experiences .
Morals have at the same time a practical side, which
governs social relations, and a spiritual side, which presides
over the awakening of conscience in the individual .
It is difficult to make social relations real if one uses only
the imagination ; practical experience is necessary . One
cannot awaken the conscience by talking about it. The child
must exercise a constant watch over his own activities . Thus
education can resolve its problems while realizing itself when
it seeks to resolve them by means of acts .
As walking entails the use of more than just the feet, it is
necessary to assist one's step, to render it agile and able to
function in all that forms part of the art . Let us not forget that
these purposeful efforts will affect one's knowledge of the world .

13
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
Thus, when we are climbing, if all we think about is putting
one foot before the other, fatigue will overtake us long before
we reach our goal . But if we walk in a group, happy at the
thought of the marvellous view we will surely discover up
there, we will reach the summit without fatigue and will
benefit in both joy and health . We have been morally
conscious of our effort .
This act of consciousness did not cause any additional
fatigue . Bring the child to the consciousness of his own
dignity and he will feel free. His work will no longer weigh
him down.
In the Netherlands five-year-old children ride bicycles on
the streets . Swimming ought also to be taught . When one
begins to leave the house it becomes necessary to think of
one's personal defence . One has to prepare oneself, arm
oneself, and acquire new skills. It is also necessary to learn to
take care of one's clothes, to see that all is in order, to learn to
sew on buttons, to remove spots, et cetera . We have prepared
material to that end consisting of various textiles such as
wool, silk, linen, cotton, et cetera, which we have soiled in
different ways. The children are very interested in this
exercise . The older children will not only learn to do all these
things but they will also get the idea that before going out
they ought to see that all their attire is in perfect order .
An individual who is not accustomed to allowing a spot to
remain on his clothes will clean them immediately should
they become soiled . He possesses a special sensitivity, an
active sensibility which had to be developed . A child educated
in this way knows how to recognize persons having this
sensitivity. This causes him to develop the sense of caring
about the correctness of his own person and constant self-
inspection. He does not wish to have any trace of disorder on
his person, nor does he wish to leave any trace of disorder in
his wake .
Another useful exercise is to wrap packages . In order to
make a nice package one must first of all take measurements
and work methodically . One also needs to know how to
prepare and pack what is required for a meal outdoors
(plates, glasses, utensils, et cetera) .
It is also very important for the child who goes out to know

14
 THE NEEDS OF THE CHILD
how to orient himself in the field, to recognize the position of
the sun, the cardinal compass points, how to guess the
approximate time of day, et cetera . We have him observe, for
example, that moss is found mainly on the north side of trees
in a forest. We have him predict the weather from the clouds
and study the direction of the wind . All these things arouse
his attention and become actual knowledge . When the
children begin to become interested in these things they talk
about them to their juniors, thereby handing down their own
riches. In this way, when the older ones go out they carry
with them knowledge and civilization, which is to say,
progress . And a superior atmosphere is created around them .
All these activities constitute a symbol of life . Since life
outdoors differs from life in a closed environment, a guide and
an aim are necessary . In short, to go out, one must be ready
for it.
If we would have the same concept for the second period as
for the first, we would need to let the child go, to go where he
would . At first he will get lost .
Previously, the perfect teacher was one who allowed the
child to act, effacing herself. This procedure is not applicable
now . The second-period child is living two parallel existences,
his home existence and his existence in society . This is new.
The scouts offer some useful elements here . When they go
hiking they do exercises conducive to agility. Practical
experience is also useful at this age . These children, when
hiking, observe the objects left for a purpose by those who
preceded them; these signs along the route help them to find
their way. Also, the groups who follow separately learn to
recognize, by the position of a given object considered as a
signal, the direction they themselves must take . This is an
active exercise that habituates the children to observe, to
seek . This method is altogether different from that which
consists of walking with a child while holding him by the
hand.
Another scout activity is that of studying animal tracks .
We made the very small children notice the smallest details of
the environment . It was in this way that they learned to move
dexterously, to touch objects without causing them to fall,
without breaking them, et cetera . Likewise, now the more

15
 FRAM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
evolved child develops by observing all in his universe . The
choice of exercises is a function of his age . There are
considerations of a physical nature which must take first
place in making the choice . The exercises pertaining to
movement are dictated more by the age of the child than by
the level of his intelligence .
An example : A young child in a school in the Netherlands
knew how to do the square of the binomial . This would
compare to the knowledge of children much older . But one
day, having asked his teacher whether he could collect spent
matches in the forest with his playmates, he did not behave
differently from the other children . Like them, he was only
occupied with knowing who would find the most, without
thinking about the explanations being given by his teacher
elsewhere . This concern gave his age away . A small child still
interests himself in little things even though his intelligence
is capable of bounding toward much more advanced concepts .
One could say that even though a child can escape on the
intellectual plane, on the practical plane he remains tied to
his age .

16
 5

The Passage to Abstraction - The

Role of the Imagination, or "Going
Out," the Key to Culture

When one thinks about preparing children to go out of the

closed environment where they have been educated up to the
age of seven years, a vast panorama comes to mind . To go out
of a classroom to enter the outside world, which includes
everything, is obviously to open an immense door to instruc-
tion. The event is comparable to the appearance of Comenius'
Orbis Sensualium Pictus in the history of pedagogy .
Before Comenius, scanty knowledge was passed on by the
exclusive use of words. Comenius conceived of offering the
universe to children by means of pictures-and it seems that
it was the initial building block of a new method of education .
The amount of knowledge must have increased greatly
because of this .
He assembled a book of pictures representing everything
that makes up the world : plants, animals, rocks, peoples,
geographic maps, historic facts, industry, commerce, medicine,
sanitation, a reproduction of the first machines, the way in
which they functioned, et cetera, each idea being represented
by an image and a brief commentary in words . It seemed easy
for the mind to embrace everything looking at the images in
the book . It was really a first example of what later became
an encyclopaedia, except that the encyclopaedia returned to
the use of the word while Orbis Sensualium Pictus remains
just about unique in the history of pedagogy .
And yet the idea has remained . A beginning was made to
teach by using tangible objects adapted for handling . But just as
ideas lose strength in becoming widespread, the method of Com-
enius-who knew everything-was weakened by the teacher
who presented only her meagre knowledge put into pictures .

17
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
Later, it was thought that representation in only two
dimensions is insufficient for the child's comprehension . Then
he was offered objects of knowledge in their natural form . But
to overcome the difficulty of procuring and preserving objects,
they were placed in museums . Every self-respecting modern
school must have a museum . In this way enclosed objects may
be found near confined children. The adult, underestimating
the intelligence of the child, surrounds him with a depressing
atmosphere, while what he needs is to see things in order to
understand them . The capacity of childhood intelligence
remains unsuspected . What we hope-we to whom the child
has revealed the power of his intelligence-is to revise the
idea of Comenius by bringing the world itself to the children .
When the child goes out, it is the world itself that offers
itself to him. Let us take the child out to show him real things
instead of making objects which represent ideas and closing
them in cupboards .
In its entirety, the world always repeats more or less the
same elements . If we study, for example, the life of plants or
insects in nature, we more or less get the idea of the life of all
plants or insects in the world . There is no one person who
knows all the plants ; it is enough to see one pine to be able to
imagine how all the other pines live . When we have become
familiarized with the characteristics of the life of the insects
we see in the fields, we are able to form an idea of the life of
all other insects . There has never been anyone who has had
all the insects of the universe available to his view . The world
is acquired psychologically by means of the imagination .
Reality is studied in detail, then the whole is imagined . The
detail is able to grow in the imagination, and so total
knowledge is attained . The act of studying things is, in a way,
meditation on detail. This is to say that the qualities of a
fragment of nature are deeply impressed upon an individual .
After seeing a river or a lake, is it necessary to see all the
rivers and lakes of the world to know what they are? The
imagination, afterward, is able to form a concept of the world .
A machine, a man who fishes, a man who works-these are
all details that go to form knowledge . This is a universal
means of organizing culture . It is self-evident that the
possession of and contact with real things bring with them,

18
 THE PASSAGE TO ABSTRACTION
above all, a real quantity of knowledge . The inspiration
engendered by it revitalizes the intelligence that was inter-
ested and wished to know . From all these things new
intellectual interests arise (climates, winds, et cetera). Instruc-
tion becomes a living thing . Instead of being illustrated, it is
brought to life . In a word, the outing is a new key for the
intensification of instruction ordinarily given in the school .
There is no description, no image in any book that is
capable of replacing the sight of real trees, and all the life to
be found around them, in a real forest . Something emanates
from those trees which speaks to the soul, something no book,
no museum is capable of giving . The wood reveals that it is
not only the trees that exist, but a whole, interrelated
collection of lives . And this earth, this climate, this cosmic
power are necessary for the development of these lives . The
myriads of lives around the trees, the majesty, the variety are
things one must hunt for, and which no one can bring into the
school .
How often is the soul of man-especially that of the
child-deprived because one does not put him in contact with
nature . And when this contact is considered, it is only for
reasons of health. How could a child describe the difference in
nature as seen in daylight and as seen at night when, in our
time, he must inexorably go to bed in the evening?
I heard a comment from the mouth of an eight-year-old
child which profoundly impressed me: "I would give anything
to be able, one night, to see the stars ." He had heard them
being discussed but he had never seen them . His parents
thought it necessary not to allow the child to stay up a single
evening on any pretext whatever. All that hygiene, centred on
the physical person, has made the world neurotic . It is noted
that mental health has diminished in spite of the progress
which improves physical health. If tension among adults has
increased abnormally, it is because they have formed an
erroneous idea of life . These prejudices create as many
obstacles in the intellectual life of the child . What harm would
come from allowing a child to rise later if, as an exception, he
were to be allowed to satisfy the interest he takes in
discovering the stars or the sounds of the night? The mind of
the child is found to be at this age on an abstract level . He is

19
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
not satisfied with a mere collection of facts ; he tries to
discover their causes . It is necessary to make use of this
psychological state, which permits the viewing of the things in
their entirety, and to let him note that everything in the
universe is interrelated . Thus when the child wants to
understand the causes of a whole complex of effects, the
world, which he has before him, can fill that normal need .
But it is not always as easy to present the whole as it is to
present a detail . Then it does not suffice for the teacher to limit
herself to loving and understanding the child . She must first
love and understand the universe . She must therefore prepare
herself and work at it . Certainly the child is still central . But the
teacher must now appeal to that part of the child which finds
itself in the world of the abstract . When the child was very small
it was enough to call him by name for him to turn around . Now
we must appeal to his soul . To speak to him is not enough for
this ; it is necessary to interest him . What he learns must be
interesting, must be fascinating. We must give him grandeur.
To begin with, let us present him with the world .
In Genesis it says : "God created the heavens and the earth."
It is a very simple statement but it has grandeur, and the
mind stays awake . When details are presented as being parts
of a whole, they become interesting. The interest increases in
proportion to the gain in knowledge . In addition, the
knowledge presented now must not be on the same scale as
before . It must not be purely sensorial anymore . Now the
child must have constant recourse to his imagination .
Imagination is the great power of this age . Since we are
unable to present everything, it is up to the child to use his
imagination . The instruction of children from seven to twelve
years of age must appeal to the imagination . A configuration
of reality must spring from the imagination . It is necessary
therefore to be strictly precise . Exactness, as a numeral and
as all that makes up mathematics, will serve to build that
configuration of reality. Now what is it that strikes the
imagination? Above all, grandeur and, next, mystery . The
imagination is then able to reconstruct the whole when it
knows the real detail .
Imagination was not given man for the simple pleasure of
fantasizing any more than were the four characteristics

20
 THE PASSAGE TO ABSTRACTION
common to man (language, religion, death rites, and arts)
given to let him live on contemplation . Imagination does not
become great until man, given the courage and strength, uses
it to create . If this does not occur, the imagination addresses
itself only to a spirit wandering in emptiness .
Obstacles abound in the world . But man's spiritual life
gives him the strength to surmount them to accomplish his
task. Love of the homeland is based on imagination . Is it not
that which gives us the idea of what our country is and who
our compatriots are? Our fight on behalf of children also
needs imagination, because we ourselves know only very few
children .
The homeland, and those children we thus imagine, do in-
deed exist and we know it .
He who does not possess the world of the imagination is
poor. But the child with too much fantasy is a disturbed child .
We do not know how to calm him . We do not say : "Let us
suppress the imagination of that child's mind," but rather :
"The child's imagination is insufficient for his mind ." We must
nourish the other facet of his intelligence, that which has to
do with the external world and his activity . It is in this way
that we will help him grow in discipline .
The child's imagination is vague, imprecise, without limits .
But from the moment he finds himself in contact with the
external world he requires precision . The requirement is such
that the adult would be unable to impose it . Its full potential
lies within the child . When a child's interest is aroused on the
basis of reality, the desire to know more on the subject is born
at the same time . At such a moment exact definitions may be
presented . Children express the desire for such definitions in
their own way . For example, in one of our schools there was
once a seven-year-old boy who chose to study the Rhine . The
teacher had prepared a map of the river and its tributaries,
but the child was not satisfied with it . He wanted to know the
relative length of each of the tributaries . (Here we see the
idea of mathematics awakened .) He used graph paper to draw
a better map . It was in this way that the sense of proportional
size and the interest in study were born in him at the same
time . He remained at the same task, by his own choosing, for
more than two months . He was not satisfied until he had
21
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
meticulously completed it . His satisfaction came with his
being able to express these concepts in mathematical terms .
Let us draw a parallel here with the smaller children who
by touching objects trained their hands to greater lightness of
touch . The exercise seemed to satisfy something inside of
them. Touching for the younger child is what imagining is for
the older one . On the former age level we would have worked
on the sensorial plane as, for the latter, we work on the level
of the imagination . Thus at different levels we encounter
parallel phenomena. With the little children the response was
infantile . But it is still true that knowledge may truly be
developed by awakening the interest. A detail of physics or
chemistry is enough to produce the awakening . At the same
time, a number of experiments and conclusions arise which
bring learning in depth and detail .
The mind bases itself on the imagination, which brings
things to a higher level, that of abstraction . But the
imagination has need of support . It needs to be built,
organized. Only then may man attain a new level . He is
penetrating the infinite .
A study outline here presents itself : to bring the whole by
means of the presentation of detail . Thus, when we wish to
consider the study of living beings, the most important thing
is first to establish the classification . It has been an error to
have sought to suppress it . It has seemed too dry and too
difficult, even though it constitutes a precise key for the study
of the whole . Not only does the classification help in
understanding, but it also aids the memory. Therefore it
constitutes a base which one should establish first of all .
Would that the teacher allowed herself to be imbued by the
grandeur of this whole to be able to transmit it to the child . It
is not only the classification of a few details that must be the
point of departure, but the classification of the Whole . And
this Whole, emerging at the same time, will serve as the base
so that each detail comes to be located in the mind . For
example, let us say that the world is this globe on whose
surface we live . But let us say immediately that this planet
receives reflections from the world of the stars . One cannot,
then, isolate it from the whole ; one cannot content oneself
with observing it all alone . Considered in the abstract, we can

22
 THE PASSAGE TO ABSTRACTION
envisage it as the empire of three kingdoms-animal,
vegetable, and mineral . We show a globe, entirely different
from the one used for geography . We only represent in brown
what depicts the land, and in blue what depicts the water .
This globe does not serve in the study of geography, but is
intended to stimulate the imagination, which starts working
around this kind of globe .
To speak of animals, of vegetables, of minerals is an abstrac-
tion . But we will say here : "Man lives in the world and man must
conquer it ." The intelligence of man must conquer the world as
the intelligence of the little child has conquered the environment .
All is strictly interrelated on this planet. And one notes that
each science studies only the details of a total knowledge . To
speak afterward of the life of man on the surface of the globe
is to speak of history . And each detail holds the child's
interest by reason of its strict relation to the others . We may
compare it with a tapestry : each detail is a piece of
embroidery; the whole constitutes a magnificent cloth .
To give the child of seven to twelve years the idea of a
whole in nature, for example of the planet on which we live,
we must begin by bringing him numbers .
To do well, it is necessary to aim at giving an idea of all the
sciences, not in precise detail but only as an impression . The
idea is to "sow the seeds of the sciences" at this age, when a
sort of sensitive period for the imagination exists . Once the
idea has been presented, we must show that a science extends
from each branch: mineralogy, biology, physics, chemistry,
et cetera. And, as we have seen, the examination of a detail
triggers the study of the whole.
It is understood that one is obliged to begin by the study of a
detail . But since nothing exists that does not constitute a part
of the whole, it is sufficient to choose any one detail which will
then become a point of departure in the study of the whole .

* Later Dr. Montessori prepared a slightly different globe for

small children in the Children's House . On it the land portions were
covered with real sand (glued on) and the water parts by smooth,
blue enamel paint . This more sensorial globe thus added a tactile
impression to the visual one (cf. the rough-smooth exercises with
touch material) .-TR .
23
 6

Water

To begin, it is necessary to choose an element that is large,

even quantitatively, because if an element is present in large
quantities its function must be important . Thus, water is one
of the most imposing elements of the earth . Let us say at the
outset that many animals live in the water, especially in the
oceans, and that these animals themselves elicit a great deal
of interest. And since imagination could never suffice to give
an idea of the number of these animals, the decimal system,
by reason of which we may construct enormous numbers,
comes to our aid . And mathematics in this way helps the
imagination.
In order to form an idea of the quantities, one could say
that certain fish deposit 70 x 104 eggs per year. And one could
add that other very small animals exist in such great
numbers that the largest number a child is capable of writing
would not be sufficient . Show these little animals by means of
the microscope and say that sometimes a group of them
causes a large spot to form on the sea, a spot so large that it
would take a ship six days to circumnavigate it. The mind is
thus helped more precisely than by simply saying : "This
quantity is very large, it is immense ."
We have the children note that the beings which live on the
land are found only on the surface, while those of which we
have just spoken are found throughout the depth of the water ;
that the depth is often such as to be able to contain the
highest mountains . This will help to give an idea of the
relationship existing between the beings that live on land and
those that live in the seas . The contrast is even greater when
one considers that large deserts, almost uninhabited, are

24
 WATER
found on the land, while the water of the seas abounds in
almost 1 its p s with animals .
What is it that maintains the state of sanitation in the
world? If the water of the seas is analysed, it is found always
to be composed in the same manner . The composition may be
determined exactly, mathematically . And for how long has the
water been of this composition? Always . Why? If it should
ever change, even to the minutest degree, all the living beings
found there would die .
And there the vital problem of water has been broached .

Subdivision of the study of water

Water is very interesting . We need to understand it . Like
almost all bodies, it takes three physical states : solid, liquid,
and gaseous. Let us emphasize this, because water presents
itself to us under these three aspects more commonly than do
other substances . Even in the solid state it takes various
forms (snow, ice), it seems as if by whim . We are able to cause
the three forms by means of heat (by cooling or heating it) .
Since these transformations are so easy to obtain, is it not
logical that we use it as our measuring standard? Thus it
serves to measure the temperature, and we say : "0 ° is the
point at which water changes to ice . 100° is the point at which
water changes to vapour. The interval between these two
oints is divided into 100 equal parts, thereby giving us
centigrade degrees ."
We can practically see water transform itself into vapour .
us changed, it is much lighter than it was when cooler . It
as this in common with the other substances . Only, for
ater, this is not exact except beginning from 4° above zero .
n effect, under 4° it is lighter again . This is a property
pecific to water . And this is the reason that, in rocks where it
as penetrated as a liquid, it increases in volume on cooling
d causes them to split just as it causes the pipes of the
lumbing to split. Such incidents occur continually in nature .
ater therefore continues its work constantly .
This phenomenon is a blessing to the beings that live in
ater, because if it were heavy in the solid state it would
rush them all upon solidifying. Instead, it becomes a

25
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
veritable protection for them . Let us note that the laws of
nature are not absolute . It is necessary that water become
lighter upon solidifying, and this occurs contrary to all the
laws . If water were an animal, one could say that it acts this
way by adaptation . The phenomena of nature are always
instructive when examined without prejudice.
When solid substances are introduced into water, only the
water evaporates, leaving the solid substances behind. It is in
this way that the water evaporated from the seas forms the
clouds above the earth and falls again as rain . But the solids
it contained are left in the sea. Clouds attract a great deal of
interest; their magnificence arouses this interest . And what
also excites the curiosity is water in the nonliquid state .
Let us broach the study of water in the liquid state by
beginning with the problem of the rivers which carry solids in
suspension to the sea. The water of the rivers is, in fact,
abundantly charged with salts. Here again mathematics helps
the imagination. To say that the rivers carry an enormous
quantity of salts is all right . But to say the Mississippi alone
discharges 70 million kilograms of limestone daily into the
sea, and that all the other rivers do likewise in proportion,
immediately causes questions like, "Where does all that
limestone go? And since when has this been occurring? And
how is it that the sea water is not saturated with all that salt?
How has it been able to maintain the exact composition
necessary for fish life to continue? What happens? Does the
material disappear? Is it a miracle?" No . Something happens
which permits the earth to continue to exist . And when we see
ships sailing on the oceans let us bring our thoughts again to
the water in which a continual work is being carried out to
maintain its composition intact .*
The idea has been launched. Everything is interrelated and,
beginning with a detail, one arrives at the whole by
correlation.
Water is also a solvent. Certain substances can be dissolved

* The principle of the cosmic theory was inspired by a book well

known in Italy: Acqua ed Aria by the celebrated geologist Antonio
Stoppani (1824-1891), an uncle of Maria Montessori's mother,
Renilde Stoppani .

26
 WATER
in it. When they are dissolved they disappear from view (for
example, sugar).
The great cosmic function of water is to dissolve rock . It
dissolves, in fact, immense masses, equal to mountains
thousands of metres high, which we may have imagined to be
the most durable materials on earth .
This part of the study of water-the most mysterious
because it concerns what the eye does not see-is precisely
the one that arouses the most interest . We explain, then, that
the water dissolves the limestone contained in the rock . This
curious function gives an idea of the immense quantity of
limestone existing on the surface of the earth .
In order to realize how much limestone there is, we
compare it to a prism with a base twice the size of Europe and
10,000 feet high . Such precise comparisons aid the imagina-
tion.
Let us see how the process occurs . The water seizes the
limestone, absorbs it, and carries it away. If we do not see this
take place it is because the water takes a long time to
accomplish its task and we are accustomed to perceive only
the work of a moment . But a number of experiences permit
us to establish that the water does indeed act this way-the
little holes or pockmarks which may be noted on ancient
monuments and the paving stones in parks are similarly
marked, et cetera . We shall return to this subject when we
discuss the action of water on land.
Water, the great sculptor of rocks, carries substances by
various means, including rivers . And if we wish to give an
idea of the extent of rivers on the earth, there is no need to
make the subject weighty . Let us glance at a map . There we
will see that a single river-itself and its tributaries-covers
a vast area of the earth. The children are impressed by the
great rivers which collect water from all parts of the earth,
and which bring it to the seas together with all the dissolved
substances. We should give many presentations of these
rivers . There is no need yet to name the tributaries, but the
sight of them stimulates the imagination .
We now help the children to observe that all the great
vers of the earth spill water and salts into a single ocean,
e Atlantic, either directly or by intermediaries in the form

27
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
of other seas (Arctic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, et cetera)
which are in constant communication with it . And if some
great rivers spill elsewhere, into the Pacific, for example, little
islands form at their mouths, barriers intended to protect the
Pacific Ocean . We may say, then, that the Atlantic is the
collector of all such substances .
We have already mentioned the immense quantity of salts
the Mississippi alone carries to the sea . All the other rivers
function in a similar fashion. The water subsequently changes
to vapour but abandons the substances which it was carrying .
Destructive water, a gentle worker, so fresh, works tranquilly .
A great quantity of calcareous (chalky) substances remains on
deposit at the bottom of the sea . The reason the Atlantic has
not been filled by now is that the substances have been
distributed into all the other seas . This phenomenon of
distribution constitutes another branch of study which may,
in part, be included in physical geography (for example, the
ocean currents) . We will discuss them later .
What is truly impressive is that all the limestone carried to
the sea during hundreds of thousands of years has in no way
changed the composition of the water. The lives of all the
beings that live in the sea depend on this constancy. The
cosmic problem therefore consists in causing the evacuation of
all that calcium carbonate in order that the water remain
unchanged. But how may what is dissolved be eliminated? It
is impossible to boil the water of the sea! It is here that
another active force intervenes within the sea itself. It is an
energy whose task is to fix all the dissolved substances . And
this energy is Life. There exist, in fact, live animals that fix
the calcium carbonate .
There exist, then, on the one hand, destructive physical
forces, and, on the other, live reconstructed forces. From time
immemorial there have been animals exercising this function .
They are those who dress themselves in shells and who
constitute a veritable force charged with the task of seizing
the excessive calcium carbonate and fixing it .

The study of aquatic shells is very interesting to children .

There are shells so big that a single one of their valves weighs
300 kilograms ; there are tiny, microscopic ones-as, for
28
 WATER
example, the foraminifers-whose fragments may be shown to
the children under the microscope since they are invisible to
the naked eye . They are unicellular beings which form a type
of dust comparable to that of the desert . The dust, on
collecting, forms calcareous deposits .
The animals having the most important function in this
domain are the corals, which have the important property of
remaining stationary . While absorbing limestone they mul-
tiply and grow until they reach the surface to form islands,
vast regions . Indicating on the one hand the existence of
rivers on the earth and, on the other, the existence of coral
formations, one may discover that these powers have a
relation one to the other . One represents the forces that
destroy, and the other the energies that simultaneously
reconstruct.
The very quantity of the coral islands is an interesting
point to bring to the children's attention . Continents are
disappearing while others are being constructed . Today we
know these islands well, and we may note that in the Pacific
they form a continent comparable to Asia . What is curious is
that all these constructions are situated in the Pacific Ocean
and not in the Atlantic where, in fact, the rivers carry the
materials. Let us see why .
It is known that the corals need calm and pure water in
which to live. The storehouse of the materials required is in
the Atlantic. And the beings that use the materials live very
far away. This is similar to what occurs in industry
(production takes place in one locality and, far away, the men
in a quieter locality use the products). It is a marvellous
organization that places the production or storehouse in one
rather turbulent place and the consumption and reconstruc-
tion elsewhere . Who then transports the substances so far to
the immobile corals? The means of communication must exist,
as must the means of distribution of these important
materials (precisely as for the distribution and transport of
industrial products) . So we begin to see the living organiza-
tion, mysterious in itself, but simple to understand . We touch
on physical geography ; on zoology, to explain the function of
life in the universe ; on mineralogy ; also on certain principles
of physics, referring to the properties of water ; and also on

29
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
elements of chemistry, to explain how water is able to destroy
rocks .
All these elements form parts of a whole, intensely
interesting as a story . They will tell us the History of the
Earth .

A classification of shells is often given . But there is such a

variety of them with names so difficult that it seems
impossible to consider the imposition of this study as
sufficiently important to the children . Now, what must
immediately be given the children is not the description of
all the shells-univalves, bivalves, et cetera but rather the
idea of the immense variety of forms taken on by nature .
What strikes the imagination is this, as well as the aesthetic
talents of the creatures, which do not merely cover them-
selves with shells for the sake of covering themselves but
design those shells in various forms, adorn the designs in a
great diversity of ways, each species being different from the
others, just as man does not construct his house while
thinking only of sheltering himself . Let us attract the child's
attention to the work of life . That is what is important . If
the animals were endowed with intelligence and were able to
discern an aim in their work, doubtless they would think :
"We work to maintain the purity of the oceans ; and we exert
considerable effort in order to carry away all the calcium
carbonate which, without us, would provoke the death of all
the seas' inhabitants ." But they would not be able to imagine
that they are builders of new lands, of new chains of
mountains, and that it is they who form the islands on
which new creatures will establish themselves . The real aim
of living beings is, in fact, far removed from the apparent
one . It would seem at first glance that their function is to
seek the best, the happiest conditions of existence . Corals
could then be thought to be seekers of a good time . It is
indeed curious to see how they strive to live well, seeking a
certain temperature, assuring themselves of water that
contains much chlorine ; they live in salubrious surroundings
(as we do when we go to live in the country) far from the
agitated and filthy things which are the rivers arriving from
the land . It matters little to theuf that it is the rivers that

30
 WATER
bring the materials for their use . They try to be as far
removed from them as possible in splendid locations, tem-
perate and healthy. They wish to live hygienically . But their
work-which is essential-consists in absorbing the water,
appropriating the calcium carbonate, and releasing purified
water. All the beings that secrete have the same aim . The
quantity of water absorbed by them is considerable . It equals,
in proportion, the absorption by a man of thirty litres of water
per second.
The corals do such a great work that they need help . To
that end there are little algae which work constantly to
furnish them with oxygen . One may compare the corals to the
masters of servants . It would seem that we have to do with
fantastic tales . And yet, all this is reality-but reality that
ought to satisfy the imagination .
The corals remain stationary . Someone is needed to carry
the requisite calcium carbonate to them . So we discover a vast
communications organization (an important chapter which
corresponds in human society to the means for commercial
communications) . We come, in this way, to marine and
submarine currents . Let us look at them on the map . They are
the means of communication between two oceans .
The movement of water, which is quite complicated, is
dependent upon a large number of factors (many of which are
cosmic) . But the currents are not sufficient to create the
movement necessary to deliver the calcium carbonate to the
secreting animals . We must, therefore, consider also the
movement of the animals. Interest brings us immediately to
the higher animals, the fish which occur in infinite variety but
whose general type may be described thus : two great masses
of muscle which move, much as a spoon moves the sugar at
the bottom of a cup, without ever stopping .
We may therefore examine two large groups of animals, the
heavy secretors that remain on the bottom of the sea without
ever, or almost ever, moving, and the fish that move
continually . The latter have a light skeleton which barely
suffices to support the muscles of movement .
The infinite variety of fish forms a group having particular
social relationships. Let us, then, study the lives of fish in the
eas .
31
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
The life of a fish is very interesting . And what is more
interesting yet is the perpetual movement whose cosmic
purpose is to move the water . And how pleasant this
movement makes the life of the fish! ("Happy and free as a
fish in water.") It is important to note that the fulfilment of a
great work brings with it the happiness of the living beings
who are charged with it . But one may hardly express this idea
without the logic of it becoming obvious . To accomplish a
great work it is necessary, in fact, to be situated in the best
possible conditions .

It is difficult to study the various ocean currents . But it is

easy to look at them traced on a chart . And we may tell the
children that immense rivers exist not only on land but also
in the oceans .
How is it possible to have water currents in water? For the
sea is furrowed with currents . One could apply oneself to a
sort of anatomical study of the ocean to know exactly the
routes of such currents .
The water of the ocean also has its exact, eternal laws . One
current always goes in the same direction while another
current goes in another direction . And the study of these
currents reveals the existence of those found at greater
depths . There are exterior factors (such as the temperature,
the sun, the attraction of the sun and the moon) and interior
factors at the basis of the movement. Among the interior
factors is the work of the animals to attract the water down
from the surface and to cause it to rise again . One could also
compare this circulation with that of blood in the body of an
animal. The impure blood goes to the lungs where it is
purified and returns pure . Likewise, the secreting animals of
which we have spoken represent the lungs of the ocean . They
purge the water of the calcium carbonate which it contains
and they do this without ever stopping . The process is carried
out on a large scale, as if the earth were a living person . This
idea remains indefinite in the imagination of the child but it
corresponds to reality. Given that each of the details is later
studied, it causes him to remember this view of the whole . So
the knowledge, carrying its conclusions, radiates as though
from a centre, much as a seed develops, little by little .

32
 WATER
The study of streams on the surface brings us to geography .
The streams, red on the map if warm, blue if cold, are easily
located by the child . His imagination may be helped by our
telling him that each of the currents is an enormous river
carrying a quantity of water corresponding to a thousand
Mississippi and Amazon Rivers combined . We follow, for
example, the equatorial current from the Gulf of Mexico .
When it separates, one of its branches forms the Gulf Stream
and the other returns in part until it completes the loop . The
movement of the currents may be compared to the exercises of
practical life . As when one sweeps a room, all the sweepings
are accumulated in one comer before being picked up, so here
the calcium carbonate disappears . At the extremity of the loop
a collector is in fact to be found, the Sargasso Sea .
Because the currents cause a circular movement, it may be
noticed that objects along the circumference are thrown out
on the tangent . The objects are thrown out by centrifugal
force (for example, pieces of wood and even whole trees) and
the routes taken by them are always the same. The hard work
of the water always carries the flotage to the same places .
This is why, even though no vegetation exists in the frozen
regions, a quantity of pieces of wood may be found there . They
are used by the inhabitants to build whole cities, and to
provide heat for themselves. These anecdotes are as interest-
ing to the children as fables .
Let us keep our eyes on the map an instant longer . It is
necessary to expose things to children for sufficient time to
attract their attention. Since they assimilate the environment
by instinct, they assimilate at the same time that which we
have put out. Each applies himself to the work that he has
chosen . But the map remains in place . It interests the child.
We note that the currents are all parallel in the Pacific, which
is warm . Elsewhere, on the other hand, their courses are
tortuous .
By visual observation of the currents it may be concluded
that cold water is denser and sinks, while warm water, being
lighter, rises. Also, the water purified of calcium is lighter
than that which has not yet been purified and it rises to the
surface .
The anecdote of the bottle containing a note, thrown into

33
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
the sea by a shipwrecked person at the tip of Cape Horn and
found in Ireland, is a proof of the movement of water .
Certainly one would like to be able to penetrate the
mysteries and the majesty inherent in water . In this way the
desire to celebrate it in verse is also born . Its mode of action,
its intelligent aim, its grandiose mission cause its maternity
to be suspected . Is it not, in fact, the mother of all these living
beings, the agents of Creation? Saint Francis of Assisi
understood this well for, in an outburst of fraternal love for
the elements, he sang the praises of "Sister Water who is very
useful and humble and precious ." It is loved by all because all
living beings-plants and animals-are thirsty and cannot
live without it . Why would we not admire it and feel gratitude
for it as well as the desire to know more about it? The study of
water, then, can become a passion, and the precise conclu-
sions reached by a direct knowledge of it elucidate such a
study.
We now look at water from a different point of view . We
have already spoken to the child of its property as a solvent
and we have seen that its great cosmic function is to dissolve
rock . We therefore consider water to be a dissolver . That is
already something precise . We now consider the mechanism
of this property, which brings us quite naturally to chemistry .
We say that water, in its quality as a "solvent," becomes a
"solution." We show that its power to dissolve has very well-
defined limits which may be measured. Here the mathemati-
cal factor again comes into play . We describe the water that
remains at the surface as being "saturated," and we indicate
that the surplus forms a "deposit ." We then mix another well-
known substance, starch, into the water and show that, even
in small quantities, starch is not soluble . It mixes but it never
dissolves . We then say that the starch remains "in suspen-
sion," and we have just used another precise term . Following
this, we put a pebble into water to see that it does not
dissolve.
Water is nevertheless an excellent solvent . While it is true
that there are certain substances it cannot dissolve, it is
curious that those it does dissolve are harboured passively .
Now, its greatest craving is for rock and it has never ceased to
devour it . It travels to the depths of the earth in its search .

34
 WATER
Then why is it that the pebble we put into water did not
dissolve? Whatever may the mystery be? Something a little
different requiring a complementary explanation must be
lurking here . Not only does water dissolve solid substances
but it also dissolves certain gases, in particular carbon
dioxide . This gas is expelled by all animals and the earth
itself emits it continually . Water, before it can act on rock,
must be charged with this gas which is therefore also found to
subsist in the ocean .
Since water is unable, alone, to carry rock away, it first
transforms it by means of this gas . What we wish to say is
that the rock is first made friable, then it is carried away by
the water .
These transformations are different from those that one
obtains by means of a simple solution . Water, as is learned in
chemistry, works on the rock by an action that is both
physical and chemical at the same time .
Let us then show a bottle of water that can contain a large
quantity of carbon dioxide under pressure-in other words, a
supersaturated solution of carbonic acid . Water that pene-
trates the earth may also contain a large quantity of this gas
precisely because it is under pressure . This is what happens
when it digs underground galleries and wells . But when the
water comes out of the earth it restores all the surplus of
calcium carbonate which it possessed under pressure . It is at
this time that it produces the large mineral formations on the
surface of the earth . Tufa and travertine are two examples of
this . The action is comparable to that which occurs when a
bottle under pressure allows carbon dioxide to escape and the
pressure to fall when it is opened .
The water therefore has gone underground where it has
charged itself with rock, which it carries to the surface and
deposits. The rock, like a veritable mason, will form con-
structions .
Water is active, has a hearty appetite, and is capable of
containing an enormous quantity of this gas for which it is
avid and which is its collaborator in the important work of
devouring the rock. This is why, during heavy rains, the
water, which falls more charged with carbon dioxide than it
was as a vapour, leaves its traces on the rock .

35
 7

Some Chemistry Experiences

From our examination of the currents on the maps we have

given the child the idea that some liquids are heavier than
others and that the lighter liquids lie over the heavier ones .
Let us now offer some greater precision obtained by means of
exercises that will teach the technical and scientific terms,
even some having no connection with those used for the
currents . These exercises are parallel to those of practical life
which helped the smaller children in learning to make precise
movements . Thus, the use of test tubes and funnels con-
stitutes a new manual exercise for the new stage . Certain
actions are comparable to those the child performed when he
poured water into a glass . But here even more attention is
required because the container is smaller .
Let us, then, pour liquids of different weights into a test
tube-the term "specific weight" is introduced . The best way
to understand this term is to see the strata of the different
liquids: at the bottom we have mercury ; we pour water in
next, then oil, and finally methyl alcohol . In order to
identify them better, we colour each of the liquids dif-
ferently .
Then we take two test tubes, putting water and crystallized
sugar in one, water and starch in the other .
The sugar crystals dissolve slowly, so that we could doubt
their solubility in water . But if we apply heat, the sugar soon
disappears . In place of a cold solution we obtain a warm
solution .
These operations, fascinating to little children, require
nevertheless a certain attention . We are giving them practical
information-that sugar crystals are soluble in warm water

36
 SOME CHEMISTRY EXPERIENCES

Figure 1 .

Figure 2 .
and not soluble in cold water-at the same time that we are
educating their patience .
As for the starch, it remains undissolved even after shaking
the tube . Its presence makes the water opaque : it is "in
suspension ."
Therefore, a solution may be coloured but remain trans-
parent whereas the liquid containing a substance in suspen-
sion becomes opaque . The two test tubes just prepared show
this clearly.
We now take a blue solution of copper sulphate and water to
see if it is possible to free the water of the dissolved substance .
In order to filter it, we must first see how to prepare a filter in
a funnel, how to attach the paper, and how to measure to
prevent the paper being too large for the funnel . The paper

37
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE

Figure 3 .
must not reach the funnel's rim . For the experiment too be more
striking, we first filter the water containing starch. We see that
it becomes clear again . We have, in this way, demonstrated the
ease with which water may be freed of a substance it contains
in suspension. We proceed in the same way with the solution of
copper sulphate . We note that the water, although filtered,
remains coloured . This means that the solution is a liquid that
has itself become a new substance .
We have seen that, upon filtering a liquid in which a
substance is found to be in suspension, that liquid becomes
clear . And yet the substance found in dissolution has not been
removed . To remove it, we must boil it . If we do not have the
apparatus necessary for distillation we cannot succeed in
purifying the water . But we are able to see what remains of
the dissolved substance when we have caused the water to
evaporate. This operation is called "calcination." We recall the
calcium carbonate that remains on the bottom of the sea after
the evaporation of the water.
On the other hand, if a deposit remains in the test tube, we
are able, though imperfectly in practice, to free the liquid
from the deposit by "decantation." These new terms are exact,
and we will be able to write them in a book or on separate
cards with an explanation of each.
We have the children note that to boil liquids we always
place a screen between the flame and the container, which
indicates that great care must be taken in order not to burn it
when the liquid is entirely evaporated .

38
 SOME CHEMISTRY EXPERIENCES
This experiment shows that the water has disappeared
without having been able to take anything with it. The copper
sulphate that remains is a solid which we may remove and
again dissolve in water to obtain a second solution as blue as
the first . Thus we have been able to remove the substance
first found in water and put it into other water .
These exercises are very simple but they require time
because it is necessary to wait patiently while the liquids
settle, while substances dissolve, or while the liquids evaporate .
Calm and attention are required . The psychological effect
produced on the children at this age may be compared to that
of the silence lesson on the younger children . The small
children severely restrict their movements, while the older
ones must measure their movements and must therefore pay
concentrated attention to them .
We may follow now with another exercise which is neither
complicated nor difficult to understand but which requires
patience, care, and a steady hand . It consists in filling a test
tube with water. When the tube is full to the brim it may be
noted, on careful observation, that the surface of the water is
concave because the water adheres to the glass . This union is
called "cohesion." More difficult yet is the task of adding a
small quantity of water to the test tube which is already full .
When this has been done it will be seen that the surface of the
water has become convex . This phenomenon is caused by the
powerful force of cohesion of the water itself. It is for this
reason that falling water takes the form of drops-i .e., a
spherical form . The drop is simultaneously convex and
concave.
We can have the children recall the formation of stalactites
and stalagmites . These also fix the children's attention on
water.
Let us bring them to discover, through experiment, the
principle of communicating receptacles .
We take a U-shaped test tube and explain that the water
may come to the surface of the land because it seeks the level
of the underground water table. Many springs are the result
of the existence of this phenomenon . Thus, to use on one hill
the water whose source is on another hill of the same altitude,
it is enough to put them in communication. If the Romans had
s9
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
known this principle they would not have built the immense
aqueducts we admire . It would have been sufficient for them
to connect one point with the other.
Then, too, we have them note that the . surface of the water
is a horizontal plane . To show this we take a V-shaped test
tube . In the oblique arm, the form of the surface of the water
is elliptical. In the other, held vertically, the surface is
circular. This proves that the surface of a liquid always
remains on the horizontal plane. In fact, to find the
horizontal, it suffices to let liquid come to rest . From these
demonstrations arise principles which allow us to introduce
mathematical determinations when we later broach the study
of scientific instruments .

Let us speak now of the chemical composition of water . The

child needs to know something of science which has, in our
day, taken on such great importance . We cannot yet give him
great theories or the exact chemical science ; that will come
later. But at this age he must receive the seeds which will
germinate later . He needs an impression, an idea which above
all awakens interest . If he acquires the interest he will later
be able to study and understand these subjects rapidly . If the
interest is not aroused, the sciences, which have attained such
a degree of development and which have so much influence on
present-day civilization, will remain obscure .
We must hunt, therefore, for everything that may be
accessible to the mind of the child in order to create the bases
for future development. That is to say, that we must sow
impressions before presenting science . We must here again
have recourse to the imagination to create the impressions
and to reach conclusions little by little . To do this we must
seek the symbols accessible to the child that bait the primitive
logic that makes him reason . Nothing can speak to his
imagination better than science, because he sees in it a sort of
magic. The fact that a body in association with another-as in
the case of water-may invisibly form a third reality gives the
impression of something magic. The mind awakens in the face
of creation .
Hydrogen, the light, invisible gas which seeks to escape,
and oxygen, another gas which is always contained in the

40
 SOME CHEMISTRY EXPERIENCES
air-both of which we never see, but which are necessary to
us and of which the children have always heard-are
breathed by all, even the fish in water. Oxygen is a surprising
gas . It is because of it that things burn .
Air is made up of about one-fifth oxygen and about four-
fifths nitrogen, which moderates the oxygen . Without it, the
oxygen would burn everything . We know nitrogen . We have
often heard about nitrified substances . During the war
Germany used the nitrogen of the air to obtain explosives . It
is curious to note that one gas of which the air is made up
burns and that the other explodes . What is more, oxygen and
hydrogen unite to give us water .

41
 8
Carbon in Nature

The pure air we breathe is soiled by carbon dioxide emitted by

the lungs. Carbon dioxide is poisonous to us and to animals .
How is it that we have never been asphyxiated? This is
another mystery much like that of water. There is an element
that maintains the purity of the air and has done so for
centuries and centuries since the beginning .
It could be supposed that only hydrogen and oxygen, both
invisible, existed; that an explosion occurred ; that the
cataracts of heaven were opened ; and that water had been
created. Water is formed of two parts hydrogen and one part
oxygen . The water which did not exist before could have been
formed suddenly by a spark . It is in fact possible to make
water in this way. These experiments should not be done too
soon . But the phenomenon may be described as though it
were a marvellous tale by explaining how water, which is
transparent but may be felt, is formed by two substances both
of which are invisible .
And while we are on the subject of the creation of a
substance, we inform the child that chemistry is the study of
newly created substances . To illustrate, we place a piece of
sugar in a flask and pour on it a liquid having the appearance
of water-sulphuric acid . We mix the two substances well .
Sugar dissolves in the water, but in this instance we suddenly
see smoke come from the flask . We are present at the forma-
tion, as if by magic, of a new substance : carbon. White sugar is,
in substance, a piece of coal . Coal, then, according to its differ-
ent forms and aspects may have different uses and qualities .
It may be said that all the substances that burn become
coal. Trees become coal . The roast forgotten on the fire

42
 CARBON IN NATURE
becomes coal . We, too, are carbon combined with other
substances . Coal is found scattered all over. It is a very
important substance. The desire to discover certain charac-
teristics of these elements never fails to arise . The small child
is already using symbols. The letters of the alphabet are
symbols . He has only a small number, but, combined among
themselves, they form words, poems. The musical notes are
symbols, dots . Music makes us happy, makes us sing and
dance . So why would we not be able to symbolize another
phenomenon, that of creation?
The four elements we symbolize for the children in this way
are, as it were, the . key to the universe .

hydrogen oxygen nitrogen carbon

Figure 4 .

They are easy to remember because they have 1, 2, 3, and 4

lines . They do, in fact, make us think of keys .
We could depict them in the form of bodies having arms
capable of grasping one another . Some elements irresistibly
combine (embrace) . Thus hydrogen combines with oxygen
which, having two arms, is able to hold two hydrogens . Water
is represented thus :

Figure 5 .

43
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
On the other hand, carbon, which has four arms, uses two of
them to attach to each of two oxygens to form carbon
dioxide, which is represented :

CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Figure 6 .
These two elements are fundamentally important . They
could be considered to be the two activators of the universe .
Nitrogen, which has three arms, combines with three
hydrogens to form a relatively important compound, ammonia .

(EO
NH3 (ammonia)
Figure 7 .
Ammonia is the ultimate form taken by the nitrified
substances of an organism in decomposition .
The way in which the elements unite is what maintains the
attention of the child . On the following page is the symbol for
nitric acid (fig . 8) . Nitrogen (in this case) has five arms ; with
four of them it gets hold of two oxygens which, as we have
seen, have two arms each . The last arm of nitrogen takes hold
of one arm of another oxygen which, in its turn, unites itself
to one hydrogen with its remaining free arm . It is quite
difficult for us to use ammonia to make nitric acid . But in
nature this occurs constantly. It occurs, however, by means of
intermediary living things-microbes, which possess a power
we do not have. They separate the hydrogens and replace

44
 CARBON IN NATURE

HNO3 (nitric acid)

Figure 8 .

them with oxygen. If the micro-organisms did not exist, the

earth would fill with ammonia and the plants would not find
nutrients because they feed on nitrates coming from nitric
acid. The micro-organisms, then, contribute to the nutrition of
the plants, because it is thanks to them that the chemical
transformations take place .
In carbon dioxide, of which we have spoken, it is the carbon
that is the principal element . When we spoke of calcium
carbonate, it was again a matter of coal . Well, then, are the
rocks themselves carbon? Let us show the formula of calcium
carbonate, starting with calcium itself:

calcium
Figure 9 .

Carbon, which has four arms, uses two to hold an oxygen

and with the other two arms holds another two oxygens . Each
of the latter still has a . free arm, with . which they grasp the
two arms of the calcium (fig . 10).
When rain water, carrying carbonic anhydride, strikes the
rocks-which are formed' by calcium carbonate-bicarbonate
of calcium is formed . This is soluble in water and, conse-
quently, the stone is -disaggregated.

45
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE

AOL

AV CaC03 (calcium carbonate)

Figure 10.

0---W
)a--
0 H2 CO3 (carbonic acid)

Figure 11.

At the same time the opposite also takes place ; that is, new
continents are formed . When carbonic anhydride and water are
eliminated from bicarbonate of calcium (that is to say, when
carbonic acid is eliminated), it is transformed into calcium
carbonate . This, being insoluble, brings about the formation of
calcareous structures like stalactites, stalagmites, madrepores,
and corals and thus the formation of atolls (figs . 11 and 12) .
This is the great drama of nature, thanks to which
mountains are decomposed and new lands formed . This is
how water dissolves and continuously creates .
The chemical reactions which play their role in the process
of degradation of calcareous rocks are, therefore, the following:
H2O + CO 2 -~ H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
H2CO3 + CaCO 3 -* Ca(HCO3)2 (calcium bicarbonate)

46
 CARBON IN NATURE

oAW,
I-W
AW- DOE
0 Ca(HCO 3 )2 (calcium bicarbonate)

Figure 12 .

The chemical reactions that play a role in the process

whereby calcareous structures are formed are, then, the
following:
Ca(HCO3)2 -a CO 2 + H 2O + CaCO3
The carbonic anhydride is dispersed into the air during this
process . Although the processes of these two cycles (of
degradation and formation) do not have any reciprocal
relation with each other, the two chemical reactions (of
decomposition and composition) which bring about this
unceasing and dramatic "cycle of rocks" may be summarized
in the single reversible reaction that follows :
H2CO3 + CaCO 3 -* Ca(HCO3)2
It is interesting to be present at what happens among all
these elements which one could consider as the keys that
command the intimate movements of nature . If these ideas
are brought forward in this simple fashion, he becomes pas-
sionately interested to see what happens . And once he has
become acquainted with the substances, it becomes easy for
him to represent them by means of simple symbols .
47
 9

A Few Ideas of Inorganic

Chemistry

The point of view from which we present to the children these

sciences in their embryonic state must be well understood .
Our presentation must be sensorial and imaginative, given by
means of clear visual symbols which permit details to be
determined .
We are trying to arouse the child's interest . Should we fail
to arouse it immediately, we . must still trust the same
principle while we make our presentations in a specific
environment and await the reaction . If the enthusiasm is not
shown we do not delay but pass on . If the enthusiasm is
shown we have apparently opened a door . We are at the
beginning of a long road,, along ; which we will travel with the
child . But what we would, most' like to recommend is not to
begin too late . Thus, the .presentation of chemistry may be
made at nine years of :age .' The interest may even manifest
itself sooner .
A question that always ex is in our adult minds is whether
these problems, which-already seem to us to be so difficult,
will be well understood by `the child . "Will he understand
molecules, the atom? Will-he understand the formulas?" It
seems impossible to usAhdt'_he will follow the study of atomic
theory. But it is not a science we want to bring to him at this
time. It is nothing else -than a germ capable of arousing
interest and which wilL :develop later. We recommend above
all not to give too many explanations but rather to give
precise names . Here is an anecdote to illustrate this advice : A
child asks his father why the leaves are green . Happy to seize

48
 A FEW IDEAS OF INORGANIC CHENIISTRY
the opportunity, the father launches into explanations of
chlorophyll, the air, light, seeming . never to finish . The child
listens politely but thinks: "What a shame to have provoked
all that!"
As for the question of the molecule and the atom, we can
explain it thus : Let us hunt for the smallest part of
something . For example, let us divide a geometrical figure in
other, always smaller figures until we can go no further . The
atom is the part of an element that cannot be divided further .
Here is another comparison : "For humanity, the atom is man .
If a man be subdivided he is no longer a man ." Going from
this example we can say : man and woman are two atoms of
humanity. A man and a woman together form a molecule .
Which is to say that a molecule is composed of at least two
parts .
The children, moreover, will not pose these questions
because it is the symbolic representations that interest them .
What pleases the children about water is that the oxygens
and hydrogens wish to remain united and that they seek each
other as though driven by a mutual liking for each other . In
the same way, carbon unites itself with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide .
Hydrogen has only one possibility of uniting, oxygen has
two, et cetera. Thus, whether it has 1, 2, 3, or 4 arms, each
must seize another element . If the atoms were alone they
would unite among themselves so as to be always satisfied .
But instead of speaking about "arms," we can now say that
the elements have a value of 1, 2, 3, or 4 and that the value is
called "valence ." Now we say that hydrogen has a valence of 1,
that oxygen has a valence of 2, et cetera .
We must have the courage to give as many names as
possible. The more difficult the names are, the more
attractive they are to the child . And then one may say that
hydrogen is univalent, that oxygen is bivalent, et cetera . It is
easier to express this concept this way than to speak of 1, 2,
or 3 arms .
For all that, it is not in proportion to their valences alone
that elements unite . They must also have an affinity which
causes them to seek one another . They could be said to have
an instinct that pushes them to seek out one rather than

49
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
another . The secret is in the choice and not in the valences .
For this reason we cannot play with elements . The symbols
show which substances are present and how a compound is
formed . In this way we are brought to write the formula .
When all the valences are saturated, satisfied, the com-
pound is stable .
Two elements cannot unite unless there is affinity . Thus,
oxygen and nitrogen-both of which have been present in the
atmosphere for centuries and centuries-have not united . It is
as though there were present in the atoms an interior force
that gives them the possibility of choice. The union cor-
responds to the power of the valences, which is to say that the
characteristics are proper to the atoms themselves . They are
driven to choose, to form a stable compound that will be a new
substance.
Rock is formed of oxygen, carbon, and calcium . And yet
neither marble nor alabaster is oxygen, which is a gas, or
carbon, or calcium. It is another material, a new creation, a
rock.
All of creation-water, rock-derives from the atoms which
seek each other out, unite to each other, and, together, lead to
a new creation . It is always the same elements that the atoms
seek: the same and not others . The limits are ruled by laws .
All the details of creation constitute a marvel which we must
not fail to bring to the children's attention .
To this creation, through visual representations of form and
colour, with the letters of the alphabet or with musical notes,
we bring forward the idea of stability. By the help of
experiments we are able to be present at the creation of a
substance, as we have seen with the coal . This is something
absolutely sensorial which arouses the child's interest . There
is no need, at present, to penetrate further into the study of
inorganic chemistry, to which the study of all mineral
compounds belongs .

50
 10

A Few Ideas of Organic Chemistry

We can even bring the child some notions of organic

chemistry . This is thought today-but this is a mistake-to be
more difficult, so much so that it is not taught before the
student's entry into the university . But if some formulas of
organic chemistry are presented in visual form, why should
they be more difficult than the others?

AWN

a Figure 13 .
C2H402 (acetic acid)

What, then, is so complicated about this formula, which is

that of acetic acid? We can now illustrate also that of butyric
acid, which differs from the preceding only in that it has two
more carbon brothers*. We then proceed to illustrate palmitic

* Instead of the formula C 2H402 of acetic acid, the rational

version CH3-COOH is to be preferred as it brings out the functional
carbosilic group COOH, which characterized saturated nonbasic
fatty acids .
So, instead of the formula of butyric (or butanoic) acid C 4H802, we

51
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE

Q Q Q ft
c 4O4 _
C4H8O2 (butanoic acid
Figure 14 .

444444444444444 .
666666666666666
C16H3202 (palmitic acid)
Figure 15 .
acid, which has a long chain of carbon atoms . The OH group is
called a "hydroxyl ."
We note that carbon, which enters into these organic
compounds, is, in a way, the vertebral column and that what
revolves around it is simply water . That is all. With the same
elements-hydrogen, oxygen, carbon-a number of different
combinations may be made .
It is as though a gown were embroidered with different
coloured threads. What is responsible for the variety is the
ingenuity of the embroiderer . It is less a question of the
valences-that is, the stitch of the embroidery-than of the
ingenuity, the power, which is to say the work of life . What we
note here is the fact that it is not the interior of the atoms but
rather a force external to them that holds them together in a
certain way . It is not the chemical affinity but life that holds
may use CA-000H or, still better, CH3-(CH2)2-COOH . Those
formulae render - evident the functional group made up of the
methylic radical CH2, which is intermediately repeated .
As far as palmitic acid is concerned, instead of the formula
C16H3202, the rational C15H31-000H or, as already mentioned, still
better CH3-(CH2)14-COON, are preferable .-TR.

52
 A FEW IDEAS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
them together. Perhaps this concept is difficult, not the
formula . The molecules can be very large, so that each
molecule may have three hundred or more atoms .
It is necessary to remember that the stability of compounds
formed, as a family through the centuries, is a particularity of
inorganic chemistry . The particularity of organic chemistry,
on the other hand, is the instability of the compounds formed .
That is to say, these substances are formed by groups of
atoms held together by an exterior force so that the atoms are
interchangeable but the type of compound persists .
There are other slightly more complicated formulas in
which the atoms of carbon are not present as brothers holding
hands . We find carbon and the hydroxyls but we also find a
novelty: some atoms of oxygen slip in, as, for example, in this
formula for starch :

o-~-All~

C6H 10O5 (starch)

Figure 16.

53
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
and in this one for glucose :

C6H 1206 (glucose)

Figure 17 .

Here we have a schematic diagram which may be used as

an example of correlation . It is a tree with its root, trunk,
branches, and leaves .

54
 A FEW IDEAS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
The action of which we have already spoken takes place in
all its parts . The tree, in fact, takes its nourishment from the
ground through its roots . Chemistry permits us to discover
that the roots of the tree absorb nutritive substances, of which
water and nitrogen are the two main ones . But the nitrogen,
in order to constitute a nutritive substance, must be found in
a special chemical composition . This poses an essential
problem. What is it that furnishes the nitrogen which the
plants require continually and which they absorb? What or
who replaces this nitrogen in the ground? Nothing in nature
may be touched upon without this problem arising .
All living beings need something or someone to help them
to live. And here rises before us the problem of the secret of
nature, so important in education .
The organic substances that are no longer alive fall to the
ground. If the organic substances are no longer alive, the force
that kept the atoms together as large molecules no longer exists .
So the molecules break up, the atoms detach and follow their
instincts : carbon takes two oxygens away with it, et cetera .
In this way the organic compounds becomes inorganic, with
the help of infinitely small beings . Very little remains of the
living beings : a little carbon dioxide, a little ammonia, and a
little water. The organic substances disappear . All this work
of disintegration takes place in the ground .
One day in Rome I was present at the exhumation of the
remains in a paupers' cemetery, an operation which takes
place every ten years in order to reclaim space . I saw the
workers dig without finding more than the occasional bit of
debris . They were digging in beautiful black, clean soil, a
good, healthy, odourless soil .
Plants absorb these nitrified organic substances from the
earth through the roots . Ammonia remains behind. The
plants cannot absorb it in this form . It is necessary, then, for
the compounds of nitrogen and hydrogen to change to
compounds having oxygen. This is very difficult to reproduce
in chemistry laboratories . But in nature, microbes in the
ground devote themselves to this task continually . From this
work arise the nitrites and nitrates which the plants can
absorb . Without the microbes this passage from death to life
would not exist. When all the organic substances have

55
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
disappeared, carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen remain . The
nitrogen is changed and the plants may then absorb it .
Green leaves are found at the other end of the tree . The
substance responsible for their colour is chlorophyll . The role
of chlorophyll is to absorb carbon dioxide-a poison con-
tinually emitted by all animals and even by the earth-from
the air and to decompose it: to retain the carbon and to allow
the oxygen to escape . The tree thus becomes a veritable
storehouse of carbon . We know this is so because we use wood
to obtain warmth . We also know that tree fossils constitute
storehouses of carbon . This is why leaves are necessary for
the absorption of carbon and the purification of the air .
But chlorophyll all alone would not be able to complete this
task . Collaboration is necessary in the form of the sun's rays .
Even the tree would not be able to accomplish its great task alone
if it were not for the other force independent of it=solar energy .
The tree then is a link, on the one hand to invisible
microbes, and on the other hand to the sun . Many good and
beautiful things owe their existence to the contact with
microbes : flowers and fruits . . . How generous the tree is!
How hard it works! It prepares carbon . It purifies the air . It
gives us fruit . It gives us flowers . All the plants cause this
thought to arise . Even plants more modest than the tree
devote themselves to this useful task and as veritable
industrialists they prepare nutritive substances . We mention
potatoes, wheat, starch, beets, sugarcane, et cetera.
That is the nature of creation .
We see that the plants devote themselves to the tasks
proper to them just as do the corals that construct a
continent. They are workers who draw their nourishment and
seek the best conditions of life . That is the cycle of life, as we
have seen the cycle of rock . All living beings are destined to
contribute to the well-being of other living beings . It is
difficult to establish a parallel between the phenomena of
nature and those of human life . But a parallel does exist, and
principally because men, as a group, must have a great task
in creation, although on a level considerably higher than that
of nature . Each man works for other men . Industry and
commerce may be considered as an active relationship
comparable to those found in nature . Could we not restudy
the history, of humanity from this new point of view?

56
 A FEW IDEAS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

If we examine nature and the supernature constructed by

man side by side, all that belongs to the former elucidates
what happens in the latter.
The difference between the constitution of vegetable cells
and animal cells may be noted .
Plant cells are rectangular, or, better, prismatic. Their
membranes are thick, strong, and only slightly permeable .
They give an impression of the strength of vegetables and the
power of their defence . Also, as they grow they spread in all
directions . They are characterized by branching . Their roots
fix themselves in the ground to hold them secure . They absorb
the sun's rays, particularly through the leaves . The plant is
beautiful and clean . It sports many colours and scents . Its
roots transform ugliness into beauty .
Animals begin their cycle as spheroid cells the membrane of
which, being very fine, very light, seems to be in continual
danger . Timid of aspect, they limit themselves, unlike the
plant cells, and do not invade the space without . As they grow
they fold back over themselves in one, two, or more layers . The
complexity of their functions is always found on the inside . In
addition, the animal is unable to obtain the substances for his
nourishment without moving about to procure them .
Which of the two has superior characteristics? The animals
are considered to be on a higher level of nature, and yet we
usually consider the characteristics of the plants superior .
The animals give the impression of being humble, without
defence, always moving, buffeted here and there . And yet we
say that the animal is superior for that very reason . We call it
"animal" because there is something within it that guides it
and makes it move . In continual danger, it must always hunt
its own nourishment . It depends on the vegetable world, be it
for food or for the purification of the air it breathes . It never
has the purity of the vegetable, which is always clean . It could
be thought that the animal is always in battle against the
vegetable world, and yet the two forms are necessary to each
other and give mutual assistance to each other .
Interest now begins to mount with regard to human
ehaviour. Nature reveals that he who is truly a superior and
strong being is he who, in spite of weakness, always gains the
pper hand .

57
 Conclusion

All of what we have just suggested is, in reality, only an

example for the application ofthe method. But we would like to
help the child to reach loftier conceptions . What must first be
understood is our aim, which is to follow as nearly as possible,
as all-inclusively as possible, the needs of growth and of life .
We have touched on several cycles,' as, for example, that of
calcium carbonate . But all is interrelated . And what is
interesting is to be able to orient ourselves among these
correlations . To present detached notions is to bring confu-
sion . We need to determine the bonds that exist between
them . When the correlation among the notions, by now linked
one to the other, has been established, the details may be
found to tie together among themselves . The mind, then, is
satisfied and the desire to go on with research is born .
Then, by determining the correlation between things with
the child, and thereby obeying an essential impulse of the
human mind, we create a philosophy for him . And why may
not the child philosophize?
Since the human mind is mathematical and philosophical,
we try, in reasonable proportions, to turn it toward mathe-
matics and philosophy .
Here is an essential principle of education : to teach details
is to bring confusion ; to establish the relationship between
things is to bring knowledge .*

* For father reading : Dr . Maria Montessori's The Montessori

Elementary Material (New York: Schocken Books, 1973) and To
Educate the Human Potential (Madras, India: Kalakshetra Publica-
tions, 1967) .

58
 Appendix A

"Erdkinder"

General considerations
The need that is so keenly felt for a reform of secondary
schools concerns not only an educational, but also a human
and social problem . This can be summed up in one sentence :
Schools as they are today, are adapted neither to the needs of
adolescence nor to the times in which we live . Society has not
only developed into a state of utmost complication and
extreme contrasts, but it has now come to a crisis in which
the peace of the world and civilization itself are threatened .
The crisis is certainly connected with the immense progress
that has been made in science and its practical applications,
but it has not been caused by them . More than to anything
else it is due to the fact that the development of man himself
has not kept pace with that of his external environment .
While material progress has been extremely rapid and
social life has been completely transformed, the schools have
remained in a kind of arrested development, organized in a
way that cannot have been well suited even to the needs of
the past, but that today is actually in contrast with human
progress . The reform of the secondary school may not solve all
the problems of our times, but it is certainly a necessary step,
and a practical, though limited, contribution to an urgently
needed reconstruction of society . Everything that concerns
education assumes today an importance of a general kind,
and must represent a protection and a practical aid to the
development of man; that is to say, it must aim at improving
the individual in order to improve society .
* Land-children.
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
But, above all it is the education of adolescents that is
important, because adolescence is the time when the child
enters on the state of manhood and becomes a member of
society . If puberty is on the physical sidee a transition from an
infantile to an adult state, there is also, on the psychological
side, a transition from the child who has to live in a family, to
the man who has to live in society . These two needs of the
adolescent : for protection during the time of the difficult
physical transition, and for an understanding of the society
which he is about to enter to play his part as a man, give rise
to two problems that are of equal importance concerning
education at this age .
If we must specify which of the social circumstances of our
time has the greatest effect on the problems that we are
considering, we should say that it is the fact that the future
seems insecure and full of unknown facts. The material world
is in the process of rapid evolution and contains the dangers
and uncertainties of a new adjustment . We have lost that
"security"' which we had in the past; we need only think of the
differences between the times when crafts were handed on
peacefully from father to son, and the confusion of sudden,
unexpected demands that causes the necessity for "vocational
guidance" and re-training . Equally in the field of manual
work, as in the intellectual professions (although somewhat
later there), that certainty of a good post is lost, which should
be the reward of completed studies and a special training .
Such an assured future can no longer be provided for the
young people by the family as it used to be in the past . The
state, at present, is no longer certain, of ensuring the future
employment of those citizens destined to superior professions
in the same way as it did in the past, by providing unilateral,
exclusive, schools with specialized training . Nowadays it must
foresee new difficulties arising from the insecurity of modern
conditions. The world is partly in a state of disintegration and
partly in a state of reconstruction . It is the alternation of
progress and regression that produces this characteristic
instability . The world is like a piece of land that is going
through the vicissitudes of a settlement of the soil .
Such being the condition of society, we ought to remember
that there is one thing that education can take as a sure

60
 APPENDIX A
guide, and that is the personality of the children who are to be
educated .
It is necessary that the human personality should be
prepared for the unforeseen, not only for the conditions that
can be anticipated by prudence and foresight. Nor should it be
strictly conditioned by one rigid specialization, but should
develop at the same time the power of adapting itself quickly
and easily . In this fierce battle of civil life a man must have a
strong character and quick wits as well as courage ; he must
be strengthened in his principles by moral training and he
must also have practical ability in order to face the difficulties
of life. Adaptability-this is the most essential quality ; for the
progress of the world is continually opening new careers, and
at the same time closing or revolutionizing the traditional
types of employment.
This does not mean that in secondary schools there should
be no preparation for the intellectual professions, and still
less that "culture" should be neglected. On the contrary,
education must be very wide and very thorough, and not only
in the case of the professional intellectuals, but for all men
who are living at a time that is characterized by the progress
of science and its technical applications . Now, even labourers
need education . They must understand the complex problems
of our times, otherwise they are just a pair of hands acting
without seeing what relation their work has in the pattern of
society. Such as they are today, they may be said to have no
head . Meanwhile, the intellectuals of today are all cripples as
long as their hands remain useless . Their spirit will dry up if
the grandeur of the practical reality of our days is completely
shut away from them, as if it did not exist . Men with hands
and no head, and men with head and no hands are equally
out of place in the modern community.
The problem of reforming the secondary schools will not be
solved by cutting down "culture," nor by losing sight of the
necessity of training for the intellectual professions . But it is
essential that this training should not turn out men who have
been lulled to sleep by a false sense of security, who are
incapable of confronting the unforeseen difficulties of real life,
and who are totally ignorant of conditions in the world in
which they are destined to live . Not long ago outdoor sports

61
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
were introduced in order to provide physical exercise for the
young people who were leading shut-in, sedentary lives ; so,
today, there is a need for a more dynamic training of
character and the development of a clearer consciousness of
social reality.
The secondary schools as they are at present constituted do
not concern themselves with anything but the preparation for
a career, as if the social conditions of the time were still
peaceful and secure. They do not take any special care for the
personality of the children, nor do they give all the special
physical attention that is necessary during the period of
adolescence. Thus not only do they not correspond to the
social conditions of our day, but they fail to protect the
principal energy on which the future depends: human energy,
the power of individual personality. Young people in the
secondary schools are compelled to study as a "duty" or a
"necessity ." They are not working with interest nor any
definite aims that could be immediately fulfilled and would
give them satisfaction and a renewed interest in continuous
effort. They are directed by an external and illogical
compulsion, and all their best individual energy is wasted .
Adolescents and young people almost right up to maturity are
treated like babies in the elementary schools . At fourteen or
sixteen they are still subjected to the petty threat of "bad
marks" with which the teachers weigh up the work of boys
and girls by a method that is just like that of measuring the
material weight of lifeless objects with the mechanical aid of a
balance . The work is "measured" like inanimate matter, not
"judged" as a product of life .
And on these marks the future of the student depends . So
study becomes a heavy and crushing load that burdens the
young life instead of being felt as the privilege of initiation to
the knowledge that is the pride of our civilization . The young
people, the men of the future, are formed into a mould of
narrowness, artificiality and egotism . What a wretched life of
endless penance, of futile renunciation of their dearest
aspirations!
Another remark to be made of the secondary schools as they
are at present constituted is that they hinder the physical
development of the adolescents . The period of life in which

62
 APPENDIX A
physical maturity is attained is a delicate and difficult time,
because of the rapid development and change which the
organism must go through . The human organism becomes so
delicate that doctors consider this time to be comparable to
the period of birth and rapid growth in the first years
thereafter . There exists a particular predisposition to certain
diseases and certain forms of weakness, that are collectively
referred to as "adolescent complaints ." The predisposition to
tuberculosis is a special danger during the transition from
childhood to the adult stage.
From the psychological viewpoint also this is a critical age.
There are doubts and hesitations, violent emotions, dis-
couragement and an unexpected decrease of intellectual
capacity . The difficulty of studying with concentration is not
due to a lack of willingness, but is really a psychological
characteristic of the age . The assimilative and memorizing
powers of the intellect that give young children such an
interest in details and in material objects seem to change
their nature. The chief symptom of adolescence is a state of
expectation, a tendency towards creative work and a need for
the strengthening of self-confidence. Suddenly the child
becomes very sensitive to the rudeness and humiliations that
he had previously suffered with patient indifference . These
reactions, bitter rebellious feelings, sometimes give rise to
characters that are morally abnormal ; while this is the time,
the "sensitive period" when there should develop the most
noble characteristics that would prepare a man to be social,
that is to say, a sense of justice and a sense of personal
dignity. It is just because this is the time when the social man
is created, but has not yet reached fu l development, that in
this epoch practically every defect in adjustment to social life
originates . These defects may have very dangerous results,
either for the future of the individual (timidity, anxiety,
depression, inferiority complex), or for society (incapacity to
work, laziness, dependence on others, or cynicism and
criminality) . And all these dangers that spring from the very
nature of man become still more serious at a time when social
life is so disturbed and uncertain as it is at present.
There are therefore two different groups of difficulties that
must be considered:
63
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
1 Those concerning the present form of society .
2 Those concerning the vital needs of the adolescent.
Life must not remain an "unknown quantity" so that the
eventual orphan feels lost, or the immigrant has to seek his
safety in the exercise of his one special capacity, in despair
when its application may be impossible . For success in life
depends in every case on self-confidence and the knowledge of
one's own capacity and many-sided powers of adaption . The
consciousness of knowing how to make oneself useful, how
to help mankind in many ways, fills the soul with noble
confidence, with almost religious dignity . The feeling of
independence must be bound to the power to be self-sufficient,
not a vague form of liberty deducted from the help afforded by
the gratuitous benevolence of others . There are two "faiths"
that can uphold man : faith in God and faith in himself. And
these two faiths should exist side by side : the first belongs to
the inner life of man, the second to his life in society .

Reforms that are in relation with the social life of

today
The essential reform is this : to put the adolescent on the road
to achieving economic independence . We might call it a
"school of experience in the elements of social life ."
This "independence" has more educational than practical
value ; that is to say, it has a closer connection with the
psychology of the adolescent than with an eventual actual
utility . So, even if a boy were so rich that his economic
security seemed above all the vicissitudes of life he would still
derive great personal benefit from being initiated in economic
independence . For this would result in a "valorization" of his
personality, in making him feel himself capable of succeeding
in life by his own efforts and on his own merits, and at the
same time it would put him in direct contact with the
supreme reality of social life . We speak therefore of letting
him earn money by his own work . If we believe that receiving
alms is beneath the dignity of a man, and in our modern
institutions we give the beggar the chance of earning what he
receives, why should the same principle not be applied to the
young people who are receiving the benefit of education .

64
 APPENDIX A
But the word "work" must have a particular interpretation
in this case. The expression "work for wages" at once suggests
a trade and implies technical training and competition . This
work should, instead, be an exercise of "utilized virtues," of
"super-values" and skills acquired beyond the limits of one's
own particular specialization, past or future .
This conception of work implies a general principle that
holds the work itself to be of greater importance than the kind
of work . All work is noble, the only ignoble thing is to live
without working . There is a need to realize the value of work
in all its forms, whether manual or intellectual, to be called
"mate," to have a sympathetic understanding of all forms of
activity. Education should therefore include the two forms of
work, manual and intellectual, for the same person, and thus
make it understood by practical experience that these two
kinds complete each other and are equally essential to a
civilized existence .
This directly educative conception differs from a somewhat
analogous practice that has existed for a long time in modern
American schools, both secondary schools and universities,
that is called "self-help ." This began with the work of a
woman, Mary Lyons, in 1837 and has the exclusively practical
purpose of making it possible for poor students of good will
who want to be taught to earn with their own work the fees
for their tuition, instead of having to depend on scholarships
which are necessarily limited in number . This practical plan,
which enables a larger number of intelligent people to have
the benefit of advanced education, has been put into operation
by the schools themselves and makes a direct contributon to
the benefit of youth . That is to say, the school itself obtains,
allocates, supervises, and safeguards the work done as self-
help . This work is found either within the school itself, which
is easy where the school is residential, or else outside the
school, but in some of the occupations that are connected with
school organization . This plan has developed very greatly in
the schools of the United States ; it is an experiment that has
been crowned with success .
Self-help has shown two things :
1 that it has great moral value because it "rouses the
conscience from the inertia" in which it is generally found

65
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
among young people who are being passively maintained by
their families, and it teaches in a practical way the value of
time and of their own powers.
2 that the work does not hinder study, but even makes it
possible to study better; in fact the students who are obliged
to resort to self-help are generally those who turn out the best
and most successful scholars.
We can therefore cite the success of this experiment in
support of our assertion that productive work and a wage that
gives economic independence, or rather constitutes a first real
attempt to achieve economic independence, could be made
with advantage a general principle of social education for
adolescents and young people.
If we consider the plan from the point of view of our own
method it can be regarded as a development of that principle
that has already had such great success in our schools for
smaller children right down to the nursery class, known as the
"exercises of practical life ." The children of three years of age in
the "Children's Houses" learn and carry out such work as
sweeping, dusting, making things tidy, setting the table for
meals, waiting at table, washing the dishes, etc ., and at the
same time they learn to attend to their own personal needs, to
wash themselves, to take showers, to comb their hair, to take a
bath, to dress and undress themselves, to hang up their clothes
in the wardrobe, or to put them in drawers, to polish their
shoes . These exercises are part of the method of education, and
do not depend on the social position of the pupils ; even in the
"Children's Houses" attended by rich children who are given
every kind of assistance at home, and who are accustomed to
being surrounded by a crowd of servants, take part in the
exercises of practical life . This has a truly educational, not
utilitarian purpose . The reaction of the children may be
described as a "burst of independence" of all unnecessary
assistance that suppresses their activity and prevents them
from demonstrating their own capacities. It is just - these
"independent" children of ours who learn to write at the age of
four and a half years, who learn to read spontaneously, and
who amaze everyone by their progress in arithmetic .
These children seem to be precocious in their intellectual
development and they demonstrate that while working harder
66
 APPENDIX A
than other children they do so without tiring themselves .
These very children reveal to us the most vital need of their
development, saying : "Help me to do it alone!"
Independence, in the case of the adolescents, has to be
acquired on a different plane, for theirs is the economic
independence in the field of society. Here, too, the principle of
"Help me to do it alone!" ought to be applied .
This is not absolute independence . It is very like the state
of the man who, feeling himself dependent on God, must still
try to act, saying as if in a prayer for his own human
weakness : "Help me to do it alone!"

Reforms relating to the vital needs of adolescence

The essential reform of our plan from this point of view may
be defined as follows : during the difficult time of adolescence
it is helpful to leave the accustomed environment of the
family in the town and go to quiet surroundings in the
country, close to nature. Here, an open-air life, individual
care, and a non-toxic diet, must be the first considerations in
organizing a "centre for study and work ."
This theory is based on a plan that has been experimentally
adopted all over the world, the custom of having boarding
schools (secondary schools for adolescents) situated in places
far from the large cities, in the country or in small towns .
These boarding schools have sprung up in England in great
numbers and for all classes, even the most privileged (Eton
and Harrow) and the same type is found in the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge. Such institutions were so successful
in England and the United States that, as everyone knows,
towns were built up round the universities that were
previously isolated. This is the case with the majority of the
modern universities in America . The proposal we have put
forward has, therefore, nothing surprising about it, and there
is no need of further experiment to establish the practical
value of this principle . Life in the open air, in the sunshine,
and a diet high in nutritional content coming from the
produce of neighbouring fields improve the physical health,
while the calm surroundings, the silence, the wonders of
nature satisfy the need of the adolescent mind for reflection

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and meditation . Further, in a college, the whole order of the
daily life can be made to suit the demands of study and work,
whereas the routine of family life has first to conform to the
needs of the parents .
But our plan is not simply a reproduction of the ordinary
boarding school in the country or small town . For it is not the
country itself that is so valuable, but work in the country,
and work generally, with its wide social connotations of
productiveness and earning power . The observation of nature
has not only a side that is philosophical and scientific, it has
also a side of social experiences that leads on to the
observations of civilization and the life of men .
By work in the country we do not mean that the students
should be obliged to work like agricultural labourers . The
intensive methods of modern agriculture produce wonders as
great as nature itself. The improvement on nature produced
not by labour alone, but by the inventiveness of man with the
help of the sciences, appears to be a kind of "supercreation"
due to the labour of civilization . The first stage of civilization
is just that of the transformation of nature to a higher level of
beauty and usefulness in her products, and of an apparently
miraculous use of the secrets of nature . This is truly a "supra-
nature" devised by man. This supra-nature includes the great
scientific progress in biology and in chemistry, and a
consecutive progress of succeeding generations that makes
one wonder at the greatness of man as well as the greatness
of God .
Therefore work on the land is an introduction both to
nature and to civilization and gives a limitless field for
scientific and historic studies . If the produce can be used
commercially this brings in the fundamental mechanism of
society, that of production and exchange, on which economic
life is based . This means that there is an opportunity to learn
both academically and through actual experience what are
the elements of social life.
We have called these children the "Erdkinder" because they
are learning about civilization through its origin in agricul-
ture . They are the "land-children ." They are learning of the
beginning of civilization that occurred when the tribes settled
on the land and began a life of peace and progress while the

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 APPENDIX A
nomads remained barbarians and warriors . An immense
ideal : that of civilization that unfolds in the environment of
nature ought to uplift the kind of life to be led by these
"novices of society." Just as nature is brought by the labour of
man to a higher degree of beauty and usefulness, so man
must raise himself to a state that is higher than his natural
state, and the land-child must see that society is in a state of
ascent from nature in which he, as a civilized and religious
man must play his part .
The school where the children live, or rather their country
homes, can also give them the opportunity for social
experience, for it is an institution organized on a larger scale
and with greater freedom than the family . This organization
could take the form of a private hotel as far as the
management and control are concerned . In some ways it could
be regarded as a real hotel, or the "land-children's hostel ." By
taking part in the administration the young people could gain
experience of hotel-keeping in all its various branches, of
organizing for comfort and order and the least effort in
maintenance, of countless other responsibilities and of the
financial side. Indeed, if little children are capable of keeping
the house clean and tidy, of waiting at table, of washing
dishes, of taking care of small pottery, etc ., the adolescents
can easily learn to run a hotel ; a career which nowadays has
special schools of instruction . The hotel-keeping can also be
extended from their own hostel to other simple "hotels" where
the relations of the student could come to stay for a few days
to find out how their children are living . By choosing this
place to spend a short and pleasant holiday, parents and
others could make a contribution towards the economic
support of the institution .
The hotel run on modem lines, with artistic simplicity and
with gaiety and free from artificial constraint, should provide
an interesting and pleasant form of occupation, and an
opportunity for developing good taste and efficiency in
domestic matters.
Finally, we should like to suggest another institution which
might become of great importance, and that is the shop . A
shop or store could be established in the nearest big town, and
here the land-children could easily bring and sell the produce

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of their fields and garden and other things that they had
made . Eventually they might also collect and bring things
made by other people who are poor and know some craft and
can produce pretty or useful objects of which they could not
dispose commercially in the usual way . This would be real
social work and would encourage those small village indus-
tries that are being lost today through the prevalence of
machinery and mass production . This trade could have a
special effect in preserving something of a past age when
personality could be expressed in the construction of the
simplest objects .
The shop itself could be regarded as a revival of the
medieval exchange that was a general meeting place and
social centre, beautifully decorated and blessed and con-
secrated by religion, and where buying and selling were
conducted with scrupulous honesty. This was also a place
where the small tradesman could make those individual
bargains that are also the beginnings of acquaintance and the
foundation of friendship and social life . In times gone by, the
churches themselves were places of business, and so were the
streets, where the scanty traffic left enough space for goods to
be exposed for sale when only small transactions were made .
Many reminders still exist of the old custom of mixing up
trade with friendship and personal contracts . And this custom
could be re-established by the young people with their
happiness, enthusiasm, and their desire for every kind of
experience .
The shop would also necessitate a genuine study of
commerce and exchange, of the art of ascertaining the
demand and being ready to meet it, of the strict and rigid
rules of bookkeeping . But the thing that is important above
everything else is that the adolescent should have a life of
activity and variety, and that one occupation should act as a
"holiday" from another occupation . The shop would be in
respect to the studies of economics and politics an educational
object, similar to the aquarium or terrarium in the case of the
study of biology .

70
 Appendix B

Study and Work Plans

Plans of studies and work

It is impossible to fix a priori a detailed programme for
study and work. We can only give the general plan . This is
because a programme should only be drawn up gradually
under the guidance of experience .
Study need not be restricted by the curricula of existing
secondary schools and still less need we make use of their
methods of dealing with the children or instilling culture . We
must say at once that the aim should be to widen education
instead of restricting it . Our reform is one of the distribution
of culture and methods of teaching .
The plan aims above all at "valorization of the personality"
in the present social conditions . It should not be restricted to
consider exclusively the specialized training that will ensure
a well-paid post in the future . It is quite obvious that the
necessity for such specialization exists and must be con-
sidered, but only as a means, as a practical method of
becoming a member of society, not as an end to which must be
sacrificed both the values of the individual and his feeling of
responsibility towards society as a whole .
There are two principles to be considered :
1 That for rest it is not necessary to resort to "holidays,"
which are a waste of time and break the continuity of life .
Holidays or rest are simply a change of occupation and
surroundings, and this can be provided by a variety of
occupations and interests .
2 That study is the response to a need of the intelligence
and if based upon our psychic nature, it does not weary, but
refreshens and strengthens the mind during its development .
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These two principles have been already demonstrated in
the "Children's Houses" where the work and study did not
result in fatigue, but in an increase of energy so marked that
these indefatigable children were found to be working at
home as well as at school . (The hours in the first "Children's
Houses" were from eight in the morning until six in the
evening, yet the children would take away the material from
the school so that they could continue to work at home .) This
should be found all the more among young people, with
immense advantage, both for culture and education . To obtain
such a result it is necessary to keep close to nature to assist it
by responding to the special needs of development that are
experienced at different ages and therefore to consider
separately:
1 The moral and physical care of the pupils ;
2 The syllabus and methods of studies .

Moral and physical care of boys and girls

Moral care here refers to the relation between the children,
the teachers, and the environment . The teachers must have
the greatest respect for the young personality, realizing that
in the soul of the adolescent, great values are hidden, and
that in the minds of these boys and girls there lies all our
hope of future progress and the judgement of ourselves and
our times . The intimate vocation of MAN is the secret of the
adolescent . If social progress is realized through the succes-
sion of the generations, then these children, as they grow up,
will become more highly developed than their adult teachers .
In every boy there can be seen a reflection of the picture of
Jesus in the Temple who amazed the old men with his
wisdom, and who forgot his earthly parents in the realization
of his bond with a Father in Heaven . But the rest of the story
must not be forgotten either: "And he went down with them
and came to Nazareth, and was subject unto them" while he
was preparing for his future mission .
This respect for the children is of the greatest importance
and must be observed in practice . The adolescent must never
be treated as a child, for that is a stage of life that he has
surpassed . It is better to treat an adolescent as if he had

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 APPENDIX B
greater value than he actually shows than as if he had less
and let him feel that his merits and self-respect are
disregarded .
Young people must have enough freedom to allow them to
act on individual initiative . But in order that individual
action should be free and useful at the same time it must be
restricted within certain limits and rules that give the
necessary guidance . These rules and restrictions must be
those of the whole institution, not forced on separate
individuals as though they had no sense of responsibility and
were incapable of conforming of their own free will to
necessary regulations . The rules must be just those that are
necessary and sufficient to maintain order and ensure
progress .
The organization must be determined because it is neces-
sary to develop the power of self-adjustment to the environ-
ment as it is found, and this adaptation results in cooperation
and a happy social life that will facilitate individual progress .
The environment must make the free choice of occupation
easy, and therefore eliminate the waste of time and energy in
following vague and uncertain preferences . From all this the
result will be not only self-discipline but a proof that self-
discipline is an aspect of individual liberty and the chief
factor of success in life .
A very important matter is the fundamental order in the
succession of occupations during the day, and the times for
the "change-over". This should be experimental at first and
develop into an established thing ; necessities will arise and
will have to be dealt with and this will tend to create an
organization. But it is necessary to consider not only the
active occupations but the need for solitude and quiet, which
are essential for the development of the hidden treasures of
the soul.
The physical care must include special attention to the
physiological condition of adolescence . This is a time of crisis
during which all the glands of internal secretion are affected,
and, through them, the whole organism . The body is growing
rapidly but not at a uniform rate, and this results in a
disturbance of functional equilibrium . In the first period the
legs are growing far more quickly than anything else,

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especially the body and chest, and there is consequently a
strain on the heart and lungs that results in palpitations and
diminished pulmonary resistance . Nor has the muscular
strength developed in proportion to the height due to the
increase in the length of the legs . It is possible to divide the
period of physical adolescence roughly into three periods :
1 development of the legs ;
2 development of the body, especially the chest ;
3 development of muscular strength .
As these changes take place in short successive periods of
about two years it is a good thing to watch the growth of the
adolescent, to take anthropometrical measurements and to
examine the heart and lungs periodically even when the boy
or girl appears to be perfectly healthy .
Special attention must be given to the diet . A non-toxic food
rich in vitamins and sugar is suitable for this age. Food
should be plentiful and nourishing, but no meat should be
given, only vegetarian products, including raw vegetables and
especially fruit, accompanied by milk, milk derivates, and
eggs . Home-grown vegetables and fruit that have thoroughly
ripened on the tree are treasures that can be had only by
those who live in the country . The stale vegetables and
artificially ripened fruit that are obtainable in the towns are
far less valuable and do not contain all that is needed .
The poisons of common consumption, alcohol and nicotine,
must be withheld from the adolescent; in their place sweets
may be allowed, for sugar is a very important food, as it is in
the case of small children .
Life in the open air and sunshine, bathing and swimming,
must be made use of to the greatest possible extent, as if in a
sanatorium.
For the time when the body is underdeveloped it is better to
live in flat country where long walks may be taken, either by
the sea or in the woods, rather than in hilly country : not that
it is bad in itself, but there is a danger of straining the heart
by climbing .

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 APPENDIX B
Education : syllabus and methods
The educational syllabus can be drawn up on a general plan
that divides it into three parts :
1 The opening up of ways of expression, which through
exercises and external aids will help the difficult development
of the personality.
2 The fulfilment of those fundamental needs that we believe
to be "formative forces" in the evolution of the soul of man .
3 The theoretical knowledge and practical experience that
will make the individual a part of the civilization of the day
(general education) .

Part one : the opportunities for self-expression

For this purpose there would be all kinds of artistic
occupations open to free choice both as to the time and the
nature of the work. Some must be for the individual and some
would require the cooperation of a group. They would involve
artistic and linguistic ability and imagination, including:
Music : Auditions where the children learn to recognize the
composition, its composer, and the period, as is done in
literary studies . Choral singing. Practice in playing instru-
ments, both solo and in orchestras .
Language: Diction, elocution . Acting of stories or poems .
Practice in making speeches and in logically presenting ideas,
debates, and discussions . Practice in public speaking so as to
be audible and hold the attention of the audience. Open
discussions where they can present their own ideas .
Art : Drawing . Modelling (in plasticine, etc .) either for :
ornamental design, reproduction of nature, creative work of
the imagination . This work is not to be considered as a proper
training in art, but a means of giving expression to individual
aesthetic feeling with special reference to handwork and to
the learning of modern techniques .

Part two : education in relation to psychic development

The "formative" education that will construct firm founda-
tions for the character consists of three subjects : moral
education, mathematics, and languages .
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Moral education is the source of that spiritual equilibrium
on which everything else depends and which may be
compared to the physical equilibrium or sense of balance
without which it is impossible to stand upright or to move
into any other position.
Mathematics are necessary because intelligence today is no
longer natural but mathematical, and without development
and education in mathematics it is impossible to understand
or take any part in the special forms of progress characteristic
of our times . A person without mathematical training today is
like an illiterate in the times when everything depended on
literary culture . But even in the natural state the human
mind has a mathematical bent, tending to be exact, to take
measurements and make comparisons, and to use its limited
powers to discover the nature of the various "effects" that
nature presents to man while she conceals from him the world
of causes. Because of this vital importance of mathematics the
school must use special methods for teaching it and make
clear and comprehensible its elements with the help of plenty
of apparatus that demonstrates the "materialized abstrac-
tions" of mathematics .
Language : The development of language is part of the
development of the personality, for words are the natural
means of expressing thoughts and establishing understanding
between men . In the past one language was enough, but today
it is a social convention that education should include the
ability to read and write correctly in several languages .

Part three: education as the preparation for adult life

General education may be classified in three groups :
1 The study of the earth and of living things, that is
geology, geography (including the prehistoric periods), biology
and cosmology, botany, zoology, physiology, astronomy, com-
parative anatomy.
2 The study of human progress and the building up of
civilization in connection with physics and chemistry,
mechanics, engineering, genetics . The instruction given must
be scientifically correct and must be related to simple
everyday facts so that it can always be tested and confirmed
76
 APPENDIX B
by observation or experiment . From this basis it will become
possible to understand more complicated matters that cannot
be demonstrated in the school . The theory should alternate
with the practical work in order to give it wider application
and make it more interesting.
The school should possess a "museum of machinery ." The
machines must be of suitable size so that the children can
take them down and reassemble them, also use and repair
them. A philosophical reflection arises from this ; that is, that
machines have given man powers far greater than are natural
to him, and that man can only develop as he advances in his
work of developing civilization. The man of "supra-natural"
powers can see, through lenses, things that are minutely
small or remotely distant, and can calculate mathematically,
through a "supra-natural" or artificial development of his
brain, the exact nature of events that are completely
inaccessible and even unimaginable to primitive man . So,
today, man can listen to voices that come from tremendous
distances and can measure the waves that make these
communications possible .
Through machinery man can exert tremendous powers,
almost as fantastic as if he were the hero of a fairy tale .
Through machinery man can travel with an ever-increasing
velocity, he can fly through the air and go beneath the surface
of the ocean . So that civilized man is becoming more and more
"supra-natural" and the social environment progresses cor-
respondingly . If education does not help a man to take part in
this "supra-natural" world he must remain an "extra-social"
being. The "supra-natural" man is the king of the earth, of all
things visible and invisible, he penetrates the secrets of life,
growing new flowers and breeding new animals that are
supercreations, increasing through chemistry the natural
produce of the earth, transforming things as though by
magical powers. These are the proofs of the greatness of
collective humanity: each man may add something to them .
But works of art are the products of the genius of isolated
individuals, gifted with natural powers superior to those of
other men.
These and other similar ideas that will awaken a realiza-
tion of the power of man and the greatness of civilization

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should be presented in a form that will stir genuine emotion,
for feelings of this kind should exist today together with the
feelings of religion and patriotism . For in our times science
has created a new world in which the whole of humanity is
joined together by a universal scientific culture. Thus,
children should learn to use machines habitually as part of
their education .
The machine is like an extra adaptable limb of modem
man; it is the slave of civilization . But beware, for the man of
ill-will may be rendered dangerous by machinery; his
influence may become unlimited as the speed of communica-
tion increases . Therefore a new morality, individual and
social, must be our chief consideration in this new world. This
morality must give us new ideas about good and evil, and the
responsibility towards humanity that individuals incur when
they assume powers so much greater than those with which
they are naturally endowed .
3 The study of the history of mankind . This should be
treated as far as possible as a complete whole, from which
special periods can be chosen for individual study . The
available material should include a library of books on the
subject, geographical atlases, and a history museum contain-
ing pictures, portraits, reproductions of historical documents
and prehistoric objects .
The part of history that is most important during the first
period of adolescence is the history of scientific discoveries
and of geographical explorations. Accounts should be given of
the most important inventions accompanied by pictures of
social life before and after the discovery . This would show how
men have improved through civilization .
Another aspect of history (suitable during the next period)
is that which deals with the effect on humanity of the
geographical environment, of contact between different peoples,
of the intermarriage of races, and the assimilation of special
cultures. The wars and conquests of empires should be
studied in relation to their ideals and moral standards, and
the influence of religion and patriotism on human behaviour
should be observed . These studies should consider that
uplifting of the inner life of humanity towards tendencies that
grow ever less in cruelty and violence and strive to form ever-
wider groups of associated individuals .
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 APPENDIX B
Besides these general reviews of the subject a detailed
study should be made of one period, event, or the life of some
personage who has aroused special interest . This would
involve the consultation and comparison of documents,
chronicles, and portraits until a real understanding of the
subject has been achieved .
In addition, a special study should be made of "The present
day and the nation," including the Constitution, the laws,
their special merits and moral characteristics . This study
should be plentifully illustrated by references to current
literature and visits to places that have an historical
importance.

Practical considerations
The realization of such a far-reaching scheme can be
achieved by slow degrees . Any child who has attended the
elementary school may be admitted, not only the pupils of
special schools . The school is intended for normal children,
but those who are slow or backward, suffering from some
psychological maladjustment (mental barriers, timidity) may
be admitted with the certainty that they will benefit and show
real improvement . Their number should, however, constitute
a feasible fraction of the whole community .
Boys and girls may be accommodated in one hostel : but in
this case its management should be given to a married couple,
house-father and house-mother, who would develop a moral
and protective influence on the conduct of the children .
A large estate, possibly including woods or near to the sea,
would be the most suitable place . A number of teachers
should be allowed to live in the school in return for taking
part in directing the daily work of the institution . Strict
discipline in everything that affects the daily life and the aims
of the school must be enforced on the staff attached to the
school as well as on the students who will then only learn to
adjust themselves to the demands of an ordered environment .
This means that the staff must take the responsibility for
maintaining order until the order of voluntary self-discipline
is established .
There must also be young visiting teachers, men and

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women who come to give lessons . They should have the proper
qualification for teaching in secondary schools, but this does
not mean that they should be free to use their own methods,
for they must agree to adopt special methods and cooperate in
the experiment. Therefore these teachers should be young and
open-minded, ready to take part in a new experiment and
ready to make their own personal contributions . There should
not be too many, rather the minimum number who can
undertake a group of related subjects, which can be subse-
quently separated according to the needs of the school
Besides the teachers of ordinary subjects there must also be
technical instructors . For instance, an instructor for agricul-
ture and gardening, a business manager for the shop and the
hotel, and a handicraft teacher . Other members of the staff
must be specially qualified in practical work, in cooking, or
sewing and mending, and should include an intelligent
handyman capable of giving instruction in various trades
while he helps in the daily work . So that just as the children
in our elementary schools have already learned to fold their
clothes, and to sew, etc ., so here they must learn "to put
things right" when necessary, to adjust a machine or the
engine of a car, to mend a broken window or the catch of a
door . They should also be able to make a path, build a shed,
chop firewood, and so on .
It may be asked : "how are they to earn money?" This cannot
be done directly, and it will always be a difficult matter for
the children to make money during their training . There must
be some adult workers who will start the concern, showing
how the work is done, and allow the children by degrees to do
their share in the organization and accounting as well as in
the actual work . There should be a modern farm or a market-
garden where flowers are grown for sale, and this may be
taken over as a going concern . So also the shop might be
started by a voluntary committee of adults, possibly the
relatives of the children-an analogous organization to those
that are formed for the encouragement of handicrafts . One
grown-up person should take the responsibility for the
organization. But the children can take turns to give real help
in the work, and they will make the place attractive by their
youth and happiness as well a3 by their industry and

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 APPENDIX B
resourcefulness. And so the business would develop little by
little through the cooperation of the parents, the instructors,
and the children themselves .

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 Appendix C

The Functions of the University

Among educational institutions we can clearly distinguish

two categories of schools : one for children and adolescents,
another, the university, which is meant for adults .
If we consider the natural development of the human
individual, the "preparation of the organism" is completed by
the end of the eighteenth year, when the age of adolescence is
over . The law recognizes this physical maturity by allowing
marriage at that age . At twenty-one a person becomes free of
guardianship and is declared to be of age .
Usually the student enters the university after his eighteenth
year and remains there some two or three years after being of
age . The university therefore can be said to be really a school
for adults .
This purely physiological consideration concerning its stu-
dents places the university in a position that is different from
that of all other schools . In its constitution, however, the
university shows no marked change from other schools, it is
but their continuation. The student continues to follow
lessons, to listen to professors, to take examinations, and, as
formerly, the success of his studies depends on the marks he
receives. The only difference is that university students are
not strictly held to say lessons or to do homework, whereas
they have been accustomed to forced work under continuous
control. This means that, as at the university this control is
lifted, the students study less often . Another particular
pointing to the same fact is that university students enjoy
very long vacations . For the rest, they continue, as in the
preceding school years, to be economically dependent upon
their families. It is from the point of view of the family budget

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 APPENDIX C
that the parents watch the success of their studies as shown
by promotion and good marks . The result is that at the
university there are adult men who live under the same
conditions as children, with the difference that their physical
maturity gives rise to problems that often find their solution
in a secret life of immorality.
In the Middle Ages the university bore a stamp of grandeur
and dignity. There were centres of studies such as the famous
University of Bologna, to which students came from the
different countries of Europe and the different Italian states .
The students had a feeling of intellectual responsibility
towards their own nation or state that, in its turn, was proud
to be able to count among the students of the university some
of its citizens . The University of Bologna put upon the walls of
its Aula Magna, richly reproduced in enamel and gold, the
coats of arms of the cities and states represented by its
different students.
The students took part in philosophical and political discus-
sions that encouraged them to realize their own values and
moral responsibility. The great learning and renown of the
professors-their ermine cloaks, the solemn functions-were
a permanent proof of the special dignity of those centres . At
these universities there were no examinations except the
academic one that conferred the degree . The students pursued
their studies with intensity, urged to acquire the treasures of
knowledge, and hoarded their years of study, taking full
advantage of every hour . The festivals at the universities,
which bore the stamp of art, were public events .
The universities were then, in reality, the "centres of
culture" from which civilization was transmitted all over the
world, the students becoming its propagators .
But today universities are not the only centres from which
culture emanates . Today civilization and culture are spread
everywhere by other means, which become always more
extensive and easy. Culture expands through the press and
other rapid communications that bring about a universal
levelling.
So, the universities have gradually become ordinary profes-
sional schools, distinguishing themselves from other schools
only by their more advanced culture . But they have lost the

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dignity and distinction that made them a central instrument
of progress and civilization . Students whose aim is merely to
reach a simple and obscure personal position can no longer
feel that lofty mission towards an ever-greater progress of
humanity that once formed the "spirit of the university ." The
common object of the students has become that of evading
work as much as possible . Their principal aim is almost
exclusively that of passing examinations anyhow and of
taking the degree that will serve their individual interest . So,
while there has been a progress in culture so great as to
transform civil life, the universities themselves have suffered
a decline . The real centres of progress today are the
laboratories of scientific research, open to a very limited
number and far removed from the level of common culture .
Schools today are generally felt to be in decline not because
the culture given is inferior, but because the schools no longer
correspond in their organization to the needs of the present
time and stay below the level achieved by civilization. The
latter, today, has so changed its material bases that it is
really the beginning of a new civilization, while the life of
man has not yet found its adaptation to the new conditions .
This is what renders so critical the present period of human
history. The problems of a reform of education today lie in
finding the means to render possible the new adaptation
which is needed.
Education should not limit itself to seeking new methods
for a mostly arid transmission of knowledge : its aim must be
to give the necessary aid to human development. This world,
marvellous in its power, needs a "new man ." It is therefore
the life of man and his values that must be considered . If "the
formation of man" becomes the basis of education, then the
coordination of all schools from infancy to maturity, from
nursery to university, arises as a first necessity : for man is a
unity, an individuality that passes through interdependent
phases of development . Each preceding phase prepares the
one that follows, forms its base, nurtures the energies that
urge towards the succeeding period of life .
The lack of coordination between the successive stages of
education is resented as an obstacle in the schools even as
they are today .

84
 APPENDIX C
Universities have their own scheme of studies; they find
however that the pupils of secondary schools are not
sufficiently prepared to follow it . Secondary schools find
themselves in the same situation in regard to the pupils
coming from elementary schools, and so they all feel the
burden of an unprepared individuality.
This is the case in the field of culture . But if the aim of
education becomes that of achieving the development of the
human personality rather than the narrower one of providing
culture only, then a close coordination embracing all periods
of life becomes even more essential and indispensable . Our
experience with children in elementary schools has shown us
that the age between six and twelve years is a period of life
during which the elements of all sciences should be given . It
is a period that, psychologically, is especially sensitive and
might be called the "sensitive period of culture" during which
the abstract plane of the human mind is organized .
It is then that everything should be sown .
This interesting period in the organization of the human
soul could be compared to a field where the seed of all those
plants that one wishes to flourish in the future must be sown .
The aim of education must be that of finding all the possible
means to "plant the seeds" in the suitable epoch . Not only
secondary schools, but also universities must interest them-
selves in this sowing, even if the interest in lower schools is
felt to be out of their realm . There is nothing that is
apparently further removed from the peaceful life of the fields
than the mechanical bustle and clanking of the machinery of
a factory, yet the cloth manufacturer must interest himself in
the planting of the flax, otherwise it would be useless to have
good manufacturing implements, because the raw material
would be lacking.
Thus it is with psychic life: there are special epochs when
an inner activity lays in the soul the roots of the first
intellectual development, calling forth . enthusiastic response
and awakening possibilities that otherwise would remain
dormant . And these centres of keen interest that urge
towards progress through vivacious activity will be developed
during the rest of youth . But, if on the other hand the germs
of knowledge have not been sown in the proper season, the

85
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
possibilities remain dormant, inertia and emptiness persist,
the individual resents all forms of intellectual effort, and
study deteriorates.
The failure to consider these special epochs is a sin against
the laws of life . Work becomes an arid effort, a condemnation
similar to that of Adam described in the Bible . Evidently it is
not work, but work against nature that is condemned by the
divine curse . Study such as it is today, is a work against
nature, so the students carry it out aridly and under com-
pulsion without animation . A supreme encouragement and a
radiant light would be necessary to call forth those souls that
by now are crippled by inertia and error . But this cannot be
accomplished by that arid type of school which considers the
personality of the student so much below his real values, and
continues to increase his discouragement and inertia .
It is clear then, that even for culture, even for the purely
intellectual fact of learning, the different categories of schools
have a common interest. Or perhaps it would be better to say
that higher schools must be interested in determining the
way in which human energies are prepared in the lower ones .
When this is not the case the university professors will
always find themselves confronted by minds repelling what-
ever is presented to them, by indifference and inertia, by
restless youths who must forcibly be kept together like
chained goatlings. If the path of normality is followed and the
university takes an interest in the preparation given in the
lower schools, then the pupils will become ardent apostles,
intelligent critics, and almost cooperators with their profes-
sors.
As we said, this is true for intellectual education, but
cooperation is still more necessary if one wishes to prepare
not only the intellect, but the human personality in its
totality. Human life cannot be fulfilled only by culture .
If one considers the question, acquisition of culture includes
the idea of receptiveness . But life is not all receptiveness ;
rather it is an active and expansive energy that endeavours to
realize its own creation on an external environment . In other
words, merely to study is not to live, but to live is the most
essential condition in order to be able to study .
We have seen this also in our experiments . Culture, which

86
 APPENDIX C
has been given anyhow and anyhow taken and assimilated,
does not satisfy the human personality . Other needs exist,
which if not satisfied always cause inner conflicts that
influence the mental state and confuse the clarity of the mind .
Joy, feeling one's own value, being appreciated and loved by
others, feeling useful and capable of production are all factors
of enormous value for the human soul . It is in its eventual
action on these human factors and not only in the giving of
culture that the new university should find a renewed dignity
and importance in relation to civilization .
In former times universities were based on a moral and
philosophical conception of life and of the "mission of man ."
Culture was then the splendid means given to humanity so
that it could reach higher levels . Today, however, it is not by
philosophizing nor by discussing metaphysical conceptions
that the morals of mankind can be developed : it is by activity,
by experience, and by action . It is interesting to notice how
attractive all practical actions become even during the period
of development that precedes adolescence .
Being active with one's own hands, having a determined
practical aim to reach, is what really gives inner discipline .
When the hand perfects itself in a work chosen spontaneously
and the will to succeed is born together with the will to
overcome difficulties or obstacles ; it is then that something
which differs from intellectual learning arises. The realization
of one's own value is born in the consciousness .
It is surprising to notice that even from the earliest age
man finds the greatest satisfaction in feeling independent .
The exalting feeling of being sufficient to oneself comes as a
revelation. This is undoubtedly a fundamental element of
social life, because when one is completely dependent upon
others and the feeling of one's practical incapacity has become
a conviction, the urge cannot arise to be of help or to seek the
cooperation of others to act with one's own energy.
In short, self-valuation and the ability to take part in a
social organization form a live force . This moral construction
cannot be acquired merely by learning by heart some lessons
or by solving problems that have nothing to do with one's own
life . Culture must be the means, for nothing shows the
necessity of culture more clearly than finding by experience

87
 FRAM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
how essential it is in order to live consciously and intel-
ligently, when it is life itself and not culture that is the centre
around which education revolves . Culture acquires, then,
great attractiveness .
To become conscious of the essential help given by it, to feel
how indispensable it is to achieve perfection, success, and
therefore the joy of the spirit ; this is the greatest urge to
study .
It is this relation between life and culture that has enabled
us to understand that children can learn much more than the
schools of today ask of them by their curricula, and that it is
in childhood that it is necessary to arouse the first interest, to
sow the seed of all sciences .
A person grows as a unity and if the development of an
essential part is lacking, troubling complexes arise in the soul
and in the mind .
The realization of one's own value is just the thing that
urges to association, because he who is conscious of his values
is victorious over life . He is an energy. We have been able to
see that association arises spontaneously even when it is
merely a case of thinking and of understanding. It seems that
the capacity of really understanding is connected with
discussion, with criticism, or with assent of others . The
satisfaction of knowing must be immediately communicated
to others, and in this communication enthusiasm increases .
True study and thinking require the same association as is
required by manual work . It was always realized that anyone
who does work that is too hard must join together with
others; but we saw among small children that even to be able
to understand it is necessary to join with others . Spontaneous
collaboration in all manifestations of life is a fact that has
come as a true revelation . Association gives new strength by
stimulating the energies . To act in association with others
either in thought or in practice is the only way in which the
human nature can be active. All this shows clearly that
education cannot be kept within the limitss of a closed room in
which the student remains inert and always dependent upon
the teacher while being kept' separate from his fellow
students . An education so limited is insufficient even for
children.

88
 APPENDIX C
The first reform in education must be to offer a wider
environment and to multiply the possibilities of association
and of activity. It is during the period of adolescence that
interest in the construction and functioning of society
presents itself in germinal form in the individual conscious-
ness . Now, society is built up by various activities and not
only by purely intellectual ones. The greatest element in its
construction is the growing sentiment of the conscience of the
individual, which develops through and by means of social
experiences.
The inert child who never worked with his hands, who
never had the feeling of being useful and capable of effort,
who never found by experience that to live means living
socially, and that to think and to create means to make use of
a harmony of souls ; this type of child will become a selfish
youth, he will be pessimistic and melancholy and will seek on
the surface of vanity the compensation for a lost paradise .
And thus, a lessened man, he will appear at the gates of the
university . And to ask for what? . . . To ask for a profession
that will render him capable of making his home in a society
in which he is a stranger and which is indifferent to him . He
will enter into society in order to take part in the functioning
of a civilization for which he lacks all feeling .
No, it is not possible to take the human being into
consideration only when he is a man, the human individual
must be taken into consideration much before . He who one
day wants to see before him a man, must first have sought the
child. To detach the various phases of life is absolutely
absurd .
The adult is the result of a child . Every adult is the
achievement of a grown-up child ; the causes of good or of evil
in the adult must all be sought in the very short period of the
child's growth.
The separation made between the interests of the child and
those of the adult, both in education and in social questions,
reminds me of a dispute which took place in the Middle Ages
between two cities that possessed notable relics : one had the
skulls of the Three Wise Men of the East when children ; the
other had the skulls of the Three Wise Men of the East when
adults .

89
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
This fatal criterion, this kind of psychic barrier that neatly
separates the two interests, causes grave errors and gives rise
to dangers that affect the whole of civilized humanity . Among
the means eminently capable of defending the safety of the
people against threatening dangers, no consideration what-
soever is given to strengthening and straightening humanity
by all possible means when it is still in the formative period .
What our marvellous civilisation lacks today is the strength
of the spiritual man, the straightness of conscience that feels
its responsibility, but above all the feeling that human life is
triumphant over the cosmos : humankind should feel itself
king of all that has been created, transformer of the earth,
builder of a new nature, collaborator in the universal work of
creation.
He who arrives at the university has left behind him
childhood and adolescence : he is a formed person. A great
part of his social destiny, of the success of his studies will
depend on how he was formed .
What interests him now is the "mission of humankind ."
He should certainly not be limited to the acquisition of that
knowledge which will be necessary for him in the exercise of
his profession . University students are adults, who will be
called upon to exercise an influence upon the civilization of
their times .
From the universities educators, therefore the guides of the
new generation, the leaders of the new humanity emerge .
From the universities come those men who will be called to
lead the masses and to defend civilization .
When they take their examinations to get their degrees
they will be facing the gates of the world, and must possess a
great moral preparation . They did not remain at school after
they had already become adults merely in order to acquire a
little more knowledge than others . Culture forms a great part
of their preparation, it is true, but they could have found
culture all around them, for today culture has pervaded the
entire social environment. The functions of the university
would be to intensify it and to make it penetrate into the
conscience as a weapon for the defence of humanity and of
civilization.
As there is a religion for all-though priests and

90
 APPENDIX C
missionaries possess a religion more intensely penetrating, a
religion that creates action in favour of mankind-so is
culture spread everywhere and has reached the same level
among all civilized people-though some select men partake
of it more profoundly and become its apostles in order to
preserve civilization .
Also, in the university preparation could be more extensive .
If it is true that even for children education cannot be carried
out within the four walls of the school, so much more this
must be repeated for adults . It is necessary even for a child to
feel himself independent : the adult must then have already
realized his independence .
The social experience begun earlier must be continued,
because the person who has never worked, who has never
tried to make his own living, who has never mingled with
people of different age and of different social classes, will with
difficulty become worthy of becoming the leader of anything .
This "value of the personality" must have been nurtured by
each individual through active efforts and positive experi-
ences .
It is certainly not by philosophizing or by meditating only
that the conscience of modern man will be formed .
As regards culture, it is in the very character of the
university to "learn how to study ." The degree is but the proof
of knowing how to study, of how to seek culture alone and
without help, of being set upon the path of scientific research .
This is another proof that the essential task of the university
is not limited to giving instruction . It is in order to study, that
one has learned to study .
An individual who has taken his degree has acquired a
better knowledge of how to sail upon the ocean of culture that
has flooded the world. He has but received an orientation .
Therefore he is a studious person who possesses a compass
that allows him to enter into communication with the stars
that direct the way.
Such is the person who has taken a degree . And if the
degree, as far as its value is concerned, is but the capacity for
studying, why then should study at the university be limited
to three or six years? One who studies at the university knows
already that he will have to study all his life or lose his value .

91
 FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE
Why then so much bustle, during those few years, for the
acquisition of culture that will have no end? There must be
another kind of formative help, an effort to become keenly
aware of the needs of one's own time and to permeate oneself
with civilization .
It will be of great advantage for a really studious individual
to begin to conquer economic independence during the period
of its university studies. Many a young person, while he
attends the university, is already a private teacher, or a
journalist, an artist or a merchant, and even a common
workman or a waiter. Many have already situations in broad-
casting companies or in diplomacy .
These workers are more likely to study for the love of study
and of human progress, and not for the immediate and direct
purpose of a profession . If they take one or two years longer in
their studies, what does it matter? Considering that their
study will never cease, why should they take so much trouble
to obtain in the shortest possible time the advantages that the
degree affords them ; when they are destined, if they wish to
keep up with the ever-rising level of efficiency, to pursue the
new things that are continuously being elaborated in the field
of their profession?
One can study while one works to make one's living . All
those who wish to become university professors do it . They go
on studying, but they do not go to school . They make a modest
living just to be able to study and reach higher levels in the
future. They even marry and have a family that will later
attain a high social position .
An adult who studies must not be worried as a child by
examinations, nor fear the scoldings of a father who is forced
to support him by what little means he possesses . He should
not resort to subterfuges in order to get good marks, nor
dishonour himself because he cannot keep chaste .
A university student must first of all know how to achieve
his own independence and moral equilibrium .
I believe that all possible provision should be made in order
to create some form of work to confer economic independence
on the students of the university so that each may really be
free to study and be able to find his own place in accordance
with his own value .

92
 APPENDIX C
I shall finish by comparing the life of the human being to
the three stages of the life of Christ .
Behold at first the miraculous and sublime Child .
This epoch is the period of "creative sensibilities," of mental
construction, of such an intense activity that it is necessary to
sow in this period of life all the seeds of culture .
Then comes the epoch of adolescence, an epoch of inner
revelations and of social sensibilities . Christ as a boy,
forgetful of His family, is heard to discuss with the doctors .
He does not talk as a pupil, but as a Teacher, dazzling by the
flashes of His light . But later He devotes Himself to manual
work and exercises a craft . He shows that the adolescent
should be able to manifest his hidden treasures and at the
same time work and be initiated into a craft .
At last, comes the Man Who prepares Himself for His
mission in this world .
And what does He do for this preparation?
He confronts the Evil One and overpowers him . This is the
preparation!
Each human being possesses the strength of becoming
aware of, and of facing the dangers, the temptations of the
world so as to become inured to them in order to overcome
them.
The temptations to be overcome are literally those illustrated
in the Gospel : the temptation of possession and the tempta-
tion of power.
There is something in humankind that stands above them :
it is able to understand what is required to create a very
powerful, a very rich, and a purified world .
There is only one way : that each individual know how to
overcome the temptations of power and possession .
That is the path of his kingdom .
But in order to attain this level through education, it is
necessary to seek the child and to consider him under a new
aspect .

93
 Index

Abstract importance of independence for, 92

child's world of the, 10-11, 20 period, first, 74
education, passage from sensorial physical conditions of, 74
to, 5, 9, 17-23 physical and emotional problems
thinking, need for, 5 of, 62-63
Academic materials, 11 reforms relating to needs of, 64-74
Actions, practical, 87 requirements of the, 72-74
Activity (child's), 93 schools not adapted to, 59
depending on favourable syllabus and methods for, 75-79
conditions, 4 Adult
dignity in, 8 causes of good and evil in, 89
external, 12 child's means of freeing himself
growth through physical, 8 from, 10-11
guidance of, 73 creating environment for child's
long hikes, 8 changing needs, 12-13
motor, 6 educating the child on the abstract
need for abstraction and plane, 12, 22
intellectual, 5 facilitating child's mobility, 12-13
preserving equilibrium between Age (child's)
acting and thinking, 11 characteristics of different, 1-2
scouting, 15 chronological subdivisions, 1
Acts of courtesy, 7 metamorphoses due to changing,
Adaptation, 61 2,3-4
Adolescence, period of, 2 needs peculiar to each, 72
Adolescent of adolescence, 93
alternating studies with practical of interior revelations, 93
life, 80 of social sensitivities, 93
characteristics of, 63 Agriculture, 68
diet of, 74 teacher of, 80
economic independence of, 64 Alphabet, letters as symbols, 43
history for, 78 Anatomy, comparative, 76

95
 INDEX

Anomalies, development of, .4 needs from 7 to 12 years, 7-9

Arts, 75 ,precision, requirement of, 21
Association, among children ; as aid to "rebirth" of, 1
learning, 88 "Children's Houses," 66, 72
Astronomy, 76 Christ, 72, 93
Attention, concentration of, :39 Classification
as outline for study, 22, 30
"Bad marks," 62 by means of the senses, 5
Bible, the, 86 Clothes, importance of, 12, 14
Bicycle, safety and maintenance, 12 Collaboration, 88
Biology, 76 Colour, 1, 52
Body (child's), 74 Comenius, 17-18
Bookkeeping, 70 Commitment of individual to group, 9 .
Botany, 76 See also Scouting
Buying objects, by child, 3 Consent of child, 9
Control of error, 86
Care of self, 13-14 Coordination
Chemistry between phases of nursery to
experiments, 36-41 university, 85
inorganic, 48-50, 53 of movement of the child, 7
organic, 51-57 "Creative sensitivity," 93
Child Culture, 90
awareness of the value of money sensitive period for, 85
by, 3
care of the personality of, 62-63 Daily living exercises . See Exercises
conclusions, desire for, 21 D'Annunzio, Gabriel, 12
conditions favouring, 4 Degree, 91-92
conforming to the rules of scouting, Dental hygiene, 11
8 Detail
conscience of, 5-6 importance of study, 22-23, 58
coordination of the movement of, 7 meditation on, 18
difficulties due to the vital needs Diction, exercises in, 75
of, 63 Diet, 74
finding correlation between things Dignity, child's sense of, 8
with, 58 Discipline, 82
imagination of, 21 as aspect of individual liberty, 73
independent thinking of, 7, 66 through manual work, 87
intellectual plane of, 5, 16 Discovery of reality, 11
living two parallel existences, 15 "Distributive justice," principle of, 6
metamorphosis, physical and
psychic, of, 2, 3-6 Economic independence, 64
mobility of, 12-13 Education
moral characteristics from 7 to 12 essential principle of, 58
years, 7-9 for labourers, 61

96
 INDEX
for liberty and independence of, 11 Geography, 29
importance of moral, 5, 8 Geology, 76
passage from sensorial to abstract, Good and Evil, problems of, 5, 89
5,22 Gospel, the, 93
physical, 73-74 Group, individual's commitment to, 9
purpose "formation of man," 84 Growth of the child, 1
reform of, 89
relationship between life and, 88 Hair, care of, 11
role of, 11 Hands, value of work with, 87, 89
sports introduced in, 61-62 Heat, study of, 25
successive levels of, 1-2 History
Educator . See Teachers aids in studying, 78-79
Environment facets of, 78-79
assimilation of, 33 Home environment. See
for 7 to 12 year olds, 3-4 Environment
for adolescents, 67-68 Hotel, 69
reaction to inadequate, 4 Hygiene, 11
Equality, 6
Erdkinder, 59, 68-69 Ideals, 58
Evolvement of the individual, 1 Imagination, 17-23
Exercises science as stimulating the, 35, 40
aim of, 8 Independence, 7, 11, 64, 92
artistic, 75 in thinking of 7 to 12 year olds, 10
imagination, 75 Individual
importance of, 13, 18 betterment of the, 59
language, 75 rights, 6
practical life, 12-13, 66 Inertia, 86
sensorial. See Sensorial exercises Information, acquisition of, 12
technical and scientific, 36-37 Initiative, as leading to self-
"Experiences of practical life," 7 discipline, 73
Expression, personal, 75 Injustice, concept of, 6
Exterior world, child's preference Inner activity, as roots of
for, 5 intellectual development, 85
Insects, 1, 18
Faith, in God and oneself, 64 Insecurity, caused by modern
Fantasy, 21 conditions, 60
Feet and legs, care of, 12 Instruction
Fish, study of life of, 32 brought to life, 10
"Formation of man," 84 See also University
Free choice, 73 Intellectual activity, 5
Freedom of the child, emphasized, obstacles to, 19
8-9 Intellectual capacity, diminution of,
63
Genesis, 20 Intellectual professions, 61

97
 INDEX
Intelligence, study and, 71 Nature
Interest, 28, 40 as subject matter for instruction,
18, 26, 42-47
Jesus, 72, 93 great drama of, 46
Judgment of acts, 5 inadequate education suppressing
Justice, concept of, 6 child's, 4
intimate movements of, 47
Knowledge of creation, 56
by means of pictures and objects, "Naughtiness," 4
17
inertia in acquisition of, 86 Obedience, 8
Observations, importance of
Language, exercises, 75 children's, 15, 27, 30
Learning, aided by association with Occupation, value of change in,
children, 88 74
Lyons, Mary, 65 Orbis Sensualium Pictus, 17
Outdoors
Machines, significance of, 77-78 activities, learning from,
Mankind, 64, 78 11-19
Manual work, 65, 87, 88 . See also life in, 74
Training
Mathematics, 58, 76 Pedagogy, 17
helping the imagination, 24, 26 Perception . See Sensorial exercises
understanding of, through Philosophy, 58
experimentation, 24-25, 34 Physics, principles of, 29
Meditation on detail, 18 Physiology, 76
Mental health, 19 Pictures, knowledge by means of,
Metamorphosis, 3-6 17
Mind Playthings, 77
abstract structure of, 4, 58 Poetry, 34, 43
constructed to an exact plan, 4 Practical exercises, 12, 80
mathematical and philosophical, Precision, requirement of, 21
58 Preparation for tasks, importance of,
Mineralogy, study of, 29 12,24
Money, 3 Primitive logic, use of, 40
bookkeeping, 70 Progress
earned by adolescents, 65 made by science, 59
Moral education, 75-76 studies relating to human,
Moral prolllems, interest in, 5 77-78
Moral relationships, development of, Psychic entity of the child, 4-5
7 Puberty, 60
Museums, in schools, 18, 77 Punishment, 6
Music, 75
Mystery, 18 Quantities, idea of, 24

98
 INDEX
Reality, discovering of, 13, 18 Sensitive period for culture, 85
Regression, 4 Sensorial exercises
Religion, 78, 90-91 by contact with nature, 18-19
Repetition, 7 tactile, 22
Research, desire for, 58 visual, 18-19
Rewards, 6 Sensorial level of education, 5
Right, concept of, 6 Silence lesson compared, 39
Rigours, regimen of, 8 Social experience, 7, 13, 91
Rules, 75 blended with environment, 13
Rural work, 68 moral teachings sought through,
13
Saint Francis of Assisi, 34 schools providing opportunity for,
School 68
as preparation for life, 5 Social organization, 87
boarding, 65, 67 Social relations, 13
closed, insufficient for child, 3 Society
elementary, 66 classes of, 66
of social life, experimental, 64 reforms relating to the present,
secondary, 67-68 64-66
failure of, 62 relationship to, 3-4, 87-88
reform of, 61-62 Specialization, 60, 71
"self-help," 65 Sports, 61-62
Science Stoppani, Antonio, 26
as speaking to the imagination, 34, Store, run by children, 69-70
40 Study
practical applications of, 59 and work plans, 71-74
progress made by, 59 as meditation on detail, 18
Scouting "Supernatural" powers, 77
activities, 15 Symbols
as organized activity for children, letters of the alphabet as, 43
5 musical notes as, 43
moral aim of, 8 of life, activities constituting,
obedience in, 8 15
rigours and rules, 8
studying animal tracks in, 15 Teachers
useful elements in, 15 for practical work, 80
voluntary nature of, 8 limitations of, 11
Self, care and inspection of, 14 of agriculture and horticulture,
Self-confidence, need to fortify, 80
64 on special subjects, 80
Self-discipline. See Discipline qualifications for, 80
Self-expression, 75 taking children on a hike, 8,
Senses, absorbing exterior world 15
by, 5 Tobacco, use of, 74

99
 INDEX
Training, self-activity decadence of modem, 84
by drawing, 75 degree, meaning of, 91
by intellectual work, 65 function of the, 82-93
by manual work (occupations), in the Middle Ages, 83
65 preparation at the, 91
by observation, 30 studies, achieving financial
by observing objects in museums, independence during, 92
18 treatment of students, 82-83
by participation in social
organizations, 87-88 Walking, 12
by pictures, 17 Water, 24-35
by sports, 61-62 Work
by study of animals, vegetables, group, 75
and minerals, 23 importance of, 65-66
by study of aquatic shells, 28 individual, 75
by study of corals, 29 manual, aiding inner discipline,
by study of fish, 32 87,88
by swimming, 14 not fatiguing, 66-67
by using machines, 77 rural, as approach to scientific and
by visits to historic places, 78 historic studies, 68
teaching economic independence,
Universe, child's understanding of 66
the, 20
University Zoology, 76

100