UNIT 6: Social Research
Methods
Sources of Knowledge,
Research Criteria, and
Ethics
OCTOBER 2024
Learning Objectives
• To be able to:
• Distinguish between primary and secondary sources of sociological
knowledge.
• Recognise the importance of empirical evidence in social research.
• Identify and apply the criteria for assessing the quality of research,
including validity, reliability, and generalisability.
• Understand ethical guidelines and considerations when conducting
sociological research.
• Define fundamental concepts such as operationalisation, hypothesis
formulation, and variables.
• Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research
methods.
Sources of Knowledge in Social
Research; Primary sources
• Primary sources are original data collected first-hand by the
researcher for a specific study.
• This involves methods such as surveys, interviews, direct
observations, and experiments.
• The data is gathered directly from participants or observed events,
thus, it offers fresh and authentic insights into social phenomena to
be studied .
• Examples of primary data collection methods include interviewing
individuals to obtain their personal experiences or conducting
controlled experiments to observe specific behaviours.
• Primary sources are crucial because they provide direct evidence
related to the research question, making the findings more tailored
and relevant to the study's goals (Neuman, 2006).
Secondary Sources
• Secondary sources refer to data that has been collected and often
analysed by other researchers, institutions, or organisations.
• These include information from books, journal articles, government
reports, statistical databases, and other research papers.
• Secondary sources can provide background information or historical
context for the current study.
• While they offer valuable insights, they may lack the specificity of
primary data because they were collected with different research
objectives in mind.
• Nevertheless, secondary sources are efficient for obtaining
established knowledge and can be used to compare with new
findings, adding depth to the analysis (Babbie & Mouton, 2012).
The Importance of Empirical Evidence in
Social Research
• Empirical evidence refers to information gathered through observation, experimentation, or
direct experience rather than relying on theories or assumptions.
• It serves as the foundation for scientific investigation in social research because it is both
objective and verifiable.
• This data helps establish factual insights about social behaviour and patterns, allowing
researchers to draw conclusions based on real-world observations rather than speculative
ideas.
• Research that relies on empirical evidence ensures more accurate and valid conclusions, as
opposed to drawing on unverified theories or personal opinions.
• Since empirical research is based on actual observations, it accurately reflects real-world
conditions, making the findings more trustworthy and accepted, especially in the social
sciences, where human behaviour is often complex.
• By using empirical evidence, researchers minimise the reliance on subjective opinions and
assumptions, making their findings more credible and grounded in solid data.
• Examples, empirical evidence in social research is collected through techniques such as
surveys, fieldwork, and experiments, which allow researchers to study behaviours, public
opinions, and decision-making processes in a structured and objective manner.
Criteria for Judging Good Research
• Validity refers to how accurately a research study measures what it intends to. It ensures the
relevance and appropriateness of both the research methods and conclusions.
• There are different types of validity, such as construct validity, which checks if the research
measures the intended concept; internal validity, which verifies that the results are due to the
variables being studied; and external validity, which looks at whether the findings can be applied
in other settings (Neuman, 2007).
• Reliability focuses on the consistency of research results when replicated under similar
conditions.
• If a study can be repeated and produce the same outcomes, it is considered reliable.
• Forms of reliability include test-retest reliability, ensuring stable results over time; inter-rater
reliability, where different observers agree on their findings; and internal consistency, where
elements of a study or survey are coherent and related (Babbie & Mouton, 2012).
• Generalisability assesses whether research findings can be applied to broader populations or
contexts beyond the study sample.
• A study with high generalisability provides insights relevant to a wider audience.
• Achieving this involves representative sampling and designing research in ways that can be
extended to various settings or groups (Neuman, 2006).
Ethical Considerations and Guidelines in
Sociological Research
1. Welfare of Participants:
• One of the primary ethical responsibilities in sociological research is
ensuring the safety and well-being of participants.
• Researchers must take all necessary steps to avoid causing physical,
emotional, or psychological harm to individuals involved in the study.
• This includes being sensitive to participants' personal experiences and
ensuring that the research process does not put them in uncomfortable or
vulnerable situations (Neuman, 2006).
• For example, in sensitive studies involving topics like trauma or abuse,
researchers must be particularly cautious about how they handle
interviews and data collection to prevent re-traumatisation.
• Ethical research should always prioritize the dignity and welfare of
participants above any potential research gains (Babbie & Mouton, 2012).
2. Informed Consent
• Informed consent is a cornerstone of ethical research.
• It ensures that participants fully understand the nature of the
research, their role in it, and any potential risks or benefits before
agreeing to participate.
• Researchers must provide clear, accessible information and ensure
that consent is given voluntarily, without coercion or undue
influence (Neuman, 2007).
• This is particularly important in vulnerable populations, such as
minors or individuals with limited understanding of the research
process.
• The participants should have the right to withdraw from the study at
any time without any negative consequences, preserving their
autonomy throughout the research process.
3. Confidentiality
• Maintaining the confidentiality of participants is essential to
protecting their privacy and personal information.
• Researchers must take steps to anonymize data and ensure that any
identifying information is securely stored and accessible only to
those directly involved in the research.
• When presenting findings, care must be taken to avoid revealing the
identities of participants, especially in small or closely connected
communities (Babbie & Mouton, 2012).
• Failure to maintain confidentiality can have serious consequences for
participants, including social stigma, embarrassment, or legal
repercussions.
• Ethical research ensures that personal data is protected and used
solely for the purposes outlined in the study.
4. Avoiding Harm
• Researchers are ethically obligated to avoid causing harm to
participants, whether physical, psychological, or social.
• This includes considering potential risks in the research design and
taking steps to minimize or eliminate them.
• Harm can take many forms, such as emotional distress caused by
recalling traumatic events during interviews or social harm resulting
from the publication of sensitive findings (Neuman, 2006).
• Researchers must also be aware of power dynamics between
themselves and participants, particularly when working with
marginalized or vulnerable groups.
• Ethical research involves actively working to prevent harm and
ensuring that the benefits of the research outweigh any potential
risks.
5.Adherence to Ethical Guidelines
• Professional associations, such as the American Sociological Association
(ASA) and institutional review boards (IRBs), establish ethical guidelines
that researchers must follow.
• These guidelines are designed to protect participants, ensure the integrity
of the research, and uphold the credibility of the field of sociology.
• Ethical guidelines include obtaining informed consent, ensuring
confidentiality, conducting risk assessments, and maintaining transparency
in data collection and reporting (Babbie & Mouton, 2012).
• Researchers are expected to undergo ethics training and seek approval
from relevant ethical bodies before commencing their studies.
• Failure to adhere to these guidelines can result in disciplinary action and
harm to the reputation of both the researcher and the institution they
represent.
Key Concepts in Social Research
1. Operationalisation:
• Operationalisation involves turning abstract concepts into measurable variables in
research.
• This process ensures that theoretical ideas are transformed into specific, observable
indicators, such as using income or education level to define "social status." It is essential
for achieving clarity and accuracy in data collection and analysis (Neuman, 2006).
2. Hypothesis:
• A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between variables. It is a key
element of quantitative research, often derived from theory or previous studies.
• Hypotheses are tested through empirical data collection to confirm or reject potential
links, such as how higher education might be related to increased income (Babbie &
Mouton, 2012).
3. Variables:
• Variables are measurable traits or characteristics in a study. Independent variables are
manipulated to observe their effects on dependent variables. Control variables help
eliminate confounding factors. For example, in a study on education’s effect on income,
education is the independent variable, while income is the dependent variable (Neuman,
2007).
• Quantitative Research:
• Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to
identify patterns and test hypotheses.
• It focuses on objectivity and generalizability, often using methods like surveys or
experiments.
• The goal is to find statistical relationships that can apply to broader populations
(Neuman, 2006).
• Qualitative Research:
• Qualitative research explores the meaning behind social behaviors and
experiences.
• It uses methods like interviews or observations to gather non-numeric data, aiming
for depth and contextual understanding.
• Unlike quantitative research, it prioritizes detailed insight over generalization
(Babbie & Mouton, 2012).
References
1. Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social Research Methods. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
2. Neuman, W. L. (2007). Basics of Social Research:
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Boston: Pearson
Education Inc.
3. Babbie, E., & Mouton, J. (2012). The Basics of Social
Research. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Thank You
