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Introduction to IoT
Internet of Things, as a research field, piques the interest of a growing community
of academics and scholars across the world. It has witnessed massive adoption and
large-scale deployment in industries and other spheres of everyday life. Considerable
theoretical information about IoT as well as tutorials, courses, implementations,
use-cases, etc., is available across the web. However, all this available information
is so scattered that even professionals in the field have trouble obtaining concise
information on IoT and connecting the dots between the various technologies relating
to it. This book serves as a textbook and also as a single point of reference for
readers interested in the subject. Written by leading experts in the field, this lucid and
comprehensive work provides a clear understanding of the operation and scope of
IoT. It discusses the basics of networking, network security, precursor technologies
of IoT and the emergence of IoT. It gives an overview of various connectivity,
communication, and interoperability protocols prevalent in the field. While providing
a dedicated overview and scope of implementation of various analytical methods
used for IoT, the book discusses numerous case studies and provides hands-on IoT
exercises, enabling readers to visualize the interdisciplinary nature of IoT applications
and understand how they have managed to gain a foothold in the technology sector.
The book also serves curious, non-technical readers, enabling them to understand
necessary concepts and terminologies associated with IoT.
Sudip Misra is a professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering
at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. He has published over 300 research
papers and 11 books in allied areas of IoT. He is Associate Editor of IEEE TMC, TVT
and IEEE Network. He is a Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences (India), IET
(UK), and BCS (UK), and is a distinguished lecturer of the IEEE Communications
Society. His current research interests include wireless sensor networks and IoT.
Anandarup Mukherjee is the co-founder and director of Sensor Drops Networks Pvt.
Ltd., an IoT startup incubated at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. He
has published more than 30 research papers. He works in the domain of IoT and
unmanned aerial vehicle swarms.
Arijit Roy is the co-founder and director of Sensor Drops Networks Pvt. Ltd. He is a
senior researcher in the Smart Wireless Applications and Networking (SWAN) lab at
the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. His primary research areas include IoT,
sensor networks, and sensor-cloud.

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Introduction to IoT

Sudip Misra
Anandarup Mukherjee
Arijit Roy

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University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314 to 321, 3rd Floor, Plot No.3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108842952
© Sudip Misra, Anandarup Mukherjee and Arijit Roy 2021
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2021
Printed in India
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Misra, Sudip, author. | Mukherjee, Anandarup, author. | Roy, Arijit,
author.
Title: Introduction to IoT / Sudip Misra, Anandarup Mukherjee, Arijit Roy.
Description: United Kingdom ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2020.
| Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020037656 (print) | LCCN 2020037657 (ebook) | ISBN
9781108842952 (hardback) | ISBN 9781108959742 (paperback) | ISBN
9781108913560 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Internet of things.
Classification: LCC TK5105.8857 .I567 2020 (print) | LCC TK5105.8857
(ebook) | DDC 004.67/8–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020037656
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020037657
ISBN 978-1-108-84295-2 Hardback
ISBN 978-1-108-95974-2 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
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To Our Families

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 Contents

List of Figures xvii

List of Tables xxv
Foreword xxvii
Preface xxxi
PART ONE: INTRODUCTION

1 Basics of Networking 3

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Network Types 4
1.2.1 Connection types 4
1.2.2 Physical topology 6
1.2.3 Network reachability 9
1.3 Layered Network Models 10
1.3.1 OSI Model 10
1.3.2 Internet protocol suite 14
1.4 Addressing 15
1.4.1 Data link layer addressing 15
1.4.2 Network layer addressing 16
1.5 TCP/IP Transport layer 19
1.5.1 Connectionless service 20
1.5.2 Connection-oriented service 20
Summary 22
Exercises 23
References 23

2 Basics of Network Security 25

2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Security 27
2.3 Network Confidentiality 28
viii Contents

2.4 Cryptography 30
2.4.1 Symmetric key cryptography 31
2.4.2 Asymmetric key cryptography 34
2.5 Message Integrity and Authenticity 35
2.5.1 Digital signatures 36
2.6 Key Management 38
2.7 Internet Security 40
2.7.1 Network layer security 40
2.7.2 Transport layer security 41
2.7.3 Application layer security 43
2.8 Firewall 44
Summary 46
Exercises 46
References 47

3 Predecessors of IoT 48
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Wireless Sensor Networks 49
3.2.1 Architectural components of WSN 51
3.3 Machine-to-Machine Communications 57
3.3.1 Architectural components of M2M 60
3.4 Cyber Physical Systems 65
3.4.1 Architectural components of CPS 68
Summary 69
Exercises 70
References 70

PART TWO: INTERNET OF THINGS

4 Emergence of IoT 75
4.1 Introduction 75
4.2 Evolution of IoT 80
4.2.1 IoT versus M2M 83
4.2.2 IoT versus CPS 84
4.2.3 IoT versus WoT 84
Contents ix

4.3 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies 84

4.4 IoT Networking Components 87
4.5 Addressing Strategies in IoT 89
4.5.1 Address management classes 91
4.5.2 Addressing during node mobility 92
Summary 95
Exercises 95
References 96

5 IoT Sensing and Actuation 97

5.1 Introduction 97
5.2 Sensors 98
5.3 Sensor Characteristics 102
5.4 Sensorial Deviations 103
5.5 Sensing Types 104
5.5.1 Scalar sensing 104
5.5.2 Multimedia sensing 105
5.5.3 Hybrid sensing 105
5.5.4 Virtual sensing 106
5.6 Sensing Considerations 106
5.7 Actuators 108
5.8 Actuator Types 109
5.8.1 Hydraulic actuators 109
5.8.2 Pneumatic actuators 109
5.8.3 Electric actuators 109
5.8.4 Thermal or magnetic actuators 110
5.8.5 Mechanical actuators 110
5.8.6 Soft actuators 111
5.8.7 Shape memory polymers 111
5.9 Actuator Characteristics 111
Summary 112
Exercises 113
References 113

6 IoT Processing Topologies and Types 115

6.1 Data Format 115
6.1.1 Structured data 116
6.1.2 Unstructured data 116
6.2 Importance of Processing in IoT 117
x Contents

6.3 Processing Topologies 118

6.3.1 On-site processing 118
6.3.2 Off-site processing 119
6.4 IoT Device Design and Selection Considerations 120
6.5 Processing Offloading 122
6.5.1 Offload location 123
6.5.2 Offload decision making 124
6.5.3 Offloading considerations 125
Summary 126
Exercises 126
References 127

7 IoT Connectivity Technologies 128

7.1 Introduction 128
7.2 IEEE 802.15.4 129
7.3 Zigbee 131
7.4 Thread 134
7.5 ISA100.11A 136
7.6 WirelessHART 139
7.7 RFID 141
7.8 NFC 142
7.9 DASH7 144
7.10 Z-Wave 146
7.11 Weightless 148
7.12 Sigfox 149
7.13 LoRa 151
7.14 NB-IoT 153
7.15 Wi-Fi 154
7.16 Bluetooth 156
Summary 158
Exercises 158
References 161

8 IoT Communication Technologies 163

8.1 Introduction 163
8.1.1 Constrained nodes 164
8.1.2 Constrained networks 164
Contents xi

8.1.3 Types of constrained devices 165

8.1.4 Low power and lossy networks 165
8.2 Infrastructure Protocols 166
8.2.1 Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) 166
8.2.2 LOADng 170
8.2.3 RPL 171
8.2.4 6LoWPAN 173
8.2.5 QUIC 176
8.2.6 Micro internet protocol (uIP) 178
8.2.7 Nano internet protocol (nanoIP) 179
8.2.8 Content-centric networking (CCN) 180
8.3 Discovery Protocols 181
8.3.1 Physical web 181
8.3.2 Multicast DNS (mDNS) 183
8.3.3 Universal plug and play (UPnP) 183
8.4 Data Protocols 184
8.4.1 MQTT 185
8.4.2 MQTT-SN 187
8.4.3 CoAP 188
8.4.4 AMQP 191
8.4.5 XMPP 193
8.4.6 SOAP 195
8.4.7 REST 196
8.4.8 WebSocket 198
8.5 Identification Protocols 200
8.5.1 EPC 200
8.5.2 uCode 201
8.5.3 URIs 203
8.6 Device Management 204
8.6.1 TR-069 204
8.6.2 OMA-DM 205
8.7 Semantic Protocols 206
8.7.1 JSON-LD 207
8.7.2 Web thing model 208
Summary 208
Exercises 209
References 211
xii Contents

9 IoT Interoperability 214

9.1 Introduction 214
9.1.1 Taxonomy of interoperability 216
9.2 Standards 217
9.2.1 EnOcean 217
9.2.2 DLNA 218
9.2.3 Konnex 220
9.2.4 UPnP 221
9.2.5 LonWorks 223
9.2.6 Insteon 224
9.2.7 X-10 226
9.3 Frameworks 228
9.3.1 universAAL 228
9.3.2 AllJoyn 229
9.3.3 IoTivity 230
9.3.4 Brillo and Weave 231
9.3.5 HomeKit 231
Summary 232
Exercises 232
References 233

PART THREE: ASSOCIATED IOT TECHNOLOGIES

10 Cloud Computing 237

10.1 Introduction 237
10.2 Virtualization 239
10.2.1 Advantages of virtualization 239
10.2.2 Types of virtualization 241
10.3 Cloud Models 242
10.4 Service-Level Agreement in Cloud Computing 245
10.4.1 Importance of SLA 245
10.4.2 Metrics for SLA 245
10.5 Cloud Implementation 246
10.5.1 Cloud simulation 246
10.5.2 An open-source cloud: OpenStack 247
10.5.3 A commercial cloud: Amazon web services (AWS) 248
Contents xiii

10.6 Sensor-Cloud: Sensors-as-a-Service 249

10.6.1 Importance of sensor-cloud 249
10.6.2 Architecture of a sensor-cloud platform 252
Summary 254
Exercises 254
References 255

11 Fog Computing and Its Applications 256

11.1 Introduction 256
11.1.1 Essential characteristics in fog computing 257
11.1.2 Fog nodes 258
11.1.3 Fog node deployment model 259
11.2 View of a Fog Computing Architecture 260
11.2.1 Node view 260
11.2.2 System view 261
11.2.3 Software view 262
11.3 Fog Computing in IoT 264
11.3.1 Importance of fog computing 264
11.3.2 Time sensitiveness in fog computing 265
11.4 Selected Applications of Fog Computing 265
Summary 267
Exercises 268
References 268

PART FOUR: IOT CASE STUDIES AND FUTURE TRENDS

12 Agricultural IoT 271

12.1 Introduction 271
12.1.1 Components of an agricultural IoT 272
12.1.2 Advantages of IoT in agriculture 275
12.2 Case Studies 276
12.2.1 In-situ assessment of leaf area index using IoT-based agricultural
system 276
12.2.2 Smart irrigation management system 278
Summary 281
Exercises 281
References 282
xiv Contents

13 Vehicular IoT 283

13.1 Introduction 283
13.1.1 Components of vehicular IoT 285
13.1.2 Advantages of vehicular IoT 287
13.1.3 Crime assistance in a smart IoT transportation system 288
Summary 291
Exercises 291
References 292

14 Healthcare IoT 293

14.1 Introduction 293
14.1.1 Components of healthcare IoT 295
14.1.2 Advantages and risk of healthcare IoT 298
14.2 Case Studies 300
14.2.1 AmbuSens system 300
Summary 304
Exercises 304
References 304

15 Paradigms, Challenges, and the Future 306

15.1 Introduction 306
15.2 Evolution of New IoT Paradigms 307
15.2.1 Internet of battlefield things (IoBT) 307
15.2.2 Internet of vehicles (IoV) 307
15.2.3 Internet of underwater things (IoUT) 308
15.2.4 Internet of drones (IoD) 308
15.2.5 Internet of space (IoSpace) 308
15.2.6 Internet of services (IoS) 309
15.2.7 Internet of people (IoP) 309
15.2.8 Internet of nano things (IoNT) 309
15.2.9 Internet of everything (IoE) 310
15.3 Challenges Associated with IoT 310
15.3.1 Mobility 310
15.3.2 Addressing 311
15.3.3 Power 311
15.3.4 Heterogeneous connectivity 311
15.3.5 Communication range 312
15.3.6 Security 312
15.3.7 Device size 313
Contents xv

15.3.8 Interoperability 313

15.4 Emerging Pillars of IoT 313
15.4.1 Big data 313
15.4.2 Cloud/fog/edge computing 314
15.4.3 5G and beyond 314
15.4.4 Artificial intelligence (AI)/Machine learning (ML) 314
15.4.5 Cognitive communication networks 315
15.4.6 Network function virtualization (NFV) 315
15.4.7 Software-defined networks (SDN) 316
15.4.8 Phantom networks 316
Summary 316
Exercises 317
References 317

PART FIVE: IOT HANDS-ON

16 Beginning IoT Hardware Projects 321

16.1 Introduction to Arduino Boards 321
16.1.1 Arduino vs. Raspberry Pi: Choosing a board 321
16.1.2 Arduino installation and setup 322
16.1.3 Setting up Arduino IDE for NodeMCU 327
16.2 Writing an Arduino Sketch 329
16.3 Hands-on Experiments with Arduino 329
16.3.1 Printing on the serial console 329
16.3.2 LED interface with Arduino 330
16.3.3 DHT Sensor interface with NodeMCU 331
16.3.4 MQ-2 Gas sensor interface with NodeMCU 332
16.3.5 Ultrasonic sensor interface with NodeMCU 333
16.3.6 Obstacle detection using NodeMCU 334
16.3.7 Servo motor interface with NodeMCU 336
16.3.8 Relay interface with NodeMCU 337
16.3.9 Data transmission between NodeMCU and remote server 338
16.3.10 Pulse sensor interface with NodeMCU 339
16.4 Introduction to Raspberry Pi Boards 340
16.4.1 Installation 340
16.4.2 Remotely accessing the Raspberry Pi 341
16.4.3 Introduction to Python basics 342
16.4.4 Accessing GPIO pins 343
16.4.5 Configuring WiFi on Raspberry Pi 345
xvi Contents

16.5 Hands-on Experiments with Raspberry Pi 345

16.5.1 Printing on console/terminal 345
16.5.2 LED interface 345
16.5.3 PiCamera interface 347
16.5.4 DHT Sensor interface 349
16.5.5 Client–server socket programming 350
16.5.6 Serially reading data from Arduino 350
Summary 353
Exercises 353

17 IoT Analytics 355

17.1 Introduction 355
17.1.1 Machine learning 356
17.1.2 Advantages of ML 356
17.1.3 Challenges in ML 358
17.1.4 Types of ML 358
17.2 Selected Algorithms in ML 361
17.2.1 k-nearest neighbor (KNN) 361
17.2.2 Decision tree 363
17.2.3 Random forest 364
17.2.4 k-means clustering 366
17.2.5 Agglomerative clustering 367
17.2.6 Density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise
(DBSCAN) clustering 368
17.3 Performance Metrics for Evaluating ML Algorithms 370
Summary 374
Exercises 374

Conceptual Questions 375

 Figures

1.1 Network types based on connection types 5

1.2 Network types based on physical topologies 7
1.3 Networked communication between two hosts following the OSI model 12
1.4 Networked communication between two hosts following the TCP/IP
suite 15
1.5 An IPv4 packet header structure 17
1.6 An IPv6 packet header structure 18
1.7 Transport layer service types during client–server data transfer 21
2.1 Data confidentiality schemes 28
2.2 A symmetric key cryptographic mechanism 31
2.3 Symmetric key cryptographic primitives 32
2.4 An asymmetric key cryptographic mechanism 34
2.5 An integrity enabling hashing mechanism 36
2.6 A mechanism for digital signing of electronic documents 37
2.7 A screenshot of a third-party certificate on a host device 38
2.8 IPSec modes 41
2.9 Position of the SSL protocol 42
2.10 Position of the transport layer security protocol 43
2.11 A simple rule-based firewall allowing selective traffic through it 45
3.1 The typical constituents of a WSN node 49
3.2 A typical WSN deployment 50
3.3 The various functional layers for a WSN communication and networking
architecture 52
3.4 The various domains of implementation of WSNs signifying its types: A)
WMSN, B) UWSN, C) WUSN, and D) MSN 56
3.5 An overview of the M2M ecosystem 58
3.6 The various features desirable in an ideal M2M platform 60
xviii Figures

3.7 M2M communication over an IP-based network 62

3.8 M2M communication over a non-IP-based network 63
3.9 The M2M service platform components and ecosystem 63
3.10 The basic overview of CPS features 66
3.11 The 5C architecture for CPS 68
4.1 10-year global trend and projection of connected devices (statistics
sourced from the Information Handling Services [7]) 76
4.2 The three characteristic features—anytime, anywhere, and anything—
highlight the robustness and dynamic nature of IoT 78
4.3 The global IoT spending across various organizations and industries and
its subsequent projection until the year 2021 (sourced from International
Data Corporation [1]) 78
4.4 The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of the IoT market (statistics
sourced from [1]) 79
4.5 The IoT market share across various industries (statistics sourced from
International Data Corporation [8]) 79
4.6 The sequence of technological developments leading to the shaping of
the modern-day IoT 80
4.7 The interdependence and reach of IoT over various application domains
and networking paradigms 82
4.8 The IoT planes, various enablers of IoT, and the complex
interdependencies among them 85
4.9 A typical IoT network ecosystem highlighting the various networking
components–from IoT nodes to the Internet 87
4.10 The IPv6 address format 90
4.11 Various IoT topology configurations. LL/L denotes the link local
addresses, LU denotes the locally unique link addresses (ULA), and LG
denotes the globally unique link addresses (GUA) 93
4.12 Various scenarios during mobility of IoT nodes and their addressing
strategies. ID-prefix denotes the point to which the IoT node is attached
to for address allocation 94
5.1 The outline of a simple sensing operation 99
5.2 The functional blocks of a typical sensor node in IoT 101
5.3 Some common commercially available sensors used for IoT-based
sensing applications 102
5.4 The different sensing types commonly encountered in IoT 105
5.5 The outline of a simple actuation mechanism 108
Figures xix

5.6 Some common commercially available actuators used for IoT-based

control applications 110
6.1 The various data generating and storage sources connected to the
Internet and the plethora of data types contained within it 116
6.2 Event detection using an on-site processing topology 118
6.3 Event detection using an off-site remote processing topology 120
6.4 Event detection using a collaborative processing topology 120
6.5 The various data generating and storage sources connected to the
Internet and the plethora of data types contained within it 123
7.1 The operational part of IEEE 802.15.4’s protocol stack in comparison to
the OSI stack 129
7.2 The various device and network types supported in the IEEE 802.15.4
standard 130
7.3 Various frame types supported in the IEEE 802.15.4 standard 131
7.4 Various communication topologies in Zigbee 132
7.5 The Zigbee protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack 133
7.6 The functional protocol stack of Thread in comparison to the OSI stack 135
7.7 Outline of the Thread network architecture (from end devices to the
cloud) 136
7.8 A typical ISA100.11A network architecture 137
7.9 The ISA100.11A protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack 138
7.10 The WirelessHART network architecture 139
7.11 The WirelessHART protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack 140
7.12 An outline of the RFID operation and communication 142
7.13 An outline of the NFC operation and communication 143
7.14 The DASH7 communication architecture 144
7.15 The DASH7 protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack 145
7.16 A typical Z-Wave deployment and communication architecture 146
7.17 The Z-Wave protocol stack 147
7.18 Typical components of the Weightless standard and its protocols 148
7.19 The Sigfox communication architecture 149
7.20 The Sigfox protocol stack in comparison to the OSI stack 150
7.21 A typical LoRa deployment and communication architecture 151
7.22 The LoRa protocol stack 152
7.23 A location of NB-IoT band within the LTE spectrum 153
xx Figures

7.24 The NB-IoT protocol stack with respect to its entities 154
7.25 The IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi stack 155
7.26 The Wi-Fi deployment architecture 155
7.27 The Bluetooth device network architecture 156
7.28 The Bluetooth protocol stack 157
8.1 Various IoT communication protocol groups 164
8.2 Differences between IPv4 and IPv6 packets and the IPv6 address notation 167
8.3 The LOADng routing mechanism 170
8.4 RPL information flow mechanism with different intra-mesh addressing
and paths 172
8.5 6LoWPAN packet structure 174
8.6 6LoWPAN address format 175
8.7 6LoWPAN header structures 176
8.8 Differences between HTTP and QUIC protocols 176
8.9 Differences between stream of packets over HTTP and QUIC protocols 177
8.10 The uIP protocol 178
8.11 The nano-IP TCP and UDP protocols 179
8.12 Content centric networking operation and its scope 180
8.13 The physical web model 182
8.14 An outline of the basic UPnP stack 184
8.15 MQTT operation and its stakeholders 185
8.16 The MQTT-SN types 188
8.17 Position of the CoAP protocol in a stack 189
8.18 Various CoAP response–response models. (A): CON and NON
messages, (B): Piggyback messages, and (C): Separate messages 190
8.19 AMQP components and their relationships 192
8.20 XMPP components 193
8.21 A representation of the position of the SOAP API in a stack 195
8.22 Working of SOAP 196
8.23 A representation of the REST style and its components 197
8.24 A representation of the position of websockets in a stack 199
8.25 The EPC representation 201
8.26 The operation of an uCode tag system 202
8.27 The representation of an URI link 203
Figures xxi

8.28 The various components of TR-069 and their inter-relations 204

8.29 Communication between an OMA-DM client and a server 206
9.1 An illustration of the various facets of interoperability in IoT 215
9.2 A representation of the major constituents of EnOcean devices 218
9.3 A representation of the various roles in a DLNA-based media streaming
application 219
9.4 A representation of the Konnex network 220
9.5 A representation of the UPnP operation 222
9.6 A representation of the LonWorks network 224
9.7 A representation of an Insteon network 225
9.8 A representation of the X-10 network 227
10.1 Network computing versus cloud computing 238
10.2 Traditional desktop versus virtualization 239
10.3 Types of virtualization 242
10.4 Cloud model 243
10.5 Service models 244
10.6 Traditional WSN versus sensor-cloud 251
10.7 Architecture of a sensor-cloud platform 252
10.8 Sensor-cloud architecture 254
11.1 Difference between cloud and fog computing 257
11.2 Difference between cloud and fog computing 259
11.3 Node view in fog computing 260
11.4 System view of fog computing 261
11.5 Software view of fog computing 263
11.6 Time sensitiveness in data 265
12.1 Architecture of agricultural IoT 272
12.2 Components of agricultural IoT 272
12.3 Use of IoT components in the agricultural chain 274
12.4 System architecture 277
12.5 Architecture: Smart irrigation management system 279
12.6 Water level sensor and processing board 280
13.1 Architecture of vehicular IoT 284
13.2 Components of vehicular IoT 285
xxii Figures

13.3 Advantages of vehicular IoT 288

13.4 Architecture of Fog-FISVER 289
14.1 Architecture of healthcare IoT 294
14.2 Components of healthcare IoT 295
14.3 Advantages and risk in healthcare IoT 298
14.4 Layered architecture of AmbuSens 301
16.1 Download Arduino from the official website 323
16.2 Save the Arduino installer file 323
16.3 Arduino IDE after installation 324
16.4 An empty Arduino sketch with predefined functions 324
16.5 Preferences setting window 325
16.6 Built-in examples from installed libraries 325
16.7 Install library from Library Manager 326
16.8 Select the port to which the board is connected 326
16.9 Select the board type 327
16.10 Install new boards from Boards Manager 327
16.11 Serial console of Arduino IDE 328
16.12 Install ESP8266 board from Boards Manager 328
16.13 Different options available on Arduino IDE editor screen 329
16.14 Circuit for connecting an LED with an Arduino board 330
16.15 Circuit for connecting DHT with NodeMCU 331
16.16 Circuit for connecting MQ-2 gas sensor with NodeMCU 332
16.17 Circuit for connecting Ultrasonic sensor with NodeMCU 333
16.18 Circuit for alarm on obstacle detection 335
16.19 Circuit for connecting servo motor to NodeMCU 336
16.20 Circuit for connecting relay to NodeMCU 337
16.21 Circuit for connecting a pulse sensor to NodeMCU 339
16.22 Official download page 341
16.23 Enable SSH (Step 1) 342
16.24 Enable SSH (Step 2) 343
16.25 GPIO pin numbering in BCM and BOARD modes 344
16.26 Circuit for connecting LED with Raspberry Pi 346
16.27 Enable camera 347
Figures xxiii

16.28 Connecting PiCam with Raspberry Pi 348

16.29 Connecting DHT sensor with Raspberry Pi 349
16.30 Connecting Arduino with Raspberry Pi 351
16.31 Arduino listed in the USB device list of Raspberry pi 352
17.1 Advantages of ML 356
17.2 Types of ML 359
17.3 Regression model 360
17.4 Example of KNN algorithm 363
17.5 Example of a decision tree algorithm 364
17.6 Example of random forest algorithm 365
17.7 Example of k-means clustering 367
17.8 Agglomerative learning 369
17.9 Example of DBSCAN clustering 371
17.10 Confusion matrix 372
CQ.1 Coordinates of the vehicles 383
CQ.2 Coordinates of the points 383
CQ.3 Coordinates of the points 384
CQ.4 Values of D, T, and N 386
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 Tables

1.1 Network topology comparison 8

1.2 Summary of the OSI layers and their features 13
1.3 Comparison of the features of TCP and UDP 22
2.1 An overview of the differences between cryptography and
steganography 29
2.2 Message encryption and decryption using a modulo k(k = 5) substitution
cipher 31
2.3 A comparative overview of various cipher types 33
2.4 A comparative overview of symmetric and asymmetric key
cryptography 35
3.1 A comparison of the WSN cross-layer management planes 54
4.1 Feature-wise difference between IPv4 and IPv6 capabilities 89
5.1 Basic outline of the differences between transducers, sensors, and
actuators 98
10.1 Components in OpenStack 248
14.1 Commonly used healthcare sensors 296
16.1 Some well-known Arduino compatible processor boards and their
features 322
17.1 Advantages and disadvantages of KNN 361
17.2 Advantages and disadvantages of decision tree 364
17.3 Advantages and disadvantages of random forest 365
17.4 Advantages and disadvantages of k-means clustering 366
17.5 Advantages and disadvantages of agglomerative clustering 367
17.6 Advantages and disadvantages of DBSCAN clustering 370
CQ.1 Data Center Configurations 376
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Foreword

The Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm has grown by leaps and bounds in the
past decade. Nowadays, IoT is a common presence in households, transportation,
markets, retail, banking, industries, education, and logistics. Yet regular innovative
developments in IoT continue to flood the market. IoT has given rise to many
interesting applications and resulted in the development of new networking
and communication technologies that are designed specifically for IoT-oriented
tasks. Manually intensive, yet crucial, domains of healthcare, agriculture, and
transportation now rely heavily on IoT applications. The inclusion of IoT applications
in these domains has resulted in facilitating their automation, enhanced safety, and
precision of operations and allowed the inclusion of scientifically optimized practices.
It is popularly considered that the rapid rise of IoT resulted from the inclusion of
the beneficial features from the paradigms and technologies of Internet computing,
cloud computing, wireless sensor networks (WSN), cyber-physical systems (CPS), and
machine-to-machine (M2M) communications. All through its development, IoT has
been supported by the popular networking paradigms in distributed systems, namely
of cloud computing and edge and fog computing. These have allowed the massive,
yet affordable, deployment of IoT across various domains. The emergence of the
recent paradigm of edge computing can be directly attributed to IoT. IoT has also
motivated the development of numerous connectivity and communication protocols
and technologies such as IPv6, MQTT, 6LoWPAN, and LoRA, amongst others.
Unlike other books on IoT, already available on the market, this book provides
detailed and interlinked coverage of topics related to IoT networks. The authors have
designed this book carefully so that it acts as a guide and a single point of reference to
IoT networks for beginners, as well as those already familiar with the technologies
connected to IoT. With applications in the domains of agriculture, healthcare,
electronics, power sector, industries, households, consumer electronics, computing,
analytics, environment, transportation, logistics, security, military, surveillance, and
many others, it is no wonder that the demand for deeper insights into IoT technologies
is increasing day by day. The involvement of people from diverse backgrounds
makes it necessary to create a concise repository of information on this new
technology. The Internet hosts much information on IoT (theory, tutorials, courses,
and implementations). However, they are so scattered that even professionals in this
field have trouble obtaining connected and concise information.

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xxviii Foreword

This book has been purposefully designed by the authors as a textbook; it gradually
exposes the readers to the technical details of IoT by first providing a primer on crucial
networking technologies, which will help new readers in this domain to comfortably
adopt and absorb the technical details of core IoT network technologies and its
associated domains. Thereafter, the book gradually shifts focus to IoT networking
technologies covering the emergence of IoT, addressing strategies in IoT, sensing and
actuation, processing topologies, connectivity technologies, communication protocols,
and interoperability. Later, this book expands its focus to cover the popular paradigms
of cloud and fog computing, along with their applications in real life. The authors
also provide real-life case studies on agriculture, healthcare, and vehicular IoT, aiming
to get new learners motivated in the practical applicability of IoT in real-world
applications. The authors have also provided chapters on IoT hardware projects and
common analytical methods/tools used in IoT.
This book is divided into five parts: 1) Introduction, 2) Internet of Things, 3)
Associated IoT Technologies, 4) IoT Case Studies, and 5) IoT Hands-on. I especially
found the following features quite attractive in this book:

(a) Preliminary and background information on networking technologies.

(b) Self-descriptive illustrations help in visualizing complicated concepts.
(c) Exercises at the end of chapters test the learner’s understanding of contents.
(d) Conceptual questions at the end of the book test the understanding of learners.
(e) Real-life use cases of IoT motivates new learns to delve deeper into IoT.
(f) A descriptive guide to building IoT-based hardware projects.

The authors of this book are globally acclaimed researchers, all of whom
have published a number of research papers in this domain in highly impactful
journals/magazines such as the IEEE Communications Magazine, IEEE Transactions
on Communications, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, IEEE Transactions on
Sustainable Computing, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, IEEE Internet of Things
Journal, Elsevier Computer Networks, IEEE Systems Journal, and many more. Sudip is
well known in the community for his research achievements in the broad domain of
Internet of Things. He has published more than a dozen books, which are published
by globally renowned publishers such as Cambridge University Press, Wiley, Springer,
World Scientific, and CRC Press. Due to his significant research contributions,
his work has been recognized with different fellowships and awards such as the
highly prestigious Abdul Kalam Technology Innovation National Fellow (India), the
Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences (India), the Fellow of IETE (India), IET
(U.K.), RSPH (U.K), IEEE Communications Society Outstanding Young Researcher
Award, Humboldt Fellowship (Germany), Faculty Excellence Award (IIT Kharagpur),
Canadian Governor General’s Academic Medal, NASI Young Scientist Award, IEI
Young Engineers Award, SSI Young Systems Scientist Award and so on. He serves
as the Editor of IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, and the Associate Editor

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Foreword xxix

of IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Computing,

IEEE Systems Journal, and IEEE Networks. He is also the IEEE Communications Society
Distinguished Lecturer for the year 2020 through 2021. Besides Sudip, the other
authors, Anandarup and Ariit, are distinguished senior researchers in Sudip’s Smart
Wireless Applications and Networking (SWAN) Lab at IIT Kharagpur. Both of them
were awarded the Gandhian Young Innovation Award (GYTI) by the President of
India in 2018 for their socially relevant innovation. They also serve as co-founders
and directors of their entrepreneurial venture Sensor Drops Networks Pvt. Ltd.
On a concluding note, I expect this book to be quite useful to a diverse variety of
readership. I am convinced that this book serves as a guide for the readers on their
journey of exploring the amazing depth of concepts, technologies, and impacts of the
Internet of Things.

Professor Schahram Dustdar

IEEE Fellow & ACM Distinguished Scientist
Vienna University of Technology (TU Vienna), Austria
Co-Editor-in-Chief, ACM Transactions on IoT

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Preface

Overview and Goals

Internet of Things (IoT) is rapidly gaining a foothold in the technology sector; it has
managed to emerge as a highly sought-after field of study and research in computing
sciences and electronics. The vastly interdisciplinary nature of the areas to which IoT
can be applied has managed to pique the interest of the whole world. IoT finds diverse
use in domains spanning industrial, military, as well as regular consumer applications.
The versatility of IoT and its ability to connect anything make it one of the most
demanded technologies of the modern age. The involvement of people from vastly
diverse and distinct backgrounds, all point to the need for a concise repository of
information on this new technology.
The Internet hosts much information on IoT, which is in the form of theory,
tutorials, courses, implementations, and others. However, these discussions are so
scattered that even professionals in this field have trouble obtaining integrated and
concise information on IoT.
IoT is a new paradigm for connecting “things” in order to automate a system.
In the context of IoT, “things” include computers, cell phones, medical devices,
vehicles, wearables, and other appliances and devices for daily use. These “things”
tend to be heterogeneous, which results in the development and existence of a
vast number of communication solutions and protocols, which vary distinctly from
each other. Consequently, communications among these “things” is a challenging
issue in IoT. Another major challenge in IoT is the dynamic nature of “mobile
things,” which generally follow a decentralized architecture. Due to this decentralized
communication and control structure, the connectivity and data transmission
dynamically changes with time, in turn resulting in a new set of challenges.

Pedagogical Aids
We have included various pedagogical aids to help the reader swiftly grasp the
contents and the treatment of the various topics covered in this book. We have
provided a set of conceptual questions at the end of this book. For solving these
questions, the reader must have completely grasped the concepts covered in this book.

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Additionally, we provide visual presentations of the chapters covered in this book so

that it can be used as a teaching aid in colleges and universities. Each chapter of this
book has the following pedagogical components:
• Learning outcomes, which gives an initial glimpse into the chapter.
• Self-descriptive illustrations, which are easy to understand.
• Check yourself exercises, which encourage readers and learners to explore
additional topics on their own. This will gradually enable the readers to easily
find terminologies, technologies, and concepts on their own as they start
understanding the more complicated parts of this book.
• Summary, which provides a concise outcome for each chapter.
• Exercises, which allow the readers of this book to brush up their knowledge at
any point in the future and also enable them to test their understanding of the
concepts/technologies covered in this book.

Organization and Features

This book holistically covers the significant aspects of IoT in detail, including
legacy and new technologies. These technological concepts form the core of IoT,
the knowledge of which is indispensable for architecting an IoT-based solution. The
entire book is written in a lucid and elementary manner, which provides readers
with a clear understanding of the scope and operation of each topic. This book is an
excellent guide for beginners, enabling them to start architecting IoT-based solutions
confidently. Keeping the need of the beginners in mind, the authors have provided
an overview of the background knowledge required for working with IoT. This
background information is supplied in Part I, which includes topics covering basics
of networking, basics of security, and predecessor technologies of IoT.
Part II of this book describes in detail the emergence of IoT and basic IoT enabling
components, including sensors, connectivity protocols, communication protocols,
and others. Each chapter in Part II describes and illustrates the various components
of an IoT architecture: sensors, actuators, processing, connectivity, communication,
and interoperability features. Physical quantifications of environmental effects and
phenomena, which are carried out by sensors, constitute one of the essential
components of IoT. These sensors can be heterogeneous and are classified according
to their functionalities and usage as scalar, multimedia, hybrid, and virtual sensors,
which are used to sense various parameters in an IoT architecture. The planned
deployment of sensor nodes in an area of interest is one of the crucial issues in IoT,
which aims to minimize the energy consumption of these devices and facilitate the
quick processing of sensor data. Other tasks include the geographical representation
of sensor placement and connectivity establishment among them, which is also
referred to as the topology. Thus, this book sheds some light on the different sensor
types and the working procedure, which are commonly used in an IoT architecture.

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Preface xxxiii

The sensed data needs to be stored and continually updated in memory locations
for further processing. As per requirement, a user has the option of utilizing the
sensed information as either structured or unstructured data. In IoT, the where
and how of processing is another critical issue. Therefore, the correct processing
technique needs to be selected accordingly. This book covers the processing techniques
required for IoT. The transmission of this processed IoT data between devices is
mostly dependent on various communication and connectivity protocols. The authors
illustrate and discuss these connectivity protocols in detail, which is lucid to both
experts as well as novice audiences. Some of these discussed protocols have been
developed, primarily due to various developments in IoT and its architectures.
After successful establishment of connectivity between two or more IoT nodes, the
subsequent steps involve establishing communication between these nodes. These
nodes may be tasked with either sensing, actuation, or both functions with specific
requirements concerning packetization, addressing, reliability, security, and other
such measures. The authors discuss these needs by describing a significant number
of communication protocols in a separate chapter dedicated to these communication
protocols. Finally, Part II discusses the various types of interoperability and their
importance concerning IoT and its technologies. As IoT involves the inclusion
of legacy, present, and upcoming technologies, the primary challenge lies in the
integration of hardware and software platforms, which are provided by various
original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) following their proprietary solutions and
technologies. Consequently, the inclusion of these devices into a single platform
is a non-trivial task. Therefore, the establishment of connectivity among these
diverse devices in IoT becomes a challenging issue. The paradigm of device and
software interoperability is introduced to the readers, which highlights the urgency of
equipment, technology, communication, and protocol standardization in the context of
IoT. The authors discuss the challenges of interoperability along with its other aspects
resulting in the shaping of the readers’ perspective; this would enable them to come up
with IoT solutions and architectures, keeping the present and future interoperability
challenges in mind.
In a traditional IoT architecture, there is the option to store the sensed data
from heterogeneous sensor nodes in various locations such as locally on the devices,
on a remote server, on a fog, or a cloud. Part III of this book primarily covers
cloud, fog, and edge computing. An IoT architecture consists of a large variety of
different, multipurpose, and multifunctional devices. The authors of this book ensure
that each of these storage schemes is described individually. Cloud computing, yet
another crucial technology, plays a vital role in handling the massive amounts of data
generated by these IoT devices. A cloud enables the features of enormous storage
capabilities, processing resources, and unification of data on a single platform. This
book elucidates the idea of cloud computing in a simplified manner. A few topics
of cloud computing, primarily focused on its applicability in the context of IoT, are
discussed. Additionally, various service models are briefly discussed as they are used
with traditional cloud computing. To mitigate the issues of latency in data processing

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xxxiv Preface

in a cloud, which can be crucial for applications such as healthcare, the authors also
include brief overviews of fog and edge computing. The authors cover the different
aspects of fog computing, starting from fundamental issues to issues relating to its
architecture along with suitable use-cases in this book.
After discussing the technical details of IoT and its backbone technologies, the
authors highlight different application domains of IoT, such as agriculture, vehicular,
and healthcare. These typical application domains of IoT are discussed in Part IV
of this book as case-studies. Each chapter covers the application domains one-by-
one employing real-life use-cases. These use-cases provide a clear idea about the real
implementation of IoT in each application domain. This part is designed to enable both
beginners, as well as advanced readers, to understand the needs, implementation,
technologies, solutions, and implications of sustainable IoT architectures and solutions
described in Parts I–III. Finally, the last chapter of this part concludes the various
theoretical and practical aspects of IoT, its components, and architectures, with a
discussion on newly emerging paradigms and various enabling ones.
Finally, Part V of this book is designed to further strengthen the readers’ grasp on
concepts through hands-on experience with IoT applications. The authors make use
of commonly available hardware, including sensors, actuators, and processor boards,
to demonstrate various sample integrations. These sample integrations are designed
to enable readers to envision complicated device integrations and form complex
IoT network architectures. Basic knowledge of Arduino and Python programming
is required for pursuing this part. However, for readers with no prior experience
in these languages, the hands-on section provides sample codes and explains the
functionality of the integrations and its various aspects. Another chapter focuses on
data informatics and analytics popularly used in IoT. The various types of analytics
and terminologies associated with them are outlined; this chapter provides new
readers and knowledge-seekers a starting point into IoT analytics.
All the chapters in this book are accompanied by a set of basic questions on
the topics covered in that chapter. However, the last part of this book contains a
consolidated set of conceptual questions, which will require the readers to access
various sources, besides this book, to be able to address them. This exercise will
train the readers to selectively choose from the vast amount of information available
elsewhere, and sieve the ones most crucial to their current problem.

Target Audience
This book primarily targets the undergraduate and postgraduate technical readers
who are either looking to delve into the growing domain of IoT or are taking
IoT targeted introductory as well as advanced courses. This book is additionally
designed to address the curious, non-technical reader, as well as working professionals
from non-computer science and electronics domains, enabling them to pick up the
necessary concepts and terminologies associated with IoT. This multifaceted book

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Preface xxxv

can also be used as a quick reference introducing the concepts and challenges in IoT
research, which may be of significant use to working professionals, academicians as
well as researchers across various industries.

Suggested Use of This Book

This book has been designed to be used both as a textbook as well as a reference book.
Undergraduate students taking an introductory course on IoT will need to first go
through the introductory part, which consists of the basics of networking, security,
and similar technologies preceding IoT. The solving of the exercises at the end of each
chapter and the conceptual questions at the end of this book would serve as a good
indicator of the undergraduate reader’s progress in grasping the concepts covered in
this book. Working professionals in other domains and new learners (not familiar with
networking and the nuances of computing sciences) can follow the same approach.
Postgraduate and research students in electronics, computer sciences, electrical
engineering, and other similar domains can use this book directly from the second
part, as they would already be aware of the introductory concepts. Working
professionals in the allied domains of electronics and computer sciences can also
follow the same protocol for this book as the postgraduate students. This book will
also serve as a ready reference for the numerous topics included in it and which are
commonly encountered in designing IoT-based solutions.
Finally, the curious reader who aims to work on IoT, without having any prior
knowledge of this domain and computer sciences, should first peruse the fourth part
of this book, which covers various real-life case studies of IoT in various domains.
This will help the reader understand the usability of IoT in the context of the unique
challenges faced for each domain. The reader can also gain additional exposure to
IoT through the last part, which presents a hands-on approach to building IoT-based
solutions through a set of very concise and interesting experiments. The experiments
are aimed at both new as well as advanced learners.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Ms. Nidhi Pathak and Mr. Pallav Deb, who
are doctoral research scholars at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
India. They have been instrumental in helping with various hardware and software
implementations used in this book. Additionally, the authors would like to thank
the various scholars/researchers in the Smart Wireless Applications and Networking
(SWAN) Lab. for taking time out to go through this work and suggest improvements.
The authors sincerely acknowledge the role of various, regular as well as online,
students of Professor Misra’s course Architecting Protocols for the Internet of Things and

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xxxvi Preface

his popular MOOC Introduction to IoT, which is hosted online by NPTEL (India).
Finally, the authors are grateful to their families for being understanding and patient.

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PART ONE
INTRODUCTION

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Chapter 1
Basics of Networking

Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to:
• Understand the basic principles of computer networking
• List the basic terminologies and technologies
• Relate new concepts of IoT with the basics of networking
• Discuss various network configurations and topologies
• Explain various OSI (open systems interconnections) and TCP/IP (transmission
control protocol/Internet protocol) layers and their associated uses
• Describe basics of network addressing

1.1 Introduction
In the present era of data- and information-centric operations, everything—right from
agriculture to military operations—relies heavily on information. The quality of any
particular information is as good as the variety and strength of the data that generates
this information. Additionally, the speed at which data is updated to all members of
a team (which may be a group of individuals, an organization, or a country) dictates
the advantage that the team has over others in generating useful information from
the gathered data. Considering the present-day global scale of operations of various
organizations or militaries of various countries, the speed and nature of germane
information are crucial for maintaining an edge over others in the same area. To sum it
up, today’s world relies heavily on data and networking, which allows for the instant
availability of information from anywhere on the earth at any moment.
Typically, networking refers to the linking of computers and communication
network devices (also referred to as hosts), which interconnect through a network

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4 Introduction to Internet of Things

(Internet or Intranet) and are separated by unique device identifiers (Internet protocol,
IP addresses and media access control, MAC addresses). These hosts may be
connected by a single path or through multiple paths for sending and receiving data.
The data transferred between the hosts may be text, images, or videos, which are
typically in the form of binary bit streams [1].

Points to ponder

• The data generated from a camera sensor tells us more about a scene compared
to the data generated from, say, a proximity sensor, which only detects the
presence of people in its sensing range.
• Furthermore, the simultaneous data generated from multiple cameras focusing
on the same spot from various angles tell us even more about the scene than
a single camera focused at that scene.

As the primary aim of this chapter is to provide the reader with an overview of
networking, we have structured the text in such a manner that the general concepts
are covered. Additional Check yourself suggestions to review various associated
technologies are provided along with the topics.
We start our discussion with the different types of networks, followed by an
overview of two popularly used layered network models: ISO-OSI (the open systems
interconnection developed by the International Organization of Standardization) and
TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) suite. Subsequently, we will
touch upon the various types of addressing mechanisms and set up the basic premise
of how a message is transmitted between two devices/computers/hosts.

1.2 Network Types

Computer networks are classified according to various parameters: 1) Type of
connection, 2) physical topology, and 3) reach of the network. These classifications
are helpful in deciding the requirements of a network setup and provide insights into
the appropriate selection of a network type for the setup.

1.2.1 Connection types

Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer networks are
of two types—(Figure 1.1): Point-to-point and Point-to-multipoint.

(i) Point-to-point: Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct

connections between two hosts. Day-to-day systems such as a remote control
for an air conditioner or television is a point to point connection, where the
connection has the whole channel dedicated to it only. These networks were

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Basics of Networking 5

designed to work over duplex links and are functional for both synchronous as
well as asynchronous systems. Regarding computer networks, point to point
connections find usage for specific purposes such as in optical networks.

Point-to-point link

Host A Host B

Point-to-point link

Host C Host D
(a) Point-to-point

Point-to-multipoint links

Host B

Host A Host C

Host D
(b) Point-to-multipoint

Figure 1.1 Network types based on connection types

Point-to-point Requests for Comments (RFCs)

The following requests for comments (RFCs) are associated with point-
to-point communication and its derivatives. RFC 1332: point-to-point
(PPP) Internet protocol control protocol (IPCP); RFC 1661: PPP; RFC
5072: IP Version 6 over PPP; RFC 2516: PPP over Ethernet; RFC 1963:
PPP serial data transport protocol; RFC 1962: PPP compression control
protocol (CCP); RFC 1990: PPP multilink protocol (MP); RFC 2615: PPP
over SONET/SDH (synchronous optical networking/synchronous digital
hierarchy).

(ii) Point-to-multipoint: In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts

share the same link. This type of configuration is similar to the one-to-many
connection type. Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in wireless
networks and IP telephony. The channel is shared between the various hosts,

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