Ethnological study of otter to assess bygone and current

evidences of otters in Budigandaki River, Nepal

Researcher
Aarati Basnet
Tribhuvan University
B.Sc. Forestry, Final year
Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus

Advisor
Jyoti Bhandari, PhD.
Assistant Professor
Co-Advisor Co-Advisor
Paras Mani Acharya Yajna Prashad Timilsina
Professor Associate Professor

PROJECT PAPER SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY

May, 2019
© Aarati Basnet

2019

Email: aaratibasnet662@gmail.com

Tribhuvan University

Institute of Forestry, Pokhara

Campus

Pokhara
Nepal

Website:

www.iofpc.edu.np

Post Box No: 43

Citation
Basnet, A. (2019). Ethnological study of otter to assess bygone and current evidences
of otters in Budigandaki River, Nepal. A Thesis submitted to Tribhuvan University,
Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal for the partial fulfillment for
the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry.
Letter of Acceptance
 DECLARATION

I Aarati Basnet, hereby declare that this project paper entitled “Ethnological study
of otter to assess bygone and current evidences of otters in Budigandaki
River, Nepal” is a presentation of my original study. Wherever contribution of
others are involved, every effort is made to indicate this clearly with due
references to the literature, and the acknowledgement of the collaborative research
and discussions.

The results presented in this project paper have not been submitted previously to this
or any other university for a BSc. or any other degree.

…………………………..
Aarati Basnet
Batch: 2071-2075
Roll no: 29

I
 Acknowledgement:

I thank all who in one way or another contributed in the completion of this thesis. First,
I give thanks to God for protection and ability to do work.

My sincere thanks go to Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation

(SMCRF) for the funding. I am thankful to Department of Forest (DOF) for granting
permission to carry out this research in Budigandaki River, Gorkha.

I would like to express my sincere and hearty gratitude to my advisor, Assistant

Professor Mrs. Jyoti Bhandari for her humble support, incredible guidance, advice and
invaluable encouragement throughout the study. I would like to extent my sincerest
thanks to my co-advisor Professor Paras mani Acharya for his constant guidance and
continuous support during my study period. I would like to thank my co-advisor
associate professor Yajna Prashad Timilsina for his constructive comments and
suggestions.
Nevertheless, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Prashant Ghimire for
his insightful comments, motivation and field assistantship. I thank my friend Bhuwan
Singh Bista for providing me with Field gears, assisting me on field and encouraging me.

I place on record, my sincere thank you to Melissa Savage for her continuos
encouragement and guidance. I am also extremely thankful to Sanjan Thapa and Sagar
Dahal for their guidance and support.

Besides, I would like to thank my dear friends Aakriti Sapkota, Shistata Bagale, Samjana
panthi, Manita khanal and all other friends for their feedback, support and
encouragement.

I am greatly indebted to the Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus. I owe a debt of

gratitude to all the authors of literature cited. Last but not the least; I would like to
thank my family for supporting me doing this research and my life in general.

II
Abstract:

Confirmation made by past literatures on presence of otter’s (Lutra lutra) in Gorkha

district was topic of debate. Thus, a study was carried out recently in Budigandaki River
of Nepal to find out bygone and current evidences of Otters as well as to understand
ethno-otter relationship. The study was undertaken from November 2018 to March
2019 in two rural municipalities of Gorkha district. Questionnaire survey (n = 70) was
conducted to understand ethno otter relationship. Key informants survey (n =10), Spoor
survey (n= 7km) and camera trap survey (7 camera traps) were conducted; however no
evidence was reported and recorded during field visit. Also many locals were confused
on otter with crab eating mongoose which was recorded in our camera trap. The study
revealed that the distribution of otters along the watersheds has diminished compared
to few decades back. Most of the young generations have not sighted otter though living
in proximity to river basin and the old generations have not sighted them since few
decades back.

Anthropogenic threats and habitat degradation has threatened the survival of otters
thus, If timely intervention is not carried out, it is likely that otters will be in verge of
extinction from Nepal.

Key words: Otters, ethnology, people’s perception, evidences, threats.

III
Acronyms

BNP Bardia National Park

CITES Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species
DNPWC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
DOF Department Of Forest
GIS Geographic Information System
GON Government of Nepal
GPS Global Positioning System
IOF Institute of Forestry
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
PA Protected Area
SMCRF Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation
SNP Shuklaphanta National Park
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Science

IV
 Contents
DECLARATION ....................................................................................... I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................... II
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................III
ACRONYMS ...........................................................................................IV
List of figures ........................................................................................ VIII
List of tables ........................................................................................... IX
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...................................................................1
1.1Background.............................................................................................1
1.2 Rationale of the study…………………………………………………………………….…….2
1.3 Objectives of the study .……………………………………………………………….….….3
1.4 Limitation of the study………………………………………….……….…………….…...….3

CHAPTER TWO: LITERRATURE REVIEW ..................................................4

2.1Introduction…………………………………………………………..…….…....................... 4
2.2 Evolution and Classification.....................................................................4
2.3 Habitat of otters……….............................................................................. 6
2.4 Distribution of otters in Nepal ……………………………………………..……………..…6
2.5 Legal status…………………………………………………………………………….....………….7
2.6 Relationship with human……………………………………………………..…….…………..8

CHAPTER 3: STUDY AREA ..........................................................................10

V
3.1 Study area…………………………………………………………………………………....10
3.1.1 Bhimsen Rural Municipality………………………………………………….…….10
3.1.2 Sahid lakhan rural municipality………………………………………….……....10

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLODGY………………………………….……………………14
4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………14
4.2 Research design………………………………………………………..…………………….14
4.3 Selection of the study area and respondents……………………………….....15
4.3.1 Site selection criteria……………………………………………..…………………….16
4.4 Primary data collection….…………………………….……….……………..………….16
4.4.1 Preliminary survey……………………………………….……………………………..16
4.4.2 Questionnaire survey…………………………………………………………..……..16
4.4.3 Key Informants Interview…………………………………………………………….17
4.4.4 Spoor survey……………………………………………………………………………….17
4.4.5 Purposive Camera Trapping………………………………………………………..18
4.5 Secondary data collection………………………………………………….……………18
4.6 Data analysis…………………………………………………………………………………..19
4.6.1 Analysis of the perception……………………………………………….…………..19

CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………………………………...20

5.1 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents………………………….20
5.1.1 Gender…………………………………………………………………………………….……20
5.1.2 Age structure of respondents………………………………………………………..20
5.1.3 Ethnic composition of respondents (Caste)……………………………………21
5.1.5 Education level of respondents........................................................22
5.2 Respondents’ home to river distance………………………………………….…....23
VI
5.3 Perception towards decreasing otters’ population…………….……….…24
5.4 Conservation perspectives………………………………………………………..……25
5.4.1 Recognition of otters by respondents……………………………….…………25
5.4.2 Habitat of otter as per the respondents……………………..……………....26
5.4.3 Otters are found in your area……………………………………………..……....28
5.4.4 Otters are declining rapidly in present…………………….……………………29
5.4.5 Otters were found abundantly in past……………………..…………………..29
5.4.6 I have seen people killing otters……………………………………………………30
5.4.7 It is important to educate people about otter…………………..…….......30
5.4.8 Otters are beneficial to human beings………………………………….…......31
5.4.9 Otters should be protected by law to increase its population………..32
5.4.10 Otters should be conserved for future generation……………………….33
5.4.11 I have seen people using Otters parts as medicine…………………..…..33
5.4.12 Otters are harmful to environment/ farmers……………………….……...34
5.4.13 Most of the people in my locality do not know about otter………….34
5.4.14 Have you seen otter? (Gender wise)…….…………………………..………….35
5.5 Purposive camera trapping………………………………………………..……………...35
5.6 Spoor survey……………………………………………………………….…………..…….….37
5.7 Anthropogenic factor……………………………………………………….………..……..38
5.8Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………….…...39
5.8.1 Conservation threats to otter in study area………………………………….…40

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION……….....……….41

6.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..……….……...41
6.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………….…….42

VII
References………………………………………………………………………………..…….………42
Annex 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………….47
Annex 2………………………………………………………………………….……………………..….51
SOME PHOTO PLATES ………………………………………………………………..………….52

List of figures
Figure 1: Location map of study area……………………………………………………………11
Figure 2: Study area location on Google earth………………………………………………12
Figure 3: Location of camera traps and transects within study area………..…….13
Figure 4: Gender of respondents………………………………………………………….……....20
Figure 5: Age category of respondents…………………………………………………………..21
Figure 6: Ethnic composition of respondents………………………………….……………..22
Figure 7: Education level of respondents……………………………………………………….23
Figure 8: Home to river distance of the respondents……………………………………..23
Figure 9: Respondents' response on "Otters are increasing or decreasing?".....24
Figure 10: Major causes of population decline of otters as per the
respondents....................................................................................................25
Figure 11: Respondents' response on “Do you know about otters?"…………….…26
Figure 12: Respondents' response on, “Where do the otters live?"……………......27
Figure 13: Respondents' response on “In which season do you see
otters most abundantly?"………………………………………………………......................…28

VIII
 Lists of tables
Table 1: Otters are found in your area ………………………………………………........…..28
Table 2: Otters are declining rapidly in present………………………………………………29
Table 3: Otters were found abundantly in past…………………………………………….…29
Table 4: I have seen people killing otters………………………………………………………..30
Table 5: It is important to educate people about otters……………….………………….31
Table 6: Otters are beneficial to human beings……………………………………..………..31
Table 7: Otters should be protected by law to increase its population…………….32
Table 8: Otters should be conserved for future generation……………………….…....33
Table 9: I have seen people using Otters parts as medicine ………………..………….33
Table 10: Otters are harmful to environment/ farmers……………………….………….34
Table 11: Most of the people in my locality do not know about otter…………...34
Table 12: Gender * have you seen otter? ........................................................35
Table 13: Captured Fauna: Local name, Common name, their scientific name,
Family, order, elevation, level of human disturbance and IUCN status………….…36
Table 14: Camera stations Description with elevation, dominant species
number of days and species trapped…………………………………………………………….…37
Table 15: Human disturbance level…………………………………………………...……………37
Table 16: spoor survey……………………………………………………………………….…………..38

IX
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction and Background
Otters are one of the most elusive carnivorous mammals in the subfamily Lutrinae of mustelid
family. They are semi aquatic and nocturnal animal that are rarely seen (Kruuk, 2006). Otters
are top predators and important biological indicators of the wetland health. They are
essentially associated with freshwater lakes, ponds, rivers, canals, streams and undisturbed
forest and shrub land adjacent to the water bodies for security (Bhandari, J. and G.C. DB.
2008).Representing the top of the food chain of the freshwater ecosystem, otters are often
regarded as indicator species (NEF, 1996) and keystone species (Kruuk, 2006) for intact healthy
wildlife habitats in the South-east and South Asian regions. Thirteen species of otters are found
in the world. Among them five species of otters are found in Asia and three species of otters are
found in Nepal. They are Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), smooth coated otter (Lutrogale
perspicillata) and small clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea). Otters represent 1.6% of mammals cited
in the country (Kafle, 2009) but there is almost no information regarding their status and
ecology of otters besides few preliminary studies in Nepal (Houghton, 1987; Acharya and
gurung, 1994; Thapa 2002; Kafle 2007; Bhandari 2008; Joshi 2009; Bhandari and GC 2008; Kafle
2008). The presences of otters have been confirmed in 24 districts of Nepal covering both
lowland and hilly regions including Gorkha district (Kafle, 2009). However there is still
conflicting debate due to lack of reliable confirmation.

As anthropogenic activities can exert great direct or indirect influence on the local fauna, these
interactions must be taken into account when conservation actions are being considered (Alves
et al.2010b, c; 2008; Alves and Albuquerque 2012). Cultures across the world have over time
developed characteristic ways of interacting with their regional fauna (Alves, 2012). Thus,
attempt was made for finding historical evidence of presence/ absence of otters, identification
of the otter species and understanding ethno-otter relationship in Budigandaki river of Gorkha
district.

1.2 Rationale of the study

1
The presence of otters outside the protected areas has increased vulnerability as the proper
protection outside the protected area is lacking. Otters have been hunted almost to extinction
in many places of the country for pelts, uterus, meat, by fish pond owners as threat to fish. In
recent decades, its populations have probably declined as a consequence of hunting and the
overall loss of natural habitats (Acharya and Gurung, 1994). Apart from these, overfishing,
poisoning, industrial pollution, sand and boulder extraction, construction of large hydro-electric
dams are also causative agents assisting in declining otters population (Acharya and
Rajbhandari, 2012). According to IUCN Red List Assessment, Eurasian otters are globally
categorized as Near Threatened and smooth coated otters and small clawed otters are
categorized as Vulnerable. Likewise, Eurasian otters, smooth coated otters and small clawed
otters are kept under Appendix 1, Appendix 2 and Appendix 2 respectively. If timely
intervention is not carried out, it is likely that otters will be in verge of extinction from Nepal
(Kafle, 2008).Budigandaki Hydropower project on the Budhi Gandaki River has been initiated
recently in Gorkha and Dhading districts in Western/ Central Development region of Nepal
(GON, 2019).The construction of hydroelectric dams has been considered a threat to semi-
aquatic mammal population that dwell partly or entirely in bodies of water due to significant
alterations to the environment that has transformed from lotic to lentic (Carter and Rosas,
1997; Leuchtenberger et al, 2013). This is one of the causative agents assisting in declining
otter’s population (Acharya and Rajbhandari, 2012). Inclusion of a long-term ecological
perspective can provide a more scientifically defensible basis for conservation decisions than
the one based only on contemporary records (Willis et al. 2007). Ethno-biological studies have
shown that native or local populations have a deep knowledge of nature and of the biological
resources they use/ interact (Alves et al. 2013a, 2010d; Alves and Rosa 2013; Begossi et al.
1999; Hanazaki et al. 2009; Maass 1999; Mourão et al. 2006; Mourão and Nordi 2002, 2006;
Nishida et al. 2006a; Nishida et al. 2006b). Ethno- otter survey can aid in documentations of
myths, Beliefs (Vangla et al., 1999) and historical evidences of otters.

2
1.3 Objectives of the study

The general objective of this research is to assess evidences of otters from Budigandaki River
while its specific objectives are as follows:

• To assess bygone and current evidence of otters in Budigandaki river.

• To understand ethno-otter relationship.

1.4 Limitation of the study

Some of the limitations of the research are as follows:

 Live-monitoring of otter was not possible because of their scarcity, nocturnal and
elusive nature.

 Spraints and pugmarks could have erased by the river.

 Field monitoring is seasonal, which may have affected detectability of species.

 The study could not cover whole stretch of river because of lack of the budget and time
constraint.

 This study has been carried out for the partial fulfillment of the requirement of the B.Sc
Forestry course. Therefore, detailed research was not conducted.
 Inadequate relevant literatures regarding the subject matter.

3
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Otters form a well-marked group within the carnivore mammalian family Mustelidae, adapted
for a semi-aquatic life. They are grouped under a sub-family of Lutrinae. Lutrinae is a branch of
the Mustelidae family, which includes badgers, martens, wolverines, and mink among others.
(Foster-Turly and Santiapillai 1990, Hussain 1993, Prater 1998, Reuther 1999, IUCN otter
specialist group). They are amphibious, foraging largely in aquatic habitats, both freshwater and
marine, though they also take terrestrial prey. The fur is thick and waterproof, with two types
of hair. There is a dense under fur which traps an insulating layer of air and remains dry while
the otter is swimming. The longer, overlying guard hairs are waterproof. They are highly
adopted aquatic hunters and semi-aquatic mammals with long, sinuous and stream-lined
bodies with flat tails, webbed feet, small ears and flattened head. The legs are short and, in the
majority of species, the five-toed paws are webbed. The broad muzzle is surrounded by long,
stiff whiskers, which are thought to be used in searching for prey (Mason, 1990; Bhandari and
G.C. 2008). Otters, the ambassadors of aquatic bodies play a vital ecological role by indicating
the health of these threatened ecosystems (Gupta et al., 2016).

2.2 Evolution and Classification

There is scientific evidence to suggest Otters have been on Earth for the past 30 million years
and over the years have undergone subtle changes to the carnivore bodies to exploit the rich
aquatic environment (IOSF, 2019; otter world, 2019). In the world, there are 13 extant species
of otter with seven genera (IT IS). The classification of otters according to Integrated Taxonomic
Information System (ITIS) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is as
follows:

Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Bilateria

4
Infrakingdom: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Superclass: Tetrapoda
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Caniformia
Family: Mustelidae
Subfamily: Lutrinae
Genera & species:

 Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra)

 African Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis)
 Asian Small-clawed Otter (Aonyx cinereus)
 Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris)
 Marine Otter (Lontra felina)
 Neotropical Otter (Lontra longicaudis)
 Spotted Necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis formerly Lutra maculicollis)
 Giant Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis)
 Southern River Otter (Lontra provocax)
 North American River Otter (Lontra canadensis)
 Smooth coated Otter (Lutrogale perspicillata)
 Hairy nosed Otter (Lutra sumatrana)
 Congo Clawless Otter (Aonyx congicus)

Of these 13 species, five species of otter: Smooth Coated Otters, Asian Small Clawed Otter
and Eurasian Otter, hairy-nosed otter and sea otter inhabit the Asian wetlands(I0SF,

5
 2019) and three species of otter: Smooth Coated Otters, Asian Small Clawed Otter and
Eurasian Otter are found in Nepal (Kafle,2007).

2.3 Habitat of Otters:

Otters are found on all continents of the world except for Australia and Antarctica. They are
semi aquatic and nocturnal animals that are rarely seen. It is an animal of larger water
bodies, especially rivers and dams, favoring rocky shores or banks with dense vegetation,
also occurring along sea shores and in mangroves area. They tend to stick to the shallow
waters so that they can easily reach land when they are ready to. They need undisturbed
forest and shrub land adjacent to the water bodies for security. They make Holt (den) in
natural cavities underneath large boulders or in caves or dig tunnels for themselves, or
make a large covered couch in dense vegetation. They are also found in dens that beavers
may have left behind (Kruuk, 2006; Bhandari and G.C., 2008; otter world, 2019 Bradford,
2019).

2.4 Distribution of otters in Nepal:

Eurasian otters:

It has been reported as occurring as high as 3600m in Nepal (Shrestha, 1997). During summer
(April - June) in the Himalayas they may ascend up to 3,660m. These upward movements
probably coincide with the upward migration of the carp and other fish for spawning. With the
advent of winter the otters come down to lower altitudes (Prater opus cit.). In most parts of its
range, its occurrence is correlated with bank side vegetation, which shows the importance of
vegetation to otters (Mason and Macdonald, 1985 in Ruiz-Olmo et al., 2008). This species is
reported from Annapurna Conservation Area, Makalu Braun National Park, Lake, Bardia
National Park, Koshi Tappu wetland and districts of Saptari,Sunsari, Chitwan, Kapilvastu,
Bardia,Bara,Kailali, Kanchanpur, Bajhang, Bajura, Ilam, Panchthar, Gorkha, Lamjung, Myagdi,
Solokhumbu, Manang,Taplejung and Sankhuwasabha (BPP 1995; Kafle,2009). It is also recorded
from Arun River, Seti River and its tributaries, Bhote Kosi and Tama Kosi ( pers. comm. Karan
Saha, 2011). The species has also been reported from Kanchenjunga region and West Seti River

6
(Yonzon 1996; 1998) and from Lake Rara (Bolton 1976; DNPWC 2007) of Rara National Park.
The species has been sighted from Rupa and Begnas lakes of Pokhara valley in the central Nepal
(Acharya and Gurung, 1991; 1994).

Smooth coated otter:

These species are present up to 1500m (Shrestha, 1997). These otters are the most widely
distributed species in Nepal, present at least in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Bardia
National Park, Chitwan National Park, Sukla Phanta National park, Makalu Barun National park,
Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Ghodaghodi Lake Area, Jagadishpur Reservoir, farmland in the
Lumbini Area, Rani Lake in Kanchanpur, the Karnali river in Bardia, Beeshazari and associated
lakes, Banke, Dang, Nawalparasi, Bardia, Kailali, Chitwan, Sunsari, Kapilvastu, Kanchanpur,
Kaski, Lamjung and Saptari (BPP, 1995; Kafle, 2009). The smooth-coated otter has been
reported as present in the major river basins of Nepal: Koshi, Narayani, Karnali and Mahakali
(Shrestha, 2003). Otter signs have been also recorded from river Rapti near its confluence with
the river Narayani (Acharya, 1998).The species was also captured in the camera in Bahunne
creek of Suklaphanta Wildlife reserve (Uba Raj Regmi, Pers. Comm. 2011).

Small-clawed otters:

These species has been recorded up to about 1300m. Hodgson in (1839) mentioned the
occurrence of small-clawed otter from Nepal but not the exact location. The distribution of this
species is still unknown in Nepal, as the available information is unsubstantial. Few localities are
suspected for the occurrence for this otter, such as from Kailali and Kapilvastu (Kafle, 2009;
Acharya and Rajbhandari, 2011).

2.5 Legal status:

According to IUCN, Eurasian otters are near threatened, smooth coated otters and small clawed
otters are vulnerable. Likewise, Eurasian otters are kept under Appendix 1 and smooth coated
otters and small clawed otters are kept under Appendix 2 by CITES. The amendment (2002) of
the Aquatic Life Protection Act 1961 has given legal protection to Eurasian otter and smooth
coated otter which gave an ample opportunity for the protection of these two species of otter.

7
Although all the three species are not included in the protected list under the National Parks
and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, the act restricts to killing, hunting and capturing as well as
imposition of rules and regulations to curve illegal trade (Acharya and Rajbhandari, 2011).

2.6 Relation with humans:

Hunting and trading: Otters have been hunted almost to extinction in many places of the
country for pelts, uterus (medicinal value), meat, and also by fish pond owners as they consider
otters as threat to fish (Acharya and Gurung, 1994; Acharya, 1997, 2006). Otters have also been
hunted using dogs, specifically the otter hound (British pathy, 2017). The trades in otters are
chiefly known because their pelts are often sold alongside other high-value wildlife products,
such as tiger skins. Otters are prized for their luxurious fur, made into clothing for consumers in
China, particularly in the Tibet Autonomous Region. The tails of otters were often made into
items for men to wear. These included hats and belts. Even some types of mittens for children
have been made from the fur of otters. The clandestine nature of the illegal trade means that
the true scale is far greater than seizure numbers reveal (Gomez et al., 2016, otter-world,
2009).

Otter fishing: In India, Burma, south-west China, Malaysia, Sumatra and Bangladesh, the
“smooth otter” has been used by fisherman to drive fish into nets. In more temperate Asia,
countries such as Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and Sumatra, the Eurasian otter has been used for
fishing as it has in Europe and northern Africa (Medway, 1978). Young animals of 3-4 months of
age are caught and trained like dogs. The otter can become very tame and trusting and will stay
with his master during some 15 or 16 years of active fishing. The normal practice was for the
otter to be muzzled to prevent its eating the fish and fastened by a line to its master. Released
into the water, it scares the fish and chase them into set nets, or else encircle them over dip
nets set in the river. Then when sufficient fish were over the net, the catch and otter were
hauled in together (Walton, 1950).

Mythology: Otters are considered lucky and totem animals in many Native American cultures
and the otter is a symbol of loyalty and honesty in some West Coast tribes, but in northern
British Columbia and the Alaskan coast, river otters (usually called "land-otters") were
8
associated with ghosts and drowning and were regarded by the people with awe and dread.
Whereas, the Zoroastrian people believe that it is against nature and their gods to kill the Otter.
They would hold ceremonies for those that they found dead in the wild as well. In Korea, it is
believed that a person who sees an otter will forever after attract rain clouds as a fate. In
Japanese, otters are called "kawauso". In Japanese folklore, they fool humans in the same way
as foxes (kitsune) and Japanese raccoon dogs (tanuki). In China, like in Japan, there are stories
where otters shapeshift into beautiful women in old books like “In Search of the Supernatural”
and the “Zhenyizhi” (otter-world, 2019; nativelanguage,2019; Luckins, 2016; Ainu legends,
2000).

9
 CHAPTER THREE: STUDY AREA

3.1 Study area

The proposed study was conducted in Budigandaki river of Gorkha district of western Nepal.
Gorkha is one of the seventy-five districts of Nepal. It covers an area of 3,610 km².
Geographically, it lies in hilly region but also occupies some part of Himalayan region. The
altitude of Gorkha ranges from below 300 m the lowest land to 6,400m. Due to the variation in
geography, climate varies in Gorkha. The climate varies from lower tropical through subtropical,
temperate and alpine to trans-Himalayan. The district lies at the meeting point between the
western and eastern Himalayan floristic regions (Singh and Singh, 1987). Due to such variations
in climate and geography, Gorkha is rich in biodiversity. Mountains like Manaslu, Himalchuli,
and Ganesh also lie in Gorkha. Four major rivers Chepe, Daraudi, Marsyangdi, and Budhi
Gandaki run within and along it. The Budigandaki river is a tributary of Gandaki river in Nepal
located in Gorkha and Dhanding district. It meets Narayani river at Devghat of Chitwan District.
Budigandaki river has latitude: 27.805833 and longitude: 84.748893. The district consists of
11 Municipalities, out of which two are urban municipalities and nine are rural municipalities.
The area was selected on the basis of primary information and data i.e. the presence and
absence of this species in the site in Budigandaki river of Gorkha district. The study area was
carried out in two rural municipalities:

3.1.1 Bhimsen Rural Municipality

3.1.2 Sahid lakhan rural municipality

10
Figure 1: Location map of study area

11
Figure 2: Study area location on Google earth

12
Figure 3: Location of camera traps and transects within study area

13
CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY

4.1 Introduction

The selections of appropriate methods are the most important part of any type of research.
This study applies both qualitative and quantitative approaches to achieve the research
objectives. A series of attempts and attendance of stakeholder meeting were held to collect in-
depth information in order to fully understand and analyze the research objectives. The
qualitative methods helped to capture the understanding of social process.

4.2 Research design

The preliminary survey for the research was carried out on November. The field work was
carried out from December onwards. Both qualitative and quantitative research techniques
were applied to gather the information related to the objectives. Both primary and secondary
data were collected. For primary data collection, preliminary survey, key informant survey,
spoor survey, questionnaire survey and purposive camera traps was used while for secondary
information journals, articles, web pages and reports were reviewed. To extract past and
present evidences and to understand people's perception structured and semi-structured
questionnaire surveys were conducted. Finally, data analysis was done using various statistical
tools, likert scale, chi-square test and likelihood ratio test.

14
 Literature review

Preliminary survey

Study area selection

Field works

Data collection

Primary data: Secondary data:

1. Questionnaire Reviewed documents and

survey reports, articles, web pages,
journals
4.3
2. Spoor survey

4.4
3. Camera traps

Data Analysis

Result and
conclusion

4.3 Selection of the study area and respondents

Bhimsen Rural Municipality and Sahid Lakhan Rural Municipality were purposively selected for
the study.

15
 4.3.1 Site selection criteria:
 These sites are in proximity to Budigandaki River and are accessible.
 Majority of people of the study sites are Farmers and their agricultural field lies
in the proximity to the river.
 Rivers in forest patches; as a result, dense vegetation, tall trees, and dense
canopy cover provide adequate protection for the species in the study area.

 No/Little research works have been carried out in the study sites on otters.

The respondents those live within 3 km distance of Budigandaki river were

purposively selected for questionnaire survey. The totals of seventy respondents
were selected for interview.

4.4 Primary data collection

4.4.1 Preliminary survey:
Preliminary survey of the study area was to find out the potential habitat and previously
observed sites. Field verifications were repeatedly done by visiting the most probable site of
otters which then aided to conduct survey. Plausible locations of presence of otters were
defined based on extensive discussions with local people in the area. This also helped us to
gain the knowledge on the socio-cultural and bio-physical aspects of the site and to build
the trust with the respondents so that they complement the further interview process in
participatory manner.

4.4.2 Questionnaire survey

Structured and semi-structured questionnaire and discussions for ethno-otter
relationship, myths, hunting, and medicinal use of its body parts were administered
focusing respondents based on their proximity to water courses and those who spent
most of their time in the forest, irrigated land management or fishing. Moreover, key
informants were identified and interviewed with regarding historical and current status
of otters using snowball sampling methods. Questionnaire survey was administered to a

16
sample of 70 purposively selected households living in the vicinity of the Budigandaki
River during the December- January, 2018-2019. Through the questionnaire threats and
people’s perspectives towards the species were understood and were analysed
considering socio-economic aspects. Digital prints of otter images were shown to local
people for the identification of otters. Though the questions of the survey were on
English medium while taking interviews questions were translated in Nepali before
asking. Local words were used and technical jargons were avoided whenever possible.
This was helpful to understand picture on otter status in general, and the attitudes of
local people for possible conservation of otter.
4.4.3 Key Informants Interview

Key informant survey was conducted (n = 10) using snowball sampling to select priority
area of Budhigandaki river. Divisional forest office, Gorkha was visited and discussed
regarding otters. Survey was also conducted among local leader, users’ group
committee members, teachers, and innovative farmers, elders of village, related experts
etc. to determine the evidences, threats, ecologically important sites, and management
options. Informal discussions were also conducted in various places to solicit local
community support and to verify the perception obtained from the survey. An open-
ended questionnaire was developed and applied for semi-structure interview.
4.4.4 Spoor survey
Spoor survey was carried out in seven transects of 1km each. Along the river bank of
each transects, intensive surveys was carried out to record the otter signs (e.g., latrines,
pugmarks and spraints). Surveys covered adjacent five meters of both sides of 1 km
transect as mentioned for the otter survey (Hussain and Choudhury, 1997; Nawab and
Hussain, 2012; Transects et al., 2013; Raha and Hussain, 2016). Indirect evidences
including tracks, scents, broken foliage, and spraints were searched along sandy banks
and areas of mud with the information collected from local residents, hunters,
shepherds, fishermen and game watchers of that area through detailed interviews.
Survey was conducted in December when river was low and sand banks were remained
exposed. While surveying, most of the time was spent walking along the bank of the

17
 river and binoculars was used for observing animals. A zoom camera was used for taking
the snapshots of natural habitats utilized by animal and other evidence. Footprints were
measured with a ruler, taking the greatest width, i.e. across toes one and five.

4.4.5 Purposive Camera Trapping

Camera trap (Bushnell, 8MP; active motion inbuilt function) approach, which is non-
invasive and reduces survey effort substantially was used for this research. Cameras
were placed opportunistically looking for the most probable sites to trap Otters. At the
time of camera deployment, different habitat parameters like vegetation types, ground
coverage, canopy coverage, etc. including wetland types and their variables were
recorded. Transects of different lengths were laid down on the trails specially near from
the wetlands and rivers. Belt transects within five meters were searched for the scats,
pugmarks and other indirect signs of the concerned species. The areas around the
wetlands over the study area were divided into number of periodic blocks. Camera trap
were used opportunistically during the camera tapping survey in the most probable
habitat in those blocks. The area around the water resources and wetlands were
focused. The height of the camera traps from the ground level was varying from 25 to
50 cm as per the requirement and the landscape features. Cameras were then installed
and habitat characteristics and the variables such as distance from the forest, distance
from the water sources, distance from the grassland, distance from the settlements,
canopy cover, ground coverage were noted. GPS truth points of the camera installed
locations were noted. Camera traps were set up in photo mode in order to study the
species.

4.5 Secondary data collection

Relevant data and information were collected from the various sources and records like-
annual reports, journals and publications. Reports of other line agencies, published or
unpublished reports and relevant literatures were consulted in the library of IOF

18
 Pokhara, Himalayan otter network and the relevant websites were searched to make
better understanding, interpretation and analysis of the research.

4.6 Data analysis

Collected data was entered in MS-excel-2010, SPSS 20.00 and Arc GIS 10.3. Arc GIS 10.3
was used to map out study area, camera trap location and spoor survey location. MS-excel-
2010 and SPSS 20.00 were used to analyze data. Descriptive statistics like mean, percentage,
frequency were used to interpret the result. Finally, results were displayed using different
charts and graphs. The perception of respondents towards the otter was measured in
strongly agree to strongly disagree (1-5) Likert scale format proposed by Babbie
(1995).Chi-square test and likelihood ratio test were also used to understand perception
of respondents and relationship between different variables.

4.6.1 Analysis of the perception

The perception of respondents towards the otters was measured in strongly agree to strongly
disagree (1-5) Likert scale format proposed by Babbie (1995) and cited by Gentle (2000).

Table: Scaling of perception

S.N. Statements Strongly Agree Neutral Strongly Disagree
agree disagree
1. Otters are found in
your area.
2. I have seen people
killing otters.
3. And so on…

19
 CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents were analyzed by using simple
statistical tools like frequency, percentage, mean, average, minimum and maximum and
presented in figure.

5.1.1 Gender
Out of 70 respondents of the study area, 27(39%) were females and 43(61%) were males.

Male Female
61% 39%

Figure 4: Gender of respondents

5.1.2 Age structure of respondents

For the analysis purpose, the age of the respondents was classified into four age classes i.e.
young (15-34), adult (35-54) and old (55-74) and very old (75-94). Since birth certificates were
rare, age reported by respondents were approximate. From the study, majority of respondents
40% were from adult aged followed by old (31.43%) young (18.57%) and very old (10%).

20
 45%
40%
40%

35% 31.43%

30%

25%
18.57%
20%

15%
10.00%
10%

5%

0%
15-34 35-54 55-74 75-94

Figure 5: Age category of respondents

5.1.3 Ethnic composition of respondents (Caste)

Among the selected 70 respondents for the study purpose, majority of the respondents were
Brahmin 17 (25%) followed by Newar 13(19%), Chhetri 11(16%), Kumal 11(16%) and Darai 11
(16%) and others 5 (8%).

21
 Others
8%
Brahmin
25%
Newar
19%

Chhetri
Kumal 16%
16%

Darai
16%

Figure 6: Ethnic composition of respondents

5.1.5 Education level of respondents

Education level of respondents was categorized into four categories viz. illiterate- less than one
year of formal education; primary –having one to five years of formal education; secondary –
having five to ten years of formal education, and college –having associate and undergraduate
degrees. Figure-4 shows that 51% respondents were illiterate followed by 13% with primary level
education, 26% with secondary level education and 10% with college level education. As this
educational level is very much important for the conservation, it was taken into consideration. We
assume that more the literate population is there, there will be less illegal activities.

22
 college
10%

secondary
26% Illiterate
51%

primary
13%

Figure 7: Education level of respondents

5.2 Respondents’ home to river distance

For the analysis purpose home to river distance of the respondents were divided into three
categories very near (less than 250m), near (250-500m) and far (500-2000m). Most of the
respondents i.e. 43% of the respondents were from the distance of the range 250m to
500m. 33% of the respondents were from less than 250m from the river while 24% of the
respondents were in the range of 500-2000m distance from the river. More closely the
respondents live, more likely to get involved in the illegal activities such as killing otters.

Less than
500m-2000m 250m
24% 33%

250m-500m
43%

Figure 8: Home to river distance of the respondents

23
 5.3 Perception towards otters’ population
Among the respondents who were aware about the otters, 53% of the respondents said the
otters were decreasing, 20% and 13% of the respondents said they were increasing and stable
respectively while 14% of the respondents said they didn’t have any idea on the population
trend of otter. This perception helps us to know about the status and knowledge of otters in the
study areas.

stable
13%

Decreasing
53%

Increasing
20%

Don't know
14%

Figure 9: Respondents' response on "Otters are increasing or decreasing?"

Most of the respondents mentioned fishing, sand and boulders extractions and noise and
disturbance as the major causes for the population decline while some of the respondents
mentioned construction of dam and hydropower project and hunting as the causes of declining
population of the species. Some of them mentioned they had no idea on the topic.

24
 Sand and Dam and
boulders hydropower
extractions project
20% 7%

Don't know
17%

Noise and
disturbance
24%
Fishing
27%
low breeding Hunting
2% 3%

Figure 10: Major causes of population decline of otters as per the respondents

5.4 Conservation perspectives:

5.4.1 Recognition of otters by respondents

54% of the respondents knew about the otters and were able to recognize the images of the
otters we showed them while 46% of the respondents were unaware and didn’t even heard
about otters ever. So we need to launch some awareness programs to those people who do not
know about otter so that they become aware about otters.

25
 Yes
54%
No
46%

Figure 11: Respondents' response on “Do you know about otters?"

Similarly, 54% of the respondents mentioned that they liked otters, 23% of the respondents
were not fond of otters while 23% of the respondents remained neutral.

5.4.2 Habitat of otter as per the respondents

Majority of the respondents mentioned that the otters live in the river bank. Otters also live in
burrow, bush, den, forest, rocks and trees as per the respondents.

26
 Tree
3%
Rocks
11%

Forest River bank

6% 42%

Den
5%

Bush
11%

Burrow
22%

Figure 12: Respondents' response on, “Where do the otters live?"

Similarly, in the response of the question, “In which season do you see otters most
abundantly?”, Most of the respondents i.e. 31% of the respondents mentioned all round the
year, 23% of the respondents said they don’t know, 19% of the respondents mentioned
summer, 14% of the respondents mentioned winter, 10% of the respondents responded winter
and 3% of the respondents mentioned autumn.

27
 25
31%

20
23%

15 19%
14%
10%
10

3%
5

0
All round the year Don't know Summer Winter Spring autumn

Figure 13: Respondents' response on “In which season do you see otters most abundantly?"

5.4.3 Otters are found in your area

Table 1: Otters are found in your area.

Home to river Likelihood

Respondent %
ratio value
distance Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
disagree
21.568*
Very near ( < 250m) 52 16.0 20.0 8.0 4.0

Near (250m-500m) 14.3 39.3 17.9 7.1 21.4

Far (500m-2000m) 5.9 35.3 29.4 0.0 29.4

Total 25.7 30.0 21.4 5.7 17.1

[*significant difference at p is less than 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement “Otters are found in your area” was rated
on a five-point Likert scale. Taking home to river distance as variable, the majority of
respondents i.e. 55.7% agreed with the statement. The table shows the inclination of the
respondent rating towards agreement of the statement. There is an association between home
to river distance and the statement (since p-value 0.006 is less than the tabulated value).

28
5.4.4 Otters are declining rapidly in present
Table 2: Otters are declining rapidly in present

Age groups Likelihood

Respondents’ %
ratio
(in years) Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
30.325*
15-34 18.2 9.1 18.2 36.4 18.2

35-54 20.0 28.0 28.0 8.0 16.0

55-74 21.7 39.1 30.4 8.7 0.0

75-94 72.7 27.3 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total 28.6 28.6 22.9 11.4 8.6

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement “Otters are declining rapidly in present.”
was rated on a five-point Likert scale. Taking age groups of respondents as variable, the
majority of respondents agreed with the statement. The table shows the inclination of the
respondent rating towards agreement of the statement. There is association between age
groups and the statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.002 is less than the tabulated value).

5.4.5 Otters were found abundantly in past

Table 3: Otters were found abundantly in past
Age groups Likelihood
Otters were found abundantly in past
ratio
Agree Neutral
Strongly Strongly Disagree
agree disagree
12.902
15-34 18.2 18.2 27.3 27.3 9.1

35-54 32.0 20.0 28.0 8.0 12.0

55-74 21.7 26.1 39.1 13.0 0.0

75-94 45.5 27.3 27.3 0.0 0.0

Total 28.6 22.9 31.4 11.4 21.1

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement "Otter were found abundantly in past”
was rated on a five-point Likert scale. The majority of respondents i.e. 51.5% agreed with the
statement. 31.4% of the respondents remained neutral while only 17.1% of the respondents

29
disagreed with the statement. There is no association between age groups and the statement
(Since the calculated p-value 0.376 is more than the tabulated value.)

5.4.6 I have seen people killing otters

Table 4: I have seen people killing otters

Home- river Likelihood
Respondents’ %
ratio
distance 1.508
Strongly Agree Neutral disagree Strongly
agree disagree
very near 7.1 21.4 14.3 28.6 28.6

near 9.1 22.7 9.1 36.4 22.7

far 20.0 20.0 10.0 30.0 20.0

Total 10.9 21.7 10.9 32.6 23.9

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement "I have seen people killing Otters” was
rated on a five-point Likert scale. The majority of respondents i.e. 56.5% disagreed with the
statement. 10.9% of the respondents remained neutral while only 32.6% of the respondents
agreed with the statement. There is no association between home to river distance and the
statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.993 is more than the tabulated value.)

30
5.4.7 It is important to educate people about otters

Table 5: It is important to educate people about otters

Education Likelihood ratio
Respondents’ %
level Strongly Agree
Neutral
Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
25.482*
Illiterate 30.6 27.8 25.0 2.8 13.9

Primary 22.2 33.3 44.4 0.0 0.0

Secondary 44.4 44.4 5.6 0.0 5.6

college level 14.3 0.0 14.3 28.6 42.9

Total 31.4 30.0 21.4 4.3 12.9

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement "It is important to educate people about
otters” was rated on a five-point Likert scale. The majority of respondents i.e. 61.4% agreed
with the statement. 21.4% of the respondents remained neutral while only 17.2% of the
respondents disagreed with the statement. There is association between educational level and
the statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.013 is less than the tabulated value).
5.4.8 Otters are beneficial to human beings

Table 6: Otters are beneficial to human beings

Educational Likelihood
Respondents’ %
ratio
level
17.060
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
Illiterate 2.8 5.6 33.3 44.4 13.9

Primary 11.1 0.0 66.7 11.1 11.1

Secondary 5.6 5.6 44.4 11.1 33.3

31
college level 0.0 28.6 42.9 14.3 14.3

Total 4.3 7.1 41.4 28.6 18.6

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement " Otters are beneficial to human beings”
was rated on a five-point Likert scale. The majority of respondents i.e. 47.2% disagreed with the
statement. 41.4% of the respondents remained neutral while only 11.4% of the respondents
agreed with the statement. There is no association between educational level and the
statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.147 is more than the tabulated value.)

5.4.9 Otters should be protected by law to increase its population

Table 7: Otters should be protected by law to increase its population

Educational Respondents’ %
Likelihood
level Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly ratio
disagree
16.091
Illiterate 13.9 22.2 50.0 8.3 5.6

Primary 33.3 44.4 11.1 11.1 0.0

Secondary 38.9 22.2 27.8 5.6 5.6

college level 0.0 28.6 28.6 28.6 14.3

Total 21.4 25.7 37.1 10.0 5.7

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement " Otters should be protected by law to
increase its population” was rated on a five-point Likert scale. The majority of respondents i.e.
47.1% agreed with the statement. 37.1% of the respondents remained neutral while only 15.7%

32
of the respondents agreed with the statement. There is no association between educational
level and the statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.187 is more than the tabulated value).

5.4.10 Otters should be conserved for future generation

Table 8: Otters should be conserved for future generation

Educational Respondents’ %
Likelihood
level Strongly ratio
Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
agree
disagree
24.317*
Illiterate 13.9 25.0 33.3 13.9 13.9

primary 33.3 55.6 11.1 0.0 0.0

Secondary 38.9 38.9 11.1 0.0 11.1

college level 71.4 14.3 14.3 0.0 0.0

Total 28.6 31.4 22.9 7.1 10.0

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement " Otters should be conserved for future
generation” was rated on a five-point Likert scale. The majority of respondents i.e. 60% agreed
with the statement. 22.9% of the respondents remained neutral while only 17.1% of the
respondents disagreed with the statement. There is association between educational level and
the statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.018 is less than the tabulated value)

5.4.11 I have seen people using Otters parts as medicine

Table 9: I have seen people using Otters parts as medicine

Home to river Likelihood
Respondents’ %
distance ratio
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
8.310
Very near 0.0 0.0 40.0 28.0 32.0

Near 3.6 0.0 46.4 35.7 14.3

33
 Far 5.9 5.9 35.3 41.2 11.8
Total 2.9 1.4 41.4 34.3 20.0

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement " I have seen people using Otters parts as
medicine” was rated on a five-point Likert scale. The majority of respondents i.e. 54.3%
disagreed with the statement. 41.4% of the respondents remained neutral while only 4.3% of
the respondents agreed with the statement. There is no association between home to river
distance and the statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.404 is more than the tabulated
value).

5.4.12 Otters are harmful to environment/ farmers.

Table 10: Otters are harmful to environment/ farmers

Educational Likelihood
Respondents’ %
ratio
level Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
22.148
Illiterate 19.4 13.9 33.3 25.0 8.3

primary 0.0 0.0 33.3 66.7 0.0

Secondary 22.2 11.1 5.6 38.9 22.2
college level 14.3 0.0 42.9 14.3 28.6

Total 17.1 10.0 27.1 32.9 12.9

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement "Otters are harmful to environment/
farmers” was rated on a five-point Likert scale. The majority of respondents i.e. 45.8%
disagreed with the statement. 27.1% of the respondents remained neutral while only 27.1% of
the respondents agreed with the statement. There is association between educational level and
the statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.036 is less than the tabulated value).
5.4.13 Most of the people in my locality do not know about otter

Table 11: Most of the people in my locality do not know about otter
Home to Likelihood
Respondents’ %
ratio
river Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
distance
agree disagree

34
 27.989
Very near 12.0 16.0 4.0 44.0 24.0

Near 17.9 10.7 14.3 25.0 32.1

Far 64.7 23.5 5.9 5.9 0

Total 27.1 15.7 8.6 27.1 21.4

[*significant difference at 0.05]

The perception of the respondents on the statement "Most of the people in my locality do not
know about otter” was rated on a five-point Likert scale. 48.5% of the respondents disagreed
with the statement. 8.6% of the respondents remained neutral while only 42.8 % of the
respondents agreed with the statement. There is association between home to river distance
and the statement (Since the calculated p-value 0.00 is less than the tabulated value).
5.4.14 Have you seen otter? (Gender wise)

Table 12: Gender * have you seen otter?

Gender Phi Cramer’s V
Have you seen otter? Chi-square p-
value
No Yes ratio value
0.274
Female 63.0% 37.0% 0.22 0.02

Male 34.9% 65.1%

Total 45.7% 54.3%

Since calculated p-value is 0.02 which is less then tabulated value 0.05, there is association
between gender and given statement. Since Cramer’s V value is 0.274 which indicates that
there is small effect of gender on the statement.

5.5 Purposive camera trapping:

A total of 20 camera working days and nights were logged by over 7 camera traps from 7
camera trap stations in between December 2018 and January 2019. Altogether 2,946
photographs were captured but pictures with detectability and identification clue of species
were taken in account. Total of six order, nine families and ten species of mammals and birds
were recorded. The recorded species are Barking deer Muntiacus muntjak, Indian hare Lepus
nigricollis, Leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis, Masked palm civet Paguma larvata, Red jungle
fowl Gallus gallus, Crab eating mongoose Herpestes urva, Small Asian Mongoose Herpestes

35
 javanicus, Assam macaque Macaca assamensis, Red billed blue magpie Urocissa erythroryncha
and Blue whistling thrust Myophonus caeruleus. Otter was not captured in camera trap.
Besides, live observation of two mammals i.e. golden jackal and Hoary-bellied Squirrel were
made.

Table 13: Captured Fauna: Local name, Common name, their scientific name, Family, order, elevation, level of
human disturbance and IUCN status.
S Local Common Scientific Order Family Habitat Level of Elevat Activity IUCN National
. name name name human ion pattern statu status
N disturba s
nce
1. Ratuwa Barking Muntiacus Artiodactyla Cervidae Open 412m Diurnal LC VU
deer vaginalis canopy, High
river-forest
edge
2. Khairo Indian hare Lepus Lagomorpha Leporidae Open 412m Nocturnal LC LC
Kharayo nigricollis canopy, High
river-forest
edge
3. Leopard Chari bagh Prionailurus Carnivora Felidae Open 412m Nocturnal LC VU
cat bengalensis canopy, High
river-forest
edge
4. Masked Gajale Paguma Carnivora Viverridae Open 412m Nocturnal LC LC
palm civet Nirbiralo larvata canopy, Low
river-forest
edge
5. Red jungle Luiche Gallus gallus Gallisformes Phasianid Farmland, 566m Diurnal LC LC
fowl ae nearby Low
water
source

6. Crab Gangate Herpestes Carnivora Herpestid Forest, Low 607m Mostly LC VU

eating oth, Pakhe urva ae Stream nocturnal
mongoose oth
7. Small Nyauri Herpestes Carnivora Herpestid Irrigated Low 543m Diurnal LC LC
Asian musa javanicus ae farmland
Mongoos
e
8. Assam Badar Macaca Primates Cercopith Open High 412m Diurnal NT VU
macaque assamensis ecidae canopy,
river-forest
edge
9. Red billed Lamphuchr Urocissa Passeriform Corvidae Farmland, Low 642m Diurnal LC LC
blue e erythrorynch es streams
magpie a
1 Blue kalchaude Myophonus Passeriform Muscicapi Irrigated Low 543m Diurnal LC LC
0. whistling caeruleus es dae farmland
thrust

36
 Table 14: Camera stations Description with elevation, dominant species number of days and species trapped
Camera Elevation Dominant species Total Number Total Species
trap station number of of days number
photo of species
captured captured
A 399m Engelhardtia spicata (mauwa), 61 5 0 0
Lyonia ovalifolia (angeri).
Oryza sativa (dhan)
Shorea robusta (sal),
B 431m Shorea robusta (sal), 325 10 5 Leopard cat,
Adiantum caudatum (neuro) Indian hare,
Asteraceae ageratina barking deer,
(Banmara), Mask palm civet,
Assamese monkey

C 688m Shorea robusta (sal), 1032 10 1 Red billed blue

Musa spp. (kera) magpie
D 607m Schima wallichi (chilauni) 106 10 1 Crab eating
Lyonia ovalifolia (angeri). mongoose
Shorea robusta (sal)
E 566m Adiantum caudatum (neuro) 65 10 2 Red jungle fowl,
Engelhardtia spicata (mauwa) Red billed blue
magpie.
F 543m Shorea robusta (sal), 677 10 2 Small Asian
Oryza sativa (dhan) Mongoose,
Blue whistling
thrush
G 372 Oryza sativa (dhan), 680 5 0 0
Solanum tuberosum (aalu),
Brassica oleracea (kauli)

Table 15: Human disturbance level

Camera trap station Total number of photos Number of Photos with Number of photos of
human and their captured species
disturbing utility
A 61 24 0
B 325 149 52
C 1032 0 44
D 106 26 6
E 65 3 8
F 677 0 10
G 680 9 0

37
5.6 Spoor survey:
No any evidences of signs of otters were recorded along the transect. Some pugmarks were
recorded in transect along the bank of the river but they belong to different species (Felids,
Mongoose, Monkeys).
Table 16: spoor survey
Transects Location Name of rural Characteristic
municipality
T1 Mahadevtar Bhimsen Thapa Streams connected
T2 Hattiram Bhimsen Thapa Streams connected
T3 Ghatbesi Bhimsen Thapa Budigandaki river
T4 To Bungkotghat Sahid Lakhan Budigandaki river
T5 Bungkotghat north Sahid Lakhan Budigandaki river
T6 Bungkotghat south Sahid Lakhan Budigandaki river
T7 Kalimati stream Bhimsen Thapa Streams connected

5.7 Anthropogenic factor

During transect survey, extent of several anthropogenic activities such as tree logging, fishing,
sand excavation were assessed for each 200m section of surveyed 7 transects of 1 km each. The
fishing is done in the river both during the day and night by the local people as well as people
from neighboring districts. Many fishermen consider otter as threat to their fish as otters are
the predators of fish and they even cut their nets and eat their fish. There is an actively running
sand extraction and cleaning mill in the study area which has polluted the river to a great
extent. There were no recorded evidences regarding trade of otter and its death or casualty.
According to local people, otter were found abundantly before few decades but then some
people of from the mountains frequently visited to the area for hunting of otters. The pelts of
otter is regarded valuable and is used to make fur coats. These pelts are usually supplied to
Tibet where it is used as standard object for the royalty to wear robes made from them. Otters’
pelts were also used in religious purpose by those people. It is also believed the massive flood
of 2056 B.S. on the Budhi Gandaki River swiped away otter population. Budigandaki

38
hydropower construction might have significant impact on aquatic fauna as dam construction is
considered threats globally.

5.8 Discussion
As wetlands are the habitats of otters, peoples in the proximity to the river have supported the
statement about presence of otters in their locality as showed by likelihood ratio test. Similarly,
most of the respondents far from the rivers have agreed that people in their locality do not
know about otters which might be due to the occurrence of otters more in proximity to rivers
and wetlands only. Moreover, the chi-square value has shown that male respondents have
more sighting of otters than females. Since Cramer’s V value is small which indicates that there
is small effect of gender on the statement. This might be because the male members of families
mostly go to fishing and herding while female members of the families are limited doing
household chores.
Having understood the ecological role of wildlife, People with higher education level were more
favorable towards conservation of otters for future generation and educating people about
otters in their society whereas majority of the respondent with lower educational level have
supported on statement that otters are harmful to them. Majority of people with lower
educational level were involved in fishing and as otters are known to predate on fishes, they
might have considered otters as threat to them. Moreover otters might have caused
tremendous negative impact because the gill nets are made up of threads which can easily be
damaged and they also tear nets set by the fishermen (Acharya and Gurung, 1994).
On the other hand, no association was found between home to river distance & killing of otters
and using its body part as medicine which might be because almost entire respondent haven't
accepted killing otter and no any body parts of otter are used as medicine in the study area
respectively.
We did not find any signs and sightings of otters in our study area and also older aged
respondents have supported the statement of declination of otter in the present which is
probably as the distribution of otters along the watersheds has diminished compared to few
decades back.

39
Till date most of the documentations on otters in Nepal are social and done by pugmarks and
spraints which are not very reliable. Photographic evidences of Smooth coated otters are
obtained from some part of the country such as Bardia National Park, Karnali corridor and
Suklaphanta National park (Jha, 2018) which are known to be their habitats. The reliable
evidences of presence of Eurasian otters are still lacking while Oriental small-clawed otter
(Aonyx cinerea) has been mentioned in scientific literature as present in Nepal in the 19th
century (The Himalayan Times, 2017). Thus, this is adding contradiction regarding their
presence in recent time.
In case of Gorkha, the presence of otter has been confirmed through social survey which is
itself unreliable as people might not be able to distinct otters from other small mammals (Kafle,
2009). Furthermore, the presence of Eurasian otter was confirmed in streams of Pyaudikhola
watershed and Kapringkhola watershed, Gorkha by analyzing spraints saying it was dark grey,
with fragments of fish, frog and crab remnants, and fragile with smell of fish scales. The species
was not recorded during the camera traps survey and was identified based on the local people’s
opinion and the spraint characteristics (Kafle, 2011). As the diet of otter and crab eating
mongoose are mostly same such as crabs, fish, frog, insects, birds etc (Kruuk, 2006;Thapa, 2013;
Rahut, 2013). Crab eating mongoose is recorded in Gorkha (Fry, 1925). Also, during our survey
though different stream from kafle, 2011, we have recorded crab eating mongoose so this
research questions the confirmation of Eurasian otter from previous research done in Gorkha.
No any single evidence of otter was recorded in this research. It was also found that many local
people were confused on otter with crab eating mongoose. So, further multi seasonal and more
intensive scientific research is absolutely necessary to confirm the presence and absence of
otter from the area. The study of Kafle, 2011 revealed that the distribution of otters along the
watersheds has diminished compared to few decades back. Similarly, this research also
revealed that the young generation has not seen otter and many are confused with crab eating
mongoose.

5.8.1 Conservation threats to otter in study area:

40
Habitat destruction and habitat disturbance: The adverse factors causing the declination of
otters in the area include habitat destruction and habitat disturbance. Some sites around the
river channel are used for cremation of dead bodies where ritual prayers are performed. Thus,
the place for the free movement for the mammal and proper activity is quite disturbed. Also,
Fishing is mostly done at nights which have negative impact on this nocturnal creature.
Moreover, the camera trap images has showed significant human disturbance in the habitat
(photographic capture of humans, vehicles).
Over fishing: In the downstream areas of the Budigandaki River, both in the main channel and
the shallow water courses, potential habitats are found in places such as Bungkotghat and
Ghatbesi. These places are being frequented by fishermen from the nearby village as well as
from neighboring districts. They do fishing whole night to sell the fishes in market. Thus, this
has severely impacted on the feeding habit and escape cover of otter, ultimately threatening
conservation of otter.
Changing pattern of river channel: As the river has a huge amount of sediment collection from
one year to another the channel in one year don't remain same in the another year. Thus, the
mammal is forced to survive and change their habitat enormous times. One of the local peoples
has mentioned that the massive flood in 2056 B.S. had swept away a large number of mammals
including otters.
Water pollution and hydropower construction: Recently initiated Budigandaki hydro power
project has caused natural habitat loss and significant alternation for wild terrestrial and
aquatic mammals including otters. Stagnant water condition because of dams can be
detrimental to otters (Macdonald and Masan, 1985). Beside this, the barriers created (e.g. dam
walls) prevent natural movements and migration of fish and other species (Holmquist et.al,
1998). Besides sand extractions mill has established in the river bank of Bungkotghat which
has polluted water to a great extent.
Lack of awareness programs: There were no any training as well as awareness programs for
the conservation and sustainable use of the resources by any institutions to the community till
date. Most of the people were unaware about the otters and their roles in the ecosystem.

41
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Conclusion
The absence of otter signs in the study area of Budigandaki River could be attributed to high
human disturbances and their activities. The trend of sightings of the otters by local people is
heavily decreasing, indicating very rapid decline of otter population in the study area. Most of
the young generations have not sighted otter though living in proximity to river basin and the
old generations have not sighted them since few decades back. Though it was said people from
high mountain region hunt and use pelt of otter, this research could not find any myths,
religious believes medicinal importance and use of the body parts by local people of study site.

6.2 Recommendations
1. Multi-seasonal, intensive and scientific research should be conducted to confirm the
presence/ absence of otter from the study area in recent date.
2. As otters are elusive and nocturnal creatures, genetic study of spraints can be
conducted to confirm their presence.
3. Further research should be conducted which occupy larger study area to understand the
status, population and habitat requirements.
4. Anthropogenic threats such as over fishing, sand extraction, water pollution and tree
logging should be regulated if not restricted.
5. Conservation education and awareness programs relating to otters, their ecological
importance, need to be conducted in the local level.

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ANNEX-1

Questions for questionnaire survey:

1. Respondent’s Socio-economic Data:

Name ……………………………………………
Age: ………
Sex: M F O
Caste: ……………………..
Religion: ………………………..
Address ………….
Municipality………..
Ward no……………
Village………………..
Education……………….
Occupation ………………
Home to River distance: ……………………
Visits to wetlands per week at an average: …………….
2. Respondent’s perspectives:
1. Do you know about otters?

47
2. What is its local name?
3. Have you seen it?
a. Yes
b. No
If yes where? ............. And when? ............
4. Can you remember when did you see otter last time?
5. How does it look like?
6. How often do you see otters?
7. What is difference between otter and mongoose?
8. Do you like otters?

9. In which season do you see otters most abundantly?

10. What does it feed in?
11. Where does it live?
12. Is otter decreasing or increasing?
13. Do people capture otters? If yes, how and why?
14. Do you know anybody who owns its body part?

15. For what do they use such parts for?

16. Have you heard any myths about otters?
17. Is there any religious belief regarding otter?
18. What are the major causes of its population decline?
1. Fishing
2. Hunting
3. Noise and disturbance
4. Dam and hydropower project
5. Sand and boulders extractions
19. Should otters be conserved?
20. Have conservation programs related to otters been conducted?
21. Do you know anyone who knows more about otters?

48
Different people who live in the study area hold different opinion about otters. Here are
few of the things that people say about them. Please rate your opinion as;
1. Strongly agree
2. Agree
3. Average ( neutral)
4. Disagree
5. Strongly disagree

Note: If respondent can’t give the answer of asked statements mark cross (×) in the
respective cell.

SN Statements Opinion rate (×

or 1 to 5)

1. Otters are found in your area.

2. I have seen people killing otters.

3. Otters were found abundantly in past

4. Otters are declining rapidly in

present.

5. It is important to educate people

about otters.

6. Otter are beneficial to humans.

7. Otters should be protected by law to

increase its population.

49
8. Otters should be conserved for
future generation?

9. I have seen people using Otters parts as

medicine.

10. Otters are harmful to environment/ farmers.

11. Most of the people in my locality do not

know about otter.

50
 ANNEX-2
Datasheet for field data collection:

Transect Otter’s Habitat types Human Comments/

evidences
No. substrat GPS (Forest/ disturbance Weather
e shrubland/
Way Distance from
grassland/
point (yes/No)
wetland/ rocky
areas

River Forest settlement Road Farmland

1. Pugmarks

2. Spraints

3. holts

4. Food
remains

5.

51
ANNEX-3
Some photo plates

Camera trap showing Crab eating mongoose

Camera trap showing Small Asian Mongoose Camera trap showing Red Jungle Fowl

52
Camera trap showing Assam macaque Camera trap showing Masked palm civet

Camera trap showing Barking deer

Camera trap showing Leopard cat

53
 Camera trap showing Indian Hare Camera trap showing Red billed blue magpie

Photograph showing Hoary-bellied Squirrel

Camera trap showing Blue whistling
thrust

54
Camera trap showing fishing

Photograph showing water pollution and fishing

55
Taking questionnaire survey with respondents

Taking Camera trap survey

56
57