MICRO PERSPECTIVE IN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY

TOPIC 3- TRANSPORTATION AND TRAVEL

 Unit 6- Transportation and Travel Trade
Micro Perspective in Tourism and Hospitality

At the end of this lesson, students, should be able to:

1. Outline the policy issues in tourist transport.

2. Discuss the role of land-based, water-based transport and airport as a tourist terminal
facility.
3. Identify and relate the consumer trends that affects the future of tour operating.
4. Distinguish the different employment opportunities in transportation and travel trade.

Overview
The transportation sector is vital to the success of our industry. Put simply, if we can’t
move people from place to place — whether by air, sea, or land — we don’t have an industry.
This chapter takes a broad approach, covering each segment of the transportation sector.
Transport and tourism are synonymous. Tourism is about travelling to, visiting and
experiencing other places and, therefore, transport is an indispensable element of the tourism
system, carrying tourists between the generating region and the destination region. Travel
became faster and more and more people could travel (Gade, J & Ankathi, R.,2016).
Transport is one of the most significant factors to have contributed to the international
development of tourism. It gives invaluable opportunity to the local people as it gives those jobs
and good economic upturn. Transport provides the essential link between tourism origin and
destination areas and facilities the movement of holidaymakers, business travellers, people
visiting friends and relatives (VFR) and those undertaking educational and health tourism
(Gade, J & Ankathi, R.,2016).
The role of transportation is basically related to accessibility. Transportation renders a
tourist destination accessible to their markets in the tourist generating regions. Accessibility is
one of the primary elements of tourism and the relationship of tourism with transport is generally
conceptualized in terms of accessibility. A destination must be accessible if it is to facilitate visits
by tourists (Dileep, M.R., 2019).
Collier also classifies tourist transport on several bases;
 Public and private sector transport
 Water/ land/ air/ trail transport
 Domestic and international transport
 Mode of transport
 Changes towards Transportation

The major steps in the development of tourism have been linked with advancement in
transport. There are four major phases can be discerned in the evolution of transport
technology;
 The transition from horse and wind power
 The introduction of the stream engine
 The development of the combustion engine
 The use of the jet
Factors Influencing Tourist Transport Selection

Tourist choice of transportation can have varied influencing factors. Usually a

combination of different factors will come into play during the transport selection process.
Different type of tourists has different needs and consequently transport selection determinants
will also vary. For instance, as Lubbe (2003) cited from Dileep, M.R., (2019) points out:

“the independent traveller requires greater flexibility and freedom of movement while the
group traveller generally prefers packaged programmes where travel is restricted to what
the group does… Independent business travellers generally need flexibility of
movement, but require transport modes that are quick and reliable”.

The effective factors in choosing the transportation mode in tourism are given below
(Westlake and Robbins 2005, 463):
 Time limit
 Distance
 Status
 Comfort
 Security
 Benefit
 Price
 Geographical position
 Competition

An increase in traffic due

to world tourism growth puts
pressure on transportation
facilities, which can have
adverse effects. Those negative
effects are as follows (Goeldner
and Ritchie 2012, 96).
1. Congestion – means
delays which leads to
waste of time and energy.
Serious congestions may
have a negative effect on
transportation modes,
especially on airports and
roads during peak times.
2. Safety and security –
ensuring that the transportation mode is safe and secure is a basic and important
requirement for tourism.
3. Environment – an increase in traffic may have a disastrous effect on the environment if
that area does not have the carrying capacity for additional tourists.
4. Seasonality – seasonal patterns of travel demand create overcrowding at certain times.
Adversely low occupancies and load factors will occur at other periods.
Land Transportation

Types of motor coach

The motor coach can be divided into five basic types:
1. City buses
2. Bare – boned commuting vehicle that are rarely used for tours,
3. School buses also seldom used for anything but school outing
4. Minibuses or vans, it’s a downsized vehicle that accommodate small groups.

Types of land tours

The tour business is constantly changing and expanding to fit the newest travel trends,
and tour companies can vary their focuses greatly, from white water rafting specialty tours to
bus tours of the Nipa Valley wine country. The following are major categories (Gade, J &
Ankathi, R.,2016):

A. Sightseeing/ Bus Tours

Land tours of this variety are the most common type of organized tour. They almost
always involve travel by motor coach, overnight hotel lodging, and usually air transportation to
the tour departure area. Sightseeing guides are the quintessential guides – the ones easily
identifiable by their busload of tourists (Gade, J & Ankathi, R.,2016).

B. Shore Excursion Tours

Some tour companies are affiliated with or even run by cruise companies. Passenger
ships like to offer their customers tours in the most interesting part of call, and hire tour guides
to give bus tours and narration of the nearby area (Gade, J & Ankathi, R.,2016).

C. Adventure/ Sporting Tours

These types of tour companies have gained in popularity in recent years, may be begun
to specialize in particular types of tours and special interest clientele. Tours emphasizing the
environment niche in the tours industry. These companies offer both land and sea – going tours,
and the most popular new destinations are Central America, the Amazon River, and Alaska.
Seagoing companies sail small, yacht – style cruise ships to Alaska, British Columbia, South
America and various other wilderness destinations (Gade, J & Ankathi, R.,2016).

A double-decker bus in the streets of London.

Source: https://www.tonicradio.fr/category/locale/page/675/?m=made-in-cairo-
london-s-famed-double-decker-bus-rr-LPz7NlC2
Rail Transport
The first regular steam engine passenger run was inaugurated over one – mile section
on the 7.5 mile track from Canterbury to Whistable, Kent, England on May 3, 1830. The first
self-propelled locomotive, which ran on rails, was built by Richard Trevithic (1771 – 1883) at
Salop in England (Gade, J & Ankathi, R.,2016).
The first organized rail transport began in the 1841. The railway can be considered one
of the most powerful motives for mass travel in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The
recent and interesting development in the field of transportation is the advent of high – speed
trains (Gade, J & Ankathi, R.,2016).

Air Transport
According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), in 2014, airlines
transported 3.3 billion people across a network of almost 50,000 routes generating 58 million
jobs and $2.4 trillion in business activity (International Air Transport Association, 2014a).
Aviation enjoys incredible economic significance by way of generating employment
opportunities for millions and by way of generating income in the billions, and other direct and
indirect economic benefits. Progress in aviation is often reflective of the progress in the local
economy as well, (Dileep, M.R., 2019).

Types of Aviation
Aviation is an umbrella term covering different aspects of flying. The following are
commonly seen categories of aviation for the purpose of transportation, (Dileep, M.R., 2019).
1. Civil aviation, one of two major categories of flying, represents all non-military flying,
including both general aviation and commercial air transport. It consists of all
commercial, business and personal transportation using aircraft and flights, (Dileep,
M.R., 2019).
2. Commercial air transportation, which is all about the transport of passengers, cargo or
mall in a professional manner, is the most prominent one today. A dynamic, strong and
fast – growing commercial air transport sector is often considered an indicator of a
country’s strong economic growth and development, (Dileep, M.R., 2019).
3. General Aviation.The flights in general aviation include aerial application planes, land
survey flights, air ambulance, holiday vacation flights, air taxi services and special
mission flights. Business aviation, which includes the use aircraft and helicopters for
business purposes, is a dominant category here, serving people who travel for the
purpose of attending work-related meetings, visiting clients or expanding and supporting
the financial objectives of the businesses concerned, (Dileep, M.R., 2019).
Table 1.1 ICAO definition of General Aviation, (Dileep, M.R., 2019)

Category Definition
Instructional flying This is defined as the use of an aircraft for purposes of formal flight
instruction with an instructor. The flights may be performed by aero-
clubs, flying schools or commercial operators.
Pleasure flying This is defined as the use of an aircraft for personal or recreational
purposes; not associated with a business or profession.
Business flying This is defined as the use of an aircraft to carry personnel and/ or
property to meet the transport needs of officials of a business, firm,
company or corporation. These flights may be performed by a
commercial pilot or by a private pilot. Corporate aviation is also a part of
this, covering the non-commercial operation or use of aircraft by a
company for the carriage of passengers or goods as an aid to
conducting company business, flown by a professional pilot employed to
fly the aircraft.
Aerial work This is an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized
services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying,
observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial advertisement, etc.
Other aerial work includes the use of an aircraft for activities such as
aerial photography, patrol and surveillance, prospecting, construction,
advertising, and medical, relief and rescue work.
Agricultural flying This is the use of an aircraft for activities such as crop dusting, chemical
or fertilizer spraying, seed dissemination, prevention of frost formation,
insect fighting and animal herding.
Other flying This includes all general aviation flights other than glider and free
balloon flights that cannot be included in the above four categories.
Flights by pilot for maintaining their flying proficiency are also included.

Air Transportation System

The system that includes all the elements that ensure the performance of complex tasks
and activities associated with air transportation in an efficient and coordinated manner will also
be an intricate one, (Dileep, M.R., 2019).
Civil Aviation can be classified under four headings:

1. Airport is the hub of air transportation where passengers can board and disembark
flights, airlines can process passengers for travel, aircraft can be controlled for smooth
flight, and freight forwarders can process cargo/ consignments for shipments, (Dileep,
M.R., 2019).

2. Airlines, which provide various types of air-based transportation services, are the
businesses that run regular/ occasional services for carrying passengers and goods by
aircraft. Airlines also make use of the services and facilities provided by the airports,
(Dileep, M.R., 2019).

3. Aircraft is a device used for travelling through the air, helps in connecting people and
places along with transporting things like cargo. Aeroplanes, another term used by
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as “transportation devices which
are designed to move people and cargo from one place to another, (Dileep, M.R., 2019).
 4. Stated by Dileep, M.R., (2019) aircraft are created by aircraft manufacturers. Aircraft
manufacturers develop airframes and the engines used in the aircraft are manufactured
by other firms.

Rules and Regulations

a. Open Skies
The term open skies refers to policies that allow national airlines to fly to, and above, other
countries. These policies lift restrictions where countries have good relationships, freeing up the
travel of passengers and goods.

b. Passenger Load Factor

Key to airline profitability is passenger load factor, which relates how
efficiently planes are being used. Load factor for a single flight can be determined by dividing
the number of passengers by the number of seats.
Passenger load factors in the airline industry reached a record high in 2013, at just
under 80%, which was attributed to increased volumes and strong capacity management in key
sectors (IATA, 2104a). One way of increasing capacity is by using larger aircraft. For instance,
the introduction of the Airbus A380 model has allowed up to 40% more capacity per flight,
carrying up to 525 passengers in a three-class configuration, and up to 853 in a single-class
configuration (Airbus, 2014).

c. Low-Cost Carriers
Another key factor in profitability is the airline’s business model. In 1971, Southwest
Airlines became the first low-cost carrier (LCC), revolutionizing the industry. The LCC model
involved charging for all extras such as reserved seating, baggage, and on-board service,
and cutting costs by offering less legroom and using non-unionized workforces. Typically, an
LCC has to run with 90% full planes to break even (Owram, 2014). The high-volume, lower-
service system is what we have become used to today, but at the time it was introduced, it was
groundbreaking.

d. Ancillary Revenues
The LCC model, combined with tight margins, led to today’s climate where passengers
are charged for value-added services such as meals, headsets, blankets,
seat selection, and bag checking. These are known in the industry as ancillary revenues. Profits
from these extras rose from $36 billion in 2012 to $42 billion in 2013, or more than $13 a
passenger. An average net profit of only $3.39 per passenger was retained by airlines (IATA,
2014a).
Airlines must strive to maintain profitability, despite thin margins, in an environment with
heavy government regulation. But at the same time, they must be responsible for the safety of
their passengers.

Air Safety and Security

IATA encourages airlines to view safety from a number of points, including
reducing operational risks such as plane crashes, by running safety audit programs. They also
advocate for improved infrastructure such as runway upgrades and training for pilots and other
crew. Finally, they strive to understand emerging safety issues, including the outsourcing of
operations to third-party companies (IATA, 2014a).
In terms of security, coordination between programs such as the Interpol Stolen and Lost
Travel Documents initiative and other databases is critical (IATA, 2014a). As reservations and
management systems become increasingly computerized, cyber-security becomes a top
concern for airlines, who must protect IT (information technology) because their databases
contain information about flights and passengers’ personal information. Unruly passengers are
also a cause of concern, with over 8,000 incidents reported worldwide every year (IATA,
2014a).

Water Transport
Travel by water is as old as civilization itself. However, the industry as we know it began
when Thomas Newcomen invented the steam engine in 1712. The first crossing of the Atlantic
by steam engine took place in 1819 aboard the SS Savannah, landing in Liverpool,
England, after 29 days at sea. Forty years later, White Star Lines began building ocean liners
including the Olympic-class ships (the Olympic, Britannic, and Titanic), expanding on previously
utilitarian models by adding luxurious amenities (Briggs, 2008).
A boom in passenger ship travel toward the end of the 1800s was aided by a growing
influx of immigrants from Europe to America, while more affluent passengers travelled
by steamship for
pleasure or business.
The industry grew
over time but, like rail
travel, began to
decline after
the arrival of airlines.
Shipping companies
were forced to
change their
business model from
pure transportation to
“an experience,” and
the modern cruise
industry was born.

The Cruise Sector

Today, the world’s largest cruise ship, Royal Caribbean Icon of the Seas. It comfortably
holds some 5,610 passengers and 2,350 crew. The boat’s piece de resistance will be the
world’s largest waterpark at sea. It features six record-breaking water slides, seven pools and
nine whirlpools. A crew on a cruise ship will include the captain, the chief officer (in charge of
training and maintenance), staff captain, chief engineer, chief medical officer, and chief radio
officer (communication, radar, and weather monitoring).
 a. River Cruising
While mass cruises to destinations like the Caribbean remain incredibly popular, river
cruises are emerging as another strong segment of the industry. The key differences between
river cruises and ocean cruises are (Hill, 2013):
 River cruise ships are smaller (400 feet long by 40 feet wide on average) and can
navigate narrow passages.
 River cruises carry fewer passengers (about 10% of the average cruise, or 200
passengers total).
 Beer, wine, and high-end cuisine are generally offered in the standard package.

b. Cruise and Ferry Safety

One of the major concerns on cruise lines is disease outbreak, specifically the norovirus
(a stomach flu), which can spread quickly on cruise ships as passengers are so close together.
The US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) vessel sanitation program
(http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/vsp/default.htm) is designed to help the industry prevent and control
the outset, and spreading, of these types of illnesses (Briggs, 2008).
Accidents are also a concern. In 2006, the BC Ferries vessel MV Queen of the
North crashed and sank in the Inside Passage, leaving two passengers missing and presumed
dead. The ship’s navigating officer was charged with criminal negligence causing their deaths
(Keller, 2013). More recently, a “hard landing” at Duke Point terminal on Vancouver
Island caused over $4 million in damage. BC Ferries launched a suit against a German
engineering firm in late 2013, alleging a piece of equipment failed, making a smooth docking
impossible. The Transportation Safety Board found that staff aboard the ship didn’t follow proper
docking procedures, however, which contributed to the crash (Canadian Press, 2013).

Trends and Issues

This section explores issues directly relating to transportation today including fuel cost,
labour, and environmental impacts.

A. Fuel Cost
When it comes to moving people, fuel cost is critical. The cost of jet fuel is one of the single
highest factors in airline profitability. In 2013, the average cost was around $125 per barrel,
which was $5 less than the previous year (IATA, 2014a). Cruise ships consume a lower grade
of diesel than do land vehicles, but they consume a lot of it. The QE2, for example, consumes
roughly 380 tonnes of fuel every day if travelling at 28.5 knots (Briggs, 2008).

B. Labour
As in all tourism-related sectors, cyclical labour shortages can significantly impact the
transportation industry. In the aviation sector, a forecast found that by 2032 the world’s airlines
will need 460,000 additional pilots and 650,000 new maintenance technicians to service current
and future aircraft. The drive to find employees also extends to the maritime sector, where the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) launched a “Go to sea!” campaign to attract more
workers to the field (PWC, 2012).

C. Environmental Impacts
In addition to fuel and labour costs, and regulations we’ve covered already, the transportation
sector has a significant impact on the natural environment.
C.1 Air Impacts
According to the David Suzuki Foundation (2014), the aviation industry is responsible for 4% to
9% of climate change impacts, and greenhouse gas emissions from flights have risen 83%
since 1990. Airline travel has a greater emissions impact than driving or taking the train per
passenger kilometer

C.2 Rail Impacts

Rail travel is widely regarded as one of the most environmentally friendly modes
of transportation due to its low carbon dioxide emissions. Railways come under fire outside of
the tourism realm, however, as freight shipping can produce hazards to resident health including
an increased risk of developing cancer and noise pollution (The Impact Project, 2012).

C.3 Cruise Impacts

Cruise ships can generate significant pollution from black water (containing human waste), grey
water (runoff from showers, dishwashers, sinks), bilge water (from the lowest compartment of
the ship), solid waste (trash), and chemical waste (cleaners, solvents, oil). One ship can create
almost a million litres of grey water, over 113,000 litres of black water, and over 140,000 litres of
bilge water every day. Depending on the regulations in the operating areas, ships can simply
dump this waste directly into the ocean. Ballast tanks, filled to keep the ship afloat, can be
contaminated with species which are then transported to other areas, disrupting sensitive
ecosystems (Briggs, 2008).

C.4 Land Impacts

A recent study found that the impact of travel on land is highly dependent on the number of
passengers. Whereas travelling alone in a large SUV can have high emissions per person (as
high as flying), increasing the number of passengers, and using a smaller vehicle, can bring the
impact down to that of train travel (Science Daily, 2013).

D. Weather
The transportation sector can have an effect on climate change, and changes in weather have a
strong effect on transportation.
The threat of climate change could significantly impact sea-level airports.

For this reason, it’s important that the sector continue to press for innovations and greener
transportation choices, if only to ensure future financial costs are kept at bay.

References:

 Cruz, Zenaida L. 2019. Micro Perspective of Tourism and Hospitality

 https://opentextbc.ca/introtourism/chapter/chapter-2-transportation/
 https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/importance-transportation-tourism-development-fda-ba-itc-
mba-emba
 https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315151069/tourism-transport-travel-
management-dileep