28

Approaching Punctuation as a System*

Mohan R. Limaye
University of Texas at Austin
In the classroom and even in college textbooks systematic approach to punctuation in a college
of grammar, composition, and business and techni- textbook appears in The Elements of Technical
Writing.6
’

cal communication, punctuation has long been pre-

sented as a mass of seemingiy unrelated rules. The A look at the scholarly writing on punctuation
most common presentation is classification by during the last ten years or so thus gives one the
punctuation marks: lists of rules about when to use impression that there is some interest in punctua-
periods, commas, semicolons, dashes, and so on. tion theory and that handbook writers, instructors,
This mode of presentation hides the true nature of and researchers are aware of the following prin-
punctuation as a system, largely determined by ciples :
syntax and operating on a few principles that can 1. The various functions of punctuation are
be well defined. The current presentation also separation, termination (of sentences), combina-
results in poor learning because it exaggerates the tion, introduction, and enclosure of grammatical
role of convention in punctuation, thus encouraging units. These functions facilitate the processing of
rote learning. Effective communicators should grammatical units. (See Figure 1)
indeed be able to manipulate punctuation for 2. The length and parallelism of syntactic units
desired rhetorical ends. However, the expertise in affect their punctuation: the shorter the unit, the
rhetorical manipulation of punctuation presupposes less need for punctuation; the more parallel the
mastery of the basic punctuation rules.’ It is for units, the less need for higher order punctuation
this reason that this paper explains and illustrates symbols. (See Additional Principle B below.)
some rarely explained and often underemphasized 3. Units that are considered semantically subord-
punctuation principles. inate by the writer need punctuation. For instance,
nonrestrictive appositives and relative phrases or
clauses, and interrupting comments or asides need
CURRENT STATUS OF to be set off with punctuation marks.’
PUNCTUATION THEORY

Lately, there has been a growing interest in ADDITIONAL PRINCIPLES

exploring punctuation as a system. For example,
William Irmscher presents a table of the uses of Since the above principles seem fairly well
punctuation, though he remarks that &dquo;few students known, this paper emphasizes the following two
are ever subjected to a systematic approach prob- principles (A and B ) which have either not been
ably because too few teachers are themselves aware known or have received scant emphasis:
of a systematic approach.&dquo;2 Along with historical A. Within syntactic units, punctuation is influ-
studies, such as that by Elizabeth Sklar,33 there enced by word order: marked or noncanonical
have been attempts to fill the gap between hand- word order may necessitate punctuation. This is
book prescriptions and current usage, as in the case often, though not always, true for aduerbials. The
of the &dquo;comma splice.&dquo;4 R. Scott Baldwin and unmarked or canonical word order in English is:
James M. Coady propose &dquo;scientific psycholinguis-
tic rules ... to account for the variable importance Subject + Verb Object/Complement + Adverbial.
+
of individual punctuation cues.&dquo;5 A rare case of a (SVOA)
The V and
S, A each can be a single word, a phrase
*I wish to express my gratitude to Professors Sidney Green- or clause. The canonical word order is based
a

baum, Gerald Alred, and Chuck Meyer of the University of on the hypothesis that English speakers expect

Wisconsin, Milwaukee; Professor Bruce Campbell of Drake SVOA order for statements. One instance of
University, Des Moines, Iowa; Al Krahn of the Milwaukee the noncanonical form in English would be the
Area Technical College, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and Profes- question, marked by the transposition of subject
sors Elizabeth Harris and Carlota Smith of the University and verb. In poetic discourse noncanonical forms
of Texas at Austin for reading an earlier draft of this paper are common; and since readers anticipate such
and making valuable suggestions. inversions in poetry, punctuation marks are not

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 29

Figure 1

Punctuation Functions

expected. The word order of the following senten- Because Texas offers very lucrative tax
ces places them in poetic domain: incentives to industry, more and more
businesses are relocating there. (7)
From the ceiling hung an ornate chandelier. (1)
More and more businesses are relocating
Herculean strength they admired, Hercu- in Texas because it offers industry very
lean abuse they detested. (2) lucrative tax incentives. (8)
But in everyday prose discourse, a fronted (or more If we thus provided a psycholinguistic basis for the
mobile) adverbial, especially if it is long, needs to rule that marked word order often requires punc-
be separated by a comma from the rest of the tuation, students would easily see the rationality of
structure: Adverbial, + S + V + O. Examine the the following rule given in handbooks (as it stands,
following pairs of sentences: it only encourages students into believing that
punctuation rules are arbitrary):
When stress, overexhaustion and malnutri-
tion weaken a body’s defenses, diseases Set off an initial adverbial clause from the
make rapid headway. (3) main clause by a comma. When the main clause
opens a sentence, do not punctuate.
Diseases make a rapid headway when stress,
overexhaustion and malnutrition weaken The rule that noncanonical form may necessitate a
a body’s defenses. (4) comma eliminates the seeming arbitrariness of
handbook injunctions.
Of all the energy alternatives being explored Similarly, punctuation is necessary for easy
today, solar energy is the best. (5) decoding of structures with marked word order
involving terms of address. For instance, the
Solar energy is the best of all the energy comma in (9) is critical for quick processing:
alternatives being explored today. (6) Jim is going to trip, Bob. (9)

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 30

(If we used a purely nontransitive verb like faint, clauses. Thus the gradation runs downward from
the ambiguity is reduced.) If the term of address period through semicolon and colon to comma.
Bob were to open the sentence, allowing a canoni-
cal sentence form, the comma after Bob would not Hierarchy Illustrated
be critical,’ though still helpful because literate
adult readers expect a comma after a term of ad- Ronald Reagan, President of the United States;
dress, as in (10): Francois Mitterand, President of France; Mar-
garet Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United
Bob, Jim is going to trip. (10) Kingdom; and Helmut Schmidt, West German
Chancellor, have decided to hold an economic
B. Punctuation symbols form a hierarchy, a des- summit in the near future. (11)
cending order (in power of separation) from period
through semicolon and colon to comma. Hence, In (11), the comma is preempted for internal use

for example, when one comma function is pre- to separate appositives. Hence the next higher-level
empted, we need a semicolon (a step higher on the punctuation mark, semicolon, must be used to
ladder) to execute another comma function. Or combine items in a series-another function norm-
when coordinated main clauses are brief or parallel, ally fulfilled by commas.
we use a comma, (a step lower on the ladder) in-
stead of a semicolon. (See Figure 2) Even though the schedule is tight, we must
meet our deadline; and all the staff, including
Figure 2 the programmer and the Systems Manager,
will have to work overtime this week. (12)
Punctuation Hierarchy
Typically, two main clauses joined by a coordinat-
ing conjunction are separated by a comma. Because
of the commas within the main clause of (12), we
have however to use a higher-level punctuation
mark to separate the main clauses themselves.
Another example:

Please forward your check to Landmann

Tobacco Company, Austin, Texas; and your
order, received here on the 15th, will be
promptly filled. (13)
The typical handbook rule states:

Use a comma to combine two main clauses

joined by a coordination conjunction, such as
and, but, or, and for.

However,
When two main clauses are set side by side
without a conjoining word, use a semicolon
instead.
Punctuation symbols form a heirarchy or a pro-
gression : terminal symbols such as the period are It would be more systematic and in keeping with
on the highest rung since they separate sentences the progression being set up in this paper to formu-
from one another, thus creating the greatest break. late the above rule in a more explicit or formalized
Semicolons typically separate main clauses while way:
colons often separate sentences from structures
functioning as appositives and explanations. Com- A comma suffices to join two main clauses
mas usually separate words, phrases and subordinate in a sentence when a coordinating conjunction

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 31

is present; the absence of a conjunction, between the first two main clauses. The famous
however, necessitates the use of a punctuation colloquy of Julius Caesar is normally punctuated
mark one step higher on the scale than the with commas between the main clauses, at once
comma, namely, the semicolon. both brief and parallel:

In (14), the progression can be further illustrated: I came, I saw, I conquered. (18)
The audit report from Price Waterhouse was The formulation of the hierarchy principle thus
received on Monday; however, our comptroller brings punctuation closer to a system.
hasn’t had time to look it over-yet. (14) The colon can be shown to occupy a position
between semicolon and commas, as in Figure 2,
If we assume that a conjunctive adverb such as because it is used in linguistic contexts where the
however in (14) needs to be separated by a punctu- units are more closely connected than when a semi-
ation mark from the second main clause of a com- colon is used: a colon is used when what follows
pound sentence, the hierarchy rule provides a the mark is either an explanation of what precedes
rational explanation of why a semicolon is used or a fulfillment of the expectation raised by the

before a conjunctive adverb. Since the comma is preceding unit. It often has an appositive function.
preempted for the function of separating the con-
junctive adverb however, a higher-level punctuation The typical management functions include the
mark (semicolon) is used for the function of con- following: supervising, forecasting, decision-
joining the main clauses themselves. The principle making, and implementing. (19)
of hierarchy operates in a reverse way as well-in
grammatical units that are brief or parallel. Since There was one thing above all else Chrysler
decoding very short units is generally easy or non- needed for its survival: the Chairman had to
confusing, further breaking them down by means convince the UAW to make some sacrifices if
of punctuation is not necessary. the Union desired to retain jobs. (20)
The corporation’s stock improved and inves-
tor confidence was restored. ~ (15) On the other hand, since the colon typically
separates sentences as in (20), it could occupy the
Because both the main clauses in (15) are brief, the slot just below period and above semicolon, which
comma indicative of coordination is not needed. typically separates main clauses. But this is not a
On the other hand, sheer length of units may significant consideration because main clauses are
necessitate punctuation for easy comprehension. potentially full sentences. The colon, therefore,
Compare (15) with (16): can float between period at the top and comma at
the bottom of the hierarchy ladder.
The corporation’s share improved rapidly dur- Figure 3 (TowardsA Punctuation System) reveals
ing the last quarter after a continuous slump at a glance the components of punctuation and
for the first three quarters of 1981, and the how they function to form a coherent system. Fig-
investors’ confidence in the company’s poten- ure 1 lists combining as a subfunction of punctua-
tial growth was consequently restored. (16) tion. This can be understood easily if we look at
the commas in a series from two points of view:
In the following example (17), both the brevity (1) They separate the units of the series from one
and the parallelism of the two main clauses allow another so that it is clear what the units are. (2)
a lower punctuation mark, namely a comma, than they link or combine the units-the commas sub-
what would ordinarily be expected, namely a semi- stituting for conjunction. Construed the second
colon : way, combination can be maintained as another
subfunction. The point can be illustrated in the
He filled the beaker with liquid, he heated it following example:
on a butane burner(,) and he took readings at

equal intervals of time. (17) The five stages of management program are

Preprogram, Plan and Budget, MIS and opera-

In (17), if the independent clauses were long and tions, Management review and Decisions, and
nonparallel, a semicolon would have been expected Post-program. (21)

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 32

Figure 3

Major System of Punctuation

The five items can either be looked upon as distinct be taught that the factors that have an impact on
from one another or as a group. punctuation are length (long or short), parallelism
(presence or absence), word order (canonical or
noncanonical), and semantic relationship as per-
CONCLUSION ceived by the writer (close or subordinate) of
syntactic units. Students also need to know that
The above discussion thus demonstrates the close, the syntactic functions-coordination, subordina-
logical relationship between syntax and punctua- tion, modification, and apposition-correlate with
tion. Using the principles explained and illustrated various punctuation marks, hierarchically related to
here, we can teach punctuation as a system in which one another. Taught this way, students will perceive
the various punctuation marks terminate sentences; punctuation as a rational or coherent system of
and combine, introduce, and interrupt word strings rules easy to learn and master, and not as a con-
from single words to sentences. Students need to glomeration of seemingly unrelated rules.

REFERENCES

1. Harry Shaw states that "possibly as much as one- 2. William Irmscher, Teaching Expository Writing, New
fourth of punctuation is a matter of personal taste—but only York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979, p. 122. Irmscher’s
to the extent that marks used help to make fully clear the book is not a school textbook for students. It is a pedagogic
words themselves. This leaves most practices in punctuation source book for teachers of composition. I have tried in my
a fairly rigid matter of ’rules."’ Harry Shaw, Punctuate it punctuation functions chart to further formalize Irmscher’s
Right! New York: Barnes and Noble, 1963, p. 6. chart on punctuation.

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 33

3. Elizabeth S. Sklar, "The Possessive Apostrophe: The 6. Joseph A. Alvarez, The Elements of Technical Writ-
Development and Decline of a Crooked Mark," College ing, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.
English, 38.2, October 1976, 175-183. 7. Randolph Quirk et al., A Grammar of Contemporary
4. Irene Teoh Brosnahan, "A Few Good Words for the English, London: Longman, 1972, p. 1061. "... the closer
Comma Splice," College English, 38.2, October 1976, the relation between the parts of a sentence, the less need
184-188. there is for punctuation."
5. R. Scott Baldwin and James M. Coady, "Psycho- 8. Though this explanation might seem rather ingenious,
linguistic Approaches to a Theory of Punctuation," the principle here enunciated does work. Punctuation con-
Journal of Reading Behavior, x-4, Winter 1978, 363- vention requires commas for all vocatives.
375.

Some Publishing Opportunities for

ABCA Members
Compiled by Pat Campbell
The University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Copyright © 1981, Directory of Publishing Opportunities in Journals and Periodicals by Marquis Who’s
Who, Incorporated. Reprinted by permission.

Identified below are publications whose editors Information sought included name and address
or persons in similar positions responded to ques- of publication, sponsoring organization, year first
tionnaires concerning their welcoming for consi- published, subject fields, readership, types of
deration for publication manuscripts from members articles preferred, whether or not publication is
of the American Business Communication Associa- refereed, preferred length, number of copies needed,
tion. abstract requirement, payment to author, availabil-
The mailing list, not inclusive and chosen some- ity of style sheet, and comments.
what arbitrarily, nevertheless includes a range of Of the 51 publications, 33 (66 percent) are
disciplines. Questionnaires were sent during the refereed; 11 (22 percent) are not refereed; three
summer of 1982 to 102 periodicals. Names of per- are refereed sometimes; three gave no indication;
iodicals not suggested by the writer or by other and one has articles reviewed by an in-house com-
ABCA members with whom the writer discussed mittee. One publication dates from 1869; one from
the project were identified by various means, includ- February, 1981. Four publications indicated pay-
ing a reading of Directory of Publishing Opportuni- ment to author.
ties in Journals & Periodicals’ and Cabell’s Direc- Some of the following publications are undoubt-
tory of Publishing Opportunities in Business, edly more prestigious than others; authors might
Administration and Economics,2 Of the 102 ques- want to look carefully at issues of a publication
tionnaires mailed, 51 (50 percent) were completed before submitting manuscripts.
and returned. Replies received from three addi- Only the 51 publications that responded favor-
tional persons are not included. One person indi- ably to the questionnaires are listed; and with the
cated that she did not want her publication to exception of some abbreviations that are now
receive manuscripts to be considered for publica- spelled out, the information is taken directly from
tion, one person indicated that his journal catered the questionnaires.
to their faculty and graduate students, and one Academy of Management Journal, School of
person indicated that the publication was no longer Management, University of Minnesota, 271 19th
being published. Seven questionnaires were returned Avenue South, Minneapolis, MN 55455. [Left first
as not deliverable, but five were mailed again with nine spaces blank-said &dquo;see attached.&dquo;] Sponsoring
corrected addresses. organization ; first published in .

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