HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

THEORY AND DESIGN OF

STRUCTURE

26- ANUSHKA D RAUT

VIVA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
 INDEX

1. History of high rise structure.

2. Evolution of structures.
3. Demand for high-rise buildings.
4. Types of load :
i. Dead load .
ii. Live load.
iii. Enviornmental load.
5. Structural concerns :
6. Geometry of structure.
7. Wind tunnel analysis.
8. Aspect ratio.
9. Vortex shedding
10. Lateral load resisting structural elements of high rise and their
typical forms.
11. Classification of high rise building structural system
12. Materials used for high rise.
13. Advantages
14. Disadvantages
15. Construction techniques
16. Frameworks.
17. Cranes.
18. Refrences
HISTORY OF HIGH-RISE BUILDING :

• The earliest structures now known to be the tallest in the world

were the Egyptian pyramids, with the Great Pyramid of Giza, at an
original height of 146.5 metres (481 ft), being the tallest structure
in the world for over 3,800 years, until the construction of Lincoln
Cathedral in 1311.
• From then until the completion of the Washington
Monument (capped in 1884) the world's tallest buildings were
churches or cathedrals.
• Later, the Eiffel Tower and, still later, some radio masts and
television towers were the world's tallest structures

• The first high-rise buildings were constructed in the United States

in the 1880s.
• They arose in urban areas where increased land prices and great
population densities created a demand for buildings that rose
vertically rather than spread horizontally, thus occupying
less precious land area.
• High-rise buildings were made practicable by the use
of steel structural frames and glass exterior sheathing.
• The foundations of high-rise buildings must sometimes support
very heavy gravity loads, and they usually consist
of concrete piers, piles, or caissons that are sunk into the ground.
 EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURES :

▪ Great Pyramid of Giza

in ancient Egypt, built in
the 26thcentury BC
(146 m)

▪ Qutb Minar (73 meters) in India in 1368

▪ Taj Mahal in India

(73 m) in 1653

▪ Lincoln Cathedral in England (83

m) in 1088
DEMAND FOR HIGHRISE BUILDING :

• Scarcity of land in urban areas.

• Increasing demand for business & residential space.
• Economic growth .
• Technological advancements .
• Innovations in Structural systems.
• Desire for aesthetics in urban settings .
• Concept of city skyline.
• Cultural significance & prestige.
• Human aspiration to build higher.

TYPES OF LOAD :

1. DEAD LOAD :
Dead loads, also known as permanent or static loads, are those
that remain relatively constant over time and comprise, for
example, the weight of a building’s structural elements, such
as beams, walls, roof and structural flooring components. Dead
loads may also include permanent non-structural partitions,
immovable fixtures and even built-in cupboards.

2. LIVE LOAD :
Live loads (applied or imposed loads) may vary over time.
Typical live loads might include the weight of the audience in an
auditorium, the books in a library, traffic loads and so on.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD :
The loads that act on the structure due to natural forces occurs as a
result of natural agencies such as air, snow, rain, earthquakes and it
is also a result of topography.

STRUCTURAL CONCERNS :

• The primary structural skeleton of a tall building can be

visualized as a vertical cantilever beam with its base fixed in the
ground.
• The structure has to carry the vertical gravity loads and the
lateral wind and earthquake loads.
• Gravity loads are caused by dead and live loads.
• Lateral loads tend to snap the building or topple it.
• The building must therefore have adequate shear and bending
resistance and must not lose its vertical load-carrying capability.

GEOMERTY OF STRUCTURE
 WIND TUNNEL ANALYSIS :

• Wind tunnel testing is used in the design of most major tall

buildings to identify the wind-induced structural loads and
responses for which the superstructure must be designed.
• Wind tunnel testing involves highly de- veloped and
specialized methodologies and terminology.
• Designers, developers, and building officials cannot be
expected to have the in-depth knowledge of such a
specialized field but it will help them to obtain most value
from wind tunnel tests of their projects if they have a basic
understanding of the principles involved.

• The skyscraper pushes down on

into the ground .But when the
wind blows, the columns in the
windy side stretch apart, and the
columns on the other side
squeeze together.

ASPECT RATIO :
• The floor-to-floor height is generally 7.5 ft in the case of
residential building.
• On the other hand, the height of each story in commercial
buildings is 10 ft.
• In architecture, the slenderness ratio, or simply slenderness, is
an aspect ratio, the quotient between the height and the width of
a building. Structural engineers generally consider a skyscraper
as slender if the height: width ratio exceeds 10:1 or 12:1.
• For lateral systems that engage exterior elements, an aspect
ratio up to 8:1 is feasible. Pushing this ratio up to 10:1 can
result in the need for special damping devices to mitigate
excessive motion perception. Overturning effect of the building
mass applied in its deflected shape).
• The length divided by width (both in plan) of a building is
termed as its Aspect Ratio and the ratio of height to least
lateral dimension of a building is termed as its Slenderness
Ratio.

VORTEX SHEDDING :

• Vortex shedding is a phenomenon, when the wind blows

across a structural member, vortices are shed alternately
from one side to the other, and where alternating low-
pressure zones are generated on the downwind side of the
structure giving rise to a fluctuating force acting at right
angles to the wind direction..
• The character of the vortex shedding forces depends on the
shape of the buildings. Therefore, for supertall
buildings such as Burj Kalifa, wind tunnel test was used to
shape the building to minimize wind effects through
disturbance on vortex shedding over the height of the tower.
• The frequency of vortex shedding can be determined
by Strouhal number (St). The St Number is dependent on the
cross section of the building or object which flow passes
over, and is also dependent on the velocity of the flow, or
the Reynolds number

• The bluff structure is not mounted rigidly and the frequency

of vortex shedding matches the resonance frequency of the
structure, then the structure can begin to resonate, vibrating
with harmonic oscillations driven by the energy of the flow.
• This vibration is the cause for overhead power line wires
humming in the wind, and for the fluttering of automobile
whip radio antennas at some speeds.
• Tall chimneys constructed of thin-walled steel tubes can be
sufficiently flexible that, in air flow with a speed in the
critical range, vortex shedding can drive the chimney into
violent oscillations that can damage or destroy the chimney.

Wind Adaptive Building Envelope

Shapes to reduce wind effect
LATERAL LOAD RESISTING STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS OF HIGH RISE AND THEIR TYPICAL
FORMS :

• In high-rise buildings, lateral load resisting structural

elements are crucial components designed to resist horizontal
forces such as wind loads and seismic forces.
• These elements ensure the building's stability and prevent
excessive sway or collapse during extreme conditions.
• A multistory building higher than 21m or 21 to 29 floor
buildings with unknown height described as high-rise
structure. Various structural systems are available to be used
in the construction of high rise building.

Classification of tall building structural systems (steel)

• Some of the typical lateral load resisting structural elements

used in high-rise buildings include:
1. SHEAR WALLS:

• Shear walls are vertical reinforced concrete or masonry walls

that provide lateral resistance by transferring the applied loads
to the building's foundation.
• They are strategically placed along the building's perimeter or
core to resist wind and seismic forces.

2. OUTRIGGER STRUCTURES :

• The core may be centrally located with outriggers extending

on both sides or in some cases it may be located on one side
of the building with outriggers extending to the building
columns on the other side
• The outriggers are generally in the form of trusses (1 or 2
story deep) in steel structures, or walls in concrete structures,
that effectively act as stiff headers inducing a tension-
compression couple in the outer columns.
• Belt trusses are often provided to distribute these tensile and
compressive forces to a large number of exterior frame
columns.
• An build up to 150 floors Shangai World financial Centre.
 Belt outrigger truss system Improvement in overall stiffeners due to outrigger
bolt trusses.

3. BELT TRUSS :

• The outrigger and belt truss system is commonly used as

one of the structural system to effectively control the
excessive drift due to lateral load, so that, during small or
medium lateral load due to either wind or earthquake load,
the risk of structural and non-structural damage can be
minimized.
• For high-rise buildings, particularly in seismic active zone
or wind load dominant, this system can be chosen as an
appropriate structure
Mega Frame -Taipei 101 Tower Incheon 151 Tower

Tripod - Jeddah Tower

4. CORE SYSTEM :

• This system works quite well for commercial buildings,

where maximum flexibility in layout is required, so that the
open spaces can be divided by movable partitions.
• Other than the functional advantages, the structural benefits
of this system is that being spatial, the walls around the core
are capable of resisting all types of loads

Schematic response of core supported structure under vertical

and lateral loading

5. BUNDLED TUBE :

• A bundled tube typically consists of a number of individual

tubes interconnected to form a multicell tube, in which the
frames in the lateral load direction resist the shears, while the
flange frames carry most of the overturning moments.
• The bundled tube system involves, instead of one tube,
several individual tubes interconnected to form a multi-cell
tube. Together they work to resist the lateral loads and
overturning moments. When the tubes fall within the
building envelope, interior columns are positioned along
their perimeters.
• Not only is this system economically efficient but it also
allows for more versatile building designs, adopting
interesting shapes and bundled in dynamic groupings rather
than being simply box-like towers.
• The first type of building to use this system was the Willis
Tower in Chicago.
 . Sears Tower, Chicago
6. FRAMED TUBE :

• This is the simplest form of the tube system and can be used
on a variety of floor plan shapes, including square,
rectangular, circular and freeform. This type is reasonably
efficient from 38-300 m (125-1,000 ft) in height,
• If the facade shear frame is made stronger by closer
spacing of columns and larger member proportions and if
such frames are continuous at corners, the overall frame is
transformed into a cantilever Framed Tube fixed at the
ground.
• The effectiveness of the cantilever depends on the
minimization of the part of the sway deflection due to the
shear frame.
• One basic objective is to reduce this component to less
than 25% of the total sway so that the predominant
deformation is that of a cantilever
• The distribution of column axial forces due to
cantilever action. The more the distribution is similar
to that of a fully rigid box with uniform axial stress
on the flanges and triangular distribution on the
webs, the more efficient the system will be as a
cantilever.
• The Framed Tube system was first introduced in the
mid-1960's in reinforced concrete. The dense grid
exterior structure was readily formed, creating the
appearance of a punched tube. This system was
adopted later for steel buildings.

Framed tube: lateral sway

Framed tube: axial load distribution

CLASSIFICATION OF HIGH RISE BUILDING
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM :

High-rise buildings can be classified into different structural

systems based on the arrangement and type of load-resisting
elements used to provide stability and support.

Figure 10. Evolution of structural systems

1. SHEAR FRAMES :

• Shear frames are a type of

structural system where the
building's lateral load resistance
is primarily provided by vertical
shear walls or frames.
• Characteristics: Shear frames use
the capacity of vertical elements
(such as shear walls) to resist
lateral forces, ensuring building
stability. These frames may be
positioned around the building's
perimeter or within the core.
2. INTERACTING FRAMES:

• Interacting frames involve the integration of multiple

interconnected frames to collectively resist lateral loads.
• Characteristics: In this system, the frames work together to
distribute and share the lateral forces, enhancing the overall
stability of the building. It is often a combination of moment
frames, braced frames, or other frame configurations.

3. PARTIAL TUBULAR SYSTEM:

• The partial tubular system is a variation of the tubular system

where the building's perimeter columns and beams form a
partial tube-like structure.
• Characteristics: This system offers some of the benefits of a
full tubular system (such as enhanced lateral stiffness) while
allowing for more architectural flexibility and open spaces
within the building.

4. TUBULAR SYSTEM :

• The tubular system is characterized by closely spaced

perimeter columns and beams that create a rigid tube-like
structure, providing high resistance to lateral loads.
• Characteristics: This system offers efficient lateral load
distribution, reduced building sway, and the ability to
accommodate open floor plans. It can be further classified as
a "tube within a tube" or "outrigger" system based on the
arrangement of core and perimeter elements.
 MATERIALS USED FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS:

• Steel, concrete, wood, glass cladding materials, high

alumina cement used for roofing and floors
• It contains bauxite instead of clay, cement, portland
cement of lime stone , silica
ADVANTAGES:
• Plasticity
• Easily available
• Easy in casting
• Non corrosive
• Can be cast in situ
DISADVANTAGES:
• Cost of form
• Dead weight
• Difficulty in pouring
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
• Slip form
• Jump form
• Tunnel form
• Climbing formwork
• Table form/ flying form
• Column system formwork

Slip form Procedure

FORMWORKS:

• Formwork is a temporary structure or mold used in

construction to support and shape concrete or other materials
as they set or harden.
• There are two main categories of formwork: conventional
formwork and advanced formwork systems. Let's delve into
the details of each:

CONVENTIONAL FORMWORK:

• Conventional formwork refers to traditional, labor-intensive

methods of creating formwork using basic materials like
timber, plywood, and steel.
• It involves assembling and erecting the formwork on-site,
which can be time-consuming and labor-intensive.
• However, it remains widely used in various construction
projects due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness.

MATERIALS USED:

• Timber: Conventional formwork often utilizes sawn lumber or

timber to create the framework for formwork panels and
supports.
• Plywood: Plywood sheets are commonly used as the surface
material for formwork panels. They provide a smooth finish to
the concrete surface.
• Steel: Mild steel bars or rods are used to reinforce the
formwork structure and support the weight of the concrete.

ADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL FORMWORK:

• Low initial cost: The materials for conventional formwork are

readily available and relatively inexpensive.
• Flexibility: Conventional formwork can be easily customized
to suit various shapes and sizes.
• Time-consuming: It takes longer to erect and dismantle
conventional formwork compared to advanced systems.
ADVANCED FORMWORK SYSTEMS:
• Advanced formwork systems are engineered solutions that
utilize modern materials and technologies to improve
efficiency, speed, and accuracy in the construction process.
• Advanced formwork can include various materials like
engineered wood, steel, aluminum, plastic, and composite
materials.

TYPES OF ADVANCED FORMWORK SYSTEMS:

• Engineered Wood Systems: These systems use high-

quality plywood or composite panels with integrated
structural members for support. They are known for their
durability and reusability.
• Aluminum Formwork: Aluminum panels, frames, and
beams are lightweight and easily assembled, making them
ideal for repetitive use in large projects.
• Steel Formwork: Similar to aluminum, steel formwork is
durable and can be used for multiple projects. It provides a
smooth finish to the concrete surface.
• Stay-In-Place Formwork: These are pre-formed units that
are left in place after the concrete has set. Examples include
permanent insulated formwork systems.

ADVANTAGES OF ADVANCED FORMWORK SYSTEMS:

• Faster construction: Advanced formwork systems are

designed for quicker assembly and disassembly, reducing
overall project time.
• Higher quality finish: Many advanced systems offer
smoother concrete finishes, reducing the need for additional
finishing work.
• Enhanced safety: Prefabricated components and improved
designs contribute to a safer work environment.
• Reduced labor: Advanced systems require fewer labor hours
compared to conventional formwork methods.
CHALLENGES OF ADVANCED FORMWORK SYSTEMS:

• Higher initial cost: Advanced formwork systems may have a

higher upfront cost due to the investment in prefabricated
components and materials.
• Skill requirements: Workers may need specialized training to
use and assemble advanced formwork systems effectively.
• Limited flexibility: Some advanced systems may be less
adaptable to irregular shapes or unique designs.
• Ultimately, the choice between conventional and advanced
formwork systems depends on factors such as project scale,
complexity, budget, timeline, and available labor resources.
Both approaches have their merits, and the selection should be
based on a careful evaluation of these factors to ensure
successful and cost-effective construction.
CRANES:

• Cranes are essential pieces of heavy machinery used for lifting

and moving heavy objects and materials on construction sites,
in manufacturing facilities, and various other industrial
applications.
• They come in various types and configurations, each designed
to meet specific lifting and maneuvering requirements.
• Here are some common types of cranes:

1.Mobile Crane:
Mobile cranes are versatile and can be easily moved from
one location to another. They are mounted on wheeled
vehicles, making them suitable for a wide range of
applications.
Types: All-Terrain Cranes, Rough Terrain Cranes, Truck-
Mounted Cranes, Crawler Cranes

2.Tower Crane:

Tower cranes are commonly

used on construction sites to
lift heavy materials to tall
heights. They have a vertical
mast and a horizontal jib with a
trolley that moves along the jib.
Characteristics: Tower cranes
are often used for high-rise
building construction and other
projects requiring vertical
lifting over an extended reach.
REFRENCES

https://issuu.com/birkhauser.ch/docs/understanding-
steel-design/19

https://www.slideshare.net/Aglaiaconnect/tube-
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_(structure)

https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/jeddah-
tower/2

https://www.idiva.com/travel-living/home-decor/saudi-
arabias-kingdom-tower-will-be-the-tallest-building-in-
the-world/19807

https://cte.ku.edu/sites/cte.ku.edu/files/docs/portfolios/
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https://www.slideshare.net/KaranChauhan72/combined
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ml

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