EXOTICS — AVIAN

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PIGEON MEDICINE AND SURGERY HUSBANDRY

Housing
Bob Doneley, BVSc, FACVSc (Avian Health) Racing pigeons are housed in lofts, ideally with
West Toowoomba Vet Surgery 0.25m2 floor space per bird. The design of the loft must
Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia take into consideration four basic design criteria: the loft
must be dry; it must be well ventilated; it must minimise
INTRODUCTION extreme variations in temperature and humidity; and it
While pigeons are commonly kept around the world, must be easy to clean.
pigeon fanciers rarely seek veterinary advice. While in As well as these design criteria, the loft must meet the
part this is often a commercial decision, based on the birds’ requirement for an environment that it wants to
value of a racing pigeon, there is also a strong feeling return to. The loft must be safe and secure; it must be a
that veterinarians don’t understand pigeons (and place where they can rest, groom, and interact with other
perhaps pigeon fanciers). This paper seeks to redress pigeons in a calm, stress-free atmosphere; food and
this situation by making veterinarians aware of the health water must be readily available; and the birds should be
requirements and diseases of pigeons. However, it provided with room and materials to breed if desired.
should be noted that this field is too broad to cover it in There are almost as designs and management
detail in the time and space available, and the author systems as there are fanciers, but these basic criteria
hopes that those who wish to learn more will access the must be assessed by the veterinarian when inspecting
references provided to avail themselves of the premises.
information readily available in the literature. Most fanciers have different lofts for different life
stages, ie. young bird lofts, stock lofts, and racing lofts.
PIGEONS Each of these presents different problems in husbandry
Pigeons are members of the order Columbiforme that and disease control, and must be assessed separately.
includes pigeons and doves (and incidentally, the now
extinct Dodo Raphus cucullatus). There are Feeding
approximately 300 members of this order, arbitrarily Pigeons are traditionally fed a mix of grains and
divided by body size into the pigeons and the smaller legumes. Some greens are offered and usually relished.
doves. Various vitamin-mineral tonics and blocks are provided,
Columba livia, the domestic pigeon, is thought to have as is grit.
been derived from European Rock Doves. They were Fanciers will vary the proportions of different
amongst the earliest animals to be domesticated, and foodstuffs to meet perceived differing needs for racing,
are even mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible. breeding and rearing young.
Over thousands of years they have been used for a
multitude of purposes – message carrying, a food Breeding
source, sport (racing), aviary specimens, show animals Pigeons reach maturity at approximately 6 months of
and household pets. Selective breeding has produced age, but are usually not bred till they are 1 year old.
many varieties in size and color, resulting in the pigeons Fanciers keep the cocks and hens separate for much of
we see in practice today. the year, pairing them only when breeding is desired,
This paper will focus primarily on the racing pigeon, usually in late winter - early spring. The first egg is laid
the most common form seen today. Racing exploits two about 10 days after pairing; the second egg
aspects of pigeon behaviour – their desire to return to approximately 2 days later. Both parents share the
their roost, and their ability to navigate over long incubation, which takes 18-20 days.
distances in order to do so.

Table 1. Biological Data, Domestic Pigeon

Bodyweight 350 – 500 g
Respiratory rate 25-30 per minute
Heart rate 240 bpm
Life span Up to 30 years, although rarely breed over 10 years. Racing life is usually 7 years
Food consumption 30 g/bird/day
Water consumption 30-60 mls/bird/day
Sex determination Monomorphic, although subtle differences occur in beak shape, plumage and behaviour
Egg data 2 eggs laid 44 hours apart; incubation 18-20 days, shared by both parents
Nestlings (squabs) fledge at 24 days; then known as ‘squeakers’ until voice changes at
Fledging
8 weeks
Moulting First moult at 6 weeks of age. Primary moult occurs in early autumn

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The newly hatched chick (squab) is fed by both vaccination, birds are infectious to other birds for 4-6
parents on crop milk. Crop milk is unique to pigeons; it is weeks, and are excluded from racing (hence,
produced by the desquamation of fat-laden epithelial vaccination must be given at least 6 weeks prior to the
cells from the stratified squamous epithelium lining the onset of the racing season). If vaccinating in the face of
crop in both sexes. Proliferation of crop epithelium an outbreak, birds already showing lesions should not be
begins at about the sixth day of incubation, and vaccinated.
secretion begins at about the sixteenth day of incubation Dermatophytes (usually Trichophyton megnini)
lasting until about two weeks after hatching. The typically affect the non-feathered skin, causing
composition of crop milk resembles that of mammalian thickened, grey patches. Systemic therapy (eg
milk, being rich in fat and protein; fat (6.9-12.7%), protein griseofulvin) can be complemented by twice weekly
13.3-18.6% ash 1.5%, and water 65-81%; unlike washing with enilconazole or miconazole.
mammalian milk, however, it lacks carbohydrates and Cutaneous mycobacteriosis is occasionally seen as
calcium. These are provided from about the 4th day of caseous nodules, usually in the skin of a thin bird.
feeding in the form of regurgitated food; by the 7th day Iatrogenic feather lesions are seen when pigeons
nearly all the feed provided to the chick is regurgitated are treated with benzimadazole anthelminthics (such as
food. fenbendazole) or pyrimethamine potentiated
The squab grows rapidly. Weighing only 14g at hatch, sulphonamides when feathers are actively growing.
it reaches 400g by 20 days. It weans at 24 days, at Affected feathers fail to unsheathe, and become brittle
which time it becomes known as a ‘squeaker’ until its and break readily. Cortisone (occasionally given by
voice changes at about 8 weeks. misguided fanciers as a ‘steroid’) may cause ‘stress
lines’ to appear in feathers
COMMON MEDICAL PROBLEMS Traumatic injuries are occasionally seen after a
SKIN AND FEATHERS hawk attack while flying, or after colliding with wire or
Ectoparasites are common in pigeons. Lice other birds in the loft. These injuries are usually
(Columbicola columbae, Menapon latum), mites amenable to surgery or conservative treatment at the
(Knemidocoptes laevis laevis, Knemidocoptes mutans, veterinarian’s discretion.
Syringophilus columbae, Dermanyssus gallinae, Cutaneous neoplasia is occasionally seen.
Ornithonyssus sylvarium) and pigeon flies Fibrolipomas appear to be particularly common
(Pseudolynchia canariensis) are all seen from time to
time, causing feather damage, skin irritation and DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
restlessness within a flock. Treatments with pyrethrin Trichomoniasis (Canker) is the most common
sprays, ivermectin or moxidectin are effective remedies. internal parasite seen in pigeons. Trichomonas gallinae
Pigeon pox, caused by the pigeon poxvirus, presents is a motile protozoan parasite with a clear, narrow,
as two syndromes in pigeons. The dry form is seen as longitudinal axial rod (the axostyle), an undulating
discrete scabby lesions on unfeathered parts of the body membrane and four anterior flagella. It has a direct life
especially the beak and eyelids. The wet form - cycle; adults pass it to squabs via crop milk, or it can use
fibronecrotic diphtheritic lesions in the oropharynx – is faeces, saliva, or crop secretions as the vehicles of
less commonly seen. The presenting syndrome is dissemination. There may be lentogenic and velogenic
determined by the strain of the virus, the mode of forms. It causes necrotic ulceration of the mouth,
transmission and the age, species & health of infected esophagus, crop and proventriculus; velogenic forms
bird. Most lesions will heal in 3-4 weeks, although may cause a visceral form of disease involving the liver,
diphtheritic lesions may persist for several months. gastrointestinal tract and navel. Clinical signs include
Although the disease is usually self-limiting, the lesions unthriftiness, regurgitation, diarrhoea, and high mortality.
may become infected and painful, and may interfere with There is often yellow necrotic material in oral cavity and
eating, respiration & vision. If lesions are infected, sinuses. Swabbing the crop is usually diagnostic – the
antibiotics and gentle cleansing are indicated. Forceful characteristic shape and jerky motion of the parasite is
removal of scabs may result in scarring & deformity. readily identifiable. It is thought that infection by
The virus is environmentally stable, and can survive lentogenic strains of T gallinae may provide some
for years in dried organic debris. It must enter body protective immunity against velogenic strains. However,
through the mucous membranes or abraded skin, as it is treatment with the nitroimidazoles (ronidazole,
unable to penetrate intact epithelium. It can be carnidazole Metronidazole and dimetridazole) is usually
transmitted directly through fighting, feather picking, highly effective.
preening, etc, or indirectly by blood sucking insects eg Worms are also common in pigeons. Ascaridia
mosquitoes. The virus will either remain at point of entry, columbae and Capillaria obsignata, both with direct life
causing localised infection, or spread haematogenously cycles, are frequently found in poorly performing birds or
to the liver and bone marrow, producing a systemic those losing weight. Diagnosis is made on fecal
infection. The incubation period is 7-9 days. examination, and treatment with ivermectin or
Prevention revolves around isolation of affected birds, moxidectin appears quite effective in most cases.
minimising fighting, and prevention of biting insect Tapeworms are occasionally seen in birds that were
access. An attenuated live vaccine is available. Only have returned to the loft after having been out for some
birds older than 6 weeks should be vaccinated. After time. Praziquantel is effective.

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Coccidiosis is extremely common in many lofts. As but antigenically different, to PBFD virus. Although
with trichomoniasis, lentogenic strains may confer some transmission is believed to be primarily horizontal
degree of immunity against more velogenic strains. (through inhalation/ingestion), histological evidence has
Eimeria labbeana and E. columbarum are the most been seen in 1-day-old chicks, suggesting vertical
commonly encountered species. Enteritis and weight transmission. Clinical signs indicate immuno-
loss in young birds are the more important clinical signs, suppression, particularly in young squabs aged 6 weeks
and diagnosis is readily made on fecal examination. – 12 months (before involution of cloacal bursa). They
Very high oocyst counts generally warrant treatment with include lethargy, anorexia, diarrhoea, and decreased
toltrazuril (Baycox®) or sulfadimethoxine (Albon®). growth. Numerous secondary diseases are seen, and
Salmonellosis (Paratyphoid) is common in some there is poor response to vaccination. Feather disorders
areas. Salmonella typhimurium var. copenhageni is the rare but are similar to parrots. Inclusion bodies can be
most common isolate, although S. arizonae is found in the cloacal bursa. As with PBFD in parrots,
occasionally reported. The feces of chronically infected there is no vaccine or treatment available.
carrier birds are the most common source of infection.
Contamination of the environment results in build-up of RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
the pathogen, which is then ingested or inhaled. Chlamydiosis, due to Chlamydophila psittaci, is very
The incubation period can be as short as 3-5 days. common in pigeon lofts. A 1983 survey in England and
There are several forms of this disease; in young birds Wales showed that 83% of the surveyed lofts had
with a still-developing immune system it frequently serological evidence of exposure. Fortunately, the
presents as an acute onset of lethargy, diarrhoea, weight virulence of this disease appears to be lower in pigeons
loss and death. Older birds tend to localise the disease than it is in psittacines – lower grade, chronic infections
in particular sites e.g., in the meninges around the brain are more common than explosive outbreaks with high
(causing neurological signs) or in the joints (causing mortality. Transmission is by inhalation or ingested of
swollen, red, painful joints in the wings and legs). A more infected feces or respiratory secretions. Clinical signs
generalised form is also seen, with multi-organ include swollen eyelids, ocular discharge, discoloration
involvement leading to death. Infertility can result from of the cere, conjunctivitis, keratoconjunctivitis and
orchitis or oophoritis. Treatment with antibiotics is based dyspnoea. More acute cases may present with wasting
on sensitivity testing, but enrofloxacin (Baytril®) is and green diarrhoea. Concurrent infections (eg PMV-1,
commonly used. Treatment for 3-8 weeks is often Inclusion Body Hepatitis, and Salmonellosis) are
required, but elimination of the bacteria from carrier birds common. Often the primary presenting complaint is
cannot be guaranteed. A killed vaccine is available; two decreased racing performance. A variety of serological
doses, 4 weeks apart, followed by annual re-vaccination tests and PCR are available for diagnosis. Treatment
is required. Birds under 12 weeks should not be with doxycycline is usually efficacious, but attention must
vaccinated. be given to loft hygiene and ventilation. The zoonotic
Other bacterial infections are frequently reported in aspects of this disease must be stressed to the fancier.
pigeon lofts Escherichia coli, Yersinia pseudotuber- Öne-Eyed Cold is the lay term given to a (usually)
culosis, Pseudomonas spp, Streptococcus faecalis, unilateral conjunctivitis and infra-orbital sinusitis in
Mycobacterium avium and many other bacteria have pigeons. Despite a tendency for doxycycline to be
been isolated from birds affected with diarrhoea. prescribed on the assumption that this is caused by
Diagnosis and treatment is based on culture and either Chlamydophila or Mycoplasma, other pathogens
sensitivity. As with any bacterial infection, the clinician may be involved. Herpesvirus, Trichomonas, or bacterial
must determine why the bird has the infection, and not infections have all been implicated. The recommended
just be satisfied with the initial diagnosis. treatment is doxycycline (20mg/bird SID 5 days) and
Candidiasis is commonly reported as a cause of chlortetracycline eye ointment. Enrofloxacin is also used
ingluvitis, especially in juveniles. Birds that are vomiting by some pigeon veterinarians. Affected birds should be
should have a crop swab stained or cultured to screened for trichomoniasis.
determine if Candida albicans is present. Treatment with Mycoplasma is often regarded by fanciers as a major
an appropriate anti-fungal drug is usually effective. cause of respiratory disease. In contrast however,
Adenoviral Inclusion Body Hepatitis has been researchers have yet to determine the role Mycoplasma
described as a significant cause of diarrhoea in the UK plays in respiratory infections. Three species have been
and Europe. It is most common in 2-4 month old isolated from both sick and healthy pigeons –
pigeons, with mortality highest 3-4 days after infection. M. columborale, M. columbinum and M. columbinasale.
Affected birds adopt a ‘crouching position,’ and become Mycoplasma is shed in feces and respiratory secretions,
anorexic. Vomiting, green diarrhoea and polyuria/ and transmission is by inhalation or ingestion. Treatment
polydipsia are commonly seen. The virus is shed in with doxycycline or enrofloxacin is recommended.
feces and ingested. Characteristic inclusion bodies are Aspergillosis is not uncommon in poorly ventilated
seen in the liver and intestines. No vaccine is available, lofts. Affected birds usually present for poor
but the virus is inactivated by exposure for 1 hour to performance, weight loss and dyspnoea. Occasionally a
formalin, aldehydes and iodophors. caseous sinusitis is present. Diagnosis is based on
Pigeon Circovirus is seen in pigeons in Australia, autopsy findings, histopathology and culture of affected
North America, & Europe. It is morphologically similar, tissues. While individual treatment is feasible, it is not

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usually carried out by fanciers as complete recovery and NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM

return to racing form is unlikely. Underlying factors, such Paramyxovirus-1 is the causative agent of Newcastle
as immunosuppressive diseases and poor ventilation, Disease in poultry. In the 1980’s a strain of this virus that
should be identified and eliminated. appeared to be primarily restricted to pigeons spread
Paramyxovirus-1 (PMV-1) in pigeons is not the from the Middle East into Europe and the UK. It has
classical Newcastle Disease seen in poultry, although it since spread to Africa, SE Asia and the USA and
can cause disease in poultry. It usually presents as a Canada. It has an incubation period of a few days to a
neurological disease, although rapid breathing and facial few weeks. In an infected loft new cases can appear for
oedema can occur. This disease will be discussed more 5-8 weeks after first diagnosed. Affected birds display
fully under neurological diseases (below). polydipsia, then watery to haemorrhagic diarrhoea and
Pigeon herpesvirus (Inclusion body hepatitis, then neurological signs (head tremor, torticollis, paralysis
Infectious Esophagitis) is caused by Columbrid of wings or legs, and blindness). Respiratory signs are
Herpesvirus 1 and 2, a betaherpesvirus. The pigeon is minimal (see above). The mortality rate in adults is low,
the primary host and reservoir, with squabs aged 4-16 with birds recovering in about 6 months (although they
weeks the most susceptible age group (older birds show can have persistent diarrhoea for several months). In
milder signs that may go unnoticed and resolve within young birds malnutrition and renal damage can lead to
1-2 weeks). The virus is spread by fecal and pharyngeal higher mortality rates. This disease is transmissible to
discharges; latently infected carriers are common and poultry. Vaccination is available and recommended.
transmission occurs during periods of stress. The mild Racing pigeons in the UK are required to be vaccinated.
form is seen as a respiratory disease (mild rhinitis, Salmonellosis (Paratyphoid) can cause neurological
tracheitis and conjunctivitis) with small ulcerations on the signs if the infection localises in the meninges. In these
mucous membranes of larynx, pharynx, cere and cases affected birds may be ataxic, unable to hold their
commissure of the beak. The more severe form of the head in a normal position, lie on their side, and difficulty
disease is seen as dyspnoea, anorexia, biliverdinuria, eating. See the gastrointestinal section for more details.
diarrhoea, vomiting, protrusion of the third eyelid, and Poisoning commonly occurs around feed mills and
neurological signs. Pathology reveals tracheitis, multiple, farms when poisoned grain is used in an attempt to
focal, degenerative lesions of liver (diffuse hepatic control feral pigeons. It can also be iatrogenic eg over-
necrosis with intranuclear inclusions) and diphtheroid dosage of dimetridazole (Emtryl®) during treatment for
foci on mucosa of upper airways, pharynx and trichomoniasis. Poisoning should be suspected when
occasionally crop and intestines. Diagnosis is usually large numbers of birds are affected simultaneously, or
based on finding intranuclear inclusion bodies in the liver when no other cause of neurological signs is apparent.
and other organs. There are no reliable means of ante- Hypocalcaemia occurs in breeding hens fed a
mortem diagnosis. A vaccine is not commercially nutritionally marginal diet. Paresis of the wings and feet,
available; trials indicate that it does not provide especially after the first egg is laid, is the most common
protection, but may reduce the degree and duration of syndrome. Affected birds are unable to fly and often drag
viral shedding. The virus is unstable outside of the host themselves along using their beak and their wings for
and is susceptible to most disinfectants. support. Supplementation with Vitamin D3 and calcium,
Parasites occasionally occur in the respiratory along with supportive care, is usually effective.
system. Trichomonas can be found in the sinuses of Thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency has been
some birds. Nasal mites (Neonyssus columbae, reported to cause neurological signs (weakness,
N. melloi and Sternostoma striatus) and air sac mites tremors, and opisthotonus) in pigeons that are anorexic
(Cyodites nudus) have also been found, although the for other reasons. Anorexic pigeons should be
nasal mites are generally regarded as non-pathogenic. supplemented with multi-vitamins to prevent this
Heavy infestations with any mites could lead to possibility.
decreased performance. Syngamus trachea (gapeworm)
has been recorded, but is regarded as rare. Typical Y- WINGS AND LEGS
shaped paired worms are found in the trachea of Congenital abnormalities are occasionally seen in
affected birds, which present for gaping and sneezing. squabs. They are usually mild, as so-called
Treatment with ivermectin or fenbendazole is monstrosities rarely survive hatching or the neonatal
recommended. period. They include webbed feet (syndactylism), extra
Ammonia toxicosis occurs in poorly ventilated, legs, and abnormal feathers (‘porcupine’ quills).
unhygienic lofts. The build-up of ammonia from the Metabolic bone disease is not uncommon in squabs
droppings initially causes irritation of the conjunctiva and fed marginal diets or when denied access to sunlight or
respiratory epithelium, causing ocular discharge, head Vitamin D3 supplementation. Curved keels and
shaking, sneezing and coughing. If not identified and pathological fractures of the long bones are the most
remedied, affected birds become lethargic and perform common presentations.
poorly. Diagnosis is usually made on examination of the ‘Angel Wing’ is the term given to a condition where
loft; if the clinician’s eyes begin to water and the smell of the distal end of the wing is turned up and out. It occurs
ammonia is strong, a presumptive diagnosis of ammonia when chicks are fed a high-energy diet and grow rapidly.
toxicosis can be made. Ammonia toxicosis can be a The weight of the blood-filled quills becomes too great
predisposing factor for other respiratory infections. for the still-developing wing bones, and this abnormality

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develops. In the early stages it can be treated by Analgesia with butorphanol (1-3 mg/kg) or meloxicam
strapping the wingtips into a normal position. (0.2 mg/kg) should also be given for any potentially
Pinwheel or Splay Leg is an outward deviation of the painful procedures. Buprenorphine appears to be
long bones of one or both legs in squabs. The leg is relatively ineffective in birds.
rotated and the femoro-tibiotarsal joint may fuse. Other anaesthetic considerations include maintaining
Affected chicks are unable to draw the leg under them body temperature and providing fluid support. These are
and so it is held laterally and the chick is unable to basic requirements for avian anaesthesia and surgery
stand. Instead it scrabbles (pinwheels) on the floor of the and will not be discussed further here.
loft. Various causes have been postulated including Anaesthetised patients should be closely monitored.
tightly-sitting hens, slippery nest surfaces, and nutritional Respiratory rate, heart rate, oxygen saturation and blood
deficiencies. It may be more common in single-chick pressure should be closely monitored. The endotracheal
nests. Hobbling has been tried with varying degrees of tube should be closely monitored for the accumulation of
success mucus in the lumen. Warning signs of impending
Infectious arthritis has been reported with problems include a decrease in respiratory rate to less
Staphylococcal infections and salmonellosis. than 6 breaths/minute and/or a decrease in heart rate to
Staphylococcal infections are usually a problem of less than 2/3 of initial rate. If these events occur, the
individual birds, whereas salmonellosis usually presents anaesthetist should decrease anaesthesia and support
as a flock problem. respiration (ventilate at 10-12 breaths/minute, with a
Pododermatitis (‘bumblefoot’) – infection of the peak inspiratory pressure- 8-12 cm H2O).
plantar surface of the foot by E. coli or Staphylococcus –
is occasionally seen in pigeons housed in less than ideal SURGERY
conditions. The infection may extend up the tendon Surgical considerations for pigeons are similar to
sheaths and localise in joints and bone. Occasionally the those of other avian species. The relatively low
claw on the posterior digit is lost. economic value of the average racing pigeon makes it
Trauma from collisions or hawk attack can present as unlikely that many are presented for surgery; however,
broken bones, bleeding quills and bruising. valuable breeders, high-performing racing birds and pet
birds may well qualify for surgery. Most procedures are
ANAESTHESIA trauma repair following hawk attack, although fractures,
As with other birds, inhalation anaesthesia using tumour removal and other procedures are occasionally
Isoflurane is the preferred anaesthetic in pigeons. Mask performed.
induction, followed by intubation and IPPV, provides a Basic surgical principles follow those in other species:
relatively safe anaesthesia with rapid recovery.
Where inhalation anaesthesia is not available, a. Speed is essential to minimise heat loss. The
injectable anaesthetics have been used with varying surgeon must be well prepared and have his/her
degrees of success. surgery planned before beginning
b. An aseptic technique must be used; antibiotics
Dose and are not a substitute for poor hygiene
Drug Comments
Route c. Gentle handling of tissue reduces post-surgical
1.5-2 mg/kg pain and speeds wound healing
Can be reversed with d. Minimise blood loss
Ketamine + i/m
atipamezole
Medetomidine 60-88ug/kg
(250-380 ug/kg i/m). Pre-surgical evaluation requires a physical exam,
i/m
Can be reversed with examining the patient’s general condition, weight and
4.4 mg/kg respiratory recovery time (return to normal respirations in
yohimbine (0.1 mg) or
Ketamine + i/m 3-5 minutes following handling). Other evaluations may
atipamezole; Failure
Xylazine 2.2 mg/kg include blood work, radiographs, EKG, and a crude
to reverse leads to
i/m estimate of clotting time (pin prick of Basilic Vein – in a
prolonged recovery
Can cause initial normal bird it should clot after one minute’s application
1.33 mg/kg of direct pressure).
Propofol apnoea; very short
i/v If time permits, the patient should be pre-conditioned.
duration of effect
Tiletamine / 5-10 mg/kg Vitamins may be of some help with patients on
zolazepam i/m nutritionally marginal diets, but must be given well in
5-10 mg/kg advance. If appropriate, antibiotics should be given pre-
iv or operatively. If the patient’s haematocrit is < 25%, the
36 mg/kg i/m Occasional short surgeon may need to consider a blood transfusion. If the
Alphaxalone / (iv route period of apnoea on serum glucose < 200 mg/dl (considered hypoglycaemic
alphadalone preferred induction; effect lasts in most birds) give 5% dextrose IV intra-operatively.
because of 10-20 minutes Pre-anaesthesia fasting should only be long enough
large to empty the crop – usually only about 3-4 hours at a
volume) maximum. Longer fasting periods can result in depletion
of the liver glycogen stores.

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Suture material choice depends on the surgeon’s References and Recommended Reading
preferences, although the following must be taken into
consideration: 1. Manual of raptors, pigeons and waterfowl. British
Small Animal Veterinary Association 1996.
a. Chromic gut causes a marked, granulocytic 2. Walker C. The Flying Vet’s Pigeon Health
inflammatory response in pigeons. It has a Management. Knox Veterinary Clinic, Wantima
prolonged presence (>120 days) South, Victoria 2000.
b. Polyglactin 910 (Vicryl) has the most intense 3. Brown D. A guide to pigeons, doves and quail: their
inflammatory reaction but is most readily absorbed management, care and breeding. Australian
(60 days) Birdkeeper Publications, South Tweed Heads, NSW.
c. Polydioxanone (PDS) is the least reactive and 1995
retains its integrity the longest
d. Stainless steel and nylon causes a greater degree of
fibrosis, haematoma, seroma and caseogranuloma
formation.

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