Aviation psychology and human factors

Specialty in applied psychological that focuses on understanding human behaviour emotions and
mental state as they relate to the operation and control of aviation systems and influence the safety
and efficiency of flight. Name of aviation psychology is to understand and to predict the behaviour of
individuals in an aviation environment. The study of aviation psychologies aimed at improving safety
efficiency and comfort. Practitioners of aviation psychology bring to bear the tools and techniques of
psychology to describe predict understand and influence the aviation community to achieve those
aims.

Human error and human reliability

It has been long accepted that human error are inevitable. Party of pilot related errors are
considered to be failures of interpersonal skills for communication decision making and leadership.
That does not mean that the frequency of error cannot be reduced or the effects cannot be avoided
or mitigated. Superior pilot uses a superior judgement to avoid situations that would require a
superior skills.

Workload

Workload can be described as the amount of mental effort needed and expanded to process
information. Here we will discuss cognitive or mental workload as opposed to physical workload.
Workload is linked to almost all other areas within cognition and performance particularly attention
vigilance fatigue decision making and multitasking. In general high workload is associated with
increased error fatigue task degradation and poor performance.

In practise workload is directly affected by four general task factors

Difficulty of the task

Number of task running in parallel concurrently

Number of task in series (switching from task to task )

The time available for the task (speed of task)

It is worth noting that there are other indirect factors such as duration of task, Fatigue and level of
arousal.

From a practical perspective increasing workload has the following symptoms

Attention and task focusing

Task shedding and reprioritization

Implication for situation awareness

Increased use of decision shortcuts and less scrutiny or review.

Increased fatigue and chance of error

The area that deals with all such activity is called working memory (information processing)

Information processing
We receive information from the world around us through our senses sight hearing touch smell and
taste. The gestalt law formulates basic principles governing how objects are mentally organised and
perceived. The basic system by which we receive and process information in order to make decisions
and recognise where errors in the system may be the causeway of accidents as discussed below

Basic information processing – a functional model

We need to build a functional model of the various stages of our reasoning. Those stages are

Detection

Perception

Decision making

Action

Feedback

The model is based on a series of stages that occur between receiving information and a response
being made. The various sections of the model will be discussed if both individually and as part of
the full mechanism.

The brain, central decision maker and response selection

Once information it has been perceived a decision must be made as to the response. Information is
continuously entered into and withdrawn from both the long and short term memories to assist the
decision process. The decision involves input, processing action and feedback. The information
comes from many sources that requires conscious processing (in working memory). A problem at any
stage of information processing could affect the outcome.

To enable us to carry out multi task wheel must learn skill through motor programmes.

Stimuli

These sensors provide stimuli to our brain which has the ability to retain them for a short time, from
the time they arrive. We may not have the processing capacity to deal with them.

Types of memory

There are three types of memory

Sensory memory.

short term (or working) memory

Long term memory.

Receptors and sensory memories.

The key features of the sensory memories are

There is a separate memory store for each sensory system.

The input decays rapidly

The sensory stores for sight and sound are important, and knowledge of these is necessary.
Sensory memory for site

Iconic memory. Morning memory is the visual sensory store it only lasts for between 0.5 and one
second. Seventy to 80% of information processed by humans is received through the visual channel.

Adaptation (habituation). All necessary adapt either partially or completely to their stimuli after a
period of time.

Anticipation

Perception. Involves the version of the sensory information received into a meaningful structure.

Sensory information that we expect to receive is more easily perceived and integrated when it
actually occurs, compared with totally unexpected information. We can perceive only what which we
can conceive, but we perceive only a fraction of the information reaching our senses at any moment.

Funnelled perception. Perception of a situation can differ depending upon the starting of an
observer.

Attention

Attention is the process of directing and focusing psychological resources to enhance perception
performance and mental experience. To pay attention to something is to concentrate on it, whether
that is a stimulus that has been sensed on non threat a decision a calculation etc. Critically attention
is limited; if some attention is being used for one thing then it cannot be used for something else.

Types of attention.

There are two types of attention

Selective attention

When inputs are sample continually to decide their relevance to the present task at hand.

Divided attention
When our central decision making channel can timeshare between a number of task example to
execute several mental activities at most the same time that is when switching attention from
outside the aircraft to the air speed indicator on the instrument panel and to monitor the progress of
a motor programme that is flying or taxiing the aeroplane on a relatively subconscious level, while
making a radio call at the same time requiring a rather conscious level. The human brain has different
reservoirs for resources for information gathering information processing or action phase.

Lack of attention

The major danger for pilots is the poor management of attention.

Attention mechanism.

The attention mechanism is required because of the two potentially limiting stages in processing
information.

Our channel capacity is limited.

Choice of item attention is the deliberate devotion of the cognitive resources to a specific item
although attention can move very quickly from item to item it can only deal with one at a time and
thus there is a need for the pilot to consciously prioritise.

The cocktail party effect

With many conversation occurring all around one conversation can suddenly break through to
attention because a word or phrase was particularly meaningful the classic example is of a person
hearing their own name mentioned in another conversation that they were not paying attention to.

Vigilance

It is the capability to be sensitive to potential changes in one’s environment that is the capability to
reach a level of alertness above a threshold for a certain. Rather than the state of alertness itself.

Hypo (low) vigilance

It is mainly due to the monotony of the task tiredness the need for sleep and a lack of stimulation. It
may occur at any moment of the flight. Decrease in sensory perception and sensation of muscular
heaviness are indication of low vigilance. A state of high fatigue is liable to cause face of drowsiness
and hypovigilance which result in a reduction of performance and unconscious faces of micro sleep.
Healthy food and organising. Of rest during the flight can mitigate effects of low vigilance.

Hyper vigilance

In its most acute form is an extremely agitated state of panic or near panic. Characterised by the
indiscriminate attention to all sorts of minor and major threat queues as the person frantically
searches for means of escaping the anticipated danger. Hyper vigilance is a state of panic that often
results in regrettable decision making.

Optimum vigilance

Is somewhere between hypo and hyper vigilance.

Complacency

A state of self satisfaction with one’s own performance coupled with an unawareness of danger
trouble or controversy. Complacency is extremely dangerous in aviation. You get so used to things
being done the same way that you become less vigilant to the hazards in your surroundings.
Information may make pilots complacent due to low workload.

Motor programmes skills

Motor programmes or skills are behavioural subroutines which are learnt by practise and / or
repetition and are held within the long term memory and can be carried out without conscious
thought.

In the initial phase of flight training the pilot is competent enough to fly the aircraft at the stage but
thus neither have a great deal of confidence in his or her abilities nor in the whole system. A pilot is
killed when he trains and practises regularly knows how to manage himself or herself and knows
how to keep resources in reserve for coping with the unexpected.

Developing motor programmes Anderson model

There are three distinct phases to developing a motor programme or skill

Cognitive phase

The associative phase

Automatic phase

Reflexes

Reflexes occur with little or no involvement of the central nervous system.

Reaction time

There is a delay between detection stimulus and muscle contraction called reaction time. Reaction
time depends on the type of reflex action being used. There are three types of reflex action. Start

Unconditioned

Conditioned

Trained

Unconditioned reflexes

Instinctive natural reflexes such as blinking.

Conditioned reflexes

Reflexes that may be learned.

Trained reflexes

Reflexes that may be increased by repeated practise.

Surprise and startle

It is now well established that there is a reflex like event startle reflex that blinks the I and Causeway
the whole body jerk to occur similar to that sometimes cost in sleep. this Reflex has a relatively basic
neural pathway from the sense organ. Many things can cause or contribute to a startle reflex
including sudden noises, unexpected tactile sensations, abrupt shocking perceptions, the sensation
of failing or an abrupt visual stimulus.
There is a little evidence that a startle reflects alone creates much of a sustained or lasting impact on
cognitive function although there are some minor and short lived psychological changes such as
raised heart rate. Build a motor task will be momentarily disrupted by a startle reflex but returned
normal within five to 10 seconds.

For pilots the main effect of a pure startle reflects are the interruption of the ongoing process and
distraction of attention towards the stimulus. This happens almost immediately and can be quickly
dealt with if the cost is found to be non threatening. A perception of fear can cause a startle reflex to
be potentiated more pronounced should it occur and attention to become more focused. In a state
of fear very little is required to trigger a full fight or flight response.

Quantitative overload

A very high workload can be interpreted as stress

Symptoms of overload

The workload may be said to be acceptable if it requires about 60% of the cruel resources depends
on pilots expertise and corresponds to the amount of resources available

The most common symptoms are

A sharp degradation of performance

Funnelling of attention or focus

Regression,

Mental blocking

Mood swings

Restlessness and trembling

Panic

Human reliability

The rate of human error during simple and repetitive tasks might be expected to be one in 100, but
after practise a rate of one in 1000 could be achieved.

Human reliability can be defined as the individual functioning in the manner in which he or she is
supposed to function.

Error generation

Errors tend to be cumulative.

Short term memory (working memory)- 10 to 20 seconds.

Short term memory enables information to be retained for a short period of time. That information
will be lost in 10 to 20 seconds unless it is actively rehearsed and deliberately placed in our long term
memory.

Auditory information is considered easier to retain than visual information as it is easy to rehearse
sound than data in a visual form.
Limitations of short term memory. The capacity of our short term memory is limited. Simum number
of unrelated items which can be maintained in the short term memory is about seven +- 2. What is
this limit is exceeded one or more of the items are likely to be lost or transposed.

Methods of increasing short term memory. There are two main tools which may be used to increase
short term memory chunking and Association

Chunking Breaking items to be remembered into small pieces and remembering them one at a time

Association. This technique is used to remember spoken list of items. Wild and Bizarre Association is
imagined and attached to each item on that list.

Long term memory – unlimited time period

Introduction. It is believed that information is stored in the long term memory for an unlimited time.,
although frequently there may be retrieval problems.

Symantec memory

Symantec memory stores general knowledge of the world.

Episodic memory

Episodic memory is a memory of events or episodes in our life.

Procedural memory.

Skills are included within the makeup of the long term memory.

The learning process

Learning is an internal process which allows the mental acquisition and retention of data here are
some of the types of learning and also brief examples of those types

Insight

The data is intellectually and cognitively understood and is retained. Observational learning or
imitation. Data from an outside source is replicated. Experience. From our mistakes.

Skill learning

Involves motivation attention observation much practise and corrective feedback.

Retention of information

This can be increased by the use of

Mnemonics (the practise of improving or helping the memory, or the systems used to achieve this.)

Memory training

Motivation

Motivation is the combination of a person’s desire and energy directed at achieving a goal. It is the
cause of action. Can be intrinsic such as satisfaction and feeling of achievement or extrinsic such as
rewards punishment or goal oriented. Not all people are motivated by the same thing and overtime
their motivations might change. The learning process is vastly improved with motivation and high
performance is rarely achieved without it.

EXPERIENCE.

We all have the ability to learn from our experiences and mistakes, and from those of others.

RESPONSE.

Any response will cause a detectable change which, in turn, will be noted by the senses. The
feedback may alter the action being taken. Auditory stimuli (noises) are more likely to attract
attention than visual stimuli, but they are also more likely to be responded to in error. An increase in
age between 20 and 60 years tends to lead to slower but more accurate responses.

RESPONSE ERROR (Error of Commission).

If an unexpected stimulus occurs, we will be more likely, under pressure, to make an error of
commission.

RESPONSE TIMES.

Response to reaction time is the interval between the onset of a given signal and the production of a
response to that signal.

COGNITION IN AVIATION.

Cognition (the mental faculty or process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition, or
perception) in Aviation. Flight puts the pilot into an environment which can distort sense organs, and
the changed perspective which is experienced in flight can result in information being presented
which is outside the individual's expectations.

HALLUCINATION.

A hallucination is actually a false perception characterized by a distortion of real sensory stimuli.

WORKLOAD AND LIMITATIONS.

Too high or too low a workload can result in degraded performance. Several types of situations may
cause mental overload.

JUDGMENT & DECISION MAKING.

Making good decisions is one of the important aspects of piloting an aircraft. Good decisions can
help lead to safe, successful flights, whereas bad decisions and even indecision have led to many
aircraft accidents. Talk to your instructor and other pilots about different flying situations to obtain
advice about what a good decision would be in a given circumstance. When flying with another pilot,
it is possible to increase the chance of a good decision being made by discussing the potential
problems beforehand. If as an inexperienced pilot you are flying with someone of more experience
and you see him doing something you consider to be dangerous, you should immediately question
their course of action.

A good pilot is one who always realizes there is more to learn. When making a decision a pilot will be
influenced by his previous experience, the probability of an occurrence and whether the information
he is receiving matches that expected.
RISK ASSESSMENT.

Risk assessment is based on the probability of the risk occurring and the impact of that risk if it did
occur. You will have to weigh up the risk and the possible consequences of the risk in order to
determine your course of action.

Remember - Making good decisions is one of the most important aspects of piloting an aircraft. Good
decisions can help lead to safe, successful flights, whereas bad decisions and even indecision have
led to many aircraft accidents. Always strive to make good decisions.

PERSONALITY, ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOR.

Someone who is too introverted or anxious may not make a good pilot. Examples of desirable
characteristics in a pilot are: the ability to cope with stress and adventure, and the ability to assess
and control risks. As captain of an aircraft, you will need to show good leadership skills.

While acting as pilot-in-command you should ensure that you stay in command, you should be
properly organized and prepared.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS.

A good leader displays good situational awareness and accurately assesses his own performance. The
following factors can interfere with accurate situational awareness:

1. Stress

2. Boredom

3. Fatigue

4. Emotional disturbance

5. Poor communication

6. Interruptions

In order to maintain good situational awareness, gather as much information as possible. Do not rush
into making a decision. Make sure you consider all the options

Do not make the mistake of seeing something that is not really there just because you want it to be
there.

MECHANICS OF DECISION-MAKING.

Pilots operate in a dynamic and constantly changing environment. A good decision reached a minute
ago will not necessarily be the same good decision in two minute time.

• Recognize and identify the problem:

Decisions are responses to situations or problems that need addressing Therefore, is important to
have a clear definition of what needs addressing before attempting to go further in the decision
making process.
Consider the nature of the problem that you are trying to resolve: What is the type of issue, problem,
or situation you need to address? Why does the problem need a decision? What are the results you
are hoping to achieve with this decision?

• Analyze or research the problem:

It is important to gather all the information involved in the problem or question, so that informed
choices can be made.

Develop a list of possible solutions: List the possible decisions that could be made, and what their
consequences would be.

Select the best alternative: Look at the list drawn up and choose the best solution for the situation.

Execute the best choice: Sometimes the hardest part of making a decision is taking action. The best
decisions are ones that deliver strong decision action.

• Follow Up and communication: A good decision needs to be followed throughout its process and
constant communication made with those involved.

Feedback: It is extremely important to gather feedback on a decision. This determines the overall
success of and reaction to the decision.

COMMUNICATION

When piloting an aircraft, whether with a passenger, another pilot or an instructor, good verbal
communication will help the flight go more smoothly and contribute to flight safety

Concise and unambiguous communication is essential to the safe conduct of air traffic. This lesson
deals with possible barriers to good communication and good team work.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION AND TEAM WORK

Several things can be done by team leaders to facilitate good teamwork. In the end, it is the team
leader who takes the decisions on behalf of the team.

Sometimes certain attitudes on the part of both leader and team members build the barriers to
communication and can be especially dangerous when flying. Some of barriers to communication
and team work are: Aggressiveness, Arrogance, Anti- authoritarian behavior, impulsiveness, feelings
of invulnerability and, resignation.

EXPECTATION.

Do not assume you have heard what you are expecting to hear. Actively Listen. Clear, concise and
unambiguous communication is essential to the safe conduct of aviation.

AUTOMATION

Automation refers to a system or method in which many of the processes of production are
automatically performed or controlled by self-operating machines, electronic devices, etc.

Through microprocessor technology, navigational tasks and aircraft system management have been
automated, making the flight crew more peripheral to the actual operation of the aircraft. Pilots who
at one time had direct authority over all management of aircraft control and management have now
become responsible for the management of complex hardware and software interfaces, through
which they are required to direct the operation of the aircraft. These technological advances,
however, have given rise to new forms of error. Automation is almost always introduced with the
expectation of reducing human error and workload, but what frequently happens is that the
potential for error is simply relocated.

More often than not, automation does not replace people in systems; rather, it places the person in a
different, and in many cases, more demanding role.

EVOLUTION OF TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT AUTOMATION

One of the definitions of automation is "The technique of controlling an apparatus, a process or a

system by means of electronic and/or mechanical devices that replaces the human organism in the
sensing, decision-making and deliberate output".

The safety philosophy behind the adoption of increasing onboard automation is based on the
assumption that human error is the main cause of accidents. Therefore, since the human (liveware)
component of the system is the flawed link in the accident chain, we ought to look for a substitute
capable of handling the tasks once performed by pilots.

Pilots, computers and machines are not alternatives, but complementary factors in ensuring flight
safety. Achieving the correct balance between these components of Automation has undeniably led
to an improvement in flight safety.

MISMATCH BETWEEN AUTOMATION AND THE HUMAN ELEMENT

Nevertheless, a few accidents point to a mismatch between automation and the human element.
Studies have been done to determine whether automation is suitable in its present form or
something more is to be done. Nine categories were identified to focus on. These are situational
awareness, automation complacency, automation intimidation, captain's command authority, crew
interface design, pilot selection, training and procedures, the role of pilots in automated aircraft. The
studies have concluded that there is a scope for improvements in fields like human capabilities and
limitations, ergonomics, cognitive suitability and instrument standardization.

Although cockpit automation may provide pilots with more time to think, it may encourage pilots to
reinvest only some of this mental free time in thinking flight related thoughts. Automation was seen
as one way to reduce flight deck workload, but experience suggests that, while a reduction in manual
workload has been achieved, mental workload has not been reduced by the same amount. In fact, it
may have been increased. Operational experience also suggests that automation may not always
reduce workload in those phases of flight in which it is usually high, for example, arrivals and
landings at busy terminals. A high degree of cockpit automation may therefore alter the traditional
tasks of the pilots in a way, that the attention of the cockpit crew will become reduced with the
consequence of being out of the loop'.

All forms of automated assistance for the human operator must be highly reliable, but this may also
induce complacency. Human expertise may gradually be lost and if the machine fails, the human
operator may accept an inappropriate solution or become unable to formulate a satisfactory
alternative.
QUALITIES OF HUMAN CENTERED AUTOMATION.

Human-centered automation should possess these qualities in proper measure: Accountable,

Subordinate, Predictable, Adaptable, Comprehensible, Flexible, Dependable, Informative, Error-
resistant and Error tolerant.

HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN.

PERSONALITY.

emotionally

Personality involving two major factors: neuroticism-stable and the introversion extroversion
continuum. Extroverts are said to be impulsive and sociable; introverts are more withdrawn and
cautious. A low neuroticism personality is one of an emotionally. stable person, whereas a high-
neuroticism person will worry and get upset easily. High neuroticism is also called high trait anxiety,
meaning that high anxiety is a personal trait of that person, as opposed to state anxiety, which is a
transient state of anxiety present in anyone at any time.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES.

The way that people behave, think and interact with each other generally, a well as what motivates
them, will be partly a factor of their national and cultural background. People who have grown up in
different countries will have experience different general ways of acting and behaving, particularly in
social situations. They will also have developed different values. A person might act in ways that are
deemed polite in one country but are perceived as impolite in another. For example, one culture may
value subordinates speaking up, whereas another culture may value subordinates who obey their
superiors unquestioningly. The latter might perceive a subordinate who points out a concern as being
impolite, aggressive or disruptive.

COMPETENCIES.

The main area where personality and background culture are important is inter- personal interaction.
In terms of competencies, this means communication, leadership and teamwork. This could be crew
interactions or interactions outside agencies such as air traffic control.

DESIGN

In the design of any workplace and most equipment, a vital role is played by body measurements and
movements, which will vary according to age and ethnic and gender groups. Decisions must be made
at an early stage in the design process and the data for these decisions are available from
anthropometry and biomechanics Of particular relevance to aviation psychology is the notion of
differences among individuals. Following human characteristics must be taken into account in the
design of aviation systems:

 Physical dimensions
 Capability for data sensing Capability for data processing
 Capability for motor activity
 Capability for learning
 Physical and psychological needs
 Sensitivities to physical environment
 Sensitivities to social environment
 Coordinated action
  Differences among individuals

HARDWARE, DESIGN OF FLIGHT DECKS, SIZE AND ANTHROPOMETRY.

Murphy's law states if equipment is designed in such a way that it can be operated wrongly, then
sooner or later, it will be. Therefore, a great deal of attention is required to design the equipment.
The most important requirement in the design of both displays and controls is standardization.

ANTHROPOMETRY.

This is the study of the human measurement. The information is grouped into:

 Static measurements.
 Dynamic measurements.
 Contour surface measurements.

It is not practical to design a cockpit for both the very short and the very tall individual. Those in the
central 90% of size distribution will be catered for. Normally the design of aircraft uses
measurements taken from the entire population disregarding both the 5% lowest and the 5%
highest.

EYE DATUM.

Cockpit space must be designed around a defined position of the pilot's eye. This may be called the
Eye Datum, the Design Eye Position or the Reference Eye Point.

Too high, poor view of instruments, and obstructed high view. Good downward view. Just right,
optimum view of outside and instruments.

Too low, good view of instruments but poor forward and downward view. Once the design eye
position has been set, the size of the cockpit can be established.

DESIGN OF COCKPIT SEATS.

It is of the utmost importance that the seating is comfortable and adjustable to the individual pilot's
size and shape. Pilots should adjust their seats to establish a comfortable position giving full control
movement, with optimum instrument scan and outside visibility. This position should be used for all
phases of the flight. Restraint should be provided by a 5-point harness with a negative 'G' strap.

HARDWARE, DISPLAYS.

Presentation Requirements. The basic choice for type of instrument display is between a digital or an
analogue display. Experiments have shown that for the display of purely quantitative information,
digital displays give better results. For displaying qualitative information an analogue display provides
more easily assessed information.

CONVENTIONAL ANALOGUE STANDARD 'T DISPLAY.

A standard 'T' layout has artificial horizon or attitude indicator at the centre with the altimeter,
airspeed indicator, and direction indicator grouped around it. Digital Display and the Compass. The
conventional analogue type of compass card gives a better picture of the aircraft orientation than
would a digital readout.

Combination or Analogue and Digital Displays. In some instances, both digital information and
analogue information can be combined in a single instrument.
 The Three Pointer Altimeter. The three-pointer altimeter can easily be misread and produces
significantly more reading errors than the single pointer altimeter.

Hardware, Controls, Basic Considerations. There are certain basic considerations which govern the
way controls should be both designed and arrange .

Standardization. Control of location and sense of use from one aircraft to another should be
standardized.

Frequency of Use. Controls used frequently or for protracted periods should located so that they do
not require the pilot to adopt an awkward or fatiguing position.

Sequence of Use. Controls that should normally be used in a given order should be laid out so that
the sequence of use is represented in that layout.

Importance. Important controls must be located in easily reached and unobstructed positions.

Visual/Tactile Dissimilarity. Switches and knobs that control different systems or functions should
look and feel different from each other.

Symbolism. Controls, if possible, should be designed to contain some reference to their function.

Simultaneous Use. Those controls which may require simultaneous use should be located in order to
enable this to take place.

Warnings. It is essential that all warnings should be 'attention getting without being startling. The
most conspicuous visual warnings rely on head and gaze orientation.

WELL BEING OF OPERATIONAL PERSONNEL

Three of the many factors which may influence the well-being of operational personnel are stress
and fatigue, body rhythm disturbance, and sleep deprivation or disturbance. These are briefly
explained below. Other factors affecting physiological or psychological well-being include
temperature, noise, humidity, light, vibration, workstation design and seat comfort.

STRESS TOLERANCE, FATIGUE AND AROUSAL

The different stress levels generated within individual persons by a particular stressor will differ from
one individual to another. A moderate level of stress may improve performance. Stress promotes an
increase in physical strength rather than promoting mental performance.

 The response of a person to the event or circumstances to which he is exposed is known as

arousal.
 Arousal is a measure of a person's readiness to respond effectively to a given stress factor.
 Personality, character, training and experience will influence levels of arousal in a given
individual.

THE EFFECTS OF STRESS

In an active, outward-going, highly trained person, too little stimulation or stress arousal will lead to
the onset of boredom and even drowsiness. An introspective, under-confident person, if highly
aroused, might be unable to function at all, even in circumstances that he is competent to deal with.
Flying in challenging meteorological conditions may be a welcome occurrence for a skilled and
experienced pilot and stimulate him to demonstrate extraordinary skill. But such conditions may
cause unbearable stress in an inexperienced pilot.

STRESS FACTORS OR STRESSORS

Stress factors are cumulative. Stress occurs under various conditions like the pilot must revise his
plan of action and does not immediately have a solution or inexperienced pilots when the situational
demands exceed their individual capabilities. Stress may occur if a pilot is convinced that he will not
be able to find a solution to the problem he just is confronted with. Stress can also arise from
physiological factors such as hunger, thirst, pain, lack of sleep and fatigue. Thorough flight planning is
the key to reducing cockpit workload.

ENVIRONMENTAL TOLERANCES.

Temperature, pressure, humidity, noise, time of day, light and darkness can all be reflected in
performance and also in well-being. Heights, enclosed spaces and a boring or stressful working
environment can also be expected to influence performance. Information is provided here by
physiology biology and psychology.

MANAGING STRESS.

Recognizing stress, accepting it and developing a coping strategy is essential for stress management.
Training and experience help to ward off stress and high level of arousal. Successful completion of a
stressful task will reduce the amount of stress experienced when a similar situation arises in the
future. To avoid stress, know your limits and fly well inside them. If you are aware that you are under
stress, consider whether it would not be wiser for you to stay on the ground rather than to fly when
you are not up to it.

Make sure that cockpit housekeeping is of a high order and that all document charts and associated
equipment are appropriately stored and accessible, in accordance with the principles of flight safety.

High quality headsets will reduce cockpit noise levels. Temperature can often be regulated using the
cabin heating or ventilation system.

LIFE STRESSES PSYCHOLOGICAL:

Pilots suffering from life stress should be aware that this can affect their concentration and
performance when at the controls of an aircraft. The descending order in which the factors affect a
person are: death of spouse/child, divorce, marital separation, death of a close family member,
injury/ illness, marriage, loss of job, retirement, pregnancy, sexual problems, birth, change of
financial status, siblings leaving home, change of eating habits, change of residence,
loan/debt/mortgage vacations and minor violations of law.

There have been many attempts to quantify the stress effect of life or domestic events. Once such
scheme scores stressors by totaling points, as follows:

Death of a spouse or partner 100

Divorce 73
Marital separation 65

Death of a close family member 63

Personal injury or illness 53

Loss of job 47

Retirement 45

Pregnancy 40

Sexual problems 40

Son or daughter leaving home 29

Change of residence 20

Bank loan or credit card debt 17

Vacation 13

Minor law violation 11

The cumulative points score gives an indication of life stress, but such schemes need to be treated
with caution because of wide individual variability.

<60 Free of life stress

60-80 Normal life stress

80-100 High life stress

> 100 Under serious life stress

INDICATIONS OF STRESS

Stress causes mental blocks, confusion, channelized attention, resignation, frustration, rage,
deterioration in motor coordination, high pitch voice and fast speaking.

Easily observable indications of stress are perspiration, flushed skin, dilated pupils and fast breathing.

TIREDNESS AND FATIGUE.

Tiredness and fatigue, though related concepts, differ in their long-term physical effect on the body.
To deal with normal tiredness it is sufficient to ensure that periods of activity and periods of restful
sleep comply with the normal pattern for a person's age and physical condition.

Ordinary tiredness results from normal physical and/or mental exertion over a normal waking period.
If a person is tired, a good night's sleep is the only requirement for that person to be fit the following
morning to continue with physical activity.

• Fatigue is a very deep tiredness due to the cumulative effects of a stressful lifestyle and/or living
and working environment.

• The effects of fatigue can be insidious.

The sufferer may be unwilling to recognize or admit that he is suffering from fatigue.

• They can creep up slowly on the sufferer.

Tiredness and fatigue can kill, but fatigue is harder to recognize.

Pilots must be conscious of the symptoms of fatigue and be prepared to both recognize them and
admit to them.

Fatigue can be caused by the following circumstances:

 Long term ill health, either physical or mental.

 Regular sleep deprivation, for whatever reason.
 High levels of stress and/or anxiety over a prolonged period.
 A disturbed body cycle (e.g.: jet lag, changing work shift patterns.)
 Long term difficulties in personal or work-based relationships.
 A stressful living and /or working environment (e.g.: high levels of noise, unreasonable
physical or mental demands.)

Symptoms of fatigue may be:

 Memory lapses.
 Frequent mistakes in speech and actions.
 Rapid changes of mood.
 Diminished awareness.
 Tiredness.
 Lack of coordination.

A minimum self-help program could be:

 Accept the fact that you are fatigued.

 Eat a balanced diet and healthy food.
 Try to take the stress out of your life.
 Make sure that you get regular, undisturbed sleep.
 Avoid alcohol and caffeine.
 Always consult a doctor.

AROUSAL

Arousal is a major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to other concepts such as
anxiety, attention, agitation, stress, and motivation.

Low Arousal. At times, such as in the cruise, our attention can wander with the result that
information is either missed or misinterpreted.

Optimum Arousal. At this level the Central decision maker is at its most efficient. Too little arousal
has an inert effect on the learner, while too much has a hyper effect. There are optimal levels of
arousal for each task to be learned:

 lower for more difficult or intellectually (cognitive) tasks

 higher for tasks requiring endurance and persistence
High Arousal Overload. At times of high arousal, there is a real danger of attention becoming
narrowed.

STIMULI AND ATTENTION.

Our bodies are continuously receiving stimuli through our five senses. This information is stored
briefly in our sensory memory and, if we perceive it to be important, it is transferred to our short-
term memory or Central Decision Maker. Some stimuli are better than others at getting our
attention. We can split our attention between several different things by concentrating on them in
rapid succession.

Three of the many factors which may influence the well-being of operational personnel are stress
and fatigue, body rhythm disturbance, and sleep deprivation or disturbance. These are briefly
explained below. Other factors affecting physiological or psychological well-being include
temperature, noise, humidity, light, vibration, workstation design and seat comfort.

BODY RHYTHM DISTURBANCE

THE CIRCADIAN CIRCLE

The Circadian Circle represents our level of alertness throughout the day. Circadian rhythms are
internally generated by a self-sustaining or autonomous biological clock located in the hypothalamus
which functions as the main control centre for the autonomic nervous system by regulating sleep
cycles, body temperature, appetite, etc., and that acts as an endocrine gland by producing
hormones. It takes into account, biological elements such as our body temperature, heart rate and
blood pressure. These elements affect our level of alertness during the course of a day. Human
performance degradation at circadian lows is one of the major challenges for the aviation industry.

The picture above shows the normal results of an average person during a normal day. As we sleep,
our heart rate is lowered and hence as seen on the graph, our level of alertness is reduced. Other
things that may reduce our level of alertness also include that of our blood pressure which is often
lowered after mealtimes. It is generally accepted that human performance declines at night when
the body and mind rest.

Melatonin "the light of night" is secreted from the pineal gland principally at night. The hormone is
involved in sleep regulation, as well as in a number of other cyclical bodily activities and circadian
rhythm in humans. The hormone secretion 2 and 4 a.m., and gradually falls during the second half of
the night. This circadian rhythm of secretion plays an important role in its hormonal activity.
Melatonin is exclusively involved in signaling the 'time of day' and 'time of year' (hence considered to
help both clock and calendar functions) to all tissues and is thus considered to be the body's
chronological pacemaker or 'Zeitgeber'.

Pilots flying across different time zones through the night are not able to fully apply the Circadian
Cycle without understanding or adjusting it. By understanding how our alertness is affected, we can
then make adjustments to our diet and sleep to ensure a safe level of alertness in the cockpit.

Following factors should be taken into account by pilots engaged in flights across several time zones:
• In the absence of all time cues (Free running circadian rhythms), the biological clock has a natural
cycle of about 25 hours. With normal cues, however, the biological clock is reset each day such that it
is a synchrony with the solar day. The human circadian rhythm is based on a cycle of about 24 hours.

• The biological clock and the associated circadian variations adapt slowly following changes in the
work schedule and following trans meridian flights. Concerning circadian rhythm disruption (jet lag),
the effects of adjustment to destination time may vary greatly between individuals.

If a stop-over is more than 24 hours, the correct action is to move to the new time as soon as
possible.

In order to minimize the effects of crossing more than 3-4 time zones with a layover more than 24
hours, it is advisable to keep in swing with the rhythm of the departure country for as long as
possible and maintain regular living patterns (waking, sleeping alternation and regular meal
patterns).

The physiological rhythms of a pilot in a new time zone will re-synchronize this new time zone at a
rate of about 1-1.5 hours a day.

• Adaption after eastbound travel is about 50 percent slower than westbound travel westbound
flight -- adaption time following eastbound travel is about 1.5 days is about one day for each time
zone change adaption time following Westbound travel is about one day for each time zone change.

In order to completely re-synchronize with local time after zone crossing, circadian rhythms require
less time when flying from east to west. The readjustment of the biological rhythms after a time shift
is normally more difficult with flights towards the east.

The duration of a period of sleep is governed primarily by the point within your circadian rhythm at
which you try to sleep.

Sensorimotor performance is better in the evening whereas intellectual performance is better in the
morning.

SLEEP

Sleep is basically divided into two components. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep and Non-Rapid Eye
Movement (NREM) sleep. The purpose of NREM sleep is body restoration by helping the body repair
tissues, build bone and muscle, and strengthen refreshing and organizing memory. NREM sleep is
further divided into four stages its immune system while that of the REM sleep is brain restoration by
strengthening, from the lightest to the deepest. Both type of sleeps are required to recoup physical
and mental energy.

NREM SLEEP-STAGE 1

The transition phase between wakefulness and sleep takes 10 minutes each time. The brain activity,
eye movement and muscle activity become slower. A person is easily awakened. Waking up in this
stage of sleep will cause a person to feel that he/she has not slept.

NREM SLEEP-STAGE 2
Light sleep, the first stage of true sleep lasts from 10-25 minutes each time. Occupies 50% of the
sleep patterns, the brain activity, eye movement become even slower and the cardiac activity
decreases.

NREM SLEEP - STAGE 3

The beginning of deep sleep, slow-wave delta sleep. The brain activity and eye movement are
approaching zero. If a person is awoken in this stage of sleep, he/she may feel groggy and disoriented
for a few minutes.

NREM SLEEP-STAGE 4

Deep sleep, slow-wave delta sleep. No eye movement or muscle activity. If a person is awoken in this
stage of sleep, he/she may feel groggy or disoriented for a few minutes.

REM SLEEP (Paradoxical sleep)

Usually occurs 70-90 minutes into a sleep. Happens in cycles lasting for and the brain wave form is
similar to that when a person is awake. Dreams occur. approximately 10 minutes initially to 1 hour.
The eye moves rapidly from side to side Fantastic and the brain wave form is similar to that when a
person is awake. Dream occur.

As we grow older, the time spent in REM sleep declines from 50% of our for infants, to 20% of our
sleep for adults. Sleep inertia: refers to the transitional state between sleep and wake, marked by
impaired performance, reduced vigilance, and a desire to return to sleep.

Understanding the different stages of sleep and the importance of sleep, we can plan ahead to
ensure we receive the required amount of sleep for recovery.

REMEMBER:

The effects of sleep deprivation on performance increase with altitude a with higher workload.

During paradoxical sleep rapid eye movements can be observed.

The duration of a period of sleep is governed primarily by the point within your circadian rhythm at
which you try to sleep.

Deep sleep allows for physical recovery and the reconstitution of neuron and energy reserves.

Lack of sleep increases fatigue, concentration and attention. It has risks of sensory illusions and
mood disorders. The disruption of sleeping patterns can lead to symptoms of drowsiness, irritability
and lack of concentration will make an individual more prone to make errors.

A person experiencing sleep loss is unlikely to be aware of personal performance degradation.

Performance loss may be present up to 20 minutes after awaking from a short sleep (nap).

The sleep cycles repeat during the course of a night's sleep. Each succeeding cycle contains a greater
amount of REP sleep. Frequent interruption of the REP sleep can harm a human being in the long
run. REM sleep is more important for the regeneration of mental and physical functions than all the
other sleep stages are.
MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS AND DISORDERS.

Mental health problems and disorders among pilots, ATCOS, maintenance and other personnel in
aviation may impair performance and therefore be a threat to flight safety.

Germanwings Flight 9525 was a scheduled international passenger flight from Barcelona-El Prat
Airport in Spain to Düsseldorf Airport in Germany. On 24 March 2015, the aircraft, an Airbus 320
crashed 100 km north-west of Nice in the French Alps. All 144 passengers and all six crew members
were killed. The crash was deliberately caused by the copilot andreas Lubitz who has previously Been
treated for suicidal tendencies and declared unfit to work by his doctor. Lubitz kept this information
from his employer and instead reported for duty. Shortly after reaching cruise altitude and while the
captain was out of the cockpit, Lubitz locked the cockpit door and initiated a controlled descent that
continued until the aircraft hit a mountainside.

There may be many reasons why a pilot may be reluctant to discuss mental problems with the
examining physician During the annual medical assessment including fear of losing his or her license
with both personal and financial costs as a result This may prevent the pilot from receiving adequate
and timely help this could potentially make the problems worse and prolong the time for recovery.

More could probably be done to increase knowledge about mental health problems and increase ,
and reduce stigma so that more pilots and other professionals working in aviation report mental
health problems, get treatment, and return to work. This would probably increase individual well-
being, but also promote safety.

Serious mental health disorders (e.g., psychosis) are relatively rare and their onset is difficult to
predict. Preventive efforts should be aimed at more common mental health problems such as
depression, anxiety, and substance misuse.