for

M.A. (POLITICAL SCIENCE)

(Under CBCS)

Semester C.C Units

3 3.1 1-8
Rabindra Bhavan, EE 9 & 10, Sector-II, Salt Lake City, Kolkata-700091, Phone: (033) 23584014/ 4016/ 4018
Website: www.rbudde.in, E-mail: director.cdoe@rbu.ac.in
COURSE CONTRIBUTORS

NAME DESIGNATION INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION

Ranjita Chakraborty Professor Department of Political Science,
University of North Bengal
Kuntal Mukhopadhyay Associate Professor Department of Political Science,
(Retd.) Raja Peary Mohan College,
University of Calcutta
Satyabrat Sinha Assistant Professor Department of Political Science,
Presidency University
Kunal Debnath Assistant Professor Department of Political Science,
Rabindra Bharati University
Pradipta Mukherjee Assistant Professor Department of Political Science,
Hiralal Mazumdar Memorial College
for Women,
West Bengal State University
Subir Gayen Assistant Professor Department of Political Science,
Dhruba Chand Halder College
Kaushik Paul Assistant Professor Political Science,
Centre for Distance and Online Education,
Rabindra Bharati University

COURSE EDITOR

NAME DESIGNATION INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION

Partha Pratim Basu Professor Department of International Relations,
Jadavpur University

EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE

NAME DESIGNATION INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION

Sreetapa Chakrabarty Assistant Professor in Centre for Distance & Online Education,
Political Science Rabindra Bharati University
Kaushik Paul Assistant Professor in Centre for Distance & Online Education,
Political Science Rabindra Bharati University

October, 2023 © Rabindra Bharati University

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 C.C : 3.1
Comparative Politics in Developing Countries
Contents

Unit 1. Comparative Politics: Approaches and Methods 1-15

Unit 2. Media, Communication and Political Culture 16-25
Unit 3. Political Participation, Political Institution and State of Democracy 26-37
Unit 4. Politics of Development/Underdevelopment and relevance of
Developing Countries 38-47
Unit 5. Decolonization, Nation building and the Post-Colonial State 48-56
Unit 6. Cultural Pluralism and Ethnic Conflict 57-66
Unit 7. Globalization and the Developing World 67-73
Unit 8. New Social Movements and Politics of Alternative Development 74-86
 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 3.1
Unit-1

Comparative Politics: Approaches and Methods

(ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ≠ î,!‹T¶˛!D ~ÓÇ ˛ôk˛!ì˛¢õ)£)

!Ó°ÏÎ˚¢)!Ⲡ:
1.1 v˛zˆj Ï üƒ
1.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
1.3 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ
1.4 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D¢õ)£
1.4.1 ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ Óy ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D
1.4.2 xyï%!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D
1.4.3 òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D
1.4.4 õy:#≈Î˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D
1.5 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛¢õ)£
1.6 v˛z˛ô¢Ç£yÓ˚
1.7 ¢yÓ˚yÇü
1.8 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#
1.9 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

1.1 v˛zˆÏjüƒ
~£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ xy˛ô!ò ãyòˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓòÈÙÙÙÈ
 Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ !Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛ò =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛=!ú !Ñ˛ !Ñ˛–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ñ˛ !Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÎ˚ ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ v˛zqÓ ~ÓÇ ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛y–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!D–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ =Ó˚&c–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÎ˚ õy:#≈Î˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D–
1
1.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛y ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ Ó˝ ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãòˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô)Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÃÌõì˛ñ ~!›˛ !òã ˆîü Óy fl˛∫¶)˛!õˆÏÑ˛
ÎÌyÎ̶˛yˆÏÓ xò%ïyÓò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ !òã Ó˚y‹T… äÈyv˛¸yÁ x˛ôÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…=!ú ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢õƒÑ˛ ïyÓ˚íy úy¶˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ólfl˛Ó˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ˜Óï ïyÓ˚íy !òõ≈yí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ¢£yÎ˚ì˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ Ó˝ ≤Ãyâ˛#ò– xƒy!Ó˚fi›˛›˛ˆÏúÓ˚ £yì˛ ïˆÏÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ üyˆÏfl˛fÓ˚
¢)e˛ôyì˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ñ˛yˆÏúÓ˚ !ÓÓì≈˛ˆÏò üyfl˛f!›˛ ¢õÎ˚ˆÏ˛ôyˆÏÎyÜ# £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈ– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ î%!›˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢Ç!õ◊ˆÏí ܈Ïv˛¸
v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈñ ~=!ú £ú !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ólfl˛ (Substance) ~ÓÇ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (Method)– !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚Ó˚ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ õ)úì˛
˛ô!ÿ˛ˆÏõÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T… ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí£z !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ ¢#õyÓk˛ ˆÓ˚ˆÏÖ!äÈú– ~! ˛ôˆÏÓ≈ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏÑ˛ ¢ÇÑ˛#í≈ xˆÏÌ≈
¢ÇK˛y!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ì˛– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe õ)úì˛ ¢yÇ!Óïy!òÑ˛ ò!Ì˛ôeñ î!úúÈÙÈîhfl˛ÏyˆÏÓãñ £zì˛ƒy!îÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏÑ˛
!ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y £ì˛– ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆ¢£z ¢yˆÏÓÑ˛# î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú Úì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚Û (Comparative
government) !£¢yˆÏÓ x!¶˛!£ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛y_Ó˚ ˛ôˆÏÓ≈ ãß√ £Î˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ xˆÏÌ≈ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚–
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ xòƒì˛õ ≤Ãïyò üyÖy !£¢yˆÏÓ ÜˆÏÓ°ÏÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ˛ôy‡˛Ñ˛õ£ˆÏúÓ˚ Ó˝ !ãK˛y¢yÓ˚ v˛z_Ó˚
ˆîÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ˚y¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ¢yˆÏÓÑ˛# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xyáyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ 1960ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# !Ó≤’Ó (Behavioural
revolution)– xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yú#ò ¢õˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò¢õ)£ äÈyv˛¸yÁ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyãñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ñ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyâ˛Ó˚í !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ~!_´Î˚yÓ˚ !£¢yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓ!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z ¢õÎ˚ ¢îƒ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ≤ÃyÆ ˆîü=!úÓ˚
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚Á ¢õÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ì˛ˆÏÓñ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú ˆÌv˛y ˆflÒyÑ˛ˆÏ˛ôyˆÏúÓ˚ (Theda Skocpol)
õˆÏì˛y ì˛y!cÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ £yì˛ ïˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T… ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˛ô%òÓ˚yÎ˚ !ö˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ¢– ~£z ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ì˛y!cÑ˛Üí
Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ Ó˚y‹T… ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ãïyò ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ ¢ÁÎ˚yú Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D !òˆÏãÓ˚
˛ô)Ó≈¢)Ó˚#Ó˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ~!_´Î˚yÓ˚!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˝=ˆÏí ≤ây!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ÎyˆÏ£yÑ˛ñ ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yò !Ó°ÏÎ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô xyˆÏúyâ˛òy
Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ܈ÏÓ°ÏÑ˛ˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛ä%È !ò!î≈‹T î,!‹T¶˛!D ~ÓÇ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xïƒÎ˚òÁ ~£z
!òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ Ó!£¶)≈˛ì˛ òÎ˚– !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyñ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈ñ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyñ fl˛∫ì˛s˛f ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒñ £zì˛ƒy!îÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy
Ñ˛Ó˚y£z ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ õ)ú !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ólfl˛– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ïÓ˚í !òˆÏÎ˚ ܈ÏÓ°ÏÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ õì˛˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì˛ˆÏÓñ
~›˛y Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ ì%˛úòy ˛ôk˛!ì˛£z (Comparison method) üyfl˛f!›˛Ó˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´– õy!Ñ≈˛ò
Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò# ÓÓy›≈˛ v˛yú (Robert Dahl) õy!Ñ≈˛ò Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ≤âˆÏD !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yñ
=íyÓú#ñ ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛yñ £zì˛ƒy!î xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ ~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú õy!Ñ≈˛ò Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢õƒÑ˛ ïyÓ˚íy ܈Ïv˛¸ ˆì˛yúy ¢Ω˛Ó
£Î˚– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ~ÓÇ î,!‹T¶˛!D ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ ˆõÔ!úÑ˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚–

1.3 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ

ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ !Ó¶˛yãò ˆÓ˚ÖyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ fl˛ô‹T¶˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó
£ˆÏú Ó˚y‹T…!Óã˘yò â˛â≈˛yÎ˚ x!ïÑ˛ì˛Ó˚ fl˛∫FäÈ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ¢!£ì˛ x@˘Ã¢Ó˚ £ÁÎ˚y ¢Ω˛Ó– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ ≤ÃÌyÜì˛
xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛w!Ó®% !äÈú Ó˚y‹T… ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò– ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓñ ãyì˛#Î˚ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyˆÏÑ˛
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy !£¢yˆÏÓ x!¶˛!£ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ã§y ÓœˆÏu˛ú (Jean Blondel) õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Óhfl˛,Ïì˛ ~ÓÇ ~!›˛ Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ Ü![˛Ó˚ Óy£zˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚¢õ)£ˆÏÑ˛Á !òã xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xhs˘˛¶%≈˛_´
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ÷ï%õye Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ Ü![˛Ó˚ õïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ~ÓÇ ˆ¢£z¢Ó !Ó°ÏÎ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚£z xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓñ˚

2
Îy Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛– õy!Ñ≈˛ò Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò# fl˛¨y£zv˛yÓ˚ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ (Government) ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ ÚÓ˚yãò#!ì˛Û (Politics) ü∑!›˛
ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ Îy !òäÈÑ˛ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ü∑yÌ≈Üì˛ ≤ÃÑ˛Ó˚í (Semantic variation) !äÈú òy– !ì˛!ò Ó,£_Ó˚ xˆÏÌ≈ ÚÓ˚yãò#!ì˛Û ü∑!›˛ˆÏÑ˛
ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– ≤âDì˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒñ !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yú#ò ¢õÎ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏò x!ïÑ˛ ≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈ– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ¢yïyÓ˚íì˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
xy£zòÜì˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ õˆÏz ¢#õyÓk˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ˆÎõò xy£zò!Ó¶˛yÜñ !Óâ˛yÓ˚!Ó¶˛yÜñ üy¢ò!Ó¶˛yÜñ £zì˛ƒy!î– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚!ï Óƒy˛ôÑ˛– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛w!Ó®%ˆÏì˛ xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T… ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚
xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ólfl˛ £ú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˛ô!ÿ˛õ# £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚ Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚
õˆÏz ¢#õyÓk˛ !äÈú– !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%k˛Ñ˛yú#ò ¢õˆÏÎ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸ Á‡˛y ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ Ü![˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢õ@˘Ã !ӈϟªÓ˚
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy â˛ˆÏú xyˆÏ¢ñ !ÓˆÏü°Ïì˛ ¢îƒ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ≤ÃyÆ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ~£z üyÖy!›˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï
¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ô!ÿ˛õ# ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ö˛yÓ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ xÌ≈yÍ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ≤ÃÓy!£ì˛ £ì˛– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy
ÎyÓì˛#Î˚ ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ü![˛ˆÏÑ˛ x!ì˛e´õ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy!£ì˛ £Î˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏÑ˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ô›˛
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!FäÈߨ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y £ì˛ñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ xÓfl˛iyò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £ì˛– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy
ì˛ˆÏì˛y!ïÑ˛ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ !äÈú òy ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛e ≤ÃÌõ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z ì˛_¥ ܇˛ˆÏò xì˛ƒhs˘˛ xy@˘Ã£# !äÈú– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
xy~úyâ˛òy !Ñ˛ä%È !ò!î≈‹T Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢Ç!Óïyò ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏz ¢#õyÓk˛ !äÈúñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ¢yî,üƒ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó¢yî,üƒÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy õ)úì˛
Óí≈òyõ)úÑ˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ñ xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy !ӈϟ’°Ïíõ)úÑ˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe îyü≈!òÑ˛ õyò!¢Ñ˛ì˛y ~ÓÇ õ)úƒˆÏÓyï xyˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ ≤ÃÓíì˛y ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚
õ)úƒõyò !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ £Î˚– ~ÖyˆÏò v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆÎñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢òyì˛ò# â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˛ôk˛!ì˛Üì˛
v˛zÍ¢yˆÏ£Ó˚ x¶˛yÓ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˛ôk˛!ì˛Üì˛ v˛zqyÓò ~ÓÇ ˛ôk˛!ì˛=!úÓ˚
¢ÇˆÏüyïˆÏò xy@˘Ã£ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ÷ï%õye ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òyñ ì˛y
!Ó!¶˛ß¨ â˛y˛ô¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚# ˆÜy¤˛#ñ Ó˚y‹T…òyÎ˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚íñ Ó˚y‹T…ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ¢õyã ~ÓÇ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ö˛yÓˆÏÑ˛Á !òã xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚
ˆ«˛e !£¢yˆÏÓ Üíƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ᛲòy Óy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛Á ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛
xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~äÈyv˛¸yñ ~!›˛ fl˛iyò ~ÓÇ Ñ˛yú v˛z¶˛Î˚ˆÏÑ˛£z ¢õyò =Ó˚&ˆÏcÓ˚ ¢!£ì˛ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛
!Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
!ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¢yî,üƒ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó¢yî,üƒ xò%ïyÓˆÏò ≤ÃÎ˚y¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì˛y£zñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˛ôk˛!ì˛
!Ó°ÏÎ˚ !ò!î≈‹T òÎ˚ ÓÓ˚Ç ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ÈÏÎyム(Generic)– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ Ó,£_Ó˚ xˆÏÌ≈ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
~!›˛ ÷ï%õye Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ ¢#õyÓk˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òy– !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ◊!õÑ˛ ¢Ç܇˛òñ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyãñ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚
˛ô!Ó˚!ïÓ˚ xhs˘˛¶%≈˛_´– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ Óyhfl˛ÏÓÓyî# xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˛ôk˛!ì˛ !òõ≈yí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ xy@˘Ã£#ñ xÌ≈yÍ ~!›˛ !òÎ˚Ñ˛yò%ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ôîy!ïÑ˛yÓ˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ x!ïÑ˛ xy@˘Ã£ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ≤âDì˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒñ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# !Ó≤’Ó
(Behavioural revolution) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ xò%¢Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú–

1.4 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D¢õ)£

ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ î#á≈ !ÓÓì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ x!ì˛Óy!£ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ üyˆÏfl˛f Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
ì%˛úòyÓ˚ ≤âˆÏD !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¢õˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ î,!‹T¶˛!D (Approach) @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú ~ÓÇ Óì≈˛õyˆÏòÁ ì˛y Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏFäÈ– ~£z ≤âˆÏD
3
v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒ ˆÎñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ !ì˛ò!›˛ Ñ˛yã Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ≤ÃÌõì˛ñ !òã ˆîüˆÏÑ˛ ¶˛yú¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓyG˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò– !mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ xòƒyòƒ ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ ÎÌyÎ̶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓyG˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xïƒyÎ˚ò Ñ˛Ó˚y
≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò– ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ !òã ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD x˛ôÓ˚ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ¢%¢Ç£ì˛ ïyÓ˚íy !òõ≈yˆÏíÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚
â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~ÖyˆÏò v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆÎñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ¢ÇÑ˛#í≈ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Á !ò!î≈‹T Ó˚y‹TˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏ¢ Ó,£_Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚
xy@˘Ã£#ñ xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ òyõÑ˛ üyÖyÓ˚ â˛â≈˛y ÷ï%õye !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ Ñ˛y›˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢#õyÓk˛– ã§y ÓœˆÏu˛ú (Jean
Blondel) ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆÓ!ü !Óhfl˛Ïy!Ó˚ì˛ ~ÓÇ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ã!v˛¸ì˛ ~ÓÇ ì˛y Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚
Óy£zˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚=!úˆÏÑ˛ !òˆÏÎ˚Á xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ˛ô)Ó≈ì˛ò üyÖy Sì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚V ÷ï%õye Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ x¶˛ƒhs˘˛Ó˚#í Ó˚yãò#!ì˛
~ÓÇ ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD x˛ôÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ¢#õyÓk˛– !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ üyˆÏfl˛fÓ˚
ˆÎ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D ≤Ãâ˛!úì˛ !äÈúñ ì˛y ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D òyˆÏõ ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚
˛ôÓ˚ ~£z ïyÓ˚yÎ˚ xˆÏòÑ˛=!ú î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ (Approach) xyÜõò áˆÏ›˛– ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!D =!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ
1.4.1 ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ Óy ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D (Traditional or Institutional Approach)
¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ !â˛hs˘˛y!ÓˆÏîÓ˚y ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ˆÏÑ˛ SˆÎõòÈÙÙÙÈÜíì˛s˛fV xyîü≈Óyî#
î,!‹T¶˛!D ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ ˆì˛õò Óyhfl˛ÏˆÏÓÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ì˛›˛y ˆ¢£z xyîˆÏü≈ ˆ˛ô§ÔäÈyˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆ¢›˛yÁ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚
ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ xÌÓy xy£z!òÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yòˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– Ó˚Ó˚ !¢. õƒyÑ˛Ó˚y£z!v˛¢ ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛
î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ â˛yÓ˚ˆÏ›˛ ˜Ó!üˆÏ‹TƒÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ ÙÙÙÈ (i) xÈÙÈì˛% úòyõ)úÑ˛ (noncomparative), (ii) Óí≈òydÑ˛ (descriptive),
(iii) ÓƒyÖƒyõ)úÑ˛ (explanatory), (iv) ¢ÇÑ˛#í≈ (Parochial), (v) !fl˛iì˛yÓfl˛iyÑ˛yÓ˚# (Static), ~ÓÇ ~Ñ˛˜ÏÓ!˚ ÖÑ˛ (monographic)–
xƒyúõu˛ Á ˛ôyÁˆÏÎ˚ú ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ ì˛yÓ˚ !ì˛ò!›˛ ˜Ó!üˆÏ‹TƒÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ÎÌyñ
SÑ˛V ¢ÇÑ˛#í≈ì˛y (parochialism), SÖV Óy!£ƒÑ˛ ܇˛ò ˆÑ˛!wÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y (configurative analysis), ~ÓÇ SÜV
xyò%¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛y (formalism)– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ £ƒy!Ó˚ ~Ñ˛ˆÏfi›˛£zò (Harry H. Eckstein) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ì˛ò!›˛ ˜Ó!üˆÏ‹TƒÓ˚
Ñ˛Ìy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~=!úˆÏÑ˛ xyõÓ˚y ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ïÓ˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚ñ ~=!ú £ú xyîü≈Óyî# ì˛_¥Ü‡˛òñ
xyò%¤˛y!òÑ˛ xy£zò xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Á Óy!£ƒÑ˛ ܇˛ò ˆÑ˛!wÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy– ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ ¢yˆÏÓÑ˛# î,!‹T¶˛!DÁ (traditional
approach) Óúy £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– 1930ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ îüÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ 1950ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ îüÑ˛ ˛ôÎ≈hs˘˛ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D
xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒÑ˛yÓ˚# î,!‹T¶˛D# !£¢yˆÏÓ !ÓÓ˚yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú– ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ v˛zÍ¢ ≤Ãyâ˛#òÑ˛yú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xƒy!Ó˚fi›˛›˛ú
158!›˛ òÜÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢Ç!ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– ~äÈyv˛¸yñ õˆÏhs˘˛fl%Òƒ (Charles De Montesquieu) ì§˛yÓ˚
‘The Spirit of Laws’ S1748V òyõÑ˛ !ÓÖƒyì˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i «˛õì˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫ì˛s˛f#Ñ˛Ó˚í (separation of power) ò#!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚
xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏeÁ !ì˛!ò ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xƒyˆÏú: !v˛ ›˛Ñ˛¶˛#ú ì§˛yÓ˚ î%ÈÙÈÖˆÏ[˛Ó˚
‘Democracy in America’ S1835V òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i õy!Ñ≈˛ò Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ v˛z˛ôyîyò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ â˛â≈˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì˛ˆÏÓñ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛
î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ xyò%¤˛y!òÑ˛ ¢)e˛ôyì˛ Óy£z¢ ~ÓÇ úyÁˆÏÎ˚ˆÏúÓ˚ £yì˛ ïˆÏÓ˚ £Î˚– ˆãõ¢ Óy£zˆÏ¢Ó˚ myÓ˚y Ó˚!â˛ì˛ î%!›˛ !ÓÖƒyì˛ @˘Ãs˛i £ú
’The American Commonwelath’ S1888V ~ÓÇ ‘Modern Democracies’ S1921V– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ úyÁˆÏÎ˚ú Ó˚â˛òy
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ‘Governments and Parties in Continental Europe’ S1896V ~ÓÇ ‘Public and Popular Government’
S1913Vñ Îy ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˛ôÌ ≤Ãühfl˛Ï Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî (institutionalism) ü∑!›˛Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD Ú≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yòÛ (institution) ü∑!›˛ ã!v˛¸ì˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓñ
≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyîˆÏÑ˛ ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D (approach) !£¢yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ ¢y£yˆÏ΃ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚
â˛â≈˛y Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ~ÖyˆÏò v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆÎñ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî ˆ¢£z¢Ó ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛£z xy@˘Ã£ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ Îy

4
!ú!Öì˛ xy£zò Óy !òÎ˚õÑ˛yò%ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £Î˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe v˛zîy£Ó˚í !£¢yˆÏÓ ˛ôyú≈yˆÏõr›˛ñ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ÓƒÓfl˛iyñ
xy£zò!Ó¶˛yÜñ !Óâ˛yÓ˚!Ó¶˛yÜñ £zì˛ƒy!îÓ˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ â˛â≈˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ˛ôk˛!ì˛ xò%¢Ó˚í
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¢¡ôy!îì˛ £Î˚–
≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D xyˆÏÓ˚y£# (inductive) ˛ôk˛!ì˛ xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ¢y£yˆÏ΃ ≤Ã̈Ïõ£z ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏÑ˛
˛ôÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛í Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚˛ôÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚ Ñ˛yãÑ˛õ≈ñ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyñ £zì˛ƒy!î ÎÌyÎ̶˛yˆÏÓ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óí≈òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
~£z î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏì˛ ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ xy£z!ò ò!Ì˛ôe=!úˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ñ ˆÎõòñ ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚
¢Ç!Óïyò– ~äÈyv˛¸yñ ~£z ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò!›˛Ó˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ !ÓÓì≈˛ò xÌ≈yÍ ì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yÑ˛yúñ Ñ˛yãÑ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ñ £zì˛ƒy!îÁ
xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏì˛ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢yî,üƒ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó¢yî,üƒ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ~›˛y õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏì˛ ÎyÓ˚y «˛õì˛y¢#ò Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚í (Behaviour) ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛
xïƒÎ˚ò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏÑ˛ (institution) xïƒÎ˚ò Ñ˛Ó˚y x!ïÑ˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈– ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ¢Ó
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÓˆÏv˛¸y ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy £ú ~!›˛Ó˚ ãy!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ì˛y (ethnocentrism)– Ó˝ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛Ñ˛ ~!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ôˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ì˛y Óy
eurocentrism !£¢yˆÏÓÁ x!¶˛!£ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ~!›˛ ÷ï%õye ˛ô!ÿ˛ˆÏõÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò ~ÓÇ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚=!úˆÏÑ˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D òyòy¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õyˆÏúy!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ˆÎõò ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ ˆ£”˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘The Political System’ S1953V
òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ ‘mere factualism’ ~ÓÇ ‘hyper factualism’ !£¢yˆÏÓ x!¶˛!£ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
~äÈyv˛¸yñ ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ Ñ˛yˆÏú £yÓ˚õƒyò ö˛y£zòyÓ˚ (Herman Finer) ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘Theory and Practice of Modern Government’
S1932V òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
1.4.2 xyï%!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D
¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ˛ô!ÿ˛õ £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ ¢#õyÓk˛ ˆÓ˚ˆÏÖ!äÈú– Ó˝ ܈ÏÓ°ÏÑ˛ ~›˛y õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò
ˆÎñ ¶˛y°ÏyÜì˛ Á ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Üì˛ ˜òÑ˛ˆÏ›˛ƒÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú ܈ÏÓ°ÏÑ˛Ó˚y ˛ô!ÿ˛õ# ˆîü=!úˆÏì˛£z ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy â˛y!úˆÏÎ˚!äÈú– ì˛ˆÏÓñ î%£z !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚
õïƒÓì˛#≈ ¢õˆÏÎ˚ ˛ô!ÿ˛õ £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúyˆÏì˛ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ Ó˚*˛ô !ÓÑ,˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸– õ%ˆÏ¢y!ú!òÓ˚ ö˛ƒy!¢Óyî ~ÓÇ
!£›˛úyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ òyÍ!¢ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤âyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ Ü!ì˛ xÓÓ˚&k˛ £Î˚– ~ÖyˆÏò v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆÎñ î%!›˛ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚
õïƒÓì˛#≈Ñ˛yú#ò ¢õˆÏÎ˚ õy!Ñ≈˛ò Î%_´Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò â˛â≈˛yÎ˚ ~Ñ˛ ˜Ó≤’!ÓÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò áˆÏ›˛– õy!Ñ≈˛ò Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ òì%˛ò
î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ô›˛ v˛z˛ô£yÓ˚ ˆîÎ˚ ~!üÎ˚yñ xy!ö˛Ñ˛y ~ÓÇ úy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ¢îƒ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ≤ÃyÆ ˆîü=!ú– ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D
~£z òì%˛ò Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ xˆÏòÑ˛yLjÏü£z ÓƒÌ≈ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú– ì˛yäÈyv˛¸yñ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ ~ì˛›˛y£z !Óüyú !äÈú
ˆÎñ ~! ¢õÎ˚ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#Ó˚y ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ Óyïƒ £ò– !ÓK˛yòõòflÒì˛yñ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛
˛ôk˛!ì˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õy!Ñ≈˛ò Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛ô!Ó˚õyí ◊k˛y !äÈúñ ì˛yÓ˚£z Óyhfl˛Ï!ÓÑ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ áˆÏ›˛ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yˆÏí ~ÓÇ
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏì˛– xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!D ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe î%£z
ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ¢– ≤ÃÌõ!›˛ £ú v˛zú!¡∫Ñ˛ ≤âyÓ˚í (vertical expansion)– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÎ˚
òì%˛ò òì%˛ò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– !mì˛#Î˚!›˛ £ˆÏúyñ xò%¶)˛!õÑ˛ ≤âyÓ˚í (horizontal expansion)– xÌ≈yÍ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ â˛â≈˛yÎ˚ ¢îƒ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y≤ÃyÆ ~!üÎ˚yñ xy!ö˛Ñ˛y ~ÓÇ úƒy!›˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ xhs˘˛¶%≈˛_´ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ö˛yˆÏÓ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ üyfl˛f ¢y!ÓˆÏÑ˛ ˆÖyú¢ ì˛ƒyÜ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ Ófl˛f ˛ô!Ó˚ïyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyˆÏîÓ˚
ö˛ˆÏú xyï%!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D Ó˚y‹T…ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛=!úˆÏÑ˛ òì%˛ò¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆîÖˆÏì˛ ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏeñ
Ñ˛yú≈ v˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏüÓ˚ (Karl Deutsch) ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ ì˛_¥ (Communication Theory), fl˛¨y£zv˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ (Richard Snyder) !¢k˛yhs˘˛

5
@˘Ã£í ì˛_¥ (Decision Making Theory), ˆÓr›˛ˆÏúÓ˚ ˆÜy¤˛# ì˛_¥ (Group Theory), xƒyúõu˛ñ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyòñ £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò Á
ö˛yˆÏB˛Ó˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ì˛_¥ (Development and Modernization Theory) !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃–
1950 ¢yú òyÜyî ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ £zfi›˛ò ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘Political System : An Inquiry into the State of Political Science’
S1953V @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õyÏõ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ !£¢yˆÏÓ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~Ñ˛!›˛ òì%˛ò î,!‹T¶˛!D v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ Îy ‘General theory of politics’ Óy ÓƒÓfl˛iyÈÙÈ!ӈϟ’°ÏÑ˛ î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí (System
Analysis Approach) òyˆÏõÁ ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛ì˛– ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ £zfi›˛ò Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy (political system) myÓ˚y Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ (State)
≤Ã!ì˛fl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– !ì˛!ò õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xˆÏòÑ˛=!ú hfl˛ÏÓ˚ (Level) Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ˆÎõò fl˛iyò#Î˚ (local), ãyì˛#Î˚
(national) ~ÓÇ xyhs˘˛ã≈y!ì˛Ñ˛ (international) hfl˛ÏÓ˚– ܃y!ÓˆÏÎ˚ú xƒyúõu˛ (Gabriel Almond) ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyò (Coleman)
ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ‘The Politics of Developing Areas’ S1960V òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õyÏõ !ÓˆÏî!ü üy¢ò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ õ%_´ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚
ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÈÙÈÑ˛yÎ≈Óyî ì˛_¥ (Structure Functionalism Theory) ܈Ïv˛¸ ˆì˛yˆÏúò– xƒyúõu˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyò
õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ ˆÎ ¢Ó Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈ ¢¡ôyîò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ì˛yÓ˚y ~£z Ñ˛yã=ˆÏúy ÎÌyÎ̶˛yˆÏÓ
¢¡ôyîò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy ܇˛ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
1950 ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ 1960ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛ Ó˝ v˛z˛ô!òˆÏÓü !ÓˆÏî!ü üy¢ò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ õ%_´ £ˆÏÎ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ£zñ
˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ ˛ô!ÿ˛õ# Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ˆÎ¢Ó î,!‹T¶˛!D xy!Ó‹,Òì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈúñ ì˛y ¢îƒ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ≤ÃyÆ
xÈÙÈ˛ô!ÿ˛õ# Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí Ó˝ xLjÏü ÓƒÌ≈ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú– ~£z ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÈÙÈÑ˛yÎ≈Óyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ v˛zayò áˆÏ›˛– ≤âDì˛
v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒñ â˛yú≈¢ v˛yÓ˚v˛z£zò ¢Ó≈≤ÃÌõ ã#Ó!ÓîƒyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÈÙÈÑ˛yÎ≈Óyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ¢)e˛ôyì˛ á›˛yò– ì˛ˆÏÓñ Ó˚y‹T… !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe Üy!ÓˆÏÎ˚ú xƒyúõu˛ (Gabriel Almond) ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyò (Coleman) ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ¢¡ôy!îì˛ ‘The Politics of
Developing Areas’ S1960V @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õyÏõ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÈÙÈÑ˛yÎ≈Óyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ≤Ãâ˛úò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– xƒyúõu˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyˆÏòÓ˚
õˆÏì˛ñ ¢Ó Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛£z ~Ñ˛£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈ ¢¡ôyîò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛ˆÏÓ ì˛yÓ˚y ~£z Ñ˛yÎ≈=!úˆÏÑ˛ ÎÌyÎ̶˛yˆÏÓ ¢¡ôyîò
Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy ˛ô!Ó˚@˘Ã£ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇñ Î!î ~£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy=!úˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
!ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú ì˛y xì˛ƒhs˘˛ ã!›˛ú £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛ˆÏÓ– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ~£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy=!úˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ (function) !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛
ì%˛úòy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢yî,üƒ Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ¢Ω˛Ó– xƒyúõu˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyò õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ≤ÈÏì˛ƒÑ˛
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛£z ¢yì˛!›˛ ¢õïõ#≈ Ñ˛yÎ≈ ¢¡ôyîò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚– ì˛yÓ˚y ~£z ¢yì˛!›˛ Ñ˛yÎ≈ˆÏÑ˛ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í (input function)
~ÓÇ v˛z˛ô˛ôyî (Output) òyˆÏõ x!¶˛!£ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óí≈òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D òyòy¶˛yˆÏÓ
¢õyˆÏúy!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~£z ˛ô›˛¶)˛!õˆÏì˛ ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ £zfi›˛ò ì§˛yÓ˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iy˛ôÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D (System Approach) ܈Ïv˛¸ ˆì˛yˆÏúò–
¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓñ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Óy System ÓúˆÏì˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ñ ˆÎÖyˆÏò xˆÏòÑ˛=!ú ¢_y (entity) ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏì˛ƒÑ˛›˛y ¢_yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD
≤ÈìÏ ˛ƒÑ˛›˛y ¢_yÓ˚ üòy_´ˆÏÎy܃ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ– ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ (social system) v˛zîy£Ó˚í !£¢yˆÏÓ Óƒ!_´ (Individual),
˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ (family) ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ (Institutions) õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yˆÏòy £Î˚– ~£z ¢¡ôÑ≈˛=!ú £ú ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜñ
≤ö˛yÓñ xyò%Üì˛ƒñ £zì˛ƒy!î– ~ÖyˆÏò v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆÎñ ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ £zfi›˛ò äÈyv˛¸yÁ Üy!ÓˆÏÎ˚ú xƒyúõu˛ Á ˛ôyÁˆÏÎ˚ˆÏúÓ˚
‘Comparative Politics : A Developmental Approach’ S1966V ~ÓÇ ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ xƒy˛ô›˛yÓ˚ ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘Introduction
to Political Analysis’ S1977V òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ÓƒÓfl˛iy˛ôÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– ÎyˆÏ£yÑ˛ñ ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ £zfi›˛ò õˆÏò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xòƒyòƒ ÓƒÓfl˛iy=!úÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyúyîy– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õ)ú Ñ˛yÎ≈
£ú õ)ˆÏúƒÓ˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛c¢¡ôߨ ÓÓ˚yj (authoritative allocation of values in soceity)– £zfi›˛ò ì§˛yÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥ õ)úƒ (values) ÓúˆÏì˛
ˆ¢£z¢Ó ¢¡ôî (resource)ÈÙÈˆÑ˛ Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòñ Îy xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ã#Óò ܇˛ˆÏò Óƒy˛ôÑ˛ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ !ì˛!ò Ñ˛ì,≈˛c
(authoritative) ~ÓÇ ÓÓ˚yj (allocation) ÓúˆÏì˛ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ xò%ÎyÎ˚# ü!_´Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õyÏõ ¢¡ôî=!úˆÏÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ≤ÈÏì˛ƒÑ˛!›˛
hfl˛ÏˆÏÓ˚ ÎÌyÎ̶˛yˆÏÓ !Óì˛Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚yˆÏÑ˛ Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy î%!›˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ myÓ˚y ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £Î˚ñ

6
~=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈSÑ˛V v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í (input) ~ÓÇ SÖV v˛z˛ô˛ôyî (output)– ì˛yäÈyv˛¸yñ ~£z v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ î%!›˛ ¶˛yÜ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ÎÌy îy!Ó
(demand) ~ÓÇ ¢õÌ≈ò (support)– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe îy!Ó ÓúˆÏì˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛ä%È !ò!î≈‹T ò#!ì˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚yˆÏòyÓ˚ îy!ÓˆÏì˛ ÜˆÏv˛¸ Á‡˛y
ãòõì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ¢õÌ≈ò ÓúˆÏì˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ≤Ãí#ì˛ xy£zò=!úˆÏÑ˛ õyòƒ Ñ˛Ó˚yñ !òÎ˚!õì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ ≤Ãîyò Ñ˛Ó˚yñ £zì˛ƒy!îˆÏÑ˛
ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ v˛z˛ô˛ôyî ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛˛ôˆÏ«˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y Ü,£#ì˛ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~£z v˛z˛ô˛ôyî=!ú (output) v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í=!úˆÏÑ˛
(input) ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ãòÜí !Ñ˛ä%È îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ !Ñ˛ä%È !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚˛ôÓ˚ ~£z
v˛z˛ô˛ôyî=!ú ≤Ã!ì˛!e´Î˚y (feedback) ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ü,£#ì˛ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ãòÜí õì˛yõì˛ Óƒ_´ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ òì%˛ò !¢k˛yhs˘˛ ≤ÃíÎ˚ò Óy !¢k˛yˆÏhs˘˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ólfl˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí ~ÓÇ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ ì˛_¥ (Communication Theory) £ú
xˆÏ˛ô«˛yÑ,˛ì˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ òì%˛ò ì˛_¥– ~!›˛Ó˚ ãß√ ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ £zfi›˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ÚÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÛ (Political System) ˆÌˆÏÑ˛– ãyõ≈yò Ó˚y‹T…ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛
Ñ˛yú≈ v˛ˆÏÎ˚ü (Karl Deutsch) ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘The Nerves of Government’ S1963V òyõÑ˛ !ÓÖƒyì˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ¢Ó≈≤ÃÌõ ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ
ì˛_¥ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– v˛ˆÏÎ˚â˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ õˆÏv˛ú!›˛ˆÏì˛ Cybernetics xÌ≈yÍ ¢ÇÓyî xyîyòÈÙÈ≤ÃîyòÑ˛yÓ˚#
~Ñ˛ fl˛∫Î˚Ç !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ ÜíÑ˛Îs˛f ~ÓÇ õ!hfl˛Ï‹Ò Á fl˛¨yÎ˚%ΈÏs˛fÓ˚ üyÓ˚#Ó˚Ó,_ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ õì˛ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ á›˛yò– v˛ˆÏÎ˚ü õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ õ)ú !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ólfl˛ £ú Ñ˛ì˛=!ú !ÓˆÏü°Ï úˆÏ«˛ƒ ˆ˛ôÔ§äÈyˆÏòyÓ˚ ãòƒ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ¢yõO¢ƒ˛ô)í≈ ≤ÃÎ˚y¢ Á Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú#–
¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇñ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ õ)ú ˆ«˛e £ú !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜñ Îy ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ õyÏõ£z Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó– ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õyÏõ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ =Ó˚&c £…y¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ì˛yÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ ˛ô)Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ñ˛#¶˛yˆÏÓ ì§˛yÓ˚ fl˛iy!Î˚c
Ó˚«˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢£z ÓƒyÖƒy v˛ˆÏÎ˚ü ì§˛yÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥ ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y £úñ xˆÏòÑ˛=!ú !ÓÑ˛ˆÏ“Ó˚ õïƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ Ñ˛ì˛=!ú !ÓÑ˛“ˆÏÑ˛
ˆÓˆÏäÈ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆ¢=!úˆÏÑ˛ ÎÌyÎ̶˛yˆÏÓ Óyhfl˛ÏÓyÎ˚ò Ñ˛Ó˚y– ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ≤ÃÓ_´y ú%!¢Î˚yò ˛ôy£z (Lucian Pye), !Ó˚â˛yv≈˛ fl˛¨y£zv˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
(Ricard C. Snyder), £ƒyÓ˚”˛ úƒy¢ÁˆÏÎ˚ú (Harold Lasswell), ≤Ãõ%Ö !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ó_´Óƒ ì%˛ˆÏú
ïˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ú%!¢Î˚yò ˛ôy£zÈÙÈ~Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ñ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y £ú ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ÎyÓ˚ ¢y£yˆÏ΃ ~Ñ˛y!ïÑ˛ !ÓÑ˛ˆÏ“Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛ä%È !ÓÑ˛“ˆÏÑ˛ Óyhfl˛ÏÓy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚– !Ó˚â˛yv≈˛ fl˛¨y£zv˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ñ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òü#ú
˛ô!Ó˚!fl˛i!ì˛Ó˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆÓ!ü ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ xòƒyòƒ ≤ÃÓ_´yÓ˚y õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ˆÎñ ÷ï%õye !¢k˛yhs˘˛
@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢£z !¢k˛yhs˘˛ˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y£z Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ ΈÏÌ‹T òÎ˚ñ ˆÑ˛ò xˆÏòÑ˛=!ú !ÓÑ˛ˆÏ“Ó˚ ÌyÑ˛y ¢ˆÏ_¥Á
!ò!î≈‹T !Ñ˛ä%È !ÓÑ˛“ˆÏÑ˛ ˆòÁÎ˚y £úñ ˆÑ˛yò ˆÑ˛yò !Ó°ÏÎ˚ˆÏÑ˛ =Ó˚&c ˆîÁÎ˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£íÑ˛yÓ˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈≤Ã!e´Î˚yñ
¢#õyÓk˛ì˛y ≤ö,˛!ì˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚Á xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ–
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ì˛_¥ £ú ˆÜy¤˛# ì˛_¥ (Group Theory)– !ÓÇü üì˛y∑#Ó˚
÷Ó˚&ˆÏì˛ Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ v˛zîyÓ˚ò#!ì˛ÓyîˆÏÑ˛ â˛ƒyˆÏúO ãy!òˆÏÎ˚ Ó˝cÓyî# v˛zîyÓ˚ò#!ì˛ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ãß√ ~ÓÇ ˆ¢Öyò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z ˆÜy¤˛# ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚
v˛zqÓ áˆÏ›˛– ˆÜy¤˛# ì˛_¥ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ Á ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yòˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ ˆÜy¤˛#ˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚
ˆãyÓ˚ ˆîÎ˚– ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ≤ÃÓ_´yÓ˚y õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛y[˛ ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !ò!£ì˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛
£ú ˆÜy¤˛#¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ !e´Î˚y ≤Ã!ì˛!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ö˛úyö˛ú– ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ ≤ÃÓ_´y £ˆÏúò xyÌ≈yÓ˚ ˆÓr›˛ˆÏú (Arthur Bentley),
ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ ›˛Δ$õƒyò (David Truman), õƒyÑ˛Ó˚y£z!v˛¢ (Macridis), ≤ÃõÖ% – xyÌ≈yÓ˚ ˆÓr›˛ˆÏú ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘The Process of Government’
S1908V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ˆÜy¤˛# ì˛_¥ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ≤ÃÌõ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yòˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ õyÏõ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚
≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ !â˛e ö%˛!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆì˛yúy ¢Ω˛Ó òÎ˚– ì˛y£z !ì˛!ò ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úyˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ õyÏõ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò–
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !ì˛!ò ì˛Ìƒ Á ˛ô!Ó˚õyˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c ˆîò– !ì˛!ò ˆÜy¤˛#ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆÑ˛w!Ó®%ˆÏì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛fl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– !ì˛!ò
õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò ˆÜy¤˛#¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ ¢!‡˛Ñ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚!fl˛i!ì˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢Ó!Ñ˛ä%È ãyòy ¢Ω˛Ó– õƒyÑ˛Ó˚y£z!v˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ õˆÏì˛
!Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y Á Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛

7
ÓƒÓfl˛iy!›˛Ó˚ ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒñ ãòõì˛ Ü‡˛ò ~ÓÇ ãòõì˛ Ü‡˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ¢£ £zì˛ƒy!î !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛
£ˆÏÓ– ì˛ÍÑ˛yú#ò ¢õˆÏÎ˚ õy!Ñ≈˛ò Î%_´Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí ~£z ˆÜy¤˛#ì˛_¥ ¢yö˛úƒ úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí ˆÜy¤˛# ì˛_¥ ÓƒÌ≈ £Î˚–
1950ÈÙÈ60ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ãò!≤ÃÎ˚ ì˛_¥ £ˆÏúy xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í Á v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ì˛_¥– ~£z ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ õ)ú Ó_´Óƒ £ú v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚
~Ñ˛õye ˛ôÌ ˛ô!ÿ˛õ# xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇñ v˛z˛ô!òˆÏÓü ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢îƒ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y≤ÃyÆ ˆîü=ˆÏúyˆÏì˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ˛ô!ÿ˛õ#
xyï%!òÑ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– xƒyúõu˛ (Almond) Á ˆÑ˛yúõƒyò (Coleman) ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ‘The Politics of the
Developing Areas’ S1960V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i !Ó!¶˛ß¨ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ì%˛úòy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
ì§˛yÓ˚y v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛s˛fˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ üì≈˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ ö˛yB˛ (Andre Gunder
Frank) ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil’
S1967V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!úÓ˚ xò%ß¨ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÎyÁÎ˚yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ˛ô!ÿ˛õ# !ü“yÎ˚ò Á ˛ô%§!ãÓyîˆÏÑ˛ îyÎ˚# Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
1960 ~ÓÇ 1970 ¢yú òyÜyî xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ òyòy¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õyˆÏúy!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ £Î˚– ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛Ñ˛Ó˚y xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî#
î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ ‘Pure Science’ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ¢ˆÏ¡∫yïò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!D ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ õyòÓì˛y (humanity) ~ÓÇ xyîü≈Óyî# õ)úƒˆÏÓyï=ˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ (normative values) xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– v˛z_Ó˚
xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!D ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ~ÓÇ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ !Ñ˛ä%È v˛z˛ôyîyˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õß∫ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ õyÏõ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyîˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛fl˛iy˛ôò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ üyÖy!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y‹T… ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ¢õ¢ƒyÓ˚ ¢õyïyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe x!ïÑ˛ ܈ÏÓ°Ïíyïõ#≈ ~ÓÇ ÎÌyÎÌ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yˆÏú–
1.4.3 òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D
v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˛ô%òã≈ß√ £Î˚– ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ÷ï%õye
!ú!Öì˛ xy£zˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Á !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D !òÎ˚õ
(Norms), ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ (Culture), ≤ÃÌyÓ˚ (Custom) v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸ Á‡˛y ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=ˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛Á xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ~ÓÇ !ӈϟ’°Ïí
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~!›˛ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óƒ!_´ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yòˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !òˆÏãÁ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò!›˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £Î˚– ~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏúñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÎ˚ ‘Institutions matter’ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íy ãò!≤ÃÎ˚ì˛y úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– õyâ≈˛ (March) ~ÓÇ ÁúˆÏ¢ò (Olsen) õˆÏò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ !ì˛ò!›˛ üyÖy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ˆ¢=!ú £ú ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ (Sociological), ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ ˛ôäÈ® (Rational
Choice) ~ÓÇ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ (Historical)– ˆÌv˛y ˆflÒyÑ˛ˆÏ˛ôyú (Theda Skocpol) ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘Bringing the State back in’
S1967V òyõÑ˛ ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛Ó˚ õyÏõ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ Ó˚y‹T… òyõÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò!›˛Ó˚ =Ó˚&c ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÓü !Ñ˛ä%È ¢yî,üƒ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Îy òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚
=Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !ÓˆÏÓ!â˛ì˛ £Î˚– ì˛ˆÏÓñ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî ~ÓÇ òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy
Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ v˛z¶˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆ«˛e=!úÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò– òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî ~›˛y õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
ˆÎñ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚ â˛!Ó˚e ÷ï%õye ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏy myÓ˚y xò%ïyÓò Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó òÎ˚ xÌ≈yÍ x!ïÑ˛ì˛Ó˚ fl˛ô‹T v˛z˛ôú!∏˛Ó˚
fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=ˆÏúyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ã!v˛¸ì˛ !òÎ˚õÈÙÈÑ˛yò%ò ~ÓÇ Ó˚#!ì˛ò#!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– !mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ òÎ˚y
≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî ÷ï%õye !ú!Öì˛ xy£zò Óy !òÎ˚õÈÙÈÑ˛yò%ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸ Á‡˛y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ !ÓŸªy¢#
òÎ˚– ~!›˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ x!ú!Öì˛ ≤ÃÌyñ Ó˚#!ì˛ò#!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆ«˛e !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ
Üíƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~äÈyv˛¸y òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛ fl˛ô‹T¶˛yˆÏÓ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ !¶˛!_ !òõ≈yí
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ~ÓÇ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ x!ïÑ˛ì˛Ó˚ xy@˘Ã£ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– 1980 ¢yˆÏúÓ˚ òyÜyî Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚
õ)úïyÓ˚yÎ˚ òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zayò áˆÏ›˛– ~ ≤âˆÏD v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öñ ~£z ¢õÎ˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!úÓ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚
!ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏÑ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓíì˛y Óƒy˛ôÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó,!k˛ ˛ôyÎ˚–

8
 Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ 1930 ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ 1950 ¢yú ˛ôÎ≈hs˘˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏúÁ ì˛y 1960ÈÙÈ~Ó˚
îüˆÏÑ˛ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ö˛yˆÏÓ xˆÏòÑ˛›˛y£z ÖÓ≈ £Î˚– ì˛ˆÏÓñ 1980 ¢yú òyÜyî ì˛y!cÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ !â˛hs˘˛y¶˛yÓòyÎ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!ú ˛ô%òÓ˚yÎ˚
=Ó˚&c úy¶˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– 1984 ¢yˆÏú ˆãõ¢‰ !ã. õyˆÏâ≈˛Ó˚ (James G. March) ‘New Institutionalism :
Organisational Factor in Political Life’ S1983V òyõÑ˛ ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛Ó˚ õyÏõ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚
=Ó˚&c ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ~äÈyv˛¸yñ òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ =Ó˚&c ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ˆãõ¢‰ !ã. õyâ≈˛ (James G. March)
~ÓÇ ˆãy£yò !˛ô. ÁúˆÏ¢ò (Johan P. Olsen) ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ‘Rediscovering Institutions : The Organizational Basis
of Politics S1989V @˘Ãs˛i!›˛ˆÏì˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî (Old Institutionalism)
÷ï%õye !ú!Öì˛ xy£zˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚ â˛â≈˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛yñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî (New Institutionalism)
¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ñ ≤ÃÌyñ Ó˚#!ì˛ò#!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚Á ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!D ~›˛y õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ Óƒ!_´
≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yòˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !òˆÏãÁ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò!›˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £Î˚– ÎyˆÏ£yÑ˛ñ £ú (Hall) ~ÓÇ ˆ›˛úˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ (Taylor)
õˆÏì˛ñ òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ xhs˘˛ì˛ !ì˛ò!›˛ üyÖy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ÎÌyñ SÑ˛V ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ ˛ôäÈ® ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî (Rational Choice
Institutionalism) SÖV ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Óy ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî (Sociological or Cultural Institutionalism) SÜV
˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî (Historical Institutionalism)– ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ ˛ôäÈ® ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ ≤Ãïyò ≤ÃÓ_´yÓ˚y
£ˆÏúò ãã≈ ˆ¢ˆÏ¶˛!ú¢ (George Tsebelis), ˆÓ!Ó˚ ÁˆÏÎ˚òÜyfi›˛ (Barry Weingast) ~ÓÇ õyÜ≈yˆÏÓ˚›˛ ˆú!¶˛ (Margaret Levi),
≤Ãõ%Ö– ~Ó˚y õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ ~Ñ˛ãò Î%!_´Óyî# õyò%°Ï ¢Ó≈îy !òˆÏãÓ˚ ¢ls˘˛!‹TˆÏÑ˛ ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠ(maximize) Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ â˛yÎ˚ñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ Î!î ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚
≤ÈÏì˛ƒÑ˛ Óƒ!_´ ~Ó˚*˛ô xyâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛y£ˆÏú ì˛y ¢õyˆÏã ¢õ¢ƒy ¢,!‹T Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ– ì˛y£zñ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ~Ó˚*˛ô xyâ˛Ó˚í ≤Ã!ì˛£ì˛
Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ¢õyˆÏã ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ (institution) ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Óy ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃÓ_´yÓ˚y
£ˆÏúò v˛!Óœv˛z. v˛!Óœv˛z. ˛ôyÁˆÏÎ˚ú (W.W. Powell) ~ÓÇ ˛ôú ˆã. !v˛õy!ÜÁ (Paul J. DiMaggio)– ì§˛yÓ˚yÁ ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ‘The
New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis’ S1991V òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õyÏõ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚
¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ~Ó˚y ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yòˆÏÑ˛ !òÎ˚õñ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ñ ˙!ì˛£ƒÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛
¢ÇK˛y!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚y õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ ~ÓÇ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy=!ú ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢,‹T– ~äÈyv˛¸yñ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ v˛zayò
~ÓÇ ˛ôì˛ˆÏò !òÎ˚õñ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ñ ˙!ì˛£ƒ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– £ú (Hall) ~ÓÇ ˆ›˛úˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ (Taylor) õˆÏì˛ñ
òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢Ó ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ã!›˛ú üyÖy £ú ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî– ~£z üyÖy!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ¢ÇK˛y!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y Ö%Ó£z
Ñ˛!‡˛òñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í Ó˝ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˝ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Üì˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D (methodological approach) ~£z üyÖyÓ˚ xhs˘˛¶%≈˛_´– ~£z üyÖyÓ˚
!Ñ˛ä%È ÜˆÏÓ°ÏÑ˛ ‘Path Dependence’ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏeñ ~›˛y ˆîÖy £Î˚ ˆÎñ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò!›˛Ó˚
˛ô)Ó≈ì˛ò !ÓÓì≈˛ò ~ÓÇ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò=!ú !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò!›˛Ó˚ ¶˛!Ӱσ͈ÏÑ˛Á ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ– ~£z üyÖyÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃
Ó˚â˛òy £ú ¢ƒyõ%ˆÏÎ˚ú !˛ô. £y!r›˛Ç›˛ˆÏòÓ˚ (Samuel P. Huntington) !ÓÖƒyì˛ @˘Ãs˛i Political Oder in Changing Societies’
S1968Vñ Óƒy!Ó˚Ç›˛ò õ%ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ (Barrington Moore) @˘Ãs˛i ‘Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord
and Peasant in the Makingn of the Modern World’ S1966V ~ÓÇ ˆÌv˛y ˆflÒyÑ˛ˆÏ˛ôyˆÏúÓ˚ (Theda Skocpol)
!ÓÖƒyì˛ Ó˚â˛òy ‘State and Social Revolutions’ S1979V– xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zq$ì˛ ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ ˛ôäÈ® ì˛_¥ (rational choice
theory) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛üyfl˛f â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ =Ó˚&ˆÏcÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ì˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ–˚
Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~£z ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ¢)e˛ôyì˛ á›˛yò v˛z£z!úÎ˚yõ Ó˚y£zÑ˛yÓ˚ (William Riker)– ≤âDì˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒñ v˛z£z!úÎ˚yõ Ó˚y£zÑ˛yÓ˚
ˆÓ˚yˆÏâ˛fi›˛yÓ˚ fl%ÒˆÏúÓ˚ (Rochester School) ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yì˛y !äȈÏúò– Ó˚y£zÑ˛yÓ˚ äÈyv˛¸yÁ ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ ˛ôäÈ® ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ xòƒyòƒ ≤ÃÓ_´y £ˆÏúò
xƒyr›˛!ò v˛yv˛zò¢ (Anthony Downs), ˆ≤ÈÏãÁÎ˚y¢≈!Ñ˛ (Przeworski), ≤Ãõ%Ö– xƒyr›˛!ò v˛yv˛z™ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚
(economic theory of democracy) ≤ÃÓ_´y !äȈÏúò–

9
1.4.4 õy:#≈Î˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D
~!›˛ õ)úì˛ m®¥õ)úÑ˛ Ólfl˛Óyî ~ÓÇ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ Ólfl˛ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸ v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛!õv˛z!òfi›˛ õƒy!òˆÏö˛ˆÏfi›˛yˆÏì˛
õyÑ≈˛¢ ÎÖò ÓúˆÏäÈòñ Ú¢õhfl˛Ï Óyhfl˛ÏÓ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ £ú ˆ◊í# ¢Ç@˘ÃyˆÏõÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢Û ì˛Öò£z !ì˛!ò ~Ñ˛≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
!ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ !òˆÏÎ˚y!ãì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy ˆáy°Ïíy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ~£z ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛
¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ˆ◊í#!Ó¶˛yÜ ~ÓÇ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ ÌyÑ˛y ¢ˆÏ_¥Á !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢Ñ˛ú ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ˆ◊í# ¢Ç@˘Ãyõ áˆÏ›˛ ˆ¢›˛y ≤ÃÑ˛yü
Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ x!òÓyÎ≈ì˛y !äÈú– õyÑ≈˛¢ xyï%!òÑ˛ Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚y ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ â˛!Ó˚e v˛zˆÏß√yâ˛ˆÏò ¢Ó≈yˆÏ˛ô«˛y xy@˘Ã£# !äȈÏúòñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ˆ¢£z ¢ˆÏD
!ì˛!ò Ú≤Ãyâ˛#òÈÙÈõïƒÎ%Ü#Î˚ÈÙÈÓì≈˛õyòÛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ e´õ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ ˆîÖyˆÏòyÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏã Óì˛# !äȈÏúò– ~ãòƒ !ì˛!ò !ÓˆÏü°Ï Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛
Á â˛#ò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ì˛yÓ˚ K˛yò ¢õ,k˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ ¢yõhs˘˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !Óú!¡∫ì˛ Î%Ü ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÎ˚ ˆÎõò
ˆ¶˛ÔˆÏÜy!úÑ˛ fl˛iyò ˜Ó!â˛e !äÈúñ ˆì˛õò£z !äÈú ì˛yÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ– õyò%°Ï ì˛yÓ˚ ã#ÓòÎy˛ôˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ı˛yˆÏò ˆÑ˛õò¶˛yˆÏÓ
¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ≤ÈÏÓü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~£z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ !ì˛!ò ì˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ˆÏÓyïˆÏÑ˛ ¢%¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ˚yˆÏ¢
£ˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò– !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ õyÑ≈˛¢ ˆÎ ˙Ñ˛ƒ ¢)e!›˛ Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyò ì§˛yÓ˚ òyõ ˆîò v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y Óy
Mode of Production– õyÑ≈˛¢#Î˚ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ õyÏõ ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ !ÓÓì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí
Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó– õyÑ≈˛¢ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ü!_´ ~ÓÇ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ õyò%°Ï !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ £Î˚– ì˛ˆÏÓñ õyÑ≈˛¢
ì§˛yÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ≤ÃÎ%!_´Ó˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– !fi›˛ˆÏö˛ò ÁÎ˚yò≈yÓ˚
õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ @˘Ãs˛i !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚
Ó˚â˛òyÓú# ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ â˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢õyãÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ãyòy ÎyÎ˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÃÌõ!›˛ ˆ¶˛ÔÜ!úÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈ !ì˛ò!›˛ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛
~Ñ˛Ñ˛–

1.5 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛¢õ)£

¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓñ ~›˛y Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (method) £ú !òÎ˚yõyò%Ü ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ ˛ôˆÏÌ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !Ñ˛ä%È ¢¡ôߨ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛
≤Ã!e´Î˚y– !ö˛!ú˛ô !fl˛ø›˛yÓ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Üì˛ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ¢ÇK˛y!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ !£¢yˆÏÓ
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ~Ñ˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢yî,üƒ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó¢yî,üƒ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ õyÏõ x!¶˛K˛ì˛yÓyî#
ì˛_¥ !òõ≈yíñ ≤ÃÑ˛ˆÏ“Ó˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÈÙÈ!òÓ˚#«˛y Ñ˛Ó˚yñ Ñ˛yÎ≈ÈÙÈÑ˛yÓ˚í ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ xÓïyÓ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚yñ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ˆÏÎy܃ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò Ó_´Óƒ ܈Ïv˛¸
ˆì˛yúy ¢Ω˛Ó– ÁˆÏÎ˚Ófi›˛yÓ˚ (Webster) ì%˛úòyˆÏÑ˛ Ú˛ôk˛!ì˛Û !£¢yˆÏÓ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ ~!›˛ ¢yî,üƒ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó¢yî,üƒ
Ö%§ˆÏã ˆÓÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ (comparative politics) ü∑!›˛ !Ñ˛ÓyˆÏÓ ~›˛y ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏúÁ !ò!î≈‹T ¶˛yˆÏÓ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚
˛ôÌ!›˛ !òˆÏî≈ü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òy– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ !ÓÖƒyì˛ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò# !úãö˛y›≈˛ (Arend Lijphart) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ì%˛úòyˆÏÑ˛
~Ñ˛!›˛ fl˛∫ì˛s˛f ˛ôk˛!ì˛ !£¢yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– !úã˛ôyˆÏ›≈˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ì%˛úòy xÓïy!Ó˚ì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚
õyÏõ !ÓK˛yò¢¡øì˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó– ~¢. ~ò. xy£zˆÏãòfi›˛yv‰˛›˛ (Eisenstadt) ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚
ü∑!›˛ ÚÚ¢!‡˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ò!î≈‹T ˛ôk˛!ì˛ !òï≈yÓ˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òyñ ÓÓ˚Ç ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xyhs˘˛É¢yõy!ãÑ˛ñ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ñ Óy õƒyˆÏe´yÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛
!îÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– £ƒyÓ˚”˛ !v˛. úƒy¢ÁˆÏÎ˚ú (Lasswell) Î%!_´ ˆîò ˆÎ
ÚÚÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ᛲòyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ¢£ ˆÎ Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚y ãòƒ ~Ñ˛!›˛ fl˛∫yï#ò ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íy x≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚
ÓˆÏú õˆÏò £Î˚ñ ÚÚÑ˛yÓ˚í ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛!›˛ ÚÚx!òÓyÎ≈¶˛yˆÏÓ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ÛÛ– ܃y!ÓˆÏÎ˚ú ~. xƒyúõu˛ (Gabriel Almond)
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ¢õì%˛úƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏò ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ Ñ˛Ìy ÓúyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò õyˆÏò
£Î˚ òy ˆÎˆÏ£ì%˛ ~!›˛ Î!î ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓK˛yò £Î˚ ì˛ˆÏÓ ~!›˛ ÓúyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛ô«˛y Ó˚yˆÏÖ òy ˆÎ ~!›˛ ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛– !Ó˚ãö˛y›≈˛
ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ xòƒì˛õ ˆõÔ!úÑ˛ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ñ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ òÎ˚–

10
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ äÈyv˛¸y ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ≤Ãïyòì˛ !ì˛ò!›˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ÎÌy ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yõ)úÑ˛
˛ôk˛!ì˛ (Experimental method), ˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyòõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (Statistical method), !Ó°ÏÎ˚ !¶˛!_Ñ˛ xò%¢ı˛yò Óy ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ òõ%òy
!ӈϟ’°Ïí ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (case study)– ~£z ˛ôk˛!ì˛=!úÓ˚ õïƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚ õ)ú !Ó°ÏÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛“òyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢yõO¢ƒ ÓãyÎ˚
ˆÓ˚ˆÏÖ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
˛ôÓ˚#«˛yõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ Óy ~:ˆÏ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏõr›˛yú ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (Experimental Method) î%!›˛ ¢õÓ˚*˛ô ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ Óy ˆÜy¤˛# !òˆÏÎ˚ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚
õˆÏïƒ ~Ñ˛!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛y (Experiment) Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ S˛ôÓ˚#«˛yõ)úÑ˛ ˆÜy¤˛#V ~ÓÇ xòƒ!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ õ%ˆÏÖyõ%!Ö Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ
òy S!òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ ˆÜy¤˛#V– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe õˆÏò Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓñ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛y (Experiment) ~£z ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ äÈyv˛¸y xòƒ ˆÑ˛yò ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ
ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ òy– xÌ≈yÍ v˛z¶˛Î˚ˆÏÑ˛£z ¢õÈÙÈxÓfl˛iyÎ˚ Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– ˛ôÓ˚#«˛y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÓyÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚ ˆîÖˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ ¢Ç!Ÿ’‹T î%!›˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ Óy ˆÜy¤˛#ñ
ÎyˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÑ˛yò ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ !äÈú òyñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ì%˛úòy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚
!òˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ ~£z ˛ôyÌ≈ˆÏÑ˛ƒÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ˛ôÓ˚#«˛y Óy ~:ˆÏ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏõr›˛– ~£z ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ Ñ˛ì˛=!ú !Ó°ÏÎ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ïˆÏÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ïˆÏÓ˚
ˆòÁÎ˚y £Î˚– ≤ÃÌõì˛ñ ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ Óy ˆÜy¤˛# Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÓ ÎyÓ˚y x!ÓÑ˛ú ~Ñ˛£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ £ˆÏÓó xhs˘˛ì˛˛ôˆÏ«˛ ˆÎ ¢õhfl˛Ï
˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ñ ˆ¢=!úˆÏì˛ ì˛yÓ˚y v˛z¶˛ˆÏÎ˚£z ¢õÓ˚*˛ô– ~£z ¢õÓ˚*˛ô ö˛ˆÏú ˆÎ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#Î˚ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ö˛úyö˛úˆÏÑ˛
!Óºyhs˘˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢=!ú !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ £ˆÏÓ– ÚÎî,FäÈ ÓyäÈy£zÛ (Random selection) Óy ¢õÑ˛«˛ì˛yÓ˚ (Matching) !ò!Ó˚ˆÏÖ
~£z v˛z¶˛Î˚ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ Óy ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ ¢õÓ˚*˛ôì˛y ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £Î˚– !mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ¢¡ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ !òÎ˚s˛fí Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–
v˛zîy£Ó˚ífl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÜyÓ˚ (Laboratory)– ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ñ ˛ô!Ó˚õyí Á ¢õÎ˚ ¢¡ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ
!òÎ˚s˛fíˆÏÎy܃ £ˆÏÓ– ~£z ïyÓ˚íy=ˆÏúy Óyhfl˛ÏˆÏÓ ¢Ω˛Ó £ˆÏúñ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛yÓ˚í ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ !òí≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ü!_´üyú# õyïƒõ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ
Ñ˛yã Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ (Natural Science) ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˛ôÓ˚#!«˛ì˛ Ólfl˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ Îì˛›˛y !òÎ˚s˛fí Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ¢õyã!ÓK˛yò
!Ñ˛ÇÓy Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !òÎ˚s˛fí ¢Ω˛Ó òÎ˚– ¢õyã!ÓK˛yò Óy Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~=!ú ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆÜˆÏú Óyhfl˛Ï!ÓÑ˛
~ÓÇ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õ¢ƒy ¢,!‹T £ˆÏÓ– ì˛ˆÏÓ !Ñ˛ä%È !Ñ˛ä%È ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛yÓ˚í ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yäÈyÑ˛y!äÈ ˆÜˆÏúÁ xyîü≈Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô
@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó òÎ˚–
˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyòõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ !ÓÑ˛“ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ~£z ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ Óy
‘Case’ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ¢ÇÖƒy x!ïÑ˛ £ÁÎ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#Î˚ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ=!úÓ˚ ¢ÇÖƒy!Î˚ì˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí ˆÓyG˛yÓ˚ ãòƒ– xÌ≈yÍ
˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#Î˚ ¢õ!‹TÜì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ Óy ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD x˛ôÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛Ó˚ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ v˛z¶˛ˆÏÎ˚£z
¢ÇÖƒyì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ õyÏõ !òÓ˚*˛ôí Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ x˛ôÓ˚ ˆÎ ¢õhfl˛Ï v˛z˛ôyîyˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ ÌyÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢Ω˛yÓòy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆ¢=!úˆÏÑ˛ ¢ÇÖƒyì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚
õyÏõ !òÎ˚s˛fí Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó– Î!î ïÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ¶˛y›˛îyˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃÓíì˛yˆÏÑ˛ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ !ü«˛yñ ã#!ÓÑ˛y ~ÓÇ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛
xy@˘ÃˆÏ£Ó˚ ܶ˛#Ó˚ì˛y ≤ÃÓy!£ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú ˆ¶˛y›˛îyˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!îˆÏÑ˛ ~£z !ì˛ò!›˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#Î˚ ¢õ!‹TÜì˛ ≤ö˛yÓ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ
Á x˛ôÓ˚!îˆÏÑ˛ ~=!úÓ˚ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛z¶˛Î˚£z ¢ÇÖƒy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó– xÌ≈yÍ ≤Ã!ì˛!›˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¢õ!‹TÜì˛ (Macro) ~ÓÇ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛Üì˛
(Micro) v˛z¶˛Î˚ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ì%˛úòy£z ¢Ω˛Ó– ˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyòõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
¢yõyã#Ñ˛Ó˚íñ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò# xyâ˛Ó˚í!Ó!ï ≤ö,˛!ì˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!¶˛!_Ñ˛ xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ Óy ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ òõ%òy !ӈϟ’°Ïí ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛õye !Ó°ÏÎ˚ Óy
~Ñ˛!›˛õye ˆîü ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xÌ≈yÍ ~£z ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ¢y£yˆÏ΃ ˆÑ˛Óúõye ~Ñ˛!›˛ òõ%òy Óy ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚
¢#!õì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ~¢. ÓyˆÏò≈ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ‘Representation in Italy: Institutionalized Tradition and Electoral
Choice’ S1977Vñ !úãö˛yˆÏ›≈˛Ó˚ ‘The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in Netherlands’
S1968V ≤ö,˛!ì˛ @˘Ãs˛i ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ v˛zîy£Ó˚í– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ≤ß¿ £úñ ~Ñ˛!›˛õye ˆîü ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôã#Óƒ £ˆÏúñ
ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Óúy ÎyÎ˚⁄ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÈÙÈˆÑ˛!wÑ˛ ˆÎ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ì˛y ~Ñ˛!›˛õye ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õˆÏz ¢#!õì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ó ˆ¢ãòƒ
ì˛yÓ˚ ΈÏÌ‹T ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ =Ó˚&c ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òy– ~£z !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ òõ%òy ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚ fl˛iyò !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y Ñ˛!‡˛ò–

11
xÌ≈yÍ ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyˆÏÑ˛ !ÓK˛yò¢¡øì˛ Óúy ÎyˆÏÓ !Ñ˛ òy ì˛y !òˆÏÎ˚ !Óì˛Ñ≈˛ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– x˛ôÓ˚!îˆÏÑ˛ Úòõ%òyÓ˚Û Ñ˛Ìy
Óúy £Î˚ ì˛Öò fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ïˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ òõ%òy ˆÑ˛yò ¢õ!‹TÓ˚ xÇüõye– òõ%òy Ñ˛ÖˆÏòy£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xÌ≈Ó£
£Î˚ òy Î!î xyõÓ˚y !Ñ˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ òõ%òy⁄ ~£z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ v˛z_Ó˚ Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyÎ˚– ÎÖò xyõÓ˚y Ó!úñ Ó,!‹T £ˆÏÓ Óy Ó,!‹T ú«˛í ˆîÖy ÎyˆÏFäÈñ
ì˛Ñ˛ò xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏò Ó,!‹T £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ¢yïyÓ˚í ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ=!ú Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆ¢=!ú !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ á›˛õyò– ~£z ¢)e!›˛£z ~Ñ˛!›˛ òõ%òyÓ˚
¢ˆÏD ¢!ì˛ƒÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ì%˛úòy Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó– òõ%òy!¶˛!_Ñ˛ xò%¢ı˛yò Á !ӈϟ’°Ïí ¢yïyÓ˚í#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢Ω˛yÓòyˆÏÑ˛ v˛zI#!Óì˛
Ó˚yˆÏÖñ ˆÎÖyˆÏò ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Óí≈òy ˆ¢£z ¢Ω˛yòyˆÏÑ˛ xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xyˆÏÓ˚u˛ !úãö≈˛y›˛ äÈÎ˚ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ òõ%òy !¶˛!_Ñ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí
Óy !Ó°ÏÎ˚!¶˛!_Ñ˛ xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ñ˛Ìy ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò– ~=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈSÑ˛V ì˛_¥ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (Atheoretical Case
Study) ~ÓÇ SÖV ÓƒyÖƒyõ)úÑ˛ xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (Interpretative Case Study), SÜV ≤ÃÑ˛“ ¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚# xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛
(Hypothesis-generating Case Study), SáV ì˛_¥ xò%ˆõ Ï yîÑ˛ (Theory-Confirming case studies) Á SàV ì˛_¥ xòò%ˆõÏ yîÑ˛
xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (Theory-Infirming case studies) Sâ˛V Óƒ!ì˛e´õ# xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (Deviant case studies)–
ì˛_¥ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ~ÓÇ ÓƒyÖƒyõ)úÑ˛ xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ xò%¢ı˛yò!¶˛!_Ñ˛ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛î !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ
ˆîÖy v˛z!â˛ì˛ òÎ˚ ÓˆÏú xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛£z õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ~£z î%£z ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z ˆÑ˛yò ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢yïyÓ˚í#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
Óí≈òy Óy ÓƒyÖƒyÎ˚ ˆîÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~Ñ˛Ìy !‡˛Ñ˛ ˆÎ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ ã˘yò ¢MÈ˛ˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏîÓ˚Á Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛Ó˚# ¶)˛!õÑ˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
~£z î%£zˆÏ«˛ˆÏe£z ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ≤Ãâ%˛Ó˚ ì˛Ìƒ ¢Ç@˘Ã£ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ õyÏõ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ì˛_¥ ܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
=Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y !òˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ Î!î xyõÓ˚y ~›˛y õˆÏò Ñ˛!Ó˚ ¢¡ô)í≈ ì˛_¥ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ ì˛Ìƒ¢Ç@˘Ã£ Ñ˛Ó˚y x¢Ω˛Óñ ì˛y£ˆÏú
xyõÓ˚y ÓúˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚ ˆÎ ì˛_¥ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ ~ÓÇ ÓƒyÖƒyõ)úÑ˛ õˆÏïƒÁ !Ñ˛ä%È ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íy ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ– !ÓˆÏü°Ï Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒyÖƒyõ)úÑ˛
òõ%òyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ xyˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy ¢Ω˛Ó ~ÓÇ ÓƒyÖƒy ì˛Öò£z @˘Ã£íˆÏÎy܃ £ˆÏÓ ÎÖò ì˛y ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Óy ˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
ì%˛úòyˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÃÑ˛“ ¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚# xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ~Ñ˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ Óí≈òy Á !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy
÷Ó˚& £ˆÏúÁ ì˛yÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ Óy ~Ñ˛y!ïÑ˛ ¢yïyÓ˚í ≤ÃÑ˛“ !òõ≈yˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛– Îy ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏã ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
v˛zîy£Ó˚ífl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ úˆÏÎ˚v˛ Ó˚&v˛Õ≥˛ ~ÓÇ ¢%üyò ~£zâ˛. Ó˚&v˛Õ≥˛ (Lloyd Rudolph and Susame H. Rudolph) ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ñ
‘Modernity of Traditions: Political Development in India’ S1967V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ò!î≈‹T ˆîü ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛
܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤ÃÑ˛“ ܇˛ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎÖyˆÏò xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y Á ¢òyì˛ò# ˙!ì˛£ƒ xy˛ôyì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# õˆÏò £ˆÏúÁ
~ˆÏÑ˛ x˛ôÓ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Á ˛ô!Ó˚Ó!ì≈˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì˛_¥ xò%ˆÏõyîÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ì˛_¥ xòò%ˆÏõyîÑ˛ ¢yˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
~Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ˆÏÑ˛ xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ólfl˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ïÓ˚y £Î˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ xhs˘˛Ü≈ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Á£z ~Ñ˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚
x!¶˛K˛ì˛yÓ˚ xyˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y ~ÓÇ @˘Ã£í Óy Óã≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ !òˆÏÎ˚– ~›˛y !‡˛Ñ˛ ˆÎ ~Ñ˛›˛yõye
òõ%òy ~Ñ˛!›˛ ì˛_¥ˆÏÑ˛ @˘Ã£íÈÙÈÓã≈ˆÏòÓ˚ !¶˛!_ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– ì˛Ó%Á ˆ¢!›˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ v˛zîy£Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ fl˛∫#Ñ,˛!ì˛ ˆ˛ôˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚–
¢ƒyõ%ˆÏÎ˚ú !ÓÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ‘British Politics in the Collective Age’ ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ~Ñ˛!›˛ v˛zîy£Ó˚í ˆÎÑ˛yˆÏò !ÓÎ˚yÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
Ñ,˛!‹T Á Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò !Ó!›˛ü Ó˚y‹T…ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !ò!Ó˚ˆÏÖ ~ÓÇ îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
Ñ,˛!‹TÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°ÏˆÏcÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí£z !ӈϛ˛ˆÏò üy!hs˘˛˛ô)í≈ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚y Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ãÎ˚ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~Ñ˛£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛
¢y¡±!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zîy£Ó˚í £ú ö˛yB˛!úò (Daniel P. Franklin) Á Óƒyò (Michel J. Baun) ¢¡ôy!îì˛ ‘Political Culture
and Constitutionalism: A Comparative Approach’ S1995V @˘Ãs˛i!›˛– ~£z @˘ÃˆÏs˛i îü!›˛ ˆîü Sòõ%òyV ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ x!¶˛K˛
îüãò ˆúÖˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏì˛ƒˆÏÑ˛£z !òÎ˚õì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ,˛!‹TˆÏÑ˛ fl˛∫yï#ò ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#Î˚ ïˆÏÓ˚
!òˆÏÎ˚ v˛z¶˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ xò%¢ı˛yò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ˆÎˆÏ£ì%˛ îü!›˛ ˆîüˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛e Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyv˛¸yxy!v˛¸¶˛yˆÏÓ Á£z ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#Î˚
î%!›˛Ó˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛y òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛ Á fl˛∫ì˛s˛f¶˛yˆÏÓ îü!›˛ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆ¢ãòƒ ~=!ú òõ%òyÈÙÈ!¶˛!_Ñ˛
ì˛_¥ xò%ˆÏõyîÑ˛ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚£z v˛zîy£Ó˚í– Óƒ!ì˛e´õ# xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ òõ%òy ˆÓˆÏäÈ ˆòÁÎ˚y £Î˚ ˆÎÖyˆÏò
!Ñ˛ä%È !ÓˆÏü°Ï xÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛z˛ô!fl˛i!ì˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú ˆ¢£z òõ%òy!›˛ ˆÑ˛yò ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛y îüyÎ˚ Óy ˆò!ì˛Ñ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ö˛ˆÏú

12
ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#úì˛y ¢yÓ≈ãò#òì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ òõ%òy Ö%Ó£z =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z ãyì˛#Î˚ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚
¢ÓˆÏâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ v˛zîy£Ó˚í !ú˛ôˆÏ¢›˛ (Seymour Martin Lipset), ˆÑ˛yúõƒyò (James Coleman), ›˛ΔˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ (Martin
Trow) !ÓÖƒyì˛ @˘Ãs˛i ‘Union Democracy: The Inside Politics of the International Typographical Union’
S1956V– ~£z @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ì˛yÓ˚y ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛y Î%_´Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ◊!õÑ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ò (International Typographers’
Union) Ó˚Óy›≈˛ !õˆÏâ˛ú¢ ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ ‘iron law of oligarchy’ÈÙÈÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ v˛zîy£Ó˚í– xÌ≈yÍ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ó_´Óƒ
!õˆÏâ˛ú¢ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ‘Law’ ¢Ó≈ãò#òì˛y ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ v˛zˆÏïπ≈ òÎ˚– Óƒ!ì˛e´õ# òõ%òyÓ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚Ñ˛!›˛ v˛zîy£Ó˚í £ú !úãö˛yˆÏ›≈˛Ó˚ ˆòîyÓ˚úƒyˆÏu˛Ó˚
v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy– !ì˛!ò ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò Áú®yã Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ 1917 ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ 1967 ¢yú ˛ôÎ≈hs˘˛ ܶ˛#Ó˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ !Ó¶˛yãˆÏòÓ˚ !üÑ˛yÓ˚
£ÁÎ˚y ¢ˆÏ_¥Á ˙ ¢õÎ˚Ñ˛yˆÏú ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ü!_´üyú# Á Ñ˛yÎ≈e´õ Üíì˛s˛f ÓãyÎ˚ !äÈúñ Î!îÁ ì˛_¥Üì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˙ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚
!Ó¶˛yãò Üíì˛s˛fˆÏÑ˛ xˆÏÑ˛ˆÏãy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì%˛úˆÏÓ ÓˆÏú õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
!úãö˛y›≈˛ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ~£z äÈÎ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ ~Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢ÓˆÏâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ £ˆÏúy ≤ÃÑ˛“¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚# xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ~ÓÇ Óƒ!ì˛e´õ#
xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛– Î!îÁ xyï%!òÑ˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#Ó˚y ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏíˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Óyî
ˆîÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓíì˛y ˆîÖyòñ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ£z ì˛y ~ÖòÁ ΈÏÌ‹T xyÑ˛°Ï≈í#Î˚ £ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏäÈ– ¢%¤%˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛
܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÓ˚ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xïƒyÎ˚ò ΈÏÌ‹T Óyhfl˛ÏÓïõ#≈–
ÎyˆÏ£yÑ˛ñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢Ó ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÓˆÏv˛¸y ¢õ¢ƒy £ú Ó˝ ¢ÇÖƒÑ˛ â˛ú (variables) ~ÓÇ «%˛o ˆÑ˛¢ Óy
~Ñ˛Ñ˛=!ú– ~£z î%!›˛ ¢õ¢ƒy£z ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛– Î!î ܈ÏÓ°ÏÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÎ˚ Ó˝ ¢ÇÖƒÑ˛ â˛ú (variable) ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ
ì˛y£ˆÏú ˆÑ˛¢!›˛Ó˚ ¢õyïyò Ñ˛Ó˚y xì˛ƒhs˘˛ ã!›˛ú £ˆÏÎ˚ ÁˆÏ‡˛– ÎyˆÏ£yÑ˛ñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˝ â˛ú=!úˆÏÑ˛ (many variables)
ÎÌy¢Ω˛Ó ò)ƒòì˛õ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ â˛yÓ˚!›˛ ¢õyïyò ¢)e Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~=!ú £ú ˆÑ˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ¢ÇÖƒy=!úˆÏÑ˛ ÎÌy¢Ω˛Ó Ó,!k˛
Ñ˛Ó˚yñ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ‘property space’ÈÙÈ!›˛ Ñ˛!õˆÏÎ˚ xyòyñ ì%˛úòyÓ˚ ˆÎy܃ (comparable) ˆÑ˛¢=!úÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚
v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ~ÓÇ Úõ)ú â˛úÛ (key variables)ÈÙÈ=ˆÏúyÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛
£ˆÏÓ–

1.6 v˛z˛ô¢Ç£yÓ˚
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ (method of studying comparative politics) =Ó˚&c x˛ô!Ó˚¢#õ–
ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õyÏõ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢yî,üƒ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó¢yî,üƒ=!ú !ӈϟ’°Ïí
Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏⲋTy Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– !úãö˛y›≈˛ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ¢yïyÓ˚í x!¶˛K˛ì˛yú∏˛ Ó_´ÓƒˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆõÔ!úÑ˛ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛=!úÓ˚
õˆÏïƒ xòƒì˛õ £ú ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (comparative method)– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ úy¢ÁˆÏÎ˚ú ì%˛úòyÓ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ =Ó˚&ˆÏcÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛
xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ì%˛úòyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy xyúyîy ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ˆò£zñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z
ì%˛úòy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚– ≤âDì˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒñ xƒyúõu˛ ì%˛úòyˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ (method) !£¢yˆÏÓ !ÓÓˆÏâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D
(approach) !£¢yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# !Ó≤’Ó ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ òyòy¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õ,k˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈñ ~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú ~!›˛
Î%ˆÏÜy˛ôˆÏÎyÜ# £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈ– ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ £zfi›˛òñ ˛ôyÁˆÏÎ˚úñ v˛yúñ ≤Ãõ%ˆÏÖÓ˚ £yì˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛y òyòy ã!›˛ú !Ó°ÏÎ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí
¢ö˛ú £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓK˛yò!¶˛!_Ñ˛ üyfl˛f !£¢yˆÏÓ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛y Ó˝ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ üyfl˛f!›˛Ó˚
¢ö˛úì˛y ~ÓÇ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛y!Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ £yÓ˚Á !òì˛yhs˘˛ Ñ˛õ òÎ˚– ˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyòõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ xy◊Î˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ !ü«˛yñ ˆ◊í# ˆ˛ôüyñ !úDñ
£zì˛ƒy!î ¢Ó !Ó°ÏÎ˚ˆÏÑ˛£z ˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyˆÏòÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ˛ôÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛í Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ÓÜì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛ îüˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÎ˚
˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyòõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ ˆÓ!ü ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ~!›˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÜyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ â˛yÓ˚ ˆîÁÎ˚yˆÏúÓ˚ xyÓk˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÈÙÈ!òÓ˚#«˛y
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òy– ˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyòõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ Ó˚y‹T…ñ ¢õyãñ õyò%°Ïñ £zì˛ƒy!î !Ó°ÏÎ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚

13
ÓƒÓ£yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛üyˆÏfl˛f Ó˝ ¢ö˛úì˛y ~ˆÏúÁ ~!›˛Ó˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ !Ñ˛ä%È ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy
Óy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ¢Ó≈îy Î%!_´ ˆõˆÏò x@˘Ã¢Ó˚ £Î˚ òy– ì˛y£zñ ~£z ˛ôk˛!ì˛ xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ì˛_¥ ܇˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ñì˛y
¢Ó≈îy ¢!‡˛Ñ˛ £Î˚ òy– Ó˝ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ £ú ¢õyˆÏã !fl˛iì˛yÓfl˛iy ÓãyÎ˚ Ó˚yÖy–
xÌ≈yÍ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ =Ó˚&c îyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òy– ~äÈyv˛¸yñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
!Ñ˛ä%È !ò!î≈‹T !îÑ˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xÓ!ü‹T !îÑ˛=!ú xӈϣ!úì˛ £Î˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
˛ôk˛!ì˛ ïyÓ˚íyÜì˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ !òõ≈yˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ñ˛ä%È ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛y ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆîü ~ÓÇ Ñ˛yˆÏúÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ᛲˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xyâ˛Ó˚í ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ xÌ≈ !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ £Î˚– ~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú ˆÎ !Óºy!hs˘˛ ¢,!‹T £Î˚ñ ì˛y ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚y܈ÏÑ˛ Óyïy≤ÃyÆ
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ÎyˆÏ£yÑ˛ñ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏÜÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú !Ñ˛ä%È !Óºy!hs˘˛Ó˚ ¢,!‹T £ˆÏúÁ ~›˛y Ñ˛ÖˆÏòy£z Óúy ÎyÎ˚ òy ˆÎ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ ¢Ω˛Ó òÎ˚– ÓÓ˚Ç ~›˛y ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ¢y¡±!ì˛Ñ˛Ñ˛yˆÏú ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó,!k˛
ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ¢y£y΃ !òˆÏÎ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ¢yõ!Ó˚Ñ˛ Óy!£ò#ñ Üíõyïƒõñ ïõ≈ñ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# îúñ £zì˛ƒy!î
!ӰψÏÎ˚ ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy â˛úˆÏäÈ– ~äÈyv˛¸yñ ~£z ˆîü=!úÓ˚ !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏò xÇü@˘Ã£íñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îˆÏúÓ˚ ¢î¢ƒ˛ôˆÏîÓ˚ ãòƒ xy@˘Ã£ñ !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏò
xÇü@˘Ã£íñ £zì˛ƒy!î !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ¢y£y΃ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– xyï%!òÑ˛ Ñ˛yˆÏú ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ !Ñ˛ä%È ì˛_¥ ܇˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ~Ó˚*˛ô ᛲòy ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyˆÏÑ˛
Óƒy˛ôÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zÍ¢y!£ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ–
¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ xÌ≈ ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ò!î≈‹T ïyÓ˚yˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ ˆÎÖyˆÏò ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ò!î≈‹T !Ó°ÏÎ˚ Óy ᛲòyˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y
£Î˚– ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD !Ó!¶˛ß¨ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ì˛_¥ ܶ˛#Ó˚¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛– !mì˛#Î˚
!ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ ≤Ãâ˛!úì˛ ¢yˆÏÓÑ˛# î,!‹T¶˛!D !äÈú xyîü≈õ)úÑ˛ñ Óí≈òyõ)úÑ˛ñ õ)úƒˆÏÓyïÎ%_´ ~ÓÇ îü≈òñ £z!ì˛£y¢ñ xy£zò ~ÓÇ
≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yòˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ x¶˛ƒhfl˛Ï– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!D=!ú !äÈú x!¶˛K˛ì˛y!¶˛!_Ñ˛ñ !ӈϟ’°Ïíõ)úÑ˛ñ õ)úƒˆÏÓyï
!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ñ ˆÎõò Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÈÙÈÑ˛yÎ≈Óyî# î,!‹T¶˛!Dñ ÓƒÓfl˛iy˛ôÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!Dñ £zì˛ƒy!î– xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ üyˆÏfl˛fÓ˚
!â˛hs˘˛y!ÓîˆÏîÓ˚ î,!‹T Ó˚y‹T… òyõÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xˆÏòÑ˛yLjÏü !܈ÏÎ˚!äÈúñ ì˛y òÎ˚yÈÙÈ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ˛ô%òÓ˚yÎ˚ !ö˛!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚
xyˆÏò– õy:≈Óyî# xòƒyòƒ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢¡ô)í≈ fl˛∫ì˛s˛f– õy:≈Óyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˆõÔ!úÑ˛ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ £ú ˆ◊í#!ӈϟ’°Ïí ~ÓÇ
xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ õy:≈Óyî# î,!‹T¶˛!D õ)úì˛ v˛zͲôyîò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– î,!‹T¶˛!D=!ú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ãòƒ ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!D=!úÓ˚ õyÏõ !Ñ˛ä%È ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚
ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ¢,!‹T £Î˚– !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yú#ò ¢õˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ¢Ó î,!‹T¶˛!D=!úÓ˚ v˛zqÓ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú ì˛y ¢îƒ fl˛∫yï#ò ˆîü=!úÓ˚
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ £yÁÎ˚yˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇñ ~›˛y Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xÇü¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚
˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¶)˛!õÑ˛yˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe î,!‹T¶˛!D=!ú ¢£yÎ˚ì˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!D=!úÓ˚ Ñ˛yã £ú ¢)e!òõ≈yíñ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛yÓ˚í
¢¡ôÑ≈˛ fl˛iy˛ôòñ £zì˛ƒy!î ¢¡ôߨ Ñ˛Ó˚y– ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏüˆÏ°Ïñ ~›˛y Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ~ÓÇ î,!‹T¶˛!D¢õ)£ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yòˆÏÑ˛
òyòyÓyˆÏÓ ~Ñ˛!›˛ üyfl˛f !£¢yˆÏÓ ¢õ,k˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– xì˛#ˆÏì˛ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ~ÓÇ î,!‹T¶˛!D¢õ)£ Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ì˛yú !õ!úˆÏÎ˚
˛ô!Ó˚Ó!ì≈˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ ¶˛!ӰσˆÏì˛Á ì˛y ᛲˆÏÓ– Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ü!ì˛ü#ú !ÓK˛yòñ ì˛y£z ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ Ü!ì˛ü#úì˛y üyfl˛f!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Á
˛ô!Ó˚Ó!ì≈˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–

1.7 ¢yÓ˚yÇü
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ !Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛ò =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ¢õ)£–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ôyˆÏ‡˛Ó˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D¢õ)£–

14
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ Óy ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ â˛â≈˛yÎ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ì˛yͲôÎ≈–
 ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ õy:#≈Î˚ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ =Ó˚&c–

1.8 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#

(1) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ üyˆÏfl˛f ˛ôk˛!ì˛¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ =Ó˚&c xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y–
(2) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ~ÓÇ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ=!ú xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y–
(3) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ !Ñ˛ !Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚⁄
(4) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ~ÓÇ òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ =Ó˚&c xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y–
(5) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛üyˆÏfl˛f xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y–
(6) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛üyˆÏfl˛f xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# ~ÓÇ õy:≈Óyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˆõÔú ˜Ó!ü‹T=!ú xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y–
(7) ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ =Ó˚&c xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y– òÎ˚y ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ~ÓÇ
¢yˆÏÓ!Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ=!ú xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y–

1.9 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

(a) Chatterjee, R. (2014). Introduction to Comparative Political Analysis. Sarat Book House.
(b) Hague, R., Harrop, M., & McCormick, J. (2019). Comparative Government and Politics: An
Introduction (11th ed.). Red Globe Press.
(c) Lijphart, A. (2008). Thinking about Democracy: Power Sharing and Majority Rule in Theory
and Practice. Routledge.
(d) Newton, K., & Deth, J. W. (2010). Foundations of Comparative Politics: Democracies of the
Modern World (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
(e) Powell, G. B., Strom, K., Manion, M., & Dalton, R. J. (2015). Comparative Politics Today: A
World View (12th ed.). Pearson.
(f) Rakner, L., & Randall, V. (2011). Institutional Perspectives. In P. Burnell, V. Randall, & L. Rakner
(Eds.), Politics in The Developing World (3rd ed.) (pp. 53-69). Oxford University Press.
(g) Ray, S.N. (2004). Modern Comparative Politics: Approaches, Methods and Issues. PHI
Learning

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 C.C : 3.1
Unit-2

Media, Communication and Political Culture

Content :
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Mass Media and its importance in developing countries
2.3.1 Characteristics of Mass Media
2.3.2 Functions of Mass Media
2.4 Mass Communication
2.4.1 Advantages of Mass Communication
2.5 Political Culture
2.5.1 Classification of Political Culture
2.5.2 Features of Political Culture
2.6 Mass Society, Political Culture and Developing Countries
2.7 Democratisation: Role of media, communication and political culture in Developing countries
2.8 Concluding observations
2.9 Self assessment questions
2.10 Suggested readings

2.1 Objectives
 To learn about the importance of mass media in developing countries.
 Learn about different types of political culture.
 Learn about the process of democratization in developing countries.

2.2 Introduction
Media is a vehicle or means of communication that disseminates information from the source to the target
public and any media intended for the larger audience is called mass media. From pictorial representations
in the early age, massive production of newspapers, fancy videos on television to high-tech media combining
the Internet and computers, there are variations in the type of mass media. Communication is a process in
which a person is conveying a message to another person. Exchange of information and knowledge takes

16
place through communication where there is a sender who conveys the message, and there is a receiver who
receives the message/information. Political culture means the overall norms, values, belief or orientation
towards politics in the society. The concept of political culture is changing oriented, but this is change slowly.
Persons’ perceptions change as new experiences unfold. Depending on the city-life experiences of people
coming from village to city and living in the city, there are rapid changes in attitudes. But cultural attitudes or
values change very slowly. Hence, the attitude towards political action reflects fairly permanent aspects of
political culture.
You will, through this article, learn about the different types and importance of mass media, communication
and political cultures in developing countries.

2.3 Mass Media and its importance in developing countries

The modern mass media are recognised as potentially powerful “conduits” of public opinion and
“watchdogs” of public probity. Certain commentators suggest that they could contribute to the “public sphere”
in modern and “modernising” states by providing citizens with a serious forum in which to debate those
substantive issues which most affect them.
However the media are also susceptible to social and political actors and agencies who seek to
manipulate and control them. Developing governments in particular frequently appear anxious to harness the
“power of the press”. Journalists are exhorted to work towards “national unity”, to respect “national security”
and to eulogise government “development projects”; conversely they are expected to downplay negative
criticism of the government and its supporters and of “sensitive issues”’. The ideal media in such a formulation
are not encouraged to hold the state’s public servants and private overlords to account; rather, they should
become a “development tool” of government, articulating the “common goals” of “national economic
development”.
The tension between these mutually conflicting views of the media’s place in civil society – as “watchdog”
of ruling elites, or their mouthpiece - is often at the heart of attempts to defend, or gag, “press freedom”. Can
the media realistically be expected to “defend democracy”, or are they simply one arm of Althusser’s
Ideological State Apparatuses, manipulating audiences and public opinion even as they themselves are
constrained by hegemonic forces? Can the media, in other words, ever act with “relative autonomy” from elite
and state interests, and if so, under what circumstances? In whose differing class interests do the personnel
at various levels within media hierarchies act? What effect, if any, do the media have on political and economic
processes in developing countries?
To put it simply, Mass Media can be defined as a technology which is intended to communicate or reach
a mass audience. In doing so, it could play the role of an ISA to expand the ideology of the ruler or could
be used as the arm of the masses to overthrow the autocratic ruler and helps establishing democracy. Mass
media is actually the primary means of communication for the general public to communicate with each other
as well as on a grander level. The most popular types of mass media include Newspapers, Radio, Television,
Internet, Magazines and more! Media means of public communication reaching a large audience through
verious media liks news paper, television, digital platforms like social media etc.

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 When it comes to the different forms of media, there are varied formats of modern media such as print
media (newspapers, books, magazines), broadcast media (television, radio), digital media (internet) as well
as video games, music, cell phones, films, amongst others. All these types of mass media comprise content
as well as a device or object which is the medium for delivering the content. There are six main types of Mass
Media: Traditional Media, Print Media, Electronic/Broadcasting Media, Outdoor Media or Out of Home
Media (OOH), Transit Media, Digital Media/New Media/Internet.
Whenever you want to listen to your favourite music, watch the latest movie, an event or a cricket match,
where do you go? While earlier, television was the only source, the modes of staying updated with the
happenings around you have expanded. Here are the most common examples of Mass Media: Television,
Radio, Newspapers, Magazines, Social Media, Digital media, The internet, etc
These sources of disseminating information and news are considered ‘mass media’. It is a medium that
is used to communicate with the masses or a large number of heterogeneous audiences different kinds of
information.

2.3.1 Characteristics of Mass Media

Mass Media comprises a wide range of media technologies to disseminate or reach over a larger
audience through mass communication. The major characteristics of Mass Media are:
 Mass Media constitutes both technical and institutional methods for communication, production and
dissemination of news.
 It reaches larger audiences or masses and that’s why is referred to as mass media. Mass Media has
the power to influence society and is also impacted by what’s happening in society itself.
 Audience or the masses are offered with a wide variety of choices in terms of content, media
platform, etc. to choose from the type of mass media they want to consume.

2.3.2 Functions of Mass Media

 Mass media has been one of the most significant forces in modern culture. All types of mass media
communication whether written, broadcast or spoken reach a larger audience thus creating a massive
impact. Here are the important functions of Mass Media:
 Mass media plays a crucial role in shaping how we view the world. Intensive use of mass media has
resulted in the world to appear smaller and closer. It also promotes the distribution of goods and
services.
 The fundamental objectives of mass media are to inform, educate and entertain the masses.
 It is known to be an important player in democracy and the smooth functioning of the nation.
 Media is the watchdog of society and politics.
 Mass media works to transmit heritage and cultural values.
 The rise of new mass media creates a global
18platform to bring people together.
2.4 Mass Communication
Mass Communication refers to the process of disseminating and exchanging information through diverse
media platforms to reach the masses. Mass Communication is different from Mass Media because various
forms of mass media like TV, Radio, the Internet, Print Media, Outdoor Media, etc. are used to facilitate mass
communication, i.e. communicate certain information to the masses.
The most common types of Mass Communication are: Journalism, Social Media, Films, Television, Radio,
Advertising, Public Relations, Books, Magazines, Newspapers and Journals, Photography, Audio Media like
Community Radio, Podcasts, Interactive Media like websites, video games, digital ads, etc.

2.4.1 Advantages of Mass Communication

There are numerous advantages of mass media in the contemporary world. From being the watchdog of
a democratic country to ensuring faster communication, different types of mass media have various advantages
and benefits such as:
 Effective and Wider Communication - It is through different types of mass media from social media
to the digital platforms that the world has transformed into a global village. This way, mass
communication has become useful for the people, businesses, governments and the whole world to
stay connected with each other.
 Giving Voice to the Voiceless - Mass media plays an essential role in shining the spotlight on the
masses as the general public can express their views and opinions freely. This way, it becomes the
voice of the voiceless thus giving the right platform for the people to use their right to express freely.
 Diffusion of Diverse Cultures - Mass media also plays a colossal part in spreading arts and cultures
to every nook and corner of the world. With the help of the internet, anyone can learn a new
language, know about a different culture or even travel the whole world without physically going from
one place to another.
 Encyclopedia of Information - The internet is truly a massive open source of information and different
types of mass media from search engine platforms to social media platforms and learning websites
play a greater role in helping anyone learn anything anywhere. Apart from these, there are certain
disadvantages of mass media such as easier spread of fake news, compromised privacy, health
issues, glamorizing censored content and topics, possibility of fraud and hacking, amongst others.

2.5 Political Culture

R.C. Macridis writes of it as “the commonly shared goals and commonly accepted rules.” Robert A. Dahl
has singled out political culture as a factor explaining different patterns of political opposition whose salient
elements are:

19
 1. Orientations to problem-solving; are they pragmatic or rationalistic?
2. Orientations to collective action; are they cooperative or non-cooperative?
3. Orientations to the political system; are they allegiant or alienated? 4. Orientations to other people;
are they trustful or mistrustful?
Lucian W. Pye has studied the meaning of political culture in the context of his concept of political
development relating to the case of new states of the Developing or developing nations. He defined a political
culture as the set of attitudes, belief and sentiments which give order and meaning to a political process and
which provides the underlying assumption and rules that govern behavior in the political system, which
encompasses both the political ideas and the operating norm of a polity.
Thus, political culture may be described as “a short-hand expression to denote the emotional and
attitudinal environment within which the political system operates.” Borrowing from Talcott Parsons, we “can
be a little more precise at this point and say that we are concerned with orientations towards political objects.
Orientations are predispositions to political action and are determined by such factors as traditions, historical
memories, motives, norms, emotions and symbols.” It is obvious that the concept of political culture finds
place in the subjective realm. According to Almond and Powell, “such individual orientations involve three
components — (i) cognitive orientations implying knowledge, accurate or otherwise, of the political system,
(ii) affective orientations implying feelings of attachment, involvement, rejection, and the like about political
objects, and (ii) evaluative orientations implying judgments and opinions about the political objects, which
usually involve applying value standards to political objects and events.”

2.5.1 Classification of Political Culture

History, geography, political traditions and customs, political specialisation process etc. are the basic
determinants of the political culture. Depending on these determinants Political culture can be classified.
Almond, Powell, Verba, Finer are the exponent of the development of the concept. Following them Political
culture can be classified in to three categories.
1. Participatory - The degree of public involvement in politics and in organizations such as churches,
business and unions and political parties. In a participant political culture, like the United Kingdom
and the United States, citizens are informed and actively participate in the political process.
2. Parochial- here the individual hardly relate himself to politics and is unaware of its existence as I
traditional society. In a parochial political culture, like Mexico, citizens are mostly uninformed and
unaware of their government and take little interest in the political process.
3. Subject- this exists in countries where the citizens have passive or obedient relationships to the
system as in Eastern Europe. In a subject political culture, such as those found in Germany and Italy,
citizens are somewhat informed and aware of their government and occasionally participate in the
political process.
However one can hardly find the ideal form of political culture, specifically, in any country. Thus Almond,

20
Verba presented the notion of mixed culture. It can be participant- parochial, parochial-subject, participant-
subject and mixed or civic culture.

2.5.2 Features of Political Culture

1. The views of the people regarding the world of politics are the subject of political culture, but not
the various events organized in world politics. So it can be called the psychological dimension of
politics.
2. In the political culture, the attitude of both the political ideal and the effective system of the state is
expressed.
3. It consists of empirical concepts of political life and values that are worth pursuing in political life,
and they can be emotional, perceptive.
4. If there is a kind of attitude among the people about important political issues in the political culture,
then there is political stability. It is easy to get rid of the crisis if people’s attitudes are favourable to
political institutions during the crisis period of the country.
5. Political culture does not remain unchanged. It is also constantly reorganized in terms of cultural
change in society. With the arrival of foreigners to live, the revolution, the war, or any other major
change can completely change the political culture of a state.
The interaction between the political system and the political culture is very close. There can be broad
consensus among the people regarding the existing political system and its basic structure. In that case, the
political system is strong and stable. On the contrary, the structure of the existing political system, with
disagreement among the people in the context of the tasks, poses a serious hostility to the political system.
As a result, the foundation of that political system weakens. In any country’s political system, political culture
is regarded as important. The political values, beliefs and attitudes of the country or nation are reflected
through the political culture. Social
culture is especially important in people’s social lives. Similarly, the importance and significance of the
political culture of the people is immense.

2.6 Mass Society, Political Culture and Developing Countries

Through the works of Mannheim we came to know about the expression ‘mass society.’ Mass society,
as depicted by Kornhauser, refers to a social system in which elites are readily open to influence by non-elites.
Simultaneously, non-elites (in particular, those occupying marginal positions in society) are also highly available
for mobilization because they lack attachments to independent groups, the local community, voluntary
associations, and occupational groups. Social conditions resemble a ‘mass society’ when populations and
elites can emotionally incite one another to extreme actions. With the advent of modernisation and
technological advancement mass media played an important role in many developing societies to these kind
of situation and influence the masses.
21
 On the other hand in developing countries societal transformation is a major issue of concern in which
information is the key resource. So the notion of information society is important in this regard. As the
creation, distribution, use, integration, and manipulation of information is a significant economic, political, and
cultural activity in developing societies, as there is a tendency to follow copy cat method of development of
developed nations. In this era of transformation media became an important driver to build the political culture
of the developing societies taking cue from the notion of information society.

2.7 Democratisation: Role of media, communication and political culture

in Developing countries
In most the authoritarian regimes political culture developed by using mass society through various state
controlled media. Communication been made in a projected or planned way. The authoritarian rulers are being
depicted as the messiah. The regimes of Mugabe in Zimbabwe, Saddam Husain of Iraq, Hosni Mubarak of
Egypt, Gaddafi of Libya are the burning examples of the statement. However in most of the cases Mass media
and Social media was the driving force to develop the coup against the rulers. If we take the example of Egypt
we could learn that social media was the only platform which was used to generate public awareness and
assemble people to form the coup. It is interesting to find out that the rulers were being overthrown from the
power for the sake of Democracy. Thus mass media as a product of democracy plays pivotal role in
establishing voice of the voiceless.
This is chiefly because many discussions about the media, and their indispensibility for democracy, hinge
on the assumption that one of the media’s major roles is performing the so-called “watch-dog” function: to
provide information and critiques on the accountability of state and private decision-makers to the electorate.
Yet democracy may involve more than formal political structures - of government, opposition, electoral
party politics and legal institutions. If it is to include notions of “empowerment”, for instance, then the public
may develop other expectations of its media beyond the “watchdog” role. These might entail the provision
of networks and outlets for marginalised “voices”, and for alternative political programmes, for example. Such
networks may be both formal and informal, within “civil” as well as “political” society”. It is this relatively new
demand to “voice out” and “be heard” from hitherto marginalised social groups, especially in the Third World,
which may well constitute one of the key indicators of a real “deepening” of democratic forces.
The fundamental issue here is not, as some “realists” claim, a mutually exclusive choice between
“representative democracy” and “direct democracy”, though it is often caricatured as such. Rather, any
analysis of the development of democracy within the nation state – and of the “public sphere”, which is one
site of that development - should include an examination of public responsiveness. Questions central to this
concept can then be considered: which political institutions, social agencies and actors are capable of
responsiveness, and in whose interests; to what political stimuli - for example, crisis or mobilisation,
parliamentary, “public” or media debate - are they responding, and to whose agendas; and, finally, what
political outcomes do their responses have?

22
 Thus when “representative democracy” assumes the elitist mantle of top-down decision-making, without
reference to the wishes of those below, populist rhetoric cannot disguise the fact that the decisions taken are
for the convenience and benefit of certain segments and class actors of society. Conversely if citizens - both
majorities and marginalised minorities - are enabled to “voice out” their needs, and their agendas are reported
within the “public sphere” and acted upon, the potential for the eventual development towards a more
“responsive democracy” is increased concomitantly.
The mass media may distort, suppress or ignore such voices, or they may try to represent them. Whether
even genuine attempts at accuracy of representation can lay claim to “truth” and “balance” in any “objective”
sense, is a vexed question both inside and outside the media profession. It may well be that distortions are
embedded structurally within the systems of media representation currently employed, such as news-gathering
formats, reporting and editing practices, and the constraints acting upon them. This debate also connects with
broader questions of epistemology and ideology and their relation to political discourse.
Suffice it here to note that if the messages, however “accurate”, are ultimately ignored, drowned out,
manipulated or deflected, the media cannot really be said to be contributing a great deal to substantive
democracy. Media roles must therefore also be considered in conjunction with broader political outcomes
which affect democratisation. These may include, for example, changes in the political institutions and ‘’ the
economic policies promulgated by particular regimes, together with longer-term transformations which may
result therefrom, such as alterations in the overall composition of social classes and their relative political
power.
Furthermore it is necessary to be precise about which media are under consideration. It may not always
be the mass circulation print or broadcasting media which make the greatest contribution to addressing issues
of public concern. The role of environmental lobby groups like “Greenpeace” and “Friends of the Earth” in
engaging public opinion on environmental issues in Britain is a case in point. They have promoted their agendas
through not only the mass media but also through their own activising campaigns and “micro” media, including
newsletters, publicity, press releases, and other public forum. These tactics are now being paralleled
increasingly by the strategies of concerned social groups - often referred to collectively as “cause-oriented
groups” - in countries like the Philippines, India, Bangladesh and many Developing countries, mostly
democratic.
When it come to the role of Social media as the mean in developing societies one could find various ways
to use the same to serve their political interest. Social media can be used in electoral marketing at three levels:
local elections, general/parliamentary elections, and presidential elections. Despite having differences from
political cultures and system social media provides the people an equivalent platform to present their
narratives. One should also understand that there are variances in the use of social media at local and national
political levels. The political institutions may have common ground principles, but their organization and actors,
and their proximity with voters, are determinant to the ways in which social media are used.
The use of social media in mobilizing people for riots and revolutions is another form which helps to
scrutinse the democratisation process and rights of the people. Examples from Egypt, Turkey, South Africa,

23
Israel, India can be presented and analyzed to justify the statement. In spite of the focus on social media use
in civic participation, studies in this part also emphasize ethical concerns, censorship, and human rights
violations.
Digital technologies hold great promise for democracy. Social media tools and the wider resources of the
Internet offer tremendous access to data, knowledge, social networks, and collective engagement opportunities,
and can help us to build better democracies. Unwelcome obstacles are, however, disrupting the creative
democratic applications of information technologies. Massive social platforms like Facebook and Twitter are
struggling to come to grips with the ways their creations can be used for political control. Social media
algorithms may be creating echo chambers in which public conversations get polluted and polarized.
Surveillance capabilities are outstripping civil protections. Political “bots” (software agents used to generate
simple messages and “conversations” on social media) are masquerading as genuine grassroots movements
to manipulate public opinion. Online hate speech is gaining currency. Malicious actors and digital marketers
run junk news factories that disseminate misinformation to harm opponents or earn click- through advertising
revenue.
It is no exaggeration to say that coordinated efforts are even now working to seed chaos in many political
systems worldwide. Some militaries and intelligence agencies are making use of social media as conduits to
undermine democratic processes and bring down democratic institutions altogether. Most democratic
governments are preparing their legal and regulatory responses.

2.8 Concluding observations

In most of the developing countries media, communication and political culture are playing the role of
major determinant of ‘manufacturing consent’ or even manufacturing decent. Whatever be the case is, today
digital platform became such a forum by which people can participate using the digital mode of communication
to express their views. Political culture of today’s world much deepens and became more participative in
developing world.
Since we are living in Globalised world which is largely influence and dominated by market economy the
goal orientation, agenda setting, political communication are being manufactured. Vested interest of the
investors has to be served by the governments. Thus the roles of media in communicating the democratic
information or generating the values of representative democracy are being neglected in a large scale. Still
developing a participatory political culture using various means of communication is always plays pivotal role
in modern developing countries.

2.9 Self Assessment Questions

(i) Write a detailed note on characteristies and functions of mass media in developing countries.

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 (ii) What is political culture? Discuss about different types of political culture.
(iii) Explain the role of communication and political culture in developing countries?

2.10 Suggested Readings

(a) Basu, P. (Ed.). (2015). Political Sociology. Setu Prakashani.
(b) Chakraborty, S. (Ed.).(2005). Political Sociology. Macmillan India.
(c) Hague, R., Harrop, M., & Breslin, S. (1992). Comparative Government and Politics: An
introduction (3rd Ed.). Macmillan.
(d) Mukhopadhyay, A.K. (1977). Political Sociology: An Introductory Analysis. K.P. Bagchi &
Company.

25
 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 3.1
Unit-3

Political Participation, Political Institution and State of Democracy

(Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò Á Üíì˛s˛f)
!Ó°ÏÎ˚¢)!Ⲡ:
3.1 v˛zˆj Ï üƒ
3.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
3.3 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠ v˛zqˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ô›˛
3.4 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠ ¢ÇK˛y Á ïyÓ˚íy
3.5 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛î
3.6 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí xò#£yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í
3.7 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò
3.8 Üíì˛s˛f Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í
3.9 v˛z˛ô¢Ç£yÓ˚
3.10 ¢yÓ˚yÇü
3.11 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#
3.12 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

3.1 v˛zˆÏjüƒ
~£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ xy˛ô!ò ãyòˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓòÈÙÙÙÈ
 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛#⁄
 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛î
 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí xò#£yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í
 Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛

3.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ˛ô,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ– ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢£z ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í ~ÓÇ ˆ¢£z ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xyò%Üì˛ƒ ≤Ãîü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí
¢òyì˛ò xÌÓy xyï%!òÑ˛ Üíì˛s˛f !Ñ˛ÇÓy Ñ˛ì,≈˛cÓyî# ~Ñ˛òyÎ˚Ñ˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyó ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ x˛ô!Ó˚£yÎ≈ v˛z˛ôyîyò
£ˆÏúy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~Ñ˛!›˛ v˛zß¨ì˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆÎ fl˛∫yï#ò ¢%ˆÏÎyÜ
ÌyˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛ÇÓy Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T… Ñ˛ì,≈˛Ñ˛ Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ ¢!e´Î˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ Îì˛›˛y =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ñ ˆ¢£z
26
ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛cÓyî# ~Ñ˛òyÎ˚Ñ˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˜fl˛∫Ó˚yâ˛yÓ˚# Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !â˛e›˛y !‡˛Ñ˛ v˛zˆÏŒ›˛y– ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ñ˛ì,≈˛cÓyî#ñ ~Ñ˛òyÎ˚Ñ˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ñ
˜fl˛∫Ó˚yâ˛yÓ˚# ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ v˛zˆÏjüƒ £ˆÏúy ~Ñ˛òyÎ˚Ñ˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ üy¢òÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ãò¢õÌ≈òˆÏÑ˛
¢%!ò!ÿ˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Óy !Óîƒõyò Ó˚y‹T…ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !˛ôäȈÏò ãò¢õÌ≈òˆÏÑ˛ ¢%!ò!ÿ˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ x!ïÑ˛ ¢ÇÖƒÑ˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í ˆ¢£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛cˆÏÑ˛ ˜Óïì˛yÎ%_´ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
fl˛iy!Î˚cˆÏÑ˛ xˆÏòÑ˛Öy!ò ¢%!ò!ÿ˛ì˛ Á !òÓ˚y˛ôî Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyey Óy £yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓ Ñ˛õ £ˆÏú ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ !Ó≤’Ó Óy !ÓˆÏoyˆÏ£Ó˚ xyüB˛y ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
Á˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï =Ó˚&c ˆîÁÎ˚y £Î˚–

3.3 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠ v˛zqˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ô›˛

Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ xì˛ƒhs˘˛ ≤Ãyâ˛#ò– ì˛ˆÏÓ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚
ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yü Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˆâ˛ì˛òy Á Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛zqÓ Á !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ
Áì˛ˆÏ≤Ãyì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ã!v˛¸ì˛– ≤Ãyâ˛#ò !@˘ÃˆÏ¢Ó˚ ~ˆÏÌò#Î˚ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛f òÜÓ˚Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úyˆÏ˛ô òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛–
ì˛ˆÏÓ !@˘ÃÑ˛ òÜÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ ˆõyˆÏ›˛£z ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ !äÈú òy– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢%ˆÏÎyÜ ˆ˛ôì˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õ%!‹TˆÏõÎ˚
xÇü– ¢õyˆÏã òyÓ˚#ñ îy¢ ~ÓÇ !ÓˆÏî!üˆÏîÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ !äÈú òy– ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈ !Óüyú ˆÓ˚yõyò ¢y¡ÀyˆÏãƒÁ ÷ï%õye
ˆÓ˚yˆÏõ Ó¢Óy¢Ñ˛yÓ˚# òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛Ó˚y£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ì˛–
õïƒÎ%Ü ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú ˛ôMÈ˛îü üì˛y∑#ˆÏì˛ £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚ òÓãyÜÓ˚í SˆÓ˚ˆÏò¢§y¢V Á ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈ ¢õˆÏÎ˚ ˛ô!ÿ˛!õ ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ £yì˛ ïˆÏÓ˚ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ v˛zˆÏß√°Ï áˆÏ›˛– òÓãyÜÓ˚í ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈ ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ v˛zq(ì˛ Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚y
ˆ◊!í Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ò#!ì˛ !òï≈yÓ˚í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ xã≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ãòƒ Ó˚yãì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚y Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛
!Ó≤’Ó ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– v˛zîyÓ˚ò#!ì˛Óyî ~Ó˚ ≤ö˛yˆÏÓ !ÓÑ˛yü úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy– ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü òÜÓ˚Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xyÎ˚ì˛ò Ó,!k˛Ó˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ v˛zqÓ £Î˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ ãy!ì˛ÈÙÈÓ˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚– ãò¢ÇÖƒy Ó,!k˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
ïyÓ˚íy x≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ ~ÓÇ !ÓÑ˛yü úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛ Óy ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚– ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛
Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ Óyhfl˛ÏÓ Ó˚*˛ô !îˆÏì˛ v˛zqÓ áˆÏ›˛ ¢Ç¢îñ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò# ÓƒÓfl˛iyñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îúñ ˆ¶˛y›˛y!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ñ fl˛∫yÌ≈ ˆÜy¤˛#
≤ö,˛!ì˛ òyòyò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚– ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ ïyˆÏ˛ô ˆ¶˛y›˛y!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢#!õì˛ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏúÁ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú òyòy
xyˆÏ®yúˆÏòÓ˚ õyÏõ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ ≤ÃyÆÓÎ˚flÒˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ¶˛y›˛y!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫#Ñ,˛ì˛ £Î˚– ~£z ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛£z Ó˚y‹T…ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛Üí Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
¢yö˛ˆÏúƒÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ üì≈˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ò–
Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ~Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íy !ÓˆÏü°Ï =Ó˚&c úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !ÓÇü
üì˛y∑#Ó˚ !Óü üì˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú xyâ˛Ó˚íÓyî# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚y– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Á xÈÙÈxÇü@˘Ã£íõ)úÑ˛
!ӈϟ’°Ïí ïyÓ˚yÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ ≤Ãïyò î%ãò ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ £ˆÏúò â˛yú≈¢ ˆõ!Ó˚Î˚yõ Á £ƒyÓ˚”˛ Ü¢ˆÏúò–

3.4 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠ ¢ÇK˛y Á ïyÓ˚íy

¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ÓúˆÏì˛ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úyˆÏ˛ô õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£íñ ˆÎÖyˆÏò õyò%°Ï
¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ò#!ì˛ !òï≈yÓ˚í Á !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ ã!v˛¸ì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ì˛ˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ~Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚
!ò!î≈‹T¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢ÇK˛y ≤Ãîyò Ñ˛Ó˚y xì˛ƒhs˘˛ î%Ó˚*£ Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚– !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#Üí !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢ÇK˛y ≤Ãîyò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
£yÓ≈y›˛ õƒyÑ˛Ñœ˛!flÒ ì§˛yÓ˚ ‘Political Participation’ ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòÈÙÈÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ÓúˆÏì˛ ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ fl˛∫ì˛Éfl˛≥)˛ì≈˛
£zFäÈyÎ˚ ¢¡ôy!îì˛ !Ñ˛ä%È Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú#ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚– ˆÎ=!ú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Î%_´– ˆÎõò üy¢Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò Óy ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ò#!ì˛ !òï≈yÓ˚í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í–
27
 ú%!¢Î˚yò ˛ôy£z ì§˛yÓ˚ Aspects of Political Development S1966V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ !¢k˛yhs˘˛@˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛
Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏúy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y–
!¢v˛!ò ¶˛yÓ≈y Á òõ≈ƒyò òy£z ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Participation in America : Political Democracy and Social Equality
S1972V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ÓúˆÏì˛ ˆ¢£z ¢õhfl˛Ï !e´Î˚yÑ˛úy˛ôˆÏÑ˛ Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòñ Îy ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ¢î¢ƒÓ˚y ˆfl˛∫FäÈyÎ˚ ¢¡ôyîò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ÎyÓ˚ õyÏõ ì˛yÓ˚y üy¢Ñ˛ˆÏÑ˛ !òÓ≈y!â˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Óy ˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ò#!ì˛ !òï≈yÓ˚í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü ˆòÎ˚ Á
ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
¢ƒyõ%ˆÏÎ˚ú £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ~ÓÇ ˆãyÎ˚yò ~õ. ˆòú¢ò No Easy Choice S1976V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ÓúˆÏì˛
òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ¢£z¢Ó !e´Î˚yÑ˛úy˛ôˆÏÑ˛ Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ÎyÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ £ˆÏúy ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y–
xƒyúõu˛ Á ˛ôyÁˆÏÎ˚ú ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Comparative Politics : A Developmental Approach S1966V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ
v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy Á ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ã!v˛¸ì˛ ~ÓÇ â˛y!£îy ≤ÃÑ˛Ó˚ò Óy !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD Î%_´ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏúy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£í–
õy£zˆÏÑ˛ú Ó˚yü ì§˛yÓ˚ Politics & Society : An Introduction to Political Sociology S1992V ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ hfl˛ÏˆÏÓ˚ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ˆÎyÜîyò£z £ˆÏúy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íñ ÎyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚¢Ó˚ !Óòy xhs˘˛¶%≈˛!_´ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈yúÎ˚ ˛ôÎ≈hs˘˛
!Óhfl˛,Ïì˛–
xyú# xyüÓ˚yö˛ Á ~ú. ~ò. üõ≈y ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Political Sociology : A New Grammar of Politics S1983V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i
ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í £ˆÏúy ˆ¢£z¢Ó Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú# Îy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ Á Ñ˛õ≈≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
xƒyúõu˛ Á ¶˛yÓ≈y ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ The Civic Culture S1963V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !˛ôäȈÏò !Ñ˛ä%È õòhfl˛Ïy!_¥Ñ˛
≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– v˛zîy£Ó˚í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í ~Ó˚ Ñ˛Ìy Óúy ÎyÎ˚– ÎyÓ˚ õyïƒõ õyò%°Ï Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò £Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ô !úÆ £Î˚– Ñ˛yˆÏã£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ö˛ú £Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í–
v˛z˛ô!Ó˚v˛z_´ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í £ˆÏúy ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y– ~£z ≤Ã!e´Î˚y £ú ˆ¢£z
¢õhfl˛Ï !e´Î˚yÈÙÈ≤Ã!ì˛!e´Î˚y Îy ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Óy ˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ò#!ì˛ !òï≈yÓ˚í Á !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ã!v˛¸ì˛–

3.5 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛î

Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ÓúˆÏì˛ õ)úì˛!òÓ≈yâ˛ò# ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛£z ˆÓyG˛yˆÏòy £ì˛–
xÌ≈yÍ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏò ˆ¶˛y›˛ ≤Ãîyòñ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò# ≤Ãâ˛yÓ˚ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢¶˛yÎ˚ ˆÎyÜîyòñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îˆÏúÓ˚ ≤Ãâ˛yÓ˚˛ôe !Óì˛Ó˚í
≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛Ó˚y £ì˛– ì˛ˆÏÓ Óì≈˛õyˆÏò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ xˆÏòÑ˛ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛ xˆÏÌ≈ ÓƒyÖƒy
Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ˆÎõò Óì≈˛õyˆÏò ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓ!â˛ì˛ £Î˚–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛î !òˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ õˆÏì˛Ó˚ !¶˛ß¨ì˛y ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
ܶ˛#Ó˚ì˛yñ ì˛#Óì˛yñ v˛zˆÏjüƒñ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏòy¶˛yÓ ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ ¶˛yˆÏÜ ¶˛yÜ
Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
S1V ܶ˛#Ó˚ì˛y Á ì˛#Óì˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ܶ˛#Ó˚ì˛y Á ì˛#Óì˛yÓ˚ !Óâ˛yˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛ î%£z ¶˛yˆÏÜ ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
SÑ˛V ¢!e´Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íÈÙÙÙÈ¢!e´Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ÓúˆÏì˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ ¢!e´Î˚¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈
Î%_´ ÌyÑ˛yˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚– ˆÎõòñ îú#Î˚ ≤ÃyÌ#≈ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏò ≤Ã!ì˛m!®¥ì˛y Ñ˛Ó˚y !Ñ˛ÇÓy îú#Î˚ ˛ôˆÏî xy¢#ò ÌyÑ˛y £zì˛ƒy!î– v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒ
¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ Ö%Ó Ñ˛õ ¢ÇÖƒÑ˛ Óƒ!_´£z ¢!e´Î˚¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
28
 SÖV !ò!‹;˛Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íÈÙÙÙÈ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ˆÓ!üÓ˚¶˛yÜ õyò%°ÏãˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!e´Î˚¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
¢õÎ˚ñ ¢yõÌ≈ƒ Óy £zFäÈy ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òy– ÎyÓ˚y õ)úì˛ îü≈Ñ˛ïõ#≈ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ô Î%_´ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~£z ˆ◊í#Ó˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yãÑ˛õ≈ˆÏÑ˛ !ò!‹;˛Î˚
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Óúy £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
S2V v˛zˆÏjüƒÜì˛ !Óâ˛yˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠
v˛zˆÏjüƒÜì˛ !Óâ˛yˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛ î%£z ¶˛yˆÏÜ ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚–
SÑ˛V ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íÈÙÙÙÈ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xÇü@˘Ã£íÑ˛yÓ˚# ¢%!ò!î≈‹T ú«˛ƒ˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚
v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £ò– ˆÎõòÈÙÙÙÈÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îˆÏúÓ˚ ¢yö˛úƒ úy¶˛ñ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆòì˛yÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ Óy õÎ≈yîy Ó,!k˛ñ
xy£zò¢¶˛yÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !ò!î≈‹T !Óú ˛ôy¢ £zì˛ƒy!î–
SÖV x!¶˛Óƒ!_´õ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íÈÙÙÙÈx!¶˛Óƒ!_´õ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xÇü@˘Ã£íÑ˛yÓ˚#Ó˚ !ò!î≈‹T
ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ú«˛ƒ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òy– õ)úì˛ ì˛yÍ«˛!íÑ˛ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢ls˘˛!‹T úy¶˛ Óy xò%¶)˛!ì˛ ~Ó˚ !˛ôäȈÏò Ñ˛yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe v˛zîy£Ó˚í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ
Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ¶˛y›˛îyì˛y !ÓˆÏü°Ï ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îú#Î˚ ≤ÃyÌ#≈Ó˚ Óy îˆÏúÓ˚ ¢yö˛ˆÏúƒÓ˚ ãòƒ ˆ¶˛y›˛ ˆîò òyñ
÷ï%õye ì§˛yÓ˚ õyò!¢Ñ˛ ¢ls˘˛!‹TÓ˚ ãòƒ£z ˆ¢ ˆ¶˛y›˛y!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
S3V ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛
î%£z ¶˛yˆÏÜ ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
SÑ˛V ¢õÌ≈ò¢)â˛Ñ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íÈÙÙÙÈ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ¢õÌ≈ò¢)â˛Ñ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ õyÏõ ~£z
ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ x!¶˛Óƒ!_´ áˆÏ›˛– v˛zîy£Ó˚í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ üy¢Ñ˛îˆÏúÓ˚ !õ!›˛Ç !õ!äȈÏú ˆÎyÜîyò !Ñ˛ÇÓy ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚
v˛zߨÎ˚òõ)úÑ˛ Ñ˛õ≈˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛“òyÎ˚ ˆÎyÜîyò £zì˛ƒy!î–
SÖV ≤Ã!ì˛Óyîõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íÈÙÙÙÈòyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎÖò ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹T Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ Óy ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¶˛yˆÏÓ ¶˛Î˚
ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛yã Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Óyïƒ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ ˆÎ¢Ó v˛z˛ôyÎ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ xÓú¡∫ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢=!úˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛Óyîõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£í ÓˆÏú– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe v˛zîy£Ó˚í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ≤Ã!ì˛Óyî# xyˆÏ®yúòñ !õ!äÈúñ !ӈϫ˛y¶˛ ≤Ãîü≈òñ îyDyÈÙÈ£yDyõyñ Ö%òÈÙÈãÖõ !Ñ˛ÇÓy
ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !£Ç¢ydÑ˛ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úyˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy Óúy ÎyÎ˚– ì˛ˆÏÓ ≤Ã!ì˛Óyî# Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ˆÑ˛yò ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛yãˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ xhs˘˛¶%≈˛_´ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ˆ¢ !ӰψÏÎ˚ õˆÏì˛Ó˚ !¶˛ß¨ì˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ô!Ó˚v˛z_´ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛îÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò# !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ◊í#!Óòƒy¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
Ó˚y‹T…!Óã˘yò# Ó˚yü Á xyúÌ˛ô ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ An Introduction to Political Sociology @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyey
Á !Óhfl˛ÏyÓ˚ !Óâ˛yˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ì˛y!úÑ˛y ≤Ãlfl˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì˛y!úÑ˛y!›˛ £úÈÙÙÙÈ
S1V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Óy ≤Ãüy¢!òÑ˛ ˛ôˆÏî xy¢#ò ÌyÑ˛yñ S2V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Óy ≤Ãüy¢!òÑ˛ ˛ôî=!ú ˛ôyÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Tyñ S3V ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!e´Î˚ ¢î¢ƒ˛ôîñ S4V ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ !ò!‹;˛Î˚ ¢î¢ƒ˛ôîñ S5V fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛# Óy â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚#
ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy xyïyÈÙÈÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢î¢ƒ˛ôîñ S6V ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy xyïyÈÙÈÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ !ò!‹;˛Î˚ ¢î¢ƒ˛ôîñ
S7V ãò¢¶˛yñ !õ!›˛ÇÈÙÈ!õ!äÈú ≤ö,˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íñ S8V áˆÏÓ˚yÎ˚y ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆÎyÜîyòñ S9V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
!ӰψÏÎ˚ ¢yïyÓ˚í xÇü@˘Ã£íñ S10V ˆ¶˛y›˛îyòñ S11V v˛zîy¢#òì˛y–
v˛zv˛ÁÎ˚yv≈˛ Á ˆÓ˚yãyÓ˚ ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ‘Political Activity of American Citizens’ ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛ ˛ô§yⲠïÓ˚ˆòÏ Ó˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
Ñ˛Ìy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– ÎÌyÈÙÙÙÈS1V !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏò ˆ¶˛y›˛ îyòñ S2V ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !ò!î≈‹T fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛#Ó˚ ¢î¢ƒ £ˆÏÎ˚ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ¢õÌ≈òñ
S3V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îˆÏúÓ˚ Ñ˛yãÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú xy£zò¢¶˛yÓ˚ ¢î¢ƒˆÏîÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ îy!Ó xyîyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢%ˆÏÎyÜ úy¶˛ñ
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S4V xòƒyòƒ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ fl˛iy˛ôò Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îˆÏúÓ˚ ≤Ãâ˛yÓ˚ñ S5V !òÓ≈y!â˛ì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïˆÏîÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Óy
˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛ ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ Ó˚yÖy–
!ú¢›˛yÓ˚ !õúÓyÌ ì§˛yÓ˚ Political Participation : How and Why Do People Get Involved in Politics?
S1965V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ Ñ˛yã=!úˆÏÑ˛ !ì˛ò!›˛ ˆ◊í#ˆÏì˛ ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
S1V ˆÎyk˛y¢%ú¶˛ Ñ˛yã (Gladiatorial Activities) : ˆÎyk˛y¢%ú¶˛ Ñ˛yã ÓúˆÏì˛ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îˆÏúÓ˚ ¢!e´Î˚
Ñ˛õ#≈ˆÏîÓ˚ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úy˛ôˆÏÑ˛ Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò !ì˛!ò– ˆÎõòÈÙÙÙÈîˆÏúÓ˚ ˛ôîy!ïÑ˛yÓ˚# £ÁÎ˚yñ îú#Î˚ ≤ÃyÌ#≈ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏò ≤Ã!ì˛m!®¥ì˛y Ñ˛Ó˚yñ
îˆÏúÓ˚ ãòƒ xÌ≈ ¢Ç@˘Ã£ñ îú#Î˚ ¢¶˛yÎ˚ ˆÎyÜîyòñ îú#Î˚ ≤Ãâ˛yÓ˚Ñ˛yˆÏÎ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í £zì˛ƒy!î–
S2V xhs˘˛Ó≈ì˛#≈Ñ˛yú#ò Ñ˛yã (Transitional Activities) : ~£z Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ £ˆÏúy îú#Î˚ Ñ˛õ#≈ Óy ¢õÌ≈Ñ˛
£ˆÏÎ˚ ¢¶˛yÎ˚ ˆÎyÜîyòñ õˆÏòyˆÏÎyÜ# ˆ◊yì˛y £ˆÏÎ˚ ˆ¢=!ú ˆüyòyñ îú#Î˚ ì˛£!ÓˆÏú xÌ≈ ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ö,˛!ì˛–
S3V îü≈Ñ˛õ)úÑ˛ Ñ˛yã (Spectator Activities) : îü≈Ñ˛õ)úÑ˛ Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ £ˆÏúyÈÙÙÙÈ!òˆÏãÓ˚ îˆÏúÓ˚ ˆ¶˛y›˛
ˆîÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ xòƒˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ˆÎyÜ ˆîÁÎ˚y £zì˛ƒy!î–
!¢v˛!ò ¶˛yÓ≈yñ òÓ˚õyò òy£z Á ˆãy !Ñ˛õ ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Participation and Political Equality : A Seven-Nation
Comparison S1978V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃÓíì˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£íÑ˛yÓ˚#ˆÏÑ˛ äÈÎ˚ ˆ◊í#ˆÏì˛ !Ó¶˛_´ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòÈÙÙÙÈS1V ¢¡ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ !ò!‹;˛Î˚ñ S2V ˆ¶˛y›˛yÓ˚ñ S3V fl˛iyò#Î˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xy@˘Ã£#ñ
S4V ¢ÇÑ˛#í≈õòyñ S5V ≤Ãâ˛yÓ˚Ñ˛ Á S6V ¢¡ô)í≈ ¢!e´Î˚–

3.6 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛¢õ)£

Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe fl˛iyòÈÙÈÑ˛yúÈÙȈ¶˛ˆÏî !Ó!¶˛ß¨ v˛z˛ôyîyò Óy !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– !Ó!¶˛ß¨
Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò# !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ î,!‹T¶˛!D ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛y!ïÑ˛ xyÌ≈ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ñ õòhfl˛Ïy!_¥Ñ˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚í Óy !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛ ¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆÎ=!ú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £yÓ˚ Óy ì˛yÓ˚ì˛õƒ ᛲyˆÏòyÓ˚ õ)ú â˛y!úÑ˛yü!_´– ~=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ !ü«˛yÜì˛
ˆÎy܃ì˛yñ ã#!ÓÑ˛yñ v˛z˛ôyã≈òñ !úDñ Óy¢fl˛iyòñ ïõ≈ñ ˆÜy¤˛#Üì˛ ≤ö˛yÓñ @˘Ãyõ Á ü£ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ô›˛ñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛!ì˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓüñ õòhfl˛Ïy!_¥Ñ˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ £zì˛ƒy!î !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÑ˛yò v˛z˛ôyîyò Óy !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛ Ñ˛Öò !Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚õyˆÏí
Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛Ó˚# ~ÓÇ ≤ö˛yÓ !Óhfl˛ÏyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ ì˛y õ)úì˛ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ fl˛iyòÈÙÈÑ˛yú ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚– ˆÎ ¢Ñ˛ú v˛z˛ôyîyò Óy !òï≈yÓ˚˛ôÑ˛¢õ)£
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢Ó≈y!ïÑ˛ @˘Ã£íˆÏÎy܃ Á ≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ ˆ¢=!ú ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛ô xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏúy–
S1V !ü«˛y ≠ !ü«˛y Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ ì˛yÓ˚ !Óîƒõyò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò Á xy@˘Ã£# Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yˆÏú– !ü«˛yÜì˛
ˆÎy܃ì˛yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ Á xyÓ!üƒÑ˛ ˆÎyÜ xyˆÏäÈ– xƒyúõu˛ Á ¶˛yÓ≈yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ !ü«˛y
Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ õˆÏòyˆÏÎyÜ# Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yˆÏúñ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Á ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ì˛Ìƒ
ˆ˛ôˆÏì˛ ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ xy@˘Ã£ ˆÓˆÏv˛¸ ÎyÎ˚– !ü«˛y Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ xyd!ÓŸªy¢#ñ  Á îy!Î˚cÓyò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yˆÏú– ì˛ˆÏÓ !ü«˛yÓ˚ £yÓ˚ Óyv˛¸ˆÏú£z Óy !ü!«˛ì˛ £ˆÏú£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £yÓ˚ Óyv˛¸ˆÏÓ ˆì˛õò ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ÓyïƒÓyïÑ˛ì˛y
ˆò£z–
S2V ˆ˛ôüy ≠ ˆ˛ôüy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~Ñ˛!›˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛– ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚ !ò¡¨ì˛Ó˚ ˆ˛ôüyÓ˚
¢yˆÏÌ ã!v˛¸ì˛ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ v˛zFâ˛ì˛Ó˚ ˆ˛ôüyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Î%_´ Óƒ!_´ÓˆÏÜ≈Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢!îFäÈy x!ïÑ˛ì˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÓú
£Î˚ ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚y Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ Ö%Ó ¶˛yˆÏúy¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ ¢«˛õ £ò– ˆ¢Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí v˛zFâ˛ì˛Ó˚ ˆ˛ôüyÎ˚ Î%_´ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚y Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛
ˆÓ!ü ¢!e´Î˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ì˛ˆÏÓ ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛ÓˆÏ°Ï≈Ó˚ !ò!Ó˚ˆÏÖ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ˆÓ!üÓ˚¶˛yÜ v˛zFⲠˆ˛ôüyÎ˚ õyò%°Ïãò xòƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛

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!e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ ¢!e´Î˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏúÁ ˆ¶˛y›˛îyò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z xy@˘Ã£# ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òy– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ ˆ¶˛y›˛îyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
!ò¡¨ì˛Ó˚ õyò%°Ïãò ˆÎõòÈÙÙÙÈÑ,˛°ÏÑ˛ñ ◊!õÑ˛ñ !îòõã%Ó˚ ~§ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆ¶˛y›˛îyˆÏòÓ˚ !ӰψÏÎ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï xy@˘Ã£ ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚–
S3V xyÎ˚ ≠ v˛zFⲠxyÎ˚ ¢¡ôߨ Óƒ!_´ÜˆÏíÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï xy@˘Ã£ ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚ñ !ò¡¨
xyÎ˚ ¢¡ôߨ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚– Ñ˛yÓ˚í v˛zFⲠxyÎ˚ Î%_´ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ fl˛∫FäÈúì˛y ÌyÑ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí ˆ¢ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ô
x!ïÑ˛ ¢õÎ˚ !îˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– xòƒ ~Ñ˛ãò !ò¡¨ xyÎ˚ Î%_´ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe £zFäÈy ÌyÑ˛ˆÏúÁ ˆ¢ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ x¢FäÈúì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ ¢õÎ˚ !îˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ò òy– ì˛ˆÏÓ ãyì˛#Î˚ hfl˛ÏˆÏÓ˚ xyÎ˚ ˆÓ!ü £ˆÏú£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí ì˛yÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ ˛ôv˛¸ˆÏÓ !Ñ˛ÇÓy xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £yÓ˚ Óyv˛¸ˆÏÓ ì˛yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy õyˆÏò ˆò£z– ì˛ˆÏÓ Óì≈˛õyˆÏò v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚
ˆîü=!úˆÏì˛ !ò¡¨ xyÎ˚ Î%_´ õyò%°ÏˆÏîÓ˚ ãòƒ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ v˛zߨÎ˚òõ)úÑ˛ ≤ÃÑ˛“ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ÎyÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú !ò¡¨ xyÎ˚ Î%_´ õyò%ˆÏ°ÓÏ ˚
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ÓˆÏü°Ï xy@˘Ã£ ˆîÖy ÎyˆÏFäÈ–
S4V ÓÎ˚¢ ≠ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÓÎ˚¢ ~Ñ˛!›˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛– ì˛ˆÏÓ ˆÑ˛yò ÓÎ˚ˆÏ¢Ó˚ Óƒ!_´Üí Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí ˆÓ!ü xy@˘Ã£# ˆ¢ !ӰψÏÎ˚ !ò!î≈‹T ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy õyòî[˛ ˆò£z– ì˛ˆÏÓ ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ õïƒ ÓÎ˚¢ Óƒ!_´ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí xy@˘Ã£# ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚– Ñ˛yÓ˚í x“ ÓÎ˚flÒˆÏîÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ x!¶˛K˛ì˛y Ñ˛õ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ì§˛yÓ˚y !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏò ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛
£ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ì˛y!܈Ïî Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí ¢õÎ˚ ˆîÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ¢%ˆÏÎyÜ ˛ôyò òy– ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü ÓÎ˚flÒÓ˚y üyÓ˚#!Ó˚Ñ˛ î%Ó≈úì˛y Óy x«˛õì˛yÓ˚
Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í ˆì˛ˆÏÑ˛ !ÓÓ˚ì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ò– ì˛ˆÏÓ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ xò%ÎyÎ˚#
ÓÎ˚ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ì˛yÓ˚ì˛ˆÏõƒÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ òyÁ Öy›˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚–
S5V !úD ≠ !úDˆÏ¶˛îÜì˛ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ~Ñ˛!›˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ v˛z˛ôyîyò–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ ÓƒyÖƒyÎ˚ ~£z ïyÓ˚íy v˛zˆÏ‡˛ ~ˆÏ¢ˆÏäÈ ˆÎñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ òyÓ˚# ¢Ó≈îy£z ˛ô%Ó˚&ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚
Ñ˛õ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ñ˛yÓ˚í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Óúy £Î˚ñ òyÓ˚#Ó˚y fl˛∫¶˛yÓÜì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÑ˛yõúñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xK˛ñ Ó˚«˛íü#ú
õyò!¢Ñ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôߨ ~ÓÇ ˛ô%Ó˚&ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £yÓ˚ Ñ˛õ–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !úDÜì˛ ì˛yÓ˚ì˛ˆÏõƒÓ˚ !˛ôäȈÏò =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ Ñ˛yÓ˚í £ˆÏúy !˛ôì,˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ô›˛–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ~£z !úDÜì˛ ì˛yÓ˚ì˛õƒ ˆÓ!ü õyeyÎ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏì˛– ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
!e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ òyÓ˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í ¢%!ò!ÿ˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ Óy Óúy ÎyÎ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ¢Ó≈hfl˛ÏˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ òyÓ˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí xy@˘Ã£# Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚
ãòƒ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ¢ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏíÓ˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
S6V Óy¢fl˛iyò ≠ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ Óy¢fl˛iyòÁ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí !ÓˆÏü°Ï ≤ö˛yÓ ˆö˛ˆÏú– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ ¢!e´Î˚
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe @˘Ãyõ Á ü£ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £yÓ˚ @˘ÃyõyMÈ˛ˆÏúÓ˚ ˆúyÑ˛ãˆÏòÓ˚
ì%˛úòyÎ˚ ü£ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆúyÑ˛ãˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÓ!ü– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe xÓüƒ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ xyÌ≈ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚í xyˆÏäÈ– ì˛ˆÏÓ Óì≈˛õyˆÏò
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Î%ˆÏÜ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí @˘ÃyˆÏõÓ˚ ˆúyÑ˛ãòÁ Ö%Ó ˆÓ!ü !˛ô!äȈÏÎ˚ ˆò£z– ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ ˆîÖy
ÎyÎ˚ ˛ôMÈ˛yˆÏÎ˚ì˛ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò=!úˆÏì˛ @˘ÃyˆÏõÓ˚ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ˆâ˛yˆÏÖ ˛ôv˛¸yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y–
S7V ïõ≈ ≠ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ïõ≈ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyeyˆÏÑ˛ xˆÏòÑ˛Öy!ò ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎõò ˛ôyÿ˛yˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ˆîÖy ˆÜˆÏäÈ Ñ˛ƒyÌ!úÑ˛ ïõ≈yÓú¡∫# õyò%°Ïãò !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏò ì˛Öò£z ˆÓ!ü õyeyÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈñ ÎÖò ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ïõ≈ !ÓŸªyˆÏ¢Ó˚
¢yˆÏÌ Ü¶˛#Ó˚¶˛yˆÏÓ ã!v˛¸ì˛ !Ñ˛ä%È !Ó°ÏÎ˚ !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏò ≤Ãïyò £z¢%ƒ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ ïõ#≈Î˚¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢ÇÖƒyúá%Ó˚y Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
!e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ Ñ˛õ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì˛ˆÏÓ ˆ¢ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!¶˛ß¨ xyÌ≈ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢õ¢ƒy !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛ÓˆÏ°Ï≈Ó˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛
ïõ#≈Î˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
S8V ãy!ì˛ Á ˆÜy¤˛# ≠ ÓÇü Óy ãy!ì˛Üì˛ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òyÓ˚ ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü ˆÜy¤˛#Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ
≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆÜy¤˛# ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ x!¶˛K˛ì˛y Óƒ!_´ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!¶˛ß¨¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–

31
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚õ[˛ú ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢õƒÑ˛ ïyÓ˚íy úyˆÏ¶˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜy¤˛# ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ x!¶˛K˛ì˛y ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ õˆÏîƒ ~Ñ˛
!ÓˆÏü°Ï õ)úƒˆÏÓyï ãy@˘Ãì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ãy!ì˛Üì˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyeyˆÏÑ˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎõò õy!Ñ≈˛ò
Î%_´Ó˚yˆÏ‹T… Ñ,˛°åyDˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆŸªì˛yDˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £yÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛– ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛ÓˆÏ°Ï≈ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ãy!ì˛ Á ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ≤ö˛yÓ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
S9V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚õ[˛ú ≠ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yãÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyey xˆÏòÑ˛yLjÏü Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚õ[˛ˆÏúÓ˚
v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚õ[˛ú Óy Óyì˛yÓÓ˚í Ü!‡˛ì˛ £Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ñ îú#Î˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ïÓ˚òñ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò#
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !òÎ˚õÑ˛yò%òñ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy˛ôòyñ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ì˛y Á Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛y!Ó˚ì˛y ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õyÏõ–
«˛õì˛y îÖˆÏúÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ì˛m!®¥ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛e Î!î v˛zß√%_´ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~£z ≤Ã!ì˛m!®¥ì˛y Î!î fl˛∫#Ñ,˛ì˛ Á ≤Ãâ˛!úì˛ !òÎ˚õ ò#!ì˛Ó˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛
˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yãÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ ãò¢yïyÓ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £yÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ¢%ˆÏÎyÜ Á ¢Ω˛yÓòy ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛ ¢%ì˛y xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ö%Ó£z =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈– ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xì˛y òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ !òfl˛ô,£
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yˆÏú– v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ~úyÑ˛y Î!î x!ì˛õyeyÎ˚ !Óhfl˛,Ïì˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢ÇˆÏÎyÜ ¢yïˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyÎ˚
˛ôk˛!ì˛ Î!î xò%ß¨ì˛ Á x≤Ãì%˛ú £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ £yÓ˚ Óy õyey Ñ˛õ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ xyüB˛y ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
S10V õòhfl˛Ïy!_¥Ñ˛ ≤ö˛yÓ ≠ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí xy@˘Ã£ !Ñ˛ÇÓy xò#£y ¢ÓˆÏ«˛ˆÏe£z õòhfl˛Ïy!_¥Ñ˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚
~Ñ˛!›˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ v˛z˛ôyîyò !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Ñ˛yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z õòhfl˛Ïy!_¥Ñ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ xyÑ˛yA«˛y Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí v˛zm%k˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#Üí ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!¶˛ß¨ õòhfl˛Ïy!_¥Ñ˛ v˛z˛ôyîyˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆãyÓ˚ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ
v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ £ˆÏúy «˛õì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ xyÑ˛yA«˛yñ ≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÎy!Üì˛yñ ¢yö˛úƒñ xÌ≈ñ ¢¡øyòñ fl˛∫#Ñ,˛!ì˛ñ ¢£õ!õ≈ì˛yñ îyÎ˚Ók˛ì˛y ~£z ¢õhfl˛Ï
õòòÜì˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Óƒ!_´ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ô xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ xy@˘Ã£ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–

3.7 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí xò#£yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í

ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ¢Ñ˛ˆÏú£z Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òy– xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛Ó˚£z õˆÏîƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí
xy@˘ÃˆÏ£Ó˚ x¶˛yÓ ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚– Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ÎyˆÏîÓ˚ xò#£y xÌ≈yÍ ÎyÓ˚y Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓü
î)ˆÏÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛yÓ˚y !ò!‹;˛Î˚ xÇü@˘Ã£íÑ˛yÓ˚# !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ !â˛!£´ì˛ £Î˚– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí v˛zîy¢#òì˛yÓ˚ !˛ôäȈÏò ~Ñ˛y!ïÑ˛
Ñ˛yÓ˚í Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~£z Ñ˛yÓ˚í=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ
S1V xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe õòhfl˛Ïy!_¥Ñ˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Óƒ!_´Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí xò#£y ˜ì˛!Ó˚ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ äÈyv˛¸y
Óƒ!_´ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xòƒ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !ӰψÏÎ˚ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆÓ!ü ¢ls˘˛!‹T úy¶˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ äÈyv˛¸y ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ñ
Óı%˛ÈÙÈÓyı˛ˆÏÓÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Óy xòƒ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úyˆÏ˛ô !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!ü Óƒhfl˛Ï Ó˚yˆÏÖ–
S2V xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ xyÓyÓ˚ !Óîƒõyò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ fl˛iy!Î˚c Á fl˛∫«˛õì˛yÓ˚ Óƒy˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ~ì˛›˛y£z !ò!ÿ˛hs˘˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ò ˆÎñ !ì˛!ò õˆÏò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yãÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í òy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏúÁ !Óîƒõyò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy xÓƒy£ì˛ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ–
S3V xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !Óîƒõyò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ Á â˛!Ó˚e ˆîˆÏÖ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ô xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚
Óƒy˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ xy@˘Ã£ £y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆö˛ˆÏú– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢Ó ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z î%ò#≈!ì˛õ%_´ Á fl˛∫FäÈ £ˆÏÓ ì˛yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy õyˆÏò ˆò£z– xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛
î%ò#≈!ì˛@˘Ãhfl˛Ï Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ xy@˘Ã£ £y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆö˛ˆÏúò ~ÓÇ !ì˛!ò õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò î%ò#≈!ì˛@˘Ãhfl˛Ï Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
ÓƒÓfl˛iy ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò Óy ¢ÇˆÏüyïò Ñ˛Ó˚y ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓ£z ¢Ω˛Ó òÎ˚ñ ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ î)ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyÑ˛y›˛y£z ˆ◊Î˚–
S4V xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò ÌyÑ˛y ¢ˆÏ_¥Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ !Ñ˛ÇÓy xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
îú=!úÓ˚ x¢Í ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí xò#£y ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓŸªy¢ ≤Ã!ì˛m®¥# Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îú=!úÓ˚
õˆÏïƒ ˆì˛õò ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ˆõÔ!úÑ˛ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ ˆò£z– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí ì§˛yÓ˚y Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ î)ˆÏÓ˚ ¢!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ ˛ôäÈ® Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
32
 S5V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ ã!v˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ ˆÜˆÏú ◊õ Á ¢õÎ˚ î%£z ÓƒÎ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚– xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛£z ˜îò!®ò ã#Óò
ïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ ~ì˛›˛y£z Óƒhfl˛Ï £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ò ˆÎñ £zFäÈy ÌyÑ˛ˆÏúÁ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓ£z !ì˛!ò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ò
òy–
S6V !Ó˛ôˆÏîÓ˚ xyüB˛yÎ˚ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yãÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ â˛yò òy– fl˛∫yï#ò¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
õì˛yõì˛ Óƒ_´ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú Óy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyò%Üì˛ƒ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe «˛õì˛y¢#òˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚yܶ˛yãò £ˆÏì˛ £Î˚– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí
xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛y[˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ î)ˆÏÓ˚ ¢!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ ˛ôäÈ® Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
!¢õ%ƒÓ˚ õy!›≈˛ò !ú˛ôˆÏ¢›˛ Political Man S1960V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛ !ò!‹;˛Î˚ ÌyÑ˛yÓ˚ !˛ôäȈÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚
Ñ˛Ìy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆ¢£z Ñ˛yÓ˚í=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ
S1V xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ á,íy Á !Óì,˛°åy ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛
ãv˛¸yˆÏì˛ â˛yò òy–
S2V !ò¡¨ õÎ≈yîyÓ˚¢¡ôߨ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !òˆÏãÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xyfl˛iyÓ˚ x¶˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏíÁ ì˛yÓ˚y Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
Óƒy˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ x!òFäÈy ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
S3V !Ñ˛ä%È õyò%°Ï ã#ÓòïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ ~õò !Ñ˛ä%È ˆ˛ô¢yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Î%_´ ÌyˆÏÑ˛òñ ˆÎõòÈÙÙÙÈõÍ¢ƒã#Ó#ñ Ö!ò◊!õÑ˛ñ Óò !Ó¶˛yˆÏÜÓ˚
Ñ˛õ#≈ñ ãy£yˆÏãÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈â˛yÓ˚# £zì˛ƒy!îó ì˛yÓ˚y Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢õÎ˚ Á ¢%ˆÏÎyÜ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy›˛y£z ˛ôyò òy– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£í xy@˘Ã£ £y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆö˛ˆÏú–
S4V ˛ôy!Ó˚Óy!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íñ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÓfl˛iy !Ñ˛ÇÓy ˆ˛ôüyÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ ≤ö,˛!ì˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏíÁ Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí v˛zîy¢#ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yˆÏú–

3.8 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò

Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛ Áì˛ˆÏ≤Ãyì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ã!v˛¸ì˛– Ñ˛yÓ˚í Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y Óyhfl˛ÏÓy!Î˚ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ~Ñ˛õye !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ô òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
õyÏõ– xyï%!òÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T… ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛zqˆÏÓÓ˚ ≤ÃyE˛yˆÏú ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ v˛zqÓ £Î˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
~ÓÇ ~£z ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ Üíì˛s˛fˆÏÑ˛ Óyhfl˛ÏÓy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ v˛zqÓ £Î˚ ¢Ç¢îñ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò# ÓƒÓfl˛iyñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îúñ ˆ¶˛y›˛y!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ñ
fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛# £zì˛ƒy!î òyòy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚– Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ xyÎ˚ì˛ò Á ãò¢ÇÖƒy Ó,!k˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢Ñ˛ú
òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ xyÓ˚ ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ¢%ˆÏÎyÜ Ó˚£zú òy– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí !Ó˛ô%ú xyÎ˚ì˛ò Á
ãò¢ÇÖƒy !Ó!ü‹T Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y Óyhfl˛ÏÓy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ£z v˛zqÓ £Î˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛
Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ~ÓÇ ì˛Í¢Ç!Ÿ’‹T ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚–
ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ £ˆÏúy ¢Ç¢î– Óì≈˛õyˆÏò ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛
Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ¢Ç¢îÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ¢î¢ƒÜí ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Óy ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ˆ«˛ˆÏe
˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ !òÓ≈y!â˛ì˛ £ò– Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛Üí !òÓ≈yâ˛ò ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õyÏõ ¢Ç¢î òyõÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD
˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü ãòÜí ¢ÇÓyîõyÏõÓ˚ õyÏõ ¢Ç¢ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú# ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ
xÓÜì˛ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ÜíõyÏõÓ˚ õyÏõ ì˛yÓ˚y ¢Ç¢ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú# ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õhs˘˛Óƒ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– xÌ≈yÍ ~Ñ˛!îˆÏÑ˛ ãòÜí
!òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õyÏõ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ï ˆ≤ÃÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ~ÓÇ xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ ÜíõyÏõÓ˚ õyÏõ ¢Ç¢ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú#ˆÏì˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚–

33
 ≤Ã!ì˛ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îˆÏúÓ˚ x˛ô!Ó˚£yÎ≈ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˆîˆÏü Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îú Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢¡ô)í≈ xâ˛ú– Üíì˛ˆÏs˛f ãòÜí !òÓ≈y!â˛ì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïˆÏîÓ˚ õyÏõ
¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yúòy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ãòÜí Á ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÎyÜ¢)e !£¢yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îú=!úÓ˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y xòòƒ– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
îú=!ú ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢%!ò!î≈‹T õì˛yîˆÏü≈Ó˚ õyÏõ ãòõì˛ Ü‡˛òñ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ îy!ÓîyÁÎ˚yˆÏÑ˛ ¢õ!‹TÓk˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y !Ñ˛ÇÓy ãò܈ÏíÓ˚
õˆÏïƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛òì˛y Ó,!k˛Ó˚ õyÏõ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ÓˆÏü°Ï ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛# Óy â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚# ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y xòòƒ– fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛#
Óy â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚# ˆÜy¤˛#=!ú Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !ӰψÏÎ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
xyï%!òÑ˛Ñ˛yˆÏúÓ˚ ¢õyãÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛# Óy â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚# ˆÜy¤˛#=!úÁ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ Á ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢ÇˆÏÎyÜ ¢yïò !Ñ˛ÇÓy
ãòÜíˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚yñ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy îy!ÓîyÁÎ˚y xyîyˆÏÎ˚ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹T Ñ˛Ó˚y £zì˛ƒy!î !ӰψÎÏ ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï
¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ÓúyÓy˝úƒ ~£z ¢õhfl˛Ï !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ õyÏõ fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛# Óy â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹TÑ˛yÓ˚# ˆÜy¤˛# Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD
ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏí ˆÎ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ ˆ¢ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢ˆÏ®£ ˆò£z–
≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ Óyhfl˛ÏˆÏÓ Ó˚*˛ô ˆîÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xòƒyòƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò
ÓƒÓfl˛iy Á ¢yÓ≈ãò#ò ≤ÃyÆÓÎ˚flÒ ˆ¶˛y›˛y!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃– ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏÑ˛ ü!_´üyú# Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò ÓƒÓfl˛iy xyÓüƒÑ˛– !òÓ≈yâ˛ò ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õyÏõ ãòÜí ˆ¶˛y›˛y!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôäÈ®
õˆÏì˛y ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïˆÏÑ˛ !òÓ≈y!â˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢«˛õ £Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ !òÓ≈yâ˛òÓƒÓfl˛iy ~ÓÇ ¢yÓ≈ãò#ò ≤ÃyÆÓÎ˚flÒ
ˆ¶˛y›˛y!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛ Áì˛ˆÏ≤Ãyì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ã!v˛¸ì˛–

3.9 Üíì˛s˛f Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í

Üíì˛s˛f Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚˛ô)Ó˚Ñ˛– Óì≈˛õyò !ӈϟª ˆÑ˛yò Ó˚y‹T… ¶˛yˆÏúy xyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò Ó˚y‹T… ÖyÓ˚y˛ô
ì˛y !òï≈yÓ˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ìy!Ñ˛ xyõÓ˚y ˆ¢£z Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ˛ô!Ó˚!fl˛i!ì˛Ó˚ õy˛ôÑ˛y!‡˛ˆÏì˛– xyÓ˚ ~£z Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü
≤Ããμ!úì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÁˆÏ‡˛ ~Ñ˛õye ˆ¢£z Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú#ˆÏì˛ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ Á ¢!e´Î˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ– ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ Üíì˛s˛f
ÓúˆÏì˛ ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ ˆÎÖyˆÏò ãòÜí £ˆÏúy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ õ)ú x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚#– ì˛ˆÏÓ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ~£z ïyÓ˚íy
¢ÇÑ˛#í≈ xˆÏÌ≈ ÓƒÓ£*ì˛ £Î˚– Ó,£Í xˆÏÌ≈ Üíì˛s˛f ÓúˆÏì˛ ÷ï%õye üy¢òÓƒÓfl˛iy òÎ˚ñ Ó,£Í Üíì˛s˛f ~Ñ˛ Ó˚y‹T…ÓƒÓfl˛iy Óy ¢õyãÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
≤Ã!ì˛ £z!Dì˛ ˆîÎ˚ñ ˆÎˆÏ«˛ˆÏe Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyãñ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ xyîü≈ñ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ ≤Ãyïyòƒ ˛ôyÎ˚– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Ö%Ó
fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ£z ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T…ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ xyÓ!üƒÑ˛ v˛z˛ôyîyò £ˆÏúy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Üíì˛ˆÏs˛f òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ˛ôäÈ® ≤ö,˛!ì˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ fl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢yv˛¸y ˛ôyÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ£z Üíì˛ˆÏs˛f ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ≤ö˛yÓ ˆö˛úy
ÎyÎ˚– ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü ãòò#!ì˛ ≤ÃíÎ˚ˆÏò ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹T Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛f
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ¢¡ø!ì˛ K˛y˛ôò Ñ˛Ó˚y Óy ì˛y xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ ~ÓÇ fl˛∫yˆÏfl˛iƒÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ üy¢ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ îyÎ˚Ók˛ì˛y ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛–
≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Üíì˛s˛f Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ !òîü≈ò ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ≤Ãyâ˛#ò !@˘ÃˆÏ¢Ó˚ ~ˆÏ̈ϙÓ˚
òÜÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…– ˆÎÖyˆÏò õ)úì˛ ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Üíì˛s˛f ≤Ãâ˛!úì˛ !äÈú– Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏò òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛Üí ¢Ó˚y¢!Ó˚ üy¢òÑ˛yˆÏÎ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏì˛ò ~ÓÇ üy¢òÑ˛yÎ≈ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yúòy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏì˛ò– òÜÓ˚Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛Üí ~Ñ˛›˛y !ò!î≈‹T ¢õÎ˚ xhs˘˛Ó˚ !òï≈y!Ó˚ì˛ fl˛iyˆÏò
!õ!úì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ xy£zò ≤ÃíÎ˚òñ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ Ñ˛õ≈â˛yÓ˚# !òˆÏÎ˚yÜñ ~õò!Ñ˛ ˛ôÓ˚Ó˚y‹T… !ӰψÏÎ˚Á !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– ì˛ˆÏÓ Óì≈˛õyˆÏò Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚
xyÎ˚ì˛ò Á ãò¢ÇÖƒy Ó,!k˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy x≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ˆÏäÈ– Óì≈˛õyˆÏò ¢%£z›˛ãyÓ˚úƒyˆÏu˛Ó˚
Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ ¢%£z¢ уyò›˛ˆÏò ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚–
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≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛s˛f Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠
Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ xyÎ˚ì˛ò Ó,!k˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó˛ô%ú ãò¢ÇÖƒyÓ˚ â˛y˛ô Îy !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ¢ Ó˚y‹T… ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Óƒy˛ôÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò– ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Îy ¢Æîü üì˛y∑#Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú v˛zîyÓ˚ò#!ì˛Óyî# ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ≤ö˛yˆÏÓ
˛ô!Ó˚Ó!ì≈˛ì˛ £Î˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ v˛zîyÓ˚ò#!ì˛Óyî# Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…– Óì≈˛õyò !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆÓ!üÓ˚¶˛yÜ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ â˛!Ó˚e ~£z ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚– ~£z Üíì˛ˆÏs˛f
!ò!î≈‹T ¢õÎ˚ xhs˘˛Ó˚ !òÓ≈yâ˛ˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ï !òÓ≈yâ˛ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yúòyÓ˚ îy!Î˚c¶˛yÓ˚ òƒhfl˛Ï Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~£z
ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ üy¢ò ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ !òÓ≈y!â˛ì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïÓ˚y ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yãÑ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ãòƒ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ îy!Î˚cü#ú ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
ÓúyÓy˝úƒ ~£z Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò ÓƒÓfl˛iy ãò¢yïyÓ˚í Á !òÓ≈y!â˛ì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ≤Ãïyò ˆÎyÜ¢)e–
Ó˝ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛ ¢%!ò!ÿ˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ ~Ñ˛y!ïÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛yÓ˚í
ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ ¢!e´Î˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í äÈyv˛¸y ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓ£z ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢yö˛úƒõ![˛ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– ãòÜí
ÎyˆÏì˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ Ñ˛yãÑ˛õ≈ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ì˛yÓ˚ õì˛yõì˛ ˆ˛ôy°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Üíõyïƒõ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ fl˛∫yï#ò Ó˚yÖy £Î˚– ãòÜí
ÜíõyÏõÓ˚ õyÏõ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ Ñ˛yãÑ˛õ≈ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õì˛yõì˛ ˆ˛ôy°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ Ñ˛yãÑ˛õ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
¢%ˆÏÎyÜ ˛ôyÎ˚–
˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛y xˆÏòÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïcõ)úÑ˛ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T… ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú#ˆÏì˛ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛
¢%!ò!ÿ˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ !ÓˆÏÑ˛w#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ˚y¢ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎõòÈÙÙÙȶ˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!›˛ Ó˚yˆÏム˛ôMÈ˛yˆÏÎ˚ì˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy
Á ˆ˛ôÔÓ˚¢¶˛yÓ˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy Óúy ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õyÏõ ì,˛íõ)ú hfl˛ÏˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ó˝ ãòÜí ˛ôMÈ˛yˆÏÎ˚ì˛ !Ñ˛ÇÓy ˆ˛ôÔÓ˚¢¶˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚
¢ˆÏD !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ Î%_´ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ò– ÓúyÓy˝úƒ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÑ˛w#Ñ˛Ó˚í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó,£Í Ó˚yˆÏ‹T… ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ÓˆÏü°Ï ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– !ÓˆÏÑ˛w#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ ≤Ãüy¢òˆÏÑ˛ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ !òˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚
~ÓÇ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ ¢£ˆÏÎy!Üì˛y úy¶˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ¢ö˛úì˛yÓ˚ ãòƒ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í ~Ñ˛yhs˘˛
≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ì˛ˆÏÓ fl˛iyòÈÙÈÑ˛yúÈÙȈ¶˛ˆÏî !ÓˆÏÑ˛w#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ !¶˛ß¨–
¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Üíì˛s˛f Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≠
¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Üíì˛s˛f £ˆÏúy Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï Á xyï%!òÑ˛ Ó˚*˛ô– õyÑ≈˛¢ÓyîÈÙȈú!òòÓyˆÏîÓ˚ xyîˆÏü≈Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚
!¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ üy¢ò ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛zqÓ– ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Üíì˛s˛f £ˆÏúy ˛ô%§!ãÓyî ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢õyãì˛ˆÏs˛f Á ¢yõƒÓyˆÏî v˛z_Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚
~Ñ˛ xhs˘˛Ó≈ì˛#≈Ñ˛yú#ò ˛ôÎ≈yÎ˚– ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Üíì˛s˛f ÓúˆÏì˛ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛ xLjÏüÓ˚ Üíì˛s˛fñ ˆõ£òì˛# õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ Üíì˛s˛fˆÏÑ˛
ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚– ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ¢yõƒñ ˜õe#ñ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÎÖyˆÏò
¢¡ôˆÏîÓ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ õy!úÑ˛yòyÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ¢õ@˘Ã ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– õyÑ≈˛¢#Î˚
!â˛hs˘˛yïyÓ˚y xò%ÎyÎ˚# ¢!e´Î˚ Á fl˛∫ì˛Éfl˛≥)˛ì≈˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ£z Üíì˛s˛f ö˛ú≤â) £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ˛ô)Ó≈ì˛ò ˆ¢y!¶˛ˆÏÎ˚ì˛ £zv˛z!òÎ˚ò ~ÓÇ
Óì≈˛õyˆÏò Üí≤Ããyì˛s˛f# â˛#ò Á !Ñ˛v˛zÓyˆÏì˛ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Üíì˛s˛f â˛yú% xyˆÏäÈ– ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ãò¢yïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
Óƒy˛ôÑ˛ì˛y !Óüyú £ˆÏúÁ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ =íÜì˛ õyò !òˆÏÎ˚ ΈÏÌ‹T !Óì˛Ñ≈˛ xyˆÏäÈ– õì˛yîü≈Üì˛ Óy ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ !Óâ˛yˆÏÓ˚
¢Ó≈¢yïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ Óƒy˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !Óì˛Ñ≈˛ òy ÌyÑ˛ˆÏúÁ Ñ˛!õv˛z!òfi›˛ ˛ôy!›≈˛Ó˚ ¢Ó≈ydÑ˛ !òÎ˚s˛fí Á Ñ˛ì,≈˛c
Ñ˛yˆÏÎ˚õ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓíì˛y!›˛ ≤ÃÓú– ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ Ñ˛!õv˛z!òfi›˛ üy¢òyï#ò ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ãò¢yïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í
¢!e´Î˚ £ˆÏúÁ ì˛y õ)úì˛ Ñ˛!õv˛z!òfi›˛ ˛ôy!›≈˛Ó˚ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £Î˚–

3.10 ¢yÓ˚yÇü
õ)úƒyÎ˚ò ≠ Ó˚y‹T…!Óã˘yˆÏòÓ˚ xy!DòyÎ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy v˛zˆÏ‡˛ ~ˆÏ¢ˆÏäÈ õ)úì˛ ˛ô!ÿ˛!õ v˛zß¨ì˛ ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ~ÓÇ õ)úì˛ ˛ô!ÿ˛!õ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
ˆ¢Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí ˛ô!ÿ˛!õ !â˛hs˘˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ úy!úì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ ¢Ó˚y¢!Ó˚ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛
≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚y x≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !fl˛i!ì˛ü#ú !Ó°ÏÎ˚ òÎ˚– Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚
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˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏì˛Á !ÓˆÏü°Ï ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ¢)!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Óì≈˛õyò !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ £zr›˛yÓ˚ˆÏò›˛
~ÓÇ ì˛ÌƒÈÙÈ≤ÃÎ%!_´Ó˚ ˆîÔúˆÏì˛ ãß√úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ ‘Cyber Democracy’ÈÙÈÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy– ~£z ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
áÓ˚yòyÁ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úÁ ~£z ˛ô!Ó˚Ó!ì≈˛ì˛ áÓ˚yòyÓ˚ myÓ˚yÁ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛–
!ÓÇü üì˛y∑#Ó˚ ¢_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !â˛Ó˚yâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ Óy£zˆÏÓ˚ v˛zˆÏ‡˛ ~ˆÏ¢ˆÏäÈ
òyòyò ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏ®yúòñ ÎyÓ˚ â˛!Ó˚e õ)úì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛Óyî#– ˆÎ=!úˆÏÑ˛ òì%˛ò ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ xyˆÏ®yúò !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ x!¶˛!£ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏFäÈ–
ˆÎ xyˆÏ®yúò=ˆÏúy Ñ˛ÖòÁ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü Ó˚«˛yñ õyòÓy!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Ó˚«˛yñ Ñ˛ÖòÁ Óy òyÓ˚# x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Ó˚«˛y £zì˛ƒy!î !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ã!v˛¸ì˛–
~£z xyˆÏ®yúò=!úÓ˚ õyÏõ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ Óv˛¸ xLjÏüÓ˚ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í ᛲˆÏäÈ– xyÓyÓ˚ £zr›˛yÓ˚ˆÏòˆÏ›˛Ó˚ ˆîÔúˆÏì˛ Óì≈˛õyˆÏò
ãòÜí ì§˛yÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ õì˛yõì˛ Óƒ_´ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ ˆö˛¢Ó%Ñ˛ñ ›%˛£z›˛yÓ˚ñ ˆ£yÎ˚ƒy›˛¢xƒy˛ô £zì˛ƒy!î ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ õyÏõÓ˚
õyÏõ– ~Öò ≤ß¿ £ú ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£íˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛ xyõÓ˚y Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚⁄ ~ !ӰψÏÎ˚ !ò!î≈‹T
ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy õì˛ ˆò£z– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ õyÌyÎ˚ Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ ˆÎñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy !ÓÑ˛yüúy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú
õ)úì˛ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òü#ú â˛!Ó˚ˆÏeÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚
!Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛ !òˆÏÎ˚Á òì%˛ò ¶˛yˆÏÓñ òì%˛ò î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ܶ˛#Ó˚¶˛yˆÏÓ ¶˛yÓòy !â˛hs˘˛y Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò xyˆÏäÈ–

3.11 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#

SÑ˛V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛#⁄ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛î xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–
SÖV Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛ v˛z˛ôyîyò=!úÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–
SÜV Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xò#£y (Political Apathy) ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛# ˆÓyG˛⁄ ~Ó˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í=!ú xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–
SáV Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ì˛yͲôÎ≈ Á ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–

3.12 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

(a) Asraf, A. and Sharma, L.N. (1983). Political Sociology: A new Grammar of Politics. University
Press Limited.
(b) Dobratz, B., Waldner, L., & Timothy, B. (2016). Power, Politics and Society: An Introduction
to Political Sociology. Routledge.
(c) Mukhopadhyay, A. K. (1977).Political Sociology: An Introductory Analysis. K P Bagchi &
Company.
(d) Nie, N.H., & Verma, S. Political Participation. (1975) In F. I Greenstein and N. W. Polsby (Eds.),
Handbook of Political Science. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
(e) õ%ˆÏÖy˛ôyïƒyÎ˚ñ x¡∫Ó˚#üñ ÚÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íÛ â˛e´Óì˛#≈ñ ¢ì˛ƒÓì˛ S¢¡ôy!îì˛Vñ Ó˚y‹T…ñ ¢õyãñ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ñ ≤ÃÑ˛yüò
~Ñ%˛ˆÏüñ Ñ˛úÑ˛yì˛yñ 2004–

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(f) !õeñ x!¶˛ˆÏ°ÏÑ˛ñ ÚÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í Á Üíì˛s˛fÛ Ó˚yÎ˚ñ ¢!Fâ˛îyò® S¢¡ôy!îì˛Vñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyãì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚
£z!ì˛Ó,_yhs˘˛É ì˛_¥ Á ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜñ ~ˆÏ¶˛ˆÏòú ˆ≤âñ Ñ˛úÑ˛yì˛yñ 2017–
(g) â˛ƒy›˛yã#≈ñ Ó˚#õyñ ÚÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íÛñ â˛ƒy›˛yã#≈ñ Ó˚#õy S¢¡ôy!îì˛Vñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyãì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ¢£ã˛ôy‡˛ñ ~ˆÏ¶˛ˆÏòú
ˆ≤âñ Ñ˛úÑ˛yì˛yñ 2021–
(h) õ£y˛ôyeñ xòy!îÑ%˛õyÓ˚ñ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyãì˛_¥ñ ¢%£*î ˛ôyÓ!úˆÏÑ˛üòñ Ñ˛úÑ˛yì˛yñ 2016–
(i) ˆÓˆÏì˛£zñ x§yˆÏoñ Üíì˛s˛f Á ì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò¢õ)£ SDemocracy and Its Institution @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ xò%ÓyîVñ x:ˆÏö˛yv≈˛
£zv˛z!ò¶˛y!¢≈!›˛ ˆ≤âñ 2018–

37
 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 3.1
Unit-4

Politics of Development/Underdevelopment and relevance of

Developing Countries
!Ó°ÏÎ˚¢)!Ⲡ:
4.1 v˛zˆj Ï üƒ
4.2 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò
4.3 £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò-ˆv˛y!õòˆÏÜã
4.4 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xòƒyòƒ ïyÓ˚íy
4.5 Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛yÈÙÈxÓ˚Üyò!flÒ
4.6 !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥
4.7 ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚ !â˛hs˘˛Ñ˛
4.8 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#
4.9 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

4.1 v˛zˆÏjüƒ
!mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%k˛ v˛z_Ó˚ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò â˛â≈˛yÎ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ~Ñ˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ¢ÇˆÏÎyãò– ~£z !òÓˆÏı˛ xyõÓ˚y
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÓúˆÏì˛ xyõÓ˚y !Ñ˛ Ó%!G˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ÇK˛y xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢ˆÏD Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨
ïyÓ˚íyñ ˆÎõò £y!r›˛Ç›˛òÈÙȈv˛y!õò ˆÜãñ xƒyúõs˛fñ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyòñ Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛yñ xÓ˚܃y!ò:ÈÙÈÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòy xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈñ ˆì˛õò£z
!ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥Á xyˆÏúy!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏüˆÏ°Ï Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚ !â˛hs˘˛Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòyÁ Óúy £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~£z
˛ôy‡˛!›˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xy@˘Ã£# äÈyeÈÙÈäÈye#Ó˚y Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¢ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛ô £ˆÏúÁ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢¡ô)í≈ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÓò–È

4.2 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò

x:ˆÏö˛yv≈˛ £zÇ!úü x!¶˛ïyˆÏò v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÓúˆÏì˛ !ÓÑ˛yü Óy Ó,!k˛Ó˚ hfl˛ÏÓ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yˆÏòy £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ¢£ã¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÓúˆÏì˛ £z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛
˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ~ÓÇ !ÓÑ˛yüˆÏÑ˛£z ˆÓyG˛yˆÏòy £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– “Growth” xÌ≈yÍ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ Óy ≤ÃÜ!ì˛Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôÎ≈yÎ˚ £ˆÏúy v˛zߨÎ˚ò– ï&˛ôî#
!â˛hs˘˛y!Óî xƒyv˛yõ !fl˛øÌ ~ÓÇ ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ !Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏv≈˛yÓ˚ !â˛hs˘˛y¶˛yÓòyÎ˚ ≤ÃÌõ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ì˛y ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– 1776 ¢yˆÏú
xƒyv˛yõ !fl˛øˆÏÌÓ˚ “An Inquiry into the nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” @˘Ãs˛i ≤ÃÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚£z v˛zßΨ ˚ò ì˛_¥
!òˆÏÎ˚ xy@˘Ã£ ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚– ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ hfl˛ÏˆÏÓ˚ õy!Ñ≈˛ò Ó˚y‹T…˛ô!ì˛ ›˛Δ$õƒyò 1949 ¢yˆÏú v˛zߨÎ˚ò Óy ‘Development’ Ñ˛Ìy!›˛ ≤ÃÌõ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%k˛ˆÏ_yÓ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Á ˛ôy‡˛y¶˛ƒy¢ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z v˛zq(ì˛– õy!Ñ≈˛ò
Î%_´Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ !â˛Ñ˛yˆÏÜy !ÓŸª!ÓîƒyúÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ¢õyã!Óã˘yò ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy ˛ô!Ó˚°Ïî (SSRC) ~ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ˛ô!ÌÑ,˛ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ–

38
 !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚ ¢y¡ÀyãƒÓyî Á ˲ô!òˆÏÓ!üÑ˛ì˛y !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# ¢Ç@˘ÃyˆÏõÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ~!üÎ˚yñ xy!ö˛Ñ˛yñ úy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛yÎ˚
xˆÏòÑ˛ fl˛∫yï#ò Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ãß√ £Î˚– xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÜì˛ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ~£z Ó˚y‹T…=!ú !äÈú xò%ß¨ì˛ ~ÓÇ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú–
˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ v˛zß¨ì˛ Ó˚y‹T…=!úñ xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛y Î%_´Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ˆòì,˛ˆÏc ~£z Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ ãòƒ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ÈÙÈÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ÈÙÈ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆÎ v˛zߨÎ˚òõ)úÑ˛
˛ôîˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy !â˛hs˘˛y Á ˆáy°Ïíy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ ˆ¢£z Ó!£xy!D≈Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ õïƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛Ó˚ ãß√–
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ¢Ó≈≤ÃÌõ òyõ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚ õy!Ñ≈˛ò Î%_´Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ˆòì,˛ˆÏcñ 1950 ¢yˆÏú Ó˚y‹T…¢ÇˆÏáÓ˚ úy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ãòƒ £z.!¢.~ú.~.
(ECLA, Economic Commission for Latin America) ܇˛ò– xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ¢£yÎ˚ì˛yñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òñ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢£yÎ˚ì˛y Á ˛ô,¤˛ˆÏ˛ôy°ÏÑ˛ì˛y ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õyÏõ ¶)˛!õÈÙÈ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ãyì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y›˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ ˆÎ Óyì˛yÓÓ˚í ~!üÎ˚yÈÙÈxy!ö˛Ñ˛y
Á úy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ !Óîƒõyò !äÈúñ ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ÈÙÈÜíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ˜ì˛!Ó˚
Ñ˛Ó˚y£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õ)ú ú«˛ƒ– ~£z úˆÏ«˛ƒÓ˚ x!¶˛õ%Ö !£¢yˆÏÓñ SÑ˛V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òó
SÖV Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ õ)úƒˆÏÓyˆÏïÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òó SÜV ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚# ÓƒÓfl˛iy˛ôòyÎ˚ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÓüó Á SáV Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyeyÜì˛
˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
!mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛y_Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏúÓ˚ 1950ÈÙÈ1960 ¢yˆÏú õ)úì˛É SSRCÈÙÈÓ˚ ì%˛úòyõ)úÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚yÓy!£Ñ˛ì˛y ÓãyÎ˚
Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ !≤Ù›˛ò !ÓŸª!ÓîƒyúÎ˚ Ñ˛ì˛Ñ˛=!ú Ó£z ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ~!üÎ˚yÈÙÈxy!ö˛Ñ˛yÈÙÈúy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛y Á xòƒyòƒ v˛zߨÎ˚òõ%Ö# Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚
x!¶˛K˛ì˛yú∏˛ ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy!¶˛!_Ñ˛ ì˛ÌƒˆÏÑ˛ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓü Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛ãò òyõ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò# Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ ~£z Ó£z=!ú
Ó˚â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ܃y!ÓˆÏÎ˚ú xƒyúõu˛ñ ú%!¢Î˚yò ˛ôy£zñ v˛!Óœv˛z.v˛!Óœv˛z. Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛yñ !¢v˛!ò ¶˛yÓ≈yñ ˆãõ¢‰ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyòñ õy£zÓ˚ò ÁÎ˚y£zòyÓ˚ñ
ˆÎyˆÏ¢ö˛ úy˛ôyˆÏúyõÓyÓ˚y ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚y !äȈÏúò ~£z Ó£z=!úÓ˚ Ó˚â˛!Î˚ì˛y– v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚
≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ì˛yÎ˚ ~§Ó˚yñ ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ñ !ü«˛yñ xyõúyì˛s˛fñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îúñ fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛# ≤ö,˛!ì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò Á
≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y xò%¢ı˛yò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛õy!eÑ˛ñ ~Ñ˛˜ÏÓ˚!ÖÑ˛ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢ÇK˛y !òï≈yÓ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÓü Ñ˛!‡˛ò– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õyeyÜì˛
!¶˛ß¨ì˛y Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Á ì˛yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï !ÓˆÏü°Ï Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ~ì˛›˛y£z !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#úñ ˆÎ ì˛yÓ˚ !ò!î≈‹T ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢ÇK˛y
ˆîÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ òy– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe £z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ãyïyòƒ !îˆÏÎ˚. Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
¢ÇˆÏÎyˆÏÜÓ˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ñ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÜy¤˛#Ó˚ Á ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ myÓ˚y ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ îyÓ#ÈÙÈîyÁÎ˚y ¢õÌ≈òñ Á ˆ¢£z ¢õÌ≈ˆÏòÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛
¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚# ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛c ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ˚y¢ˆÏÑ˛ ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò Óúy ÎyÎ˚– ˆÑ˛òòyñ ~Ó˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xÇü@˘Ã£í Á ¢ÇˆÏÎyÜñ ≤Ãüy¢!òÑ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï#Ñ˛Ó˚í Á Ó˝õ%Ö# Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úyˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ Óƒy!Æñ ÜíõyÏõÓ˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛f ≤ö,˛!ì˛ ¢%!ò!ÿ˛ì˛
£Î˚–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ÇK˛y !îˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ xyúõhs˘˛ ~ÓÇ ˛ôyÁˆÏÎ˚ú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï#Ñ˛Ó˚í Á ì˛yÓ˚ì˛ˆÏõƒÓ˚ Ó,!k˛Ó˚
¢ˆÏD Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ïõ≈!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ì˛yÓ˚ õyˆÏòÓ˚ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~¢.!˛ô. £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ~ÓÇ ˆã.xy£z. v˛!õòˆÏÜã
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢)â˛Ñ˛ !£¢yˆÏÓ !ò!î≈‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ú«˛ƒ x!¶˛õ%Ö# Ñ˛yÓ˚í Îy !ÓˆÏü°Ï ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ÈÙÈxÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏí x!¶˛úy¢#ñ ˆ¢£z ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò xyÓyÓ˚ ¢Ç܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ fl˛iy!Î˚c Á õ)úƒˆÏÓyï xã≈ˆÏòÓ˚
˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÓúˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆã.~£zâ˛. !õˆÏ›˛úõƒyò ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ú«˛ƒ ˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ Á
õyòÓ¢¡ôˆÏîÓ˚ Î%!_´¢ÇÜì˛ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÓúˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– Îy£z ˆ£yÑ˛ òy ˆÑ˛òñ !ÓÜì˛ üì˛y∑#Ó˚ 50ÈÙÈ60 Óy
70ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛ î,!‹T !îˆÏú ˆîÖy ÎyˆÏÓñ õy!Ñ≈˛ò Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#Ó˚y ~!üÎ˚yÈÙÈxy!ö˛Ñ˛yÈÙÈúy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛y ~ÓÇ õïƒ≤ÃyˆÏâ˛ƒÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏãÁ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ õy˛ôÑ˛y!‡˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ ¢ÇK˛y!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ÎyÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãïyò v˛z˛ôyîyò !£¢yˆÏÓ xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛£z õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòó ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢â˛úì˛yñ xı˛¢ÇflÒyÓ˚
˛ô!Ó˚£yÓ˚ñ ˜Óïì˛y Á òƒyÎ˚ò#!ì˛Ó˚ ≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛Á =Ó˚&c ˆîÁÎ˚y £ˆÏFäÈó ~ÓÇ ~=!úˆÏÑ˛ =Ó˚&c ˆîÁÎ˚y £ˆÏFäÈ v˛zߨÎ˚òõ%Ö#
Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ ãy!ì˛ Ü‡˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Èϟ¿– ¢yõhs˘˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô ˆÎõò !ü“v˛zß¨ì˛ ¢õyˆÏã ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈúñ òÓãyÜÓ˚í ~ÓÇ ïõ≈¢ÇflÒyÓ˚

39
xyˆÏ®yúˆÏòÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ñ ˆì˛õò£z Ñ,˛!°Ï!¶˛!_Ñ˛ ~!üÎ˚yÈÙÈxy!ö˛Ñ˛yÈÙÈúy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛y Á õïƒ≤ÃyˆÏâ˛ƒÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ õ)úƒˆÏÓyˆÏï v˛zm%k˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¢õyã Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õ)ú ú«˛ƒ !£¢yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy
Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ~Ñ˛Ìy !‡˛Ñ˛ñ 1950ÈÙÈ1960 ¢yˆÏúÓ˚ xyˆÏÜ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò !ӰψÏÎ˚ ˆì˛õò !Ñ˛ä%È ˆüyòy ÎyÎ˚!ò– !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛y_Ó˚
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Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÎ˚ x¶˛ƒfl˛i Ñ˛!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆòÁÎ˚yÓ˚ õy!Ñ≈˛ò ≤ÃÎ˚yˆÏ¢Ó˚£z ˙Ñ˛y!hs˘˛Ñ˛ ö˛¢ú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
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v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òyˆÏÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ¢ÓˆÏüˆÏ°Ï ˆîÖˆÏì˛ â˛y£zˆÏÓy ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xòƒyòƒ
Ó˚*˛ôˆÏÓ˚ÖyˆÏÑ˛–

4.3 £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò-ˆv˛y!õòˆÏÜã
1975 ¢yˆÏú £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ~ÓÇ ˆv˛y!õòˆÏÜã Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zßΨ ò˚ ˆÏÑ˛ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆìÏ ˛ !܈ÏÎÈ˚ ÙÙÙÈSÑ˛V ˆ¶˛ÔˆÏÜy!úÑ˛ (Geographycal),
SÖV v˛zqÓÜì˛ (Derivative), SÜV ˛ôÓ˚õ Ñ˛yÓ˚!òÑ˛ (Teleological), SáV !e´Î˚yü#úì˛y (functional) ~£z â˛yÓ˚!›˛ v˛z˛ôyîyˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚
ˆãyÓ˚ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆ¶˛ÔˆÏÜy!úÑ˛ xˆÏÌ≈ ˆÑ˛yò xMÈ˛úˆÏÑ˛ xyõÓ˚y v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !ò!Ó˚ˆÏÖ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ â˛y£z!äÈ– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !mì˛#Î˚
!ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛y_Ó˚ ~!üÎ˚yÈÙÈxy!ö˛Ñ˛yÈÙÈúy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛y ~ÓÇ õïƒ≤ÃyˆÏâ˛ƒÓ˚ !Ñ˛ä%È ˆîü ˆÎÖyˆÏò îy!Ó˚oñ Ñ,˛!°Ïñ !ü“ xò%ߨì˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
xò!¶˛K˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ õy˛ôÑ˛y!‡˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ v˛zß¨ì˛ Á v˛zߨÎ˚òõ%Ö# Óy xò%ß¨ì˛ Ó˚y!‹T…Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyˆÏÑ˛ !ò!î≈‹T Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– v˛zqÓõ)úÑ˛ ÓúˆÏì˛
xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íãyì˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õyeyˆÏÑ˛ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ˆÎÖyˆÏò !ü“yÎ˚òñ òÜÓ˚yÎ˚òñ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ £yÓ˚ñ !ü«˛yÓ˚ £yˆÏÓ˚
v˛zFâ˛õ%Ö#òì˛y ~ÓÇ ÜíõyÏõÓ˚ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ õyeyÜì˛ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ â˛yÁÎ˚y £Î˚– ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛=íÜì˛ õyeyˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛
£ˆÏÎ˚ Á‡˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÓ≈ !£¢yˆÏÓ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– v˛zˆÏjüƒÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏí ~ÖyˆÏò Üíì˛s˛fñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛iy!Î˚cñ ˜Óïì˛yñ ãyì˛#Î˚ ¢Ç£!ì˛ñ
xyõúyì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ì˛y ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆãyÓ˚ ˆîÁÎ˚y £Î˚– !e´Î˚yü#úì˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyîyò Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ !üˆÏ“yߨì˛ÈÙÈòyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ÈÙÈ˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ
Üíì˛ˆÏs˛f– Óyhfl˛ÏˆÏÓ £y!r›˛Ç›˛òÈÙȈv˛y!õòˆÏ܈ÏãÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥ ˆÎ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c ˆîÁÎ˚y £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú ì˛y £ˆÏúy xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í– xyÓ˚
~£z !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ì˛y !îˆÏÎ˚ £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò 1987 ¢yˆÏú ì§˛yÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò Á xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥!›˛ £y!ãÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
1987 ¢yú òyÜyî Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í Á ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆîƒyì˛Ñ˛ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò
£y!r›˛Ç›˛ò– xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD !õ◊ Á ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛– xyÌ≈ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ¢yˆÏÌ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
v˛zߨÎ˚òÁ £ˆÏúy xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yÎ˚Ñ˛– ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…=!úˆÏì˛ñ Ñ,˛!°Ï!¶˛!_Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏã Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚
≤Ã!e´Î˚y !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ â˛yú% £ˆÏÓó ~ÓÇ â˛yú% £ˆÏú ì˛yÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ¢õì˛yñ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Óƒy!Æ Ñ˛ì˛Öy!ò v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ £ˆÏÓ ~£z
!Óì˛ˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ õïƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ì§˛yÓ˚ñ “The Goals of Development” !òÓı˛ Ó˚â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ~£z !òÓˆÏı˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ õ)ú ≤ß¿ !äÈúñ
v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ òyòy!Óï úˆÏ«˛ƒÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ˆÏÑ˛ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yñ ~Öò ≤ß¿ £ˆÏúy v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ=!ú Ñ˛#⁄ £y!r›˛Ç›˛ˆÏòÓ˚
õˆÏì˛ ~£z ú«˛ƒ=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ¢¡ôî Ó,!k˛ñ Ó^˘›˛ˆÏò òƒy΃ì˛yñ fl˛iy!Î˚cñ Üíì˛s˛f ~ÓÇ ãyì˛#Î˚ fl˛∫ì˛s˛fì˛y– ~£z ú«˛ƒ=!úÓ˚ ¢¡ô)í≈ì˛yÓ˚
≤Èϟ¿ £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò !ì˛ò!›˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ xÓì˛yÓ˚íy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
≤ÃÌõ!›˛ £ˆÏúyÈÙÙÙÈÑ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ì˛y– £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ≤Ãyâ˛#ò ¢òyì˛ò# Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ xy˛ôyì˛ m®¥ ~Ó˚
xÓfl˛iyòˆÏÑ˛ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ãyâ˛#òñ ïõ#≈Î˚ñ ˛ôy!Ó˚Óy!Ó˚Ñ˛ ò,Ñ%˛úãy!ì˛!¶˛!_Ñ˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛cÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ïõ≈!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ñ Î%!_´!¶˛!_Ñ˛ñ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛cˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ãyïyòƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò–
!mì˛#Î˚!›˛ £ˆÏúy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !e´Î˚yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï#Ñ˛Ó˚íñ £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛Ó˚ !Ó¶˛yãò Á !ÓˆÏü°Ï#Ñ˛Ó˚í á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ
ˆÎ !Ó!ü‹T Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ ˆÎõò ˆÎõò v˛zߨÎ˚ò îÓ˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ˆ¢=!úÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ ú«˛ƒ˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòó ~ÓÇ
ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛ Óy ¢Ó≈ˆÏüˆÏ°Ï ¢õ@˘Ã ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ñ ¢õhfl˛Ï ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~£z ÓƒyÖƒy

40
≤âˆÏD£z £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò Ö%Ó ˆÑ˛ÔüˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yñ Îy ¢òyì˛ò ÓƒÓfl˛iy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ˛ôî≈y˛ôˆÏí≈Ó˚
xyˆÏ®yúˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôÎ≈yÎ˚ !£¢yˆÏÓ Üíƒ £Î˚ñ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤ö˛yÓ Îy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ñ
¢yõy!ãÑ˛ñ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ñ ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ì˛¶˛yì˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˆõÔú ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ~Ñ˛!›˛ xyˆÏ®yúò
!£¢yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛ !ò!î≈‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ xyˆÏ®yúˆÏòÓ˚ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ì˛yÎ˚– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ ~£z
xyˆÏ®yúò ¢Ó ¢õˆÏÎ˚£z ˛ô%Ó˚yì˛ò ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ x¢Ç£!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yÎ˚Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ xò%Ñ)˛ú ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy
˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ x¢«˛õ– Óyhfl˛ÏÓ ¢õ¢ƒy £ˆÏúyñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢â˛úì˛y Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ õyey Îì˛ Ó,!k˛ ˛ôyÎ˚ñ
ˆ¢£z¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛Ó˚í áˆÏ›˛ òy– ö˛ˆÏúñ ˆîÖy ˆîÎ˚ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÓƒÓfl˛iy Á !Óü,Cúyñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ ¢õ¢ƒy !£¢yˆÏÓ £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ì˛y£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò Á ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ÈÙÈxÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ¢K˛yì˛
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Óú¡∫ò Óy Political LagÈÙÈˆÑ˛£z !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ ˆÎ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ~ÓÇ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ x¢Ç£!ì˛ ì˛y ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD ¢õyˆÏã òì%˛ò òì%˛ò ¢yõy!ãÑ˛
ü!_´Ó˚ ¶˛yÓ˚¢yõƒ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£í !¶˛!_Ñ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îyÓ#ÈÙÈîyÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛e ˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆîÖy ˆîÎ˚ ~õò ~Ñ˛
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎ ~£z x¢Ç£!ì˛ó ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ !Óü,CúyÓ˚ xÓ¢yò £zFäÈyÎ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ ˆòc Á v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ ¢¡±îyÎ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸ ì%˛úˆÏì˛
¢«˛õ £ˆÏÓ– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ ¢¡±îyÎ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸ ì%˛úˆÏì˛ £ˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎ «˛õì˛y Á ¢yõÌ≈ƒ ÌyÑ˛y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ì˛yÓ˚ x¶˛yÓ
xì˛ƒhs˘˛ fl˛ô‹T– Óy!ãˆÏú ~Ñ˛ ¢õˆÏÎ˚ v˛zͲôyîò Á xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ £yÓ˚ Ö%Ó£z ˆÓˆÏv˛¸!äÈú– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ÈÙÈxy!Ì≈Ñ˛ x¢õì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí
ˆîÖy !îˆÏÎ˚!äÈú ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ x¢ˆÏhs˘˛y°Ïñ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ x!fl˛iÓ˚ì˛y– â˛#ˆÏò xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ¢õì˛y ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £ˆÏúÁ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚
≤ây!Ó˚ì˛ £Î˚!ò– Îy â˛yÁÎ˚y £ˆÏFäÈ ~ÓÇ Îy ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyˆÏFäÈ ì˛yÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ â˛yÁÎ˚yÈÙÈ˛ôyÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ !ÓÓ˚y›˛ ö§˛yÑ˛ ˜ì˛!Ó˚ £ˆÏFäÈ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚
ö˛ú◊&!ì˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏã ü,Cúy !fl˛iì˛Ófl˛iyÓ˚ x¶˛yÓ ˆîÖy !îˆÏFäÈ– ~£z xÓfl˛iy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛z_Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Èϟ¿ ˆÑ˛v˛z ˆÑ˛v˛z
ÚÚxyõúyì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ÈÙÈÚÑ˛ì,≈˛cÓyˆÏîÓ˚Û v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò xÓüƒ ~£z Î%!_´ˆÏì˛ xyfl˛iy Ó˚yˆÏÖò !ò– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ
Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T… Ñ˛Öò£z xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ó,!k˛ £yÓ˚ v˛z§â%˛ õyeyÎ˚ £Î˚ òy– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛cÓyî# Ó˚yˆÏ‹T… xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ £yÓ˚ Ö%Ó v˛z§â%˛ õyeyÎ˚Á
£ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ xyÓyÓ˚ õyG˛y!Ó˚ Óy Ö%Ó£z ò#â%˛ õyeyÎ˚ ᛲˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– xy¢ˆÏú v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Èϟ¿ ~£z ˆÎ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ Ü!ì˛ Á £yÓ˚ ì˛y ˆÓü#Ó˚¶˛yÜ
¢õˆÏÎ˚£z xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ~ÓÇ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ õ)úƒˆÏÓyïÁ ì˛yÓ˚ fl˛iy!Î˚ˆÏcÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú– ~£z xyhs˘˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ òy Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏú
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zßΨ ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Á ˆÓyG˛y ÎyˆÏÓ òy– £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛e!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛Ó˚í
Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !ò!î≈‹T Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛yÓ˚í !ì˛!ò õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ õˆÏz Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó#ã ú%!Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– xyÓ˚ ~Ó˚ !Ó˛ôÓ˚#ˆÏì˛ xÌ≈yÍ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ¢yõˆÏÌ≈ƒÓ˚ x¶˛yÓ ¢õyˆÏã !£Ç¢yÈÙÈ!Óü,Cúy
˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚í!ì˛ˆÏì˛ x!òÓyÎ≈ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÁˆÏ‡˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÓ«˛Î˚–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Èϟ¿ £y!r›˛Ç›˛ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ≤ß¿ !äÈú ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ÈÙÈxy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢ˆÏD£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò áˆÏ›˛⁄ òy !Ñ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ÈÙÈxy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôÌ ¢%Üõ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚⁄ Ñ˛yÎ≈ì˛É Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ú«˛ƒ ~ÓÇ
xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ú«˛ƒ î%!›˛ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ Ñ˛yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ≤ß¿ ˆÑ˛ÈÙÈÑ˛yˆÏÑ˛ xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ⁄ Óy xyˆÏîÔ ~ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢õß∫Î˚
¢Ω˛Ó !Ñ˛⁄ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚òõ%Ö# Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ â˛â≈˛yÓ˚ ö˛!úì˛ x!¶˛K˛ì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ~£z
Ó˚y‹T…=!úˆÏì˛ SÑ˛V ãò ¢õÌ≈òÓyî# Óy ˛ô˛ô%!úfi›˛ î%‹Tâ˛e´ó ~ÓÇ SÖV ≤ÃÎ%!_´ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ î%‹Tâ˛e´ÛÓ˚ x!ì˛ ì˛Í˛ôÓ˚ì˛yÎ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ £yÓ˚ ÌõˆÏÑ˛
ÎyÎ˚– ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD !Óhfl˛,Ïì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£íñ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ õ®Ü!ì˛ñ ˆ◊í#¢ÇáyˆÏì˛Ó˚ ì˛#Óì˛yñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ÈÙÈxÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õì˛yñ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ x!ì˛ˆÏÓ˚Ñ˛ó ~ÓÇ xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ @˘Ã£íñ â)˛v˛¸yhs˘˛ Üí x¢ˆÏhs˘˛y°Ï x!fl˛iì˛yÓfl˛iy !ÓˆÏÓy˚ ï#
xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ !ÓˆÏfl˛≥˛yÓ˚íñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ì˛yÎ˚ Óyïy ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ ì˛Ìy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ õyò v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛e!›˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ¢!ÓˆÏüˆÏ°Ï =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– £y!r›˛Ç›˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÎ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôÓ˚!ÓˆÏÓ˚yï#
Ó_´Óƒ=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ õy!òˆÏÎ˚ ˆòÁÎ˚yñ ¢õˆÏG˛yì˛y Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D ˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏú £Î˚ˆÏì˛y v˛zߨÎ˚òõ%Ö# Ó˚y‹T…=!ú

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Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛›˛y ¢!‡˛Ñ˛ !îüy Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛£z ì§˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ !òï≈yÓ˚í v˛z˛ôyîyò !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓ!â˛ì˛
£ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–

4.4 Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xòƒyòƒ ïyÓ˚íy

!ÓÜì˛ üì˛y∑#Ó˚ °ÏyˆÏ›˛Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛ S1960V xƒyúõu˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyò ¢¡ôy!îì˛ “The Politics of Developing Areas”
@˘ÃˆÏs˛i xƒyúõu˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyñ ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#úì˛y !ӈϟ’°ÏíydÑ˛ ¢#õyˆÏÓ˚Öy Á Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– ~£z ¶˛yÓòy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z xƒyúõu˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yúõƒyò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ñ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú# ~ÓÇ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ¢¡ô,_´ ¢õ¢ƒyÓú#Ó˚ xhs˘˛¢¡ôÑ≈˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ ~£z !Ó°ÏÎ˚=!úÓ˚
xyhs˘˛¢¡ôÑ≈˛£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ü!ì˛˛ôÌ !òï≈yÓ˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xƒyúõˆÏu˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÌ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy â˛yÓ˚ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚
¢õ¢ƒyÓ˚ ¢¡ø%Ö#ò £Î˚– ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÌõ!›˛ £ˆÏúy Ó˚y‹T… ܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õ¢ƒyñ !mì˛#Î˚!›˛ £ˆÏúy ãy!ì˛ Ü‡˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õ¢ƒyñ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚!›˛ £ˆÏúy !¢k˛yhs˘˛
@˘Ã£ˆÏí xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢õ¢ƒy ~ÓÇ â˛ì%˛Ì≈!›˛ £ˆÏúy ¢¡ôî Ó^˘›˛ˆÏòÓ˚ Á ˛ô%òÓ≈r›˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õ¢ƒy– xƒyúˆÏu˛Ó˚ ÓƒyÖƒyò%ÎyÎ˚# Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
v˛zߨÎ˚ò £ˆÏúy ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yñ Îy Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒã!òì˛ xòòƒì˛yñ Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚ !Ó!ü‹Tì˛yñ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ˆúyÑ˛yÎ˚ì˛Ñ˛Ó˚í
≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õyÏõ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Á ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏüÓ˚ xhs˘˛Ü≈ì˛ ¢õ¢ƒy=!úˆÏÑ˛ xò%ïyÓò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ ¢õÌ≈ƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
ˆì˛yˆÏú–
ú%!¢Î˚yò ˛ôy£z xƒyúõu˛ˆÏÑ˛ xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !ÓÜì˛ üì˛y∑#Ó˚ ¢yˆÏì˛Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛ S1972V “Aspects of Political Development”
@˘ÃˆÏs˛i ÓúˆÏúòñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò £ˆÏúy xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ãyщ˛ üì≈˛ñ xÌ≈yÍ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õ¢ƒy
xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õ¢ƒyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛£z Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ !ì˛!ò !ü“ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ ÓˆÏú v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ÈÙÙÙÈSÑ˛V ãy!ì˛ Ü‡˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õ¢ƒyó SÖV ≤Ãüy¢!òÑ˛ Á xy£zòÜì˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õ¢ƒyó SÜV ãò ¢â˛úì˛yó SáV Üíì˛s˛f !òõ≈yíó SàV
fl˛iy!Î˚c Á !òÎ˚õyò%Ü ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òó Sâ˛V «˛õì˛yÓ˚ !Óâ˛úò#Î˚ì˛y Á SäÈV ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ õyeyÜì˛ !¶˛ß¨ì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚
Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ú%!¢Î˚yò ˛ôy£z ¢õì˛yñ ¢yõÌ≈ƒ ~ÓÇ !ÓˆÏü°Ï#Ñ˛Ó˚í !¶˛!_Ñ˛ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛ õyïƒõˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !ì˛ò!›˛
!Ó!ü‹Tì˛y Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ãyì˛#Î˚ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ì˛y Îy ¢Ó≈ãò#ò xy£zòÜì˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ myÓ˚y !ò!î≈‹Tñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Îy
¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õyÏõ v˛zˆÏ_ãòy ≤Ãüõò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏì˛ƒÑ˛!›˛ !Ó¶˛yˆÏÜÓ˚ fl˛∫ì˛s˛f !ÓˆÏü°Ï#Ñ,˛ì˛ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Á
≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !ò!î≈‹Tì˛y !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ õyÏõ£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ᛲˆÏÓñ ~£z !äÈú ˛ôy£zÈÙÈ~Ó˚ !ÓŸªy¢–
ˆv˛!¶˛v˛ xƒy≤WzyÓ˚ ì§˛yÓ˚ “The Politics of Modernization” @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ¢õyã ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ ò)ì˛ò ¶)˛!õÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢)â˛Ñ˛ ì˛Íã!òì˛
˛ô!Ó˚Ó!ì≈˛ì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!fl˛i!ì˛Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD õy!òˆÏÎ˚ ˆòÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ≤ÃÎ%!_´Üì˛
˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òñ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ Á ≤ö˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú– xƒyfi›˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ !ü“
xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÎyÜ# ¶)˛!õÑ˛y !Óhfl˛ÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õˆÏz Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛– ~£z ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ܈Ïv˛¸ ˆì˛yúyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
¢yõ!Ó˚Ñ˛ Á Üí≤Ãüy¢òñ xyõúyì˛s˛fñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îúñ ˆ˛ôüyîyÓ˚ ˆ◊í#ñ ≤ÃÎ%!_´!ÓîÓ˚y x@˘Ãí# ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˆòÎ˚– xƒy˛ô›˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ñ
!ü“yÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛e ≤Ãlfl˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÓyÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚ Óú≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ Á !òÎ˚s˛fˆÏíÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò xyÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òyñ ì˛Öò v˛zîyÓ˚ò#!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy
xÌ≈yÍ ì˛Ìƒ ¶˛y[˛yÓ˚ ≤Ãlfl˛ì˛ Á !Ó!òÎ˚õñ !òÎ˚õyò%Ü !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï !ò‹ô!_ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏÓˆÏüÓ˚ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ !¶˛!_ ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õyÏõ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛iy!Î˚c ¢%!ò!ÿ˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–

42
4.5 Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛yÈÙÈxÓ˚Üyò!flÒ
xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ~Ñ˛˜ÏÓ˚!ÖÑ˛ õyeyÎ˚ ÎyÓ˚y !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ ì§˛yÓ˚y ¢òyì˛ò Ñ,˛!°Ï!¶˛!_Ñ˛ ¢õyã
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ !ü“!¶˛!_Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏã v˛z_Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛£z v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xy˛ôyì˛˜ÏÓÓ˚#ì˛y ÌyÑ˛y ¢ˆÏ_¥Á ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ¢!ÓˆÏü°Ï
v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚– Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛y ~ÓÇ xÓ˚Üyò!flÒÓ˚ xÓîyò– Ó˚yˆÏfi›˛y (W.W. Rostow) 1960 ¢yˆÏú ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# õˆÏv˛úˆÏÑ˛
v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õy˛ôÑ˛y!‡˛ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yò ¢õyˆÏã£z ~£z v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò Ó˚*˛ô !îˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆãˆÏò
Ó˚yÖy ¶˛yˆÏúyñ Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛yÓ˚ õˆÏv˛ú!›˛ ¢¡ô)í≈ì˛£z Ñ˛!õv˛z!òfi›˛ õì˛yîü≈ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# ~ÓÇ Ñ˛yú≈ õyˆÏ:≈Ó˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ £z!ì˛£y¢ îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó≤Ãì˛#Ñ˛
~Ñ˛!›˛ ïyÓ˚íyñ Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛y xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ó,!k˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ö%Ó fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ !£¢yˆÏÓ ˆîÖˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ~ÓÇ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ ¢Ω˛yÓòy
ÌyÑ˛ˆÏú ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yò ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓüÈÙÈ˛ô!Ó˚!fl˛i!ì˛ˆÏì˛£z v˛zߨÎ˚ò ¢Ω˛Ó– ~£z ¢)ˆÏe ¢òyì˛ò Óy ˛ô%Ó˚yì˛ò ÓƒÓfl˛iy ÓúˆÏì˛ Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛y ˆ¢£z ÓƒÓfl˛iy Óy
¢õyãˆÏÑ˛£z Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ÎyÓ˚y Ñ,˛ÍˆÏÑ˛ÔüúÜì˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ â˛y£zˆÏäÈ– Îì˛«˛í òy Ó˚*˛ôyhs˘˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôÓ≈ ¢õyïy £ˆÏFäÈñ
ì˛ì˛«˛í xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ Óy v˛zߨÎ˚ò áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈñ ~õò!›˛ Óúy ÎyˆÏÓ òy– Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛y ˛ô%§!ãÓyî#ÈÙÈ!ü“!¶˛!_Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô§yâ˛!›˛ ¶˛yˆÏÜ ¶˛yÜ
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ~£z ¶˛yÜ=!ú xyÓyÓ˚ !ÓõyˆÏò ¢ö˛Ó˚ ÎyeyÓ˚ òyõ Á ᛲòyÓ˚ xò%¢D#–
SàV v˛zFⲠˆ¶˛yˆÏÜÓ˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ (High mass consumption)

SáV ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ôˆÏÌ Îyey (Drive to maturity)

SÜV ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ v˛zÕ‘¡∫ò (Take-off)

SÖV v˛zÕ‘¡∫ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô)Ó≈üì≈˛=!ú (Pre condition for take-off)

SÑ˛V ¢òyì˛ò xò%ß¨ì˛ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ Á ¢õyã (Tradition not society)

xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏò ì§˛yÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛ì˛ Ñ˛!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ 60ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ !ü“ÈÙÈv˛zß¨ì˛ ¢õyã xÌ≈yÍ ˛ô!ÿ˛õ £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô
Á õy!Ñ≈˛ò Î%_´Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠïyˆÏ˛ô fl˛iyò !îˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛y ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛ñ â˛#òñ ì%˛Ñ˛#≈ñ ˆõ!:ˆÏÑ˛yñ xyˆÏã≈!r›˛òyˆÏÑ˛ v˛zÕ‘¡∫ò Óy take
offÈÙÈ~Ó˚ v˛zFâ˛ì˛yÎ˚ fl˛iyò !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò–
Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛yÓ˚ !Ó≤Ãì˛#ˆÏÑ˛ xÓ˚Üyò!flÒ 1965 ¢yˆÏú v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ xÓì˛yÓ˚íy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏúò– xÓ˚Üò!flÒÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚
Ñ˛ì˛›˛y ì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ õyòÓ¢¡ôî Á Ólfl˛Üì˛ ¢¡ôîˆÏÑ˛ ãyì˛#Î˚ ú«˛ƒ ˛ô!Ó˚˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏí ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ ˆ¢£z õyeyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò
!ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#úñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚õyˆÏ˛ô xÓ˚˛ôyò!flÒ â˛yÓ˚!›˛ hfl˛ÏÓ˚ !òˆÏî≈ü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
SáV xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛w#Ñ˛Ó˚í (Abundance)

SÜV ãyì˛#Î˚ Ñ˛úƒyí (Industrialisation)

SÖV !ü“yÎ˚ò (Primitive Unification)

SÑ˛V ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ñ˛ ˙Ñ˛ƒõì˛
43
 ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˆÑ˛w#Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ üy¢òñ !ü“yÎ˚ò Á ãyì˛#Î˚ Ñ˛úƒyíÑ˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚ õyÏõ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Á xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ «˛õì˛y Á ü!_´Ó˚
˛ô%O#Ñ˛Ó˚í á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ ãyì˛#Î˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íxyˆÏÑ˛ !Ó˛ôߨ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ¶˛yˆÏÓ xyMÈ˛!úÑ˛ Óy õ£yˆÏîü#Î˚ Ó˚y‹T… ˆãyˆÏ›˛Ó˚ ˛ôˆÏÌ x@˘Ã¢Ó˚ £Î˚ñ
xÓ˚Üyò!flÒ õˆÏì˛ ˆ¢›˛y£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òñ Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛yÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòyÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ (Political Economy) ~Ñ˛ xòòƒ
Ó˚*˛ôÑ˛“yÓ˚ xy¶˛y¢ ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ xÓ˚Üyò!flÒÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòy–
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÌ≈˜Ï!ì˛Ñ˛ î,!‹TˆÏì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò â˛yÓ˚!›˛ õyeyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú– ~=!ú £ˆÏúy ÎÌye´ˆÏõÈÙÙÙÈ
SÑ˛V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫FäÈì˛yÓ˚ õyey Ó,!k˛Ó˚ó
SÖV Ó!ï≈ì˛ â˛y!£îyÓ˚ ˆõyÑ˛y!Óúy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢«˛õ £ˆÏÎ˚ Á‡˛yó
SÜV â˛y!£îyÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ¢õÌ≈ƒ £ÁÎ˚yó
SáV Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zˆÏîƒyܲô!ì˛Ó˚ ¢ÇÖƒyÓ,!k˛Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢ˆÏD ¢yõO¢ƒ˛ô)í≈ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ¢yõÌ≈ƒ xã≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚y–
£zúâ˛õƒyò ~ÓÇ v˛z˛ô£ö‰˛ òyˆÏõ î%£z ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !¶˛!_ xÌ≈yÍ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îúñ õì˛yîü≈ñ !òÓ≈yâ˛òñ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛“òyˆÏÑ˛
¢¡ôî Á ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ ˜Óïì˛y !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆÑ˛ò òy ≤Ãüy¢!òÑ˛ fl˛iy!Î˚c òy xyòˆÏì˛
˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏú v˛zߨÎ˚òõ%Ö# ò#!ì˛ Ó˚*˛ôyÎ˚í ¢Ω˛Ó £ˆÏÓ òy–

4.6 !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥

Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zîyÓ˚ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ Óy£zˆÏÓ˚Á ˆÓü !Ñ˛ä%È ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓ!üì˛ £Î˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
£zõyò%ˆÏÎ˚ú ÁÎ˚yúyÓ˚fi›˛y£zòñ xyˆÏw =u˛yÓ˚ ö˛yB˛ñ ¢y!õÓ˚ xy!õòñ v˛¢ ¢ƒyò›˛¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛yˆÏ¢y ~ÓÇ ö˛ƒyˆÏúˆÏ›˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xÓîyò
v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃– ÁÎ˚yúyÓ˚fi›˛y£zò ì§˛yÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò v˛zß¨ì˛ ˆîü=!úÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò Á ¢õ,!k˛Ó˚ üì≈˛ £ˆÏúy ˛ôÓ˚!ò¶≈˛Ó˚
ˆîü=!úÓ˚ xò%ߨÎ˚ò– ˆÑ˛w Á ≤Ãyhs˘˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!ïÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ xÓì˛yÓ˚íy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ÈÙÙÙÈ
≤Ãyhs˘˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!ï

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

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˛ô!ÿ˛õ# v˛zß¨ì˛ ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˆîü xò%ß¨ì˛ î!Ó˚o Ñ,˛!°Ï ≤Ãîyò ˆîü=!ú
ÁˆÏÎ˚úyÓ˚ÈÙÈfi›˛y£zò ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ !ÓŸª ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õ)úˆÏÑ˛ˆÏw xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ ˛ô!ÿ˛õ# v˛zß¨ì˛ ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˆîü=!úñ xyÓ˚ Ó,ˆÏ_Ó˚
î)Ó˚Óì˛#≈ ˛ô!Ó˚!ïˆÏì˛ xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ xò%ß¨ì˛ î!Ó˚o Ñ,˛!°Ï ≤Ãïyò ˆîü=!ú– !ÓÜì˛ â˛yÓ˚ÈÙÈ˛ô§yⲠüì˛y∑# ïˆÏÓ˚ ˲ô!òˆÏÓ!üÑ˛ üy¢ˆÏòÓ˚ £yì˛
ïˆÏÓ˚ ïòì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ≤âyˆÏÓ˚ Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚y v˛zͲôyîò ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !Óhfl˛ÏyˆÏÓ˚ Ñ,˛!°Ï≤Ãïyò ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆüy°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ Á
˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ ïòì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ãÎ˚Üyò ÜyÁÎ˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ó,ˆÏ_Ó˚ ≤Ãyhs˘˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!ï!fl˛iì˛ ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ !ü«˛yñ ˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ
v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ xyîú Á xyõúyì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ !òÎ˚s˛fˆÏí Ók˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Óüƒì˛yÓ˚ õyÏõ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˜Óïì˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛e ≤Ãlfl˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú– ~Ñ˛ Ñ˛ÌyÎ˚ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ ˛ôyÿ˛yˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ¢¡ô)í≈ì˛É£z xò%ß¨ì˛ Ñ,˛!°Ï≤Ãïyò
ˆîü=!úÓ˚ ѧ˛yâ˛yõyú ¢Ó˚ÓÓ˚yˆÏ£Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú– £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚ ˆÑ˛w!Ó®% ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyÜì˛ ïòì˛s˛f ~!üÎ˚yÈÙÈxy!ö˛Ñ˛y Á úy!ì˛ò
xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ≤Ãyщ˛ÈÙÈ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# v˛zͲôyîò ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛#¶˛yˆÏÓ xydfl˛iƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ v˛zß¨ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛ˆÏúy !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥ ì˛y£z Ó!í≈ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
xyˆÏw =u˛yÓ˚ ö˛yB˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ xò%ߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ì˛_¥ (Theory of underdevelopment)ÈÙÈ~ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò v˛zߨÎ˚ò ~ÓÇ xò%ߨÎ˚ò ~ˆÏÑ˛ x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ñ˛yÓ˚í ~ÓÇ ö˛ú– ö˛yB˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛wÈÙÈ≤Ãyhs˘˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!ï ì˛ˆÏ_¥ (centre-Periphery theory) ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…=!úˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ãyhs˘˛˛ô!Ó˚!ï
!£¢yˆÏÓ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò Ó,ˆÏ_Ó˚ ˆÑ˛ˆÏw xÓ!fl˛iì˛ v˛zß¨ì˛ ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ¢õyã õ)úì˛ ~£z ≤Ãyhs˘˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!ïˆÏì˛ xÓ!fl˛iì˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚
44
!ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓãÎ˚ Ó˚Ì ä%È!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ â˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈ– ïòì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ v˛zqÓ ˛ôÓ≈ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !ÓŸª xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ ˆÎ¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛ Á
!e´Î˚yü#ú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ˆÏäÈ ì˛yÓ˚ x!òÓyÎ≈ ˛ô!Ó˚í!ì˛ˆÏì˛ Óy!íˆÏム!˛ô!äȈÏÎ˚ ˛ôv˛¸y ˆîü¢õ)£ ~ÓÇ v˛z˛ô!òˆÏÓü=!ú e´õyÜì˛ xò%ߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÌ
ˆ£§ˆÏ›˛ â˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈñ xyÓ˚ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ¢¡ôî ˲ô!òˆÏÓ!üÑ˛ ˆîü=!úÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ ÷ï% ¢Ω˛Ó òÎ˚ñ cÓ˚y!ß∫ì˛Á Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈñ !üˆÏ“yß¨ì˛ ˛ô%§!ãÓyî#
ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ ö˛yB˛ ˆÑ˛w Óy metropole ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ xyÓ˚ ѧ˛yâ˛õyˆÏúÓ˚ ˆãyÜyv˛¸ ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò v˛z˛ô@˘Ã£ Óy satellite–
ˆÑ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ ¢¡ôî Á ˜Ó¶˛ˆÏÓÓ˚ v˛zÍ¢ £ˆÏúy v˛z˛ô@˘Ã£ñ v˛z˛ô@˘Ã£=!úÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zm,ˆÏ_Ó˚ Ó!£Ü≈õí£z ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ îy!Ó˚ˆÏoƒÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í– ì,˛ì˛#Î˚
!ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úÓ˚ !òãfl˛∫ !ü“yÎ˚ò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ñ ~ÓÇ Îy ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛ £ˆÏÓ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ò#!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ì˛y£z ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛õye
˛ôk˛!ì˛ñ ö˛yB˛ xyÓ˚Á ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ !ÓFäÈߨ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ !ü“yÎ˚ò á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚
xò%ß¨ì˛ ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÌ ~!܈ÏÎ˚ ˆÎˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ–
!õüÓ˚ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó#î ¢yõ#Ó˚ xy!õò ˛ô!ÿ˛õ xy!ö˛Ñ˛yÓ˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ v˛zߨì˛ÈÙÈxò%ß¨ì˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ˆÓyG˛yÓ˚
ãòƒ Óy!íム¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ î,!‹T !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ÁÎ˚yúyÓ˚fi›˛y£zòÈÙÈ~Ó˚ õì˛ !ÓŸª ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ÓƒÓfl˛iy Á xyhs˘˛ã≈y!ì˛Ñ˛ ◊õ!Ó¶˛yãˆÏòÓ˚ õïƒ
!îˆÏÎ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ì˛_¥ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ xy!õòÁ ≤Ãyhs˘˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!ïˆÏì˛ ¢Ó≈£yÓ˚y ˆ◊í#Ó˚ xÓfl˛iyˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy ÓˆÏú Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚yÓ˚y !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
ˆÑ˛ˆÏw xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ òyˆÏõ ˆüy°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ â˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈ ˆ¢!îˆÏÑ˛ î,!‹T xyÑ˛°Ï≈í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xy!õò î,!‹T !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ≤Ãyhs˘˛
xÌ≈ò#!ì˛=ˆÏúyÓ˚ v˛zͲôyîò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚– fl˛∫Î˚Çâ˛y!úì˛ ˆÑ˛w#Î˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ xy!ï˛ôˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí£z ≤Ãyhs˘˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!ïˆÏì˛ xÓ!fl˛iì˛
ˆîü=!ú !üˆÏ“yß¨ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏäÈ òy– ~£z x¢õ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!FäÈߨ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ¢õyãì˛s˛f Á xyMÈ˛!úÑ˛
¢£ˆÏÎy!Üì˛y !¶˛!_Ñ˛ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ܈Ïv˛¸ ì%˛úˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏú£z ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ¢Ω˛Ó–
!ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ xyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ Óy!ãú#Î˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛!Óî v˛¢ ¢ƒyˆÏr›˛y¢ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ
!ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛y £ˆÏúy ~õò ÓƒÓfl˛iy ˆÎÖyˆÏò !Ñ˛ä%È ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ñ ì˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒÑ˛yÓ˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ Á xMÈ˛ˆÏúÓ˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ !ÓÑ˛yü Á
!Óhfl˛ÏyÓ˚ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ ˛ôÓ˚yï#ò ÌyˆÏÑ˛– !ÓˆÏî!ü ˛ô%§!ã Á ≤ÃÎ%!_´Ó˚ ~Ñ˛ˆÏâ˛!›˛Î˚y !òÎ˚s˛fí xò%ß¨ì˛ ˆîü=!úÓ˚ !üˆÏ“yߨÎ˚ˆÏò Óyïy ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
!ÓŸª xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ !òÎ˚s˛fí õ%_´ £ˆÏÎ˚ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ò#!ì˛ Á ˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛“òyÓ˚ õyÏõ£z ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ¢Ω˛Ó– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
v˛¢ ¢ƒyˆÏr›˛y¢ÈÙÙÙÈSÑ˛V ˲ô!òˆÏÓ!üÑ˛ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yó SÖV xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ÈÙÈ!ü“ ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yó SÜV òÓƒ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥ £y!ãÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓˆ˚ ÏäÈò–
xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í ì˛_¥ xò%ÎyÎ˚# !ÓŸª ÓyãyÓ˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôÌ– Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆvÏ ˛ˆÏ¢y
~ÓÇ ö˛ƒyˆÏúˆÏ›˛y î%£z Óy!ãú#Î˚ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò !ÓŸªÓyãyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚£z !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛y£z ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛Ó˚
≤Ã!ì˛Óı˛Ñ˛– ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ó˝ãy!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl˛iy=!ú ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúyˆÏì˛ ~Ñ˛›˛y ˛ôÎ≈yÎ˚ xÓ!ï !ü“ÈÙÈv˛zߨ!ì˛ â˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ¢›˛y
¢¡ô)í≈ì˛£z ì˛#Ó ≤Ã!ì˛m!®¥ì˛yÓ˚ õ%ˆÏÖ ÓyãyÓ˚ ïˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yÖyÓ˚ ãòƒ– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ ˆÓyG˛y£z ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆ¢ v˛zߨÎ˚ò fl˛∫ÈÙÈ!ò¶≈˛Ó˚ òÎ˚– !òãfl˛∫ ˛ô%§!ã Á
≤ÃÎ%!_´ fl˛∫yï#ò ˆÑ˛yò ¶˛yÓ˚# !ü“ òy ÌyÑ˛yÎ˚ ~£z v˛zߨÎ˚ò fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ Á ¢%fl˛iÈÙÈ¢%°Ïõ £Î˚ òyó ÓÓ˚Ç ¢¡ôˆÏîÓ˚ !Ó˛ô%ú x¢õ Ó^˘›˛ò á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚
¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ Óv˛¸ xLjÏüÓ˚ õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãyhs˘˛ ¢#õyÎ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ~£z xò%ߨÎ˚ò xÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ãòƒ îyÎ˚#
!ÓˆÏî!ü ˛ô%§!ã Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ü!_´Ó˚ ¢õˆÏG˛yì˛y– xyõúyì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ÈÙÈ≤ÃÎ%!_´ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛£z v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ~õòì˛Ó˚ xÓò!ì˛Ó˚ ãòƒ
îyÎ˚# Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
~£z ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆú!òˆÏòÓ˚ ¢y¡ÀyãƒÓyî ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ äÈyÎ˚y ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– v˛zîyÓ˚ò#!ì˛Ó˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓyî#Ó˚y ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ !üˆÏ“yߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛
v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò– x˛ôÓ˚˛ôˆÏ«˛ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛y!_¥ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚y ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ !üˆÏ“yߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛y ì˛_¥ˆÏÑ˛
xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ õyÑ≈˛¢ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ Îy!s˛fÑ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ ÓˆÏú ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛y ì˛_¥ xòy¢_´ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ˛ôÌ ˛ô!Ó˚ì˛ƒyÜ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈñ
~õò!›˛ ÓˆÏú xyúõu˛ õ)úƒ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– xyúõu˛ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ~£z õhs˘˛Óƒ xyÓyÓ˚ xòƒ
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ô›˛ ˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ¢õyã!ÓK˛yˆÏò ¢!ì˛ƒ !Ñ˛ õ)úƒõyò !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚Ê xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛£z xyÓyÓ˚ ~£z
¢)ˆÏe£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ÚÚ!ì˛ò !ӈϟªÓ˚ î,!‹T¶˛!DÛÛÈÙÈÓ˚ (three worlds approach) v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– !ì˛ò !ÓŸª £ˆÏúyÈÙÙÙÈSÑ˛V
˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ≤ÃÌõ !ÓŸªó SÖV Ñ˛!õv˛z!òfi›˛ !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªó SÜV v˛zߨÎ˚òõ%Ö# ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸª– xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ñ õì˛yîü≈Üì˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Á
ˆÑ˛ÔüúÜì˛ õyeyÎ˚ !Óòƒhfl˛Ï v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ~£z î,!‹T¶˛!D–
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4.7 ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚ !â˛hs˘˛Ñ˛
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ì˛_¥=!ú °ÏyˆÏ›˛Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛ñ ¢_Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyü#Ó˚ ~Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛ òyòy¶˛yˆÏÓ !ÓÓ!ì≈˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛vòyÎ˚ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚ ˜Ó!â˛eƒ Á Ó˝c ã!›˛úì˛y ˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– ˛ô)Ó≈ £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ô
¢õyãì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ˛ôì˛òñ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆîüˆÏÑ˛£z Ó˚y‹T…!òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢ÇÑ˛›˛ñ õ%_´ ÓyãyÓ˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ !Óhfl˛ÏyÓ˚ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ xÓòõòñ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏüÓ˚ xÓò!ì˛ñ ïõ#≈Î˚ ˆÜ§yv˛¸y!õ Á ˆõÔúÓyˆÏîÓ˚ !Óhfl˛ÏyÓ˚ ãò!≤ÃÎ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ Óy˝úƒ ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚
õˆÏì˛y ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ß¿!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ xòƒì˛õ õyey !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛ ≤ÃÌõ Ó˚ãò# ˆÑ˛y‡˛y!Ó˚ 1967 ¢yˆÏú
≤ÃÑ˛y!üì˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ “politics in India” @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòyÓ˚ ˆõÔú v˛z˛ôyîyò=!ú ˆõˆÏò !òˆÏÎ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ xòòƒ
¶˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚ Ó˚*˛ôÑ˛“ Ñ˛Ìy !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ Ó˝ïy !Ó¶˛_´ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ÈÙÈÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛!ì˛ (identity)ÈÙÈÓ˚ õïƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
~Ñ˛!›˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¶˛Ó˚ˆÏÑ˛w ܈Ïv˛¸ v˛z‡˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ ~õò!›˛ !äÈú ì˛yÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòy– !ì˛!ò ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òñ
≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïˆÏcÓ˚ ≤âyÓ˚íÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ¢yˆÏÌ£z ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ≤Ãy!hs˘˛Ñ˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xy˛ôò xy˛ôò fl˛∫yì˛s˛f x«%˛ß¨ ˆÓ˚ˆÏÖ£z õ)ú ãyì˛#Î˚ ˆfl˛ÀyˆÏì˛
!Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ !õˆÏü ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ÈÙÈ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ÈÙÈÓ˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ÈÙÈxÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛Ñ)˛úì˛y ¢ˆÏ_¥Á ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ ~Ñ˛
xòòƒ ò!ãÓ˚ ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ¢_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ îüÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ Á ˆòì,˛ˆÏcÓ˚ xÓ«˛Î˚ñ î%Ó,≈_yÎ˚òñ ≤Ãy!hs˘˛Ñ˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚
fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Á x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ £Ó˚íñ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ â˛y˛ô â˛y!˛ôˆÏÎ˚ ˆîÁÎ˚y ˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛“òy ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏü xfl˛∫!hfl˛ÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü
˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú– ˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ v˛zߨÎ˚ò Ó˚*˛ôÑ˛ˆÏ“Ó˚ xı˛ xò%Ñ˛Ó˚í ~ÓÇ îú#Î˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ¢yõhs˘˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ e´ˆÏõyFⲠhfl˛ÏÓ˚ !Óòƒy¢ Ó˚ãò#
ˆÑ˛y‡˛y!Ó˚ˆÏÑ˛ !Óºyhs˘˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì%˛ˆÏú!äÈú– ~£z ¢õÎ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£zñ !ì˛!ò Üí Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ñ !ò¡¨hfl˛ÏˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Üí xÇü@˘Ã£íñ xîú#Î˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ xyfl˛iy Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
˛ôyÌ≈ â˛ˆÏRy˛ôyïƒyÎ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ (Political Society) ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ xy◊Î˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy
˜ì˛Ó˚# Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏúò– Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ â˛Ó˚õ Ó!£É≤ÃÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ !Ó≤Ãì˛#ˆÏ˛ô òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyòñ ~£z ï&˛ôî# ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ¶˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
˛ôyÌ≈ â˛ˆÏRy˛ôyïƒyÎ˚ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ¢ÇáÓk˛ì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÎ˚ ¢õì˛yñ fl˛∫ì˛s˛fñ â%˛!_´ñ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyñ ≤ÈÏÓüÈÙÈ≤Ãfl˛iyˆÏòÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yñ
≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£íñ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Á Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ò#!ì˛ ≤ÃíÎ˚ˆÏò xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c x˛ô≈í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛
˲ô!òˆÏÓ!üÑ˛ üy¢òÑ˛yˆÏú£z òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyã ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ¢õhfl˛Ï xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyñ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ~!ú›˛ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛˛ô›˛ì˛y (hypocrisy)
~ÓÇ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í !õÌ!‹;˛Î˚yÎ˚ ò)ƒòì˛õ xÇü@˘Ã£í ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ¢%¤%˛ !ÓÑ˛yü ᛲˆÏì˛ ˆîÎ˚!ò– òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚
Óy£zˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ Ó,£Í ãòˆÏÜy¤˛# ì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏDÁ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ˆÑ˛yò xyîyòÈÙÈ≤Ãîyò áˆÏ›˛!ò– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyã ܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õ)ú ú«˛ƒ ~£z
xyîyòÈÙÈ≤ÃîyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛e !Óhfl˛,Ïì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y– ~£z ˆ«˛e !Óhfl˛,Ïì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y– ~£z ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ !Óhfl˛ÏyÓ˚ ᛲˆÏúy£z Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôÌ â˛úy
÷Ó˚& £ˆÏÓ–
˛ôyÌ≈ â˛ˆÏRy˛ôyïƒyÎ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏã â˛yÓ˚!›˛ ˜Ó!üˆÏ‹TƒÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòÈÙÙÙÈSÑ˛V Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏÓü Îy xy£zòˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôy¢
Ñ˛y!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ Îy òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ Óy£zˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ãòˆÏÜy¤˛#ˆÏÑ˛ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ îy!Ó fl˛iy!˛ôì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ v˛zÍ¢y!£ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– SÖV
xy£zòÜì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ fl˛∫#Ñ,˛ì˛ òy £ˆÏúÁ ~Ó˚y ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ ¢%ˆÏÎyÜÈÙÈ¢%!Óïy x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– SÜV ~£z
x!ïÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ îyÓ# ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £Î˚ ˆÎÔÌ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓñ ÎyˆÏÑ˛ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚Á Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– SáV xy£zòyò%Ü ¢¡ôÑ≈˛
òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢õyã Á ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ fl˛iy!˛ôì˛ £Î˚ñ ~£z ãòˆÏÜy¤˛#Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~õò!›˛ £Î˚ òy– ö˛ˆÏú ~£z ãòˆÏÜy¤˛# ¢Ó˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ Óy òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛
¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ ≤ÃíÎ˚òÑ˛yÓ˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ Ñ˛ì˛›˛y â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹T Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏäÈ ì˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ~ˆÏîÓ˚ xò%Ñ)˛ˆÏú !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛
!ÓˆÏÓ!â˛ì˛ £Î˚– ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ v˛z_Ó˚ ˲ô!òˆÏÓ!üÑ˛ Ñ˛yú˛ôˆÏÓ≈ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyòñ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ~ÓÇ òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛
¢õyã Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yˆÏïÓ˚ ¢Ω˛yÓòyÓ˚ ¢)e ïˆÏÓ˚£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ–
xyÓyÓ˚ñ xy!ü¢ ò®# ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆúyÑ˛¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ˆÎÔÌ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ñ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ ãy!ì˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ ܇˛ˆÏò
ˆúyÑ˛¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛f Á fl˛∫Î˚Ç¢¡ô)í≈ì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò– xÌ≈ò#!ì˛!Óî ˆÑ˛Ô!üÑ˛ Ó¢%Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛ ~ÓÇ ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛y ì,˛ì˛#Î˚
46
!ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúyˆÏì˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ãòƒ ¢!‡˛Ñ˛ !ü“ò#!ì˛ Óy õ%oyò#!ì˛ ˆÎõò îÓ˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ñ ˆì˛õ!ò£z ¢õyò ãÓ˚&Ó˚# ›˛Δyfi›˛ Óy ¢õyˆÏã
˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ xyfl˛iy– ò,ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ ܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÎ˚ ˆîÖy ˆÜˆÏäÈ xy!îõ v˛z˛ôãy!ì˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ îy!Ó˚o ¢ˆÏ_¥Á ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ xyfl˛iyÓ˚ õyey ˆÓ!ü–
Óy£zˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆúyÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚y ì˛yÓ˚y ˆüy!°Ïì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ ¢!úv˛y!Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆÑ˛yò x¶˛yÓ ˆîÖy ˆîÎ˚ !ò– ö˛y!™¢ ö%˛Ñ%˛Î˚yõyÓ˚
܈ÏÓ°ÏíyÎ˚ ≤Ãõy!íì˛ñ ˆÎ ¢õhfl˛Ï ˆÜy¤˛# Óy ãy!ì˛Ó˚ ˆúyÑ˛ãò ~ˆÏÑ˛ xòƒˆÏÑ˛ !ÓŸªy¢ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛Ó˚ Ü!ì˛Á xˆÏòÑ˛
o&ì˛ £Î˚– ˆÑ˛Ô!üÑ˛ Ó¢% õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ Á ˆÓ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ v˛zˆÏîƒyˆÏÜ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢¡ôˆÏîÓ˚ ˛ô%òÓ≈^˘›˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õyÏõ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ¢Ω˛Ó
!‡˛Ñ˛£zñ ì˛ˆÏÓ ~ ãòƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò– ~äÈyv˛¸yÁ ò#!ì˛ ≤ÃíÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ò#!ì˛!òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD
¢yïyÓ˚í õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ â˛y!£îyÓ˚ ˆÎ ö˛yÓ˚yÑ˛ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ î)Ó˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– !ì˛!ò ≤ß¿ ˆÓ˚ˆÏÖˆÏäÈò ÚÚ!£!fi›˛Δ ö˛õ !ÓˆÏúyÛÛÈÙÈÓ˚ õì˛ ÚÚ£zˆÏÑ˛yò!õ:
ö˛õ !ÓˆÏúyÛÛÈÙÈÓ˚ !â˛hs˘˛y¶˛yÓòy Ñ˛Ó˚y›˛y Ö%Ó£z ãÓ˚&Ó˚#–
~›˛y Ö%Ó£z fl˛ô‹T ˆÎ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ãß√ !mì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏk˛y_Ó˚ ˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ Ó˚yã˜Ïòì˛!Ñ˛ xDò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£zñ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ì˛yÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ v˛z_Ó˚
˲ô!òˆÏÓ!üÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T…¢õ)£ Óy ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˚yãƒ=!ú– xyúõu˛ ˛ôyÁˆÏÎ˚úñ o§y ˆoyãñ xõì≈˛ƒ ˆ¢ò òyòy!Óï ≤ÃÓı˛ñ Ó_,´ì˛yñ
¢y«˛yÍÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸª v˛zߨÎ˚ò !ӰψÏÎ˚ Ñ˛ì˛Ñ˛=!ú ò#!ì˛ Ó˚*˛ôyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ(1) îy!Ó˚oƒ
Á «%˛ïy î)Ó˚#Ñ˛Ó˚íó (2) ¢Ó≈ãò#ò ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ !ü«˛y ≤ÃÓì≈˛òó (3) !úD ¢õì˛y Ó,!k˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y Á òyÓ˚#Ó˚ «˛õì˛yÎ˚ò cÓ˚y!ß∫ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yó (4)
!ü÷ õ,ì%˛ƒ ˆÓ˚yï Ñ˛Ó˚yó (5) õyˆÏÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ fl˛∫yfl˛iƒ Ó˚«˛y Á v˛zߨ!ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yó (6) ~£zâ˛xy£z!¶˛/~£zv˛¢ñ õƒyˆÏú!Ó˚Î˚y ≤ö,˛!ì˛ õyÓ˚í ˆÓ˚yÜ
≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÓ˚yï Ñ˛Ó˚yó (7) ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏüÓ˚ ¶˛yÓ˚¢yõƒ Ó˚«˛y Ñ˛Ó˚yó (8) v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ úˆÏ«˛ƒ !ÓŸªˆÏãyv˛¸y xÇü#îy!Ó˚ îyÎ˚ ˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y–
~£z ò#!ì˛ ˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ úˆÏ«˛ƒ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ñ ˆÓ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ xÇü@˘Ã£ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢ˆÏD ãò xÇü@˘Ã£íÁ ~Ñ˛yhs˘˛ ãÓ˚&Ó˚#–

4.8 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#

(1) Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÓúˆÏì˛ !Ñ˛ ˆÓyG˛⁄ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò !ӰψÏÎ˚ £y!r›˛Ç›˛ò Á ˆv˛y!õòˆÏ܈ÏãÓ˚ ì˛_¥ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–
(2) !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥!›˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚–
(3) Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò !ӰψÏÎ˚ Ó˚ˆÏfi›˛y Á xÓ˚Üyò!flÒÓ˚ õì˛yõì˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–
(4) Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚ !â˛hs˘˛Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy=!ú ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–

4.9 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

(a) Almond, G.A., & and Powell, G.B. Jr. (1966).Comparative Politics: A developmental approach.
Little, Brown and Company.
(b) Ashraf, A., &Sharma, L.N. (1983). Political Sociology: A New Grammar of Politics. Universities
Press.
(c) Chakraborty, S. (Ed.). (2005). Political Sociology. Macmillan India.
(d) Green, D.&Luehrmann, L. (2007).Comparative Politics of the Third World: Linking Concepts
and Cases. Lynne Rienner.
(e) Pye, L. (1966).Aspects of Political Development: An Analytic Study. Little, Brown.
(f) Rush, N., & Althoff, P. (1971). An Introduction Political Sociology. Bobbs-Meril.
(g) Weiner, M., Huntington, Samuel P., & Almond, G.A. (1987).Understanding Political Development:
An Analytic Study.Little, Brown.

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 C.C : 3.1
Unit-5

Decolonization, Nation building and the

Post-Colonial State
Content :
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Decolonization
5.4 Nation-building
5.5 Postcolonial State
5.6 Conclusion
5.7 Self Assessment Questions
5.8 Suggested Readings

5.1 Objectives
 To learn about the process of decolonization
 To learn about the concept of nation-building
 To know about the consequences of nation-building in post colonial states.

5.2 Introduction
Decolonization refers to the process through which the political control of one country over another for
economic gains came to an end. Since the fifteenth century, the European countries buoyed by historical
developments, economic changes and scientific breakthroughs entered a trajectory that ushered in the modern
period. The modern period is characterized by the nation-state and the capitalist economy. The transition from
the medieval to the modern encouraged the age of discovery and conquest. The voyages of discovery were
motivated both by curiosity but funded for their economic potential. The political control of countries in Asia,
Africa, Latin America and the Pacific by European powers for economic exploitation is called colonialism. The
modern nation-state which developed in Europe proved to be superior to the existing pre modern political
arrangements of the rest of the world. The ideological, organizational and technological dominance of Western
European states was such that for the next few centuries all the countries in the world either came under their
direct or indirect control. Decolonization describes the phenomenon by which the former colonies achieved
independence and self-government.

48
 Decolonization lead to the creation of a large number of new states. These newly independent states are
called postcolonial states or developing countries and even the third world. Postcolonial states were shaped
by the process of decolonization. The colonial powers were paramount in the determination of the contours
of the states. Unlike the West, where state development was driven by internal dynamics, for most of the
postcolonial states, the state development took place due to external pressures and once the state came into
being it had to build the nation.
The orientation of postcolonial states has been to be developed like European states. A key factor for
a strong state is support for the state which is dependent on levels of national unity. Nation-building is the
process of forging a sense of a common national identity, whether defined in an ethnic, cultural or political
sense to overcome differences. Therefore, one of the ways to study the state in postcolonial society is to focus
on the circumstances of its creation and its specific peculiarities.

5.3 Decolonization
Decolonization was a momentous event of global political impact. Usually we refer to decolonization as
a process rather than an event as it was spread over a period of time. Decolonization is often understood
as the legal transfer of colonial territories to indigenous sovereign nation-states (Duara 2004). But decolonization
was also the hope for a complete change in social order as the oppressed people became free and in control
of their own destinies (Betts 2012). Even by itself the transfer of power was ‘a moment of profound
realignment’, as colonialism was not merely legal control, it was ideological, cultural and operated through a
complex knowledge system that subordinated colonized people (Smith and Jeppeson 2017). Thus,
decolonization goes beyond the political to include all aspects of the colonial experience. It involved regaining
control of the economy from the capitalist system which was dominated by the ex-colonial powers. The
colonial powers cultural system that suppressed local cultures and discounted indigenous culture necessitated
the decolonization of the mind.
There are two chronologies of decolonization; one refers only to the independence of countries in Asia,
Africa and the Pacific after the Second World War. The other also includes the decolonization of the countries
of South and Central America (except for Cuba and Puerto Rico). Duara writes that Japan’s defeat of Czarist
Russia’s army in the war of 1905, the first time a European/Imperial power was defeated by a non European
one, can be said to symbolize the beginnings of decolonization. The culmination of the decolonization
movement for Duara was the Bandung Conference in 1955, where the new nations of Asia and Africa met
to express solidarity against imperialism and racism and to promote economic and cultural cooperation among
them (2004). It is generally believed that the World Wars made conditions for colonialism unfavorable as the
colonial powers lost their preeminent position in the world. The new great powers, the United States and the
Soviet Union both opposed colonial empires. The beginning of the Cold War brought the focus of the colonial
powers back to Europe. The establishment of the NATO heralded the era of European Cooperation not
colonial rivalry (Betts 2012).

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 Even though decolonization meant self-determination for the majority of the world, imperialism continued
in new forms. Informal imperialism was the indirect control of the new sovereign states through military and
financial dependence without the need for direct political control (Stearns 2008). The economic exploitation
of the colonial period continued under conditions of underdevelopment. Underdevelopment referred to the
high levels of poverty, malnutrition, instability and lower standards of living in comparison to developed
countries. The newly independent countries were enmeshed in an international capitalist economy which was
advantageous for the colonial powers. Neocolonialism, a term coined by Ghanaian independence leader
Kwame Nkrumah, referred to the continued exploitation and indirect political control of former colonies
(Burnell 2009). The Cold War conditions further created new forms of dependence for the newly independent
states, which were economically weak and politically nascent, in the global rivalry between the East and the
West.
The process of decolonization took place at the same time as the Cold War, with both sides seeking
power and influence. Decolonization process and the discourse about postcolonial political and economic
development was integral to the Cold war (Schulz 2008: 314). Many newly independent countries including
India attributed their underdevelopment to colonial exploitation. In order to protect the hard won freedom and
to focus on the task of economic development, India among other states needed to avoid being dominated
again or entangled in costly military competition due to the cold war polarization. Some of these states took
refuge in a Non Aligned foreign policy that developed out of the discussions that began at the Bandung
Conference in 1955. The United States for reasons owing to the Cold War saw the NAM as immoral and
cowardly. But the anti-imperialist commitment of the Soviet Union helped it become a natural ally for the
developing world’s struggle against the West (Schulz 2008: 314).
European colonization was a novel experience for the colonies. The economic exploitation and political
control required the subjugation of people which was achieved through racial superiority theories about the
civilizing mission of Europe. The organizing principles of the modern state were unlike anything seen before.
The colonial state combined enormous coercive powers without the necessary limitations on its actions. In the
pursuit of its economic ends, colonial powers set up a system of government that was geared towards the
continuation of exploitation of resources. The colonial enterprise itself generated conditions that lead to the
development of independence movements and liberation movements in the colonies. Scholars see decolonization
(Betts 2012) as a result of military confrontation for liberation movements and diplomatic negotiation between
the colonial power and the colonized for independence movements. The colonial past and education practices
lead to the process of resistance being conducted in terms of European ideas. Thus, the nationalists in the
colonies understood the challenges they faced in terms of the cultural and social values of the modern
European state.
The postcolonial nation-states replicated the forms of the modern state in the West. The new states had
to deal with problems of underdevelopment and political survival. In order to create a strong nation-state, the
people were to be transformed into a nation, towards these ends; modern states incorporate contiguous, alien
territories and peoples, blurring the distinction between imperialism and nationalism, leading to conflicts and
alienation of people (Duara 2004). In many states, decolonization lead to internal conflict and colonial

50
successor states came into conflict with each other as a result of territorial claims or regional rivalry (Darwin
1988).
Imitative of the nationalism of the West, nationalists of colonies justified the process of mobilization and
transformation of the people into a homogenized group, often through violent transformation (Duara 2004).
The dominant narratives of national belonging prioritized itself and made claims to sovereignty in the name of
deep traditions or ancient civilization and thereby, subordinated other claims for justice and equality to the
nation (Duara 2004). Further, the colonial state created new categories of people, through census and
enumeration, for the purposes of governance and to establish their power through a policy of divide and rule.
This was accompanied by the broader discourse of the rights of a people or a nationality which has a right
to a territory and therefore a state of its own. This is the discourse at the base of decolonization and while
it enabled decolonization, this discourse also divided the movement as it created ethnic tensions and led to
demands of nationality rights and territorial nation-state for other ethnic groups.

5.4 Nation-building
One of the key challenges for third world nationalists was to fashion the people of their society into a
‘nation’. The processes through which a people would be transformed into a nation is termed nation building.
The nation-building project was important not only to legitimize their claim to fight the colonial power and but
also in the formation of their own state.
In order to understand nation-building, we will briefly examine the concepts of state and nation. The world
is divided into states. States are autonomous institutions in a populated territory with a legitimate monopoly
of violence and extraction within its borders and sovereign in relation to those outside its borders. A nation,
on the other hand, is a self defined community in a distinct territory with shared culture, a common ideology,
customs, institutions and a sense of homogeneity. Often the terms state and nation are erroneously used
interchangeably. A state can claim to be a nation, only when it contains one nation in its territory, the term
nation-state is said to describe a territorial-political unit (a state) whose borders coincide with the territorial
distribution of a nation (Connor: 382). But a nation is not a state, where/when nations develop; they make
efforts to establish their own state. At any given time in the world, there are more nations than there are states.
We have discussed that postcolonial states were shaped by the process of decolonization as new states
were created and the borders were changed. The shape and content of postcolonial states were determined
by the requirements of the colonial power. In the west, state-building (building of state institutions) and nation-
building (creation of the nation) took shape over a long period of time as modern states grow out of erstwhile
multinational empires and centuries of religious, social and political developments. The nation was formed and
defined and the nation made efforts to create the state. In contrast, for most of the postcolonial states, it is
the state which comes into being first and then tries to build the nation, state building preceded nation-building.
The third world countries also had to face external pressures of the Cold War and internal pressure due to
conflict between the various ‘nations’ existing within its borders, as nation-building presupposes the forming
of a ‘nation’ can be constituted in different ways.

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 Hippler defines, nation building as a process of sociopolitical development (usually over a long historical
period) that allows loosely linked communities to become a common society with a nation-state corresponding
to it (2004). Nation building processes are difficult to predict and involve different dimensions and instruments,
such as economic, cultural integration, political centralization, bureaucratic control, military conquest or
subjugation, creation of common interests, democratization and establishment of common citizenship or
repression and even acts of ethnic cleansing (Hippler 2004).
Nation building is an open ended process, in which individuals compete to interpret the concept of the
nation, through which people believe state institutions as belonging to them, thereby conferring legitimacy.
Legitimacy creates a sense of ownership with regard to a collective. If there is a lack of belonging or
legitimacy in the sense of nation, there will be efforts to secede or to try to capture the state to establish the
possibility of identification (Grotenhuis 2016).
State building on the other hand is the construction of a state apparatus defined by its monopoly of
legitimate use of violence in a given territory (O’Dwyer 2016). Thus, nation building deals with nationhood
and state building is focused on the technical and institutional aspect. The term ‘nation-building’ is also used
in the context of violent conflicts which lead to state failure. In this usage, nation-building is a political objective
as well as a strategy for reaching specific political objectives. The two terms nation building and state building
are sometimes used interchangeably. In literature from the United States, nation building is referred to as state
building or the suggestion is that nation-building is an instrument for state-building (Grotenhuis 2016).
However, apart from the political-cultural aspect, there are also practical requirements for this: nation-building
needs a ‘national’ infrastructure, transport and communication infrastructure, a ‘national economy’, nationwide
mass media for establishing a national political and cultural discourse. Thus, a crucial component of nation-
building is the development of a state apparatus that can actually control its national territory. The state
becomes the political organisational form of a society in the social integration process. State-building is a core
aspect of successful nation-building as it creates institutions and administrative unity that are effective and
accepted throughout the country. The state needs to promote loyalty to the ‘nation’ and must assert its
monopoly of force over the entire national territory in order to be successful over the long term. (Hippler
2004)
Some scholars believe that nation-building took place in the context of the East–West conflict of the Cold
War and constituted a Western strategy for containing socialism and the Soviet Union in the Third World.
According to Hippler, “Nation-building was intended to represent an alternative to the victory of liberation
movements and the ‘revolution’…” (2004). ‘Nation-building’ was related to modernization theories, which
viewed the development process in the Third World in terms of catching up with Western models. Thus, third
world societies would be ‘modernized’ to resemble the West and ‘traditional’ societies would turn into
‘modern’ nation-states (Hippler 2004).

5.5 Post-Colonial State

Decolonization led to the creation of a large number of new states. The United Nations was founded in
1945 with 50 members, by the end of the 1960s, the number of member states increased to 127. The state

52
is a central concept in the study of politics. Often, politics is understood as the study of the state and the nature
of state power is one of the central concerns of political analysis. The state is a sovereign territory with public
institutions, the decisions of the state are binding on the society and finally, the state is an instrument of
domination. The state ‘shapes and controls… [Or] regulates, supervises, authorizes or proscribes’ (Heywood
2013) every aspect of human activity. We have established in the previous sections that the post-colonial
states are different from the European state and have their own peculiarities owing to the specificities of their
origin.
The state is a historical institution that emerged in Europe. The treaty of Westphalia, established the state
as the principal actor in domestic and international affairs, in the 17th century, when it formalized the modern
notion of statehood. The state has since evolved and the European State model spread to the rest of the world
through the process of decolonization. The state is now the universal form of political organization.
Since the state is a central focus of political analysis, there are disagreements about its origins,
development and impact on society. There is a debate among the rival theories about the nature of state
power. The liberals see the state as a ‘neutral arbiter among competing groups… it is an umpire or
referee…represents…public interest’ (Heywood 2013: 61). In application to postcolonial states, liberalism
would aver that westernized elites use the instruments of the state to transform traditional agrarian society to
a modern industrialized society. But liberal theory fails to explain why elite groups would raise above their
narrow economic and social interest. The Marxists argue that the state should be seen in the ‘context of
unequal class power’ and acts ‘either as an instrument of oppression’ of the dominant class or ‘as a
mechanism through which class antagonisms are ameliorated/state is an instrument of the ruling class/state is
constrained by the structure of the capitalist system’(Heywood 2013). The postcolonial state is different from
the developed state that the Marxists focus on in two ways: colonial exploitation continued after decolonization
in the garb of neocolonialism and the absence of a single dominant class. The economic exploitation of the
colonies had disrupted the course of development resulting in underdevelopment. Dependency theorists argue
that the world is dominated by a worldwide capitalist system and the developed countries comprise the core
while the developing countries, the periphery. The colonial policies have made the developing countries
dependent and integrated to the core countries in a relationship of inequality.
States fulfill different kinds of roles. We can think of developmental states that promote economic
development, welfare states that rectify the imbalances and injustices of the market economy and totalitarian
states, an all embracing state where everything is under state control among others.
Postcolonial states are objects of focus for scholars for the salience of their political and economic
processes. It needs to be emphasized that at any given time, it is in the postcolonial states that we see the
most number of violent conflicts. The postcolonial state had many problems owing to the circumstances of
their origin. We have discussed how the territorial contours of postcolonial states were determined by the
imperial proclivity of colonial powers. We have also discussed how the process of decolonization influenced
the specific state structure that came into being.
We can trace the problems of the post colonial state to the challenges of both nation-building and state
building. Many states in the postcolonial world are seen as weak and failing or collapsed states as often state

53
structures are not well developed to fulfill functions of the state, leading to their reduced ability for effective
governance and ill-equipped to address concerns of citizens (Henderson 2008: 260). These states are
portrayed as ‘quasi-states’ or failed states’ and fail to maintain domestic order and civil strife is common. The
failure of states stems from their experience of colonialism, in terms of their creation and that they bore little
relation to the concept of the nation and the borders of such states were artificial (Kothari 2008: 1029).
Cultural diversity within postcolonial states provided a basis for mobilization based on identity in support of
each group’s struggle for the share of the power, leading to intractable ethnic conflicts that explain the
instability of post-colonial states and the resultant secessionism or civil war (Henderson 2008: 260). The
European nation-state that spread to the rest of the world through the colonial process influenced the
development of the state. The identification of the state with a nation created impetus for state policies to
create such a nation that marginalized or discriminated against other communities or it lead to other groups
seeking their own states through a secessionist movement. Postcolonial states had to simultaneously build both
state institutions and a national consciousness among the diverse groups inhabiting the territory. Since their
creation, post colonial states have an ultimate end, development and modernization, to be as good as the other
states in the world system (Kohli 1987: 25). Modernization involved the new local elites who continued with
the development processes after decolonization and create hierarchical relationship with the people of the
hinterland or indigenous groups who wish to remain distinct as ‘backward’ legitimating them as targets for
forced assimilation, relocation and state violence (Wilmer 2008: 989).
The three attributes of the postcolonial state, which make them distinct are that, it is overdeveloped, it
is autonomous from dominant classes and subservient to the interests of the international capital (Alavi 1972).
The overdeveloped state is a reference to the legal institutional state structures created by the colonial state
for their domination and exploitation of the colonies. These state structures are inherited by the postcolonial
state and do not reflect social forces of their location. Postcolonial states, argued Hamza Alavi, are
‘overdeveloped’ with powerful bureaucracies and armies that had been the instruments of colonial domination.
In many countries, the political system had to rely on the army and the bureaucracy to govern, in these
circumstances, the military-bureaucratic oligarchy effectively controlled the state weakens democratic institutions.
The postcolonial states were said to be overdeveloped and economically dependent of international capital
at the same time enjoying relative autonomy from social classes as the agrarian and industrial classes were
underdeveloped. Since there is no single dominant class in the postcolonial world, the state is autonomous
to regulate its relationship the alliance of classes that dominate it. Finally, the underdeveloped economy and
the weak dominant classes in the postcolonial state make them open to the influence of foreign capital.
In the immediate years after the end of the cold war, with the rise of forces of globalization, there were
debates about the retreat or the decline of the state as state authority having been undermined by the global
market, multinational corporations, non-state actors and international organizations. Developments after the 9/
11 terror attacks appear to have helped to strengthen the state with the rise of transnational terrorism due
to the state’s function to maintain domestic order and protect its citizens. Counter terrorism strategies have
lead to states assuming wider powers at borders, surveillance and even detention. The overdeveloped
postcolonial state helps the world markets in integrating the third world into the global market place through

54
liberalization policies. In these circumstances, the postcolonial states face new challenges and are seen as
‘competition state’ competing with each other to attract global capital as they race to the bottom as they
become increasingly dependent on global capital (Rai 2009).

5.6 Conclusion
In this unit, we have discussed decolonization, nation-building and the postcolonial state and their
relationship with each other. It bears to mind that while the postcolonial states created in the process of
decolonization have certain commonalities owing to their colonial past, there are significant differences among
them. There were also differences in the institutional structure of colonialism. The end of colonialism is a
landmark development in the development of a more equal world. It has helped the majority of the world
shape their own destiny. However, it is also true that owing to the dynamics of nation-building in these
postcolonial states, there are nations at war to control the state, to secede and form their own state and
neighboring states conflict to control territory or expand their influence. The postcolonial states fulfill their
obligations to their citizens in varying degrees owing to their infrastructural (political and economic) capacity.
The state machinery of the postcolonial state dominates its society owing to its institutions being colonial in
origin and does not reflect the social dynamics of its location.

5.7 Self Assessment Questions

1. What is the difference between describing decolonization as an event and decolonization as a
process?
2. What do we mean by decolonization of the mind?
3. What is the importance of the Bandung Conference in the process of decolonization?
4. How did imperialism continue after decolonization?
5. What is the difference between state-building and nation-building?
6. What is the difference between nation and state?
7. How are postcolonial states different from European States?
8. Why is the postcolonial state said to be overdeveloped?
9. What are the theoretical debates about the nature of state power?

5.8 Suggested Readings

(a) Betts, R. (2012). Decolonization: A Brief History of the World. In E. Bogaerts, & R. Raben
(Eds.).The Decolonization of African and Asian Societies, 1930s-1970s. Brill.
(b) Heywood, A. (2013). Politics. Palgrave.

55
(c) Alavi, H. (1972). The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh.New Left Review,
1 (74), July-August. 59-81.
(d) Duara, P. (Ed.). (2004). Decolonization: Perspectives from Now and Then. Routledge.
(e) Hippler, J. (Ed.). (2004). Nation-building: A Key Concept for Peaceful Conflict Transformation?.
Pluto Press.
(f) Burnell, P. (2009). Imperialism. In I. Mclean& A. Mcmillan(Eds.), Oxford Concise Dictionary of
Politics (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
(g) Schulz, B. (2008). Cold War. In L. R. Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and
Conflict (3rd ed.). Elsevier Science.
(h) Connor, W. (1978). A Nation is a nation, is a state, is an ethnic group is a ….Ethnic and Racial
Studies, 1 (4), 377-400.
(i) Grotenhuis, R. (2016). Nation-building as Necessary Effort in Fragile States. Amsterdam
University Press.
(j) Henderson, E. (2008). Civil Wars. In L. Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and
Conflict(3rd ed.). Elsevier Science.
(k) Kothari, Rajni. (2008). Institutionalization of Violence. In L. Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence,
Peace, and Conflict. Elsevier Science.
(l) Kohli, A. (1986). Introduction. In A. Kohli (Ed.), The State and Development in the Third World:
A World Politics Reader. Princeton University Press.
(m) Kohli, A. (1987). The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform. Cambridge University
Press.
(n) Wilmer, F. (2008). Indigenous People’s Response to Conquest. In L. Kurtz(Ed.), Encyclopedia of
Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Elsevier Science.
(o) Rai, Shirin. (2009). Postcolonial states in Imperialism. In Mclean, Iain and Mcmillan, Alistair (Eds.),
Oxford Concise Dictionary of Politics. Oxford University Press.
(p) Stearns, P. (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World. Oxford University Press.
(q) Darwin, J. (1988). Britain and Decolonisation: The retreat from empire in the post-war
world.Macmillan.
(r) Smith, A., &Jeppesen, C. (Eds.). (2017). Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa:
Future Imperfect. UCL Press.

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 C.C : 3.1
Unit-6

Cultural Pluralism and Ethnic Conflict

Contents
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Ethnicity
6.4 Cultural Pluralism
6.5 Types of Ethno- cultural Divisions
6.6 Cultural Pluralism and Ethnic Conflicts
6.7 Theoretical Models on Ethnopolitics
6.8 Levels of Ethnic Conflict
6.9 Methods of Conflict Resolution
6.10 Conclusion
6.11 Self Assessment Questions
6.12 Suggested Readings

6.1 Objectives
The objective of this unit is to familiarize the students with
 The concept of ethnicity and cultural pluralism
 To discuss the various factors behind the divisions within society
 To discuss the different types of conflict in culturally pluralist societies
 To discuss the methods of conflict resolutions

6.2 Introduction
One of the major concerns in comparative politics is related to the political development and political
instabilities created within culturally plural societies especially in the less developing or the newly emergent
nations in the countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Usually, industrialized and advanced democracies
do not seem to have such conflicts but it is one of the major concerns in the developing nations which are
ethnically diverse. “Cultural pluralism i.e., ethnic diversity,” notes Crawford Young, “is a quintessentially
modern phenomenon.” It has been closely linked to the evolution of the middle class and the rise of politicians.

57
In order to mobilize workers and peasants, they often articulated nationalist or other ethnic aspirations. This
escalation of hostilities hinging on ethnic, racial, and cultural factors during the twentieth century led to the
questioning of, not only the several assumptions of modernization theory but also challenged the “contact
hypothesis.” According to the hypothesis, as more and more people belonging to different races, religions, and
ethnicities came into greater contact with each other, they would be in a better position to appreciate and
understand the other groups’ common human qualities thereby resulting in the reduction of prejudice. It has
been observed that as the interaction between different ethnic groups increases, induced by factors such as
urban migration, frequently intensifies hostilities. In some cases, such as observed in Rwanda and Bosnia,
group violence took on a shape of its own despite years of close interethnic contact and intermarriage,
neighbors and even relatives by marriage. In cases where the political and economic systems were found to
be biased in favor of one ethnic group, this trend was visible. It can also be seen happening when the ethnic
leaders inorder to advance their political agendas play on their followers’ prejudices. Resource competition
in regions that are densely populated and have a lot of poor people experience conflict. Especially when
resources are scarce, we often witness conflicts as was the case in the Niger Delta in Nigeria after the upsurge
in oil production and the discovery of uranium deposits.

6.3 Ethnicity
Scholars maintain that human beings have an inherent desire of ‘belongingness’ which is a deeply rooted
social and psychological need to create an ‘us’ to distinguish oneself from ‘them’. Moreover, some argue that
ethnic conflict is not extraordinary but emerges out of the more ordinary needs, behaviors, and daily
interactions that characterize everyday life. Although it is difficult to define ethnicity most scholars agree that
ethnic identity is a social construction. It can be defined as the way that certain groups look at themselves
over time as separate from others. Each ethnicity shares “a distinctive and enduring collective identity based
on a belief in common descent and on shared experiences and cultural traits.” Elements like ‘real or imagined
common history, tradition, and values’ binds a group of people into one by distinguishing them from their
neighboring ethnicities, sometimes giving rise to ethnic conflict. Also, it has been found that during uncertainty
or crisis, intellectuals and politicians are likely to create historical myths that give their ethnic group a sense
of security in the face of perceived external challenges. Usually, ethnic consciousness creates barriers between
groups when two or more ethnic groups live near each other. However, not all proximities create conflict, it
is how the society at any given point of time manages the conflict that is the deciding factor.

6.4 Cultural Pluralism

Cultural pluralism is a term used when smaller groups within a larger society maintain their unique cultural
identities, whereby their values and practices are accepted by the dominant culture, provided such is
consistent with the laws and values of the wider society. Kallen is widely credited as being the originator of
the concept of cultural pluralism. His 1915 essay in The Nation, titled “Democracy versus the Melting Pot”,

58
was written as an argument against the concept of the ‘Americanization’ of European immigrants. He coined
the term cultural pluralism, itself, in 1924 through his Culture and Democracy in the United States. In 1976,
the concept was further explored by Merwin Crawford Young in The Politics of Cultural Pluralism. Young’s
work, in African studies, emphasizes the flexibility of the definition of cultural pluralism within society. Pluralistic
societies place strong expectations of integration on members, rather than expectations of assimilation. The
existence of such institutions and practices is possible if the cultural communities are accepted by the larger
society in a pluralist culture and sometimes require the protection of the law. Often, the acceptance of a culture
may require that the new or minority culture remove some aspects of their culture which is incompatible with
the laws or values of the dominant culture. Cultural pluralism is distinct from multiculturalism, which lacks the
requirement of a dominant culture. If the dominant culture is weakened, societies can easily pass from cultural
pluralism into multiculturalism without any intentional steps being taken by that society. If communities function
separately from each other or compete with one another, they are not considered culturally pluralistic.

6.5 Types of Ethno-Cultural Divisions

Communities may be guided by different understandings of identity shaped by diverse factors that are
discussed below:

Nation and Nationality

The most significant political expressions of ethnicity have occurred where it has become the building
block of nations seeking either self-determination or to preserve their ethnic purity.” The term nation denotes
a population with its language, cultural traditions, historical aspirations, and, own territory’. Often, nationhood
is related with the belief that “the interests and values of this nation take priority over all other interests and
values.” Nationalities frequently claim sovereignty over a specific geographic area but these proposed national
boundaries often may or may not coincide with those of sovereign states (independent countries). The most
critical basis for national identity is the preservation of a distinct spoken language. Chinese speakers who live
in different countries of Southeast Asia have maintained their own cultural and political organizations and feel
strong emotional ties to China. However, most immigrants including Chinese to countries such as the United
States, Canada, and Australia have fully assimilated into their new language and culture, dropping their
language of origin after one or two generations. It is observed that their original national identity loses much
of its political and social impact.
Nationality becomes politically important only when its members believe that their common history and
destiny distinguish them from other ethnicities in their country. “In their more limited manifestations, nationalist
movements simply seek to preserve the group’s cultural identity and promote its economic and political
interests.” Nationalist movements become more challenging when they seek to create a separate nation-state
of their own. Such separatist movements can arise when an ethnic minority is concentrated in a particular
region of the country and represents a majority of the population in that area. For example, in Sri Lanka,
where the Tamil-speaking population is concentrated in the country’s northern and eastern provinces,

59
particularly the Jaffna Peninsula region in the far north, the Tamils kept themselves apart from other ethnicities
inhabiting the island. The British conquest and colonization of the entire island produced a nationalist reaction
among the majority Sinhalese (Sinhala-speaking) population, which, in turn, provoked friction between them
and the Tamil minority.

Tribe
In India, Vietnam, Burma, and other parts of Asia, tribe refers to hill peoples, such as the Laotian Hmong,
who live traditional lifestyles in relative isolation from modern society. The term has also been used, of course,
in discussions of North American Indians, as well as the lowland (Amazonian) Indians of South America.
Presently the tribal (or sociolinguistic) identifications tend to be the major determinant of support for
political parties in Africa. Other variables—such as age, urban versus rural origin, and education—also play
a role and sometimes reduce (though not eliminate) the influence of tribe. The intertribal conflict has frequently
sparked violence in sub-Saharan Africa, affecting more than half the countries in that region at one time or
another. Nigeria, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Sudan, the Congo, and Ivory Coast, among others,
have been torn apart by civil wars that were partially ethnically based. In Liberia, Angola, and Mozambique,
conflicts began about other issues were aggravated by tribal divisions. Unfortunately, the Nigerian conflict was
but one of the earliest ethnically based civil wars in the African continent. Some of the most intense and
prolonged tribal conflicts took place in the former Belgian colonies of Burundi and Rwanda in the Great Lakes
region of eastern Africa.

Race
Crawford Young observes that “there was no common sense of being ‘African,’ ‘European,’ or ‘Indian,’
before the creation of multiracial communities by the population movements of the imperial age.” It was only
when people started living together in multigroup settings that race became a critical marker. South Africa
since its colonization by the British until its 1994 transition to majority rule was ruled by a White minority.
This minority constituting only about 15 percent of the population ruled over the Blacks, the majority
population, who were denied fundamental legal and economic rights, including the right to vote or hold political
office. Until the government renounced it in 1991, the legal centerpiece of South African racial policy was
apartheid (separateness). Apartheid officially created racial classifications for the entire population that defied
international standards and often fell victim to their logical contradictions. Both Coloureds and Asians enjoyed
a higher socioeconomic status and greater legal and political rights than Blacks did, but still ranked
considerably below Whites. Whites (15 percent) held virtually all political and economic powers. By the start
of the 1990s, President F. W. de Klerk’s government, recognizing that apartheid was no longer viable,
legalized the African National Congress (ANC), freed Nelson Mandela, and opened the door to a new
constitution enfranchising the Black majority and ending the White minority rule.

Religion
It involves deeply felt values, religion has frequently been the source of bitter “communal strife” (i.e., the
conflict between ethnic communities). a group’s religious orientation often shapes ‘its political beliefs, including

60
its ideas regarding a citizen’s political rights and obligations as well as its understanding of the country’s
constitutional and legal systems. the potential tension or even conflict between religious groups (defined here
as ethnic communities) living in the same country.’ Such discord may put one religion against another or, may
involve conflict between two branches of the same religion. Two factors influence the likelihood of tensions
between religious groups: first, the extent to which one religious community feels ill-treated by another; and,
second, the degree to which any religion regards itself as the only true faith and rejects alternate
theologies.(Handelman 2011)Thus, Catholics and Protestants coexist rather harmoniously in the United States
and Germany because neither of these conditions applies. On the other hand, in Northern Ireland, where
Catholics have resented the Protestants’ political and economic powers and Protestants have feared political
domination by the larger Catholic community, paramilitary groups representing both sides engaged in a nearly
40-year armed struggle. India and Pakistan were born of communal violence, and neither has been free of
it since. Lebanon, from 1975 to 1990 and again in 2006–2008 was also a battlefield for warring religious
factions.

6.6 Cultural Pluralism and Ethnic Conflicts

Western scholars especially modernization scholars, assumed that improved education and communications
in the Third World would break down ethnic conflicts. They opined that socioeconomic modernization
enhances ethnic integration and harmony. Gabriel Almond and G. Bingham Powell, depicting modernization
as a rather inexorable force, contended that “the forces of technological change and cultural diffusion are
driving political systems in certain directions, which seem discernible and susceptible to analysis in terms of
increasing levels of development.” Others envisioned modernization as a process of getting developing nations
to think and act “more like us” (i.e., the West). “As time goes on,” Marion Levy predicted, “they and we
will increasingly resemble one another. [The] more highly modernized societies become, the more they
resemble one another.” Yet in Africa and Asia, early modernization has frequently politicized and intensified
ethnic antagonisms. Crawford Young observes that “cultural pluralism (and ethnic strife) as a political
phenomenon” was not significant in traditional societies but, rather, emerged “from such social processes as
urbanization, the revolution in communications and spread of modern education.” Early modernization
theorists, who were quite optimistic about the positive effects of literacy, urbanization, and modern values,
clearly underestimated the extent to which these factors might mobilize various ethnic groups and set them
against each other. Dependency theorists, provided a rather superficial analysis of ethnic issues, tending to
blame conflicts on colonialism or neo-colonialism.
During the period of European colonialism, ethnic divisions in Africa and Asia were often overshadowed
by the struggle for independence, which encouraged a common front against the colonial regime but soon after
independence, however, previously submerged ethnic rivalries frequently rose to the surface. In the new
political order, groups competed for state resources . Further these newly mobilized citizens identify primarily
with their caste, religion, nationality, or tribe, their recently acquired political awareness often produces clashes
with other ethnicities. The spread of higher education, rather than generating greater harmony, frequently

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produces a class of ethnically chauvinistic professionals and intellectuals, who become the ideologists of ethnic
hostility. In time, as these groups come to know each other or as ethnic identities take on more conciliatory
forms, these tensions may diminish. For now, however, the ethnic conflict remains a potent phenomenon in
the Third World.
Just as colonialism and modernization challenged traditional religious, national, and tribal identities, the
economic and social forces of globalization may pose an even greater challenge. As international business
conglomerates spread their brand names and associated cultural habits throughout the developing world, they
bring a certain homogenization of world culture. This often weakens traditional ethnic practices and values.
Although it is assumed that the spread of Western world brands will eventually reduce or eliminate the
differences in dress, food, and customs that currently separate different ethnic groups but the reality is
otherwise. The vision of globalized culture has often created a nationalistic or ethnic backlash and widened
tensions between neighboring ethnic communities.

6.7 Theoretical Models on Ethnopolitics

The three theoretical models that have addressed the study of ethnopolitics during the last century focus
on three separate but not always clearly distinguished themes. The primordial theory views ethnicity as a
natural trait rooted in the individual’s birth into an ancestral gene pool or shared cultural network. It centres
on the origin and durability of ethnic identity. As such, it is similar to but not entirely dependent on the narrow,
biological definition of ethnicity. The constructionist theory is more about the adaptability of ethnic identity as
a means of explaining its durability. Related to the broad definition of ethnicity we are employing here,
constructionism treats ethnicity as an evolving concept in which, “over time and space, economic, political and
religious structures emerge with specific configurations that may be labeled ethnic.” In contrast to both
primordial and constructionist theory, instrumentalist theory focuses on the utility of ethnic identity as a tool
of politics, used in a similar fashion by both individuals and groups in order to achieve their personal agendas.
Here, the emphasis is on political leaders—political entrepreneurs and demagogues who mobilize communities
around perhaps latent or forgotten ethnic identities and grievances—not the groups themselves, and the area
of concern is the political process, not the historical origin of the group or the changing environment in which
it exists or defines itself. The failure to differentiate among the central concerns of these explanations of
ethnicity and ethnopolitics has occasionally led to their use on an “either-or” basis. A more fruitful approach
would be to view them in a “where,” “when,” and “how” manner. (Rudolf, 2006)

6.8 Levels of Ethnic Conflict

Although most countries are ethnically heterogeneous, there are wide variations in how different ethnicities
relate to each other. It is often shaped by the political landscape of a particular country. It is dependent on
when the ethnic consciousness converts into ethnonationalism, a term coined by Walker Connor. “Most
African and Asian nationalisms imagined a community from culturally diverse populations whose shared

62
historical experience was colonial oppression. To transform from the ideology of anti-colonial revolt into the
doctrine of post-colonial state legitimation, such nationalism was compelled to assert an exclusively territorial
referent, and deny any ethnic attachments.” (Young 1976) Those communities who fell out of the dominant
identity became the national minorities. Failure to compete and bargain with the state for a fair share of the
resources often transformed into ethnic conflicts. However, ethnic differentiations do not automatically lead to
conflicts. It operates at the individual and group level whereby if the community has got assimilated with the
dominant community, it is found that ethnic community consciousness and conflict potential gets reduced.
According to Handelman (2011), the nature of the relationship between the different ethnic communities
usually shows the following tendencies.
i) Relative Harmony
Modernization often intensifies ethnic antagonisms in the short run, but usually betters them in the longer
term. It is also presumed that affluent democracies are more likely than less affluent countries to enjoy
amicable ethnic relations. Relative ethnic harmony is less common in developing countries. The countries
classified as harmonious are only categorized that way relative to other, more sharply divided societies. They
continue to have some glaring examples of ethnic discrimination and tension. Canada, in many ways a more
successful melting pot than the United States, has not resolved the problem of French separatism in Quebec.
But such tensions are the exception, and conflict is rarely violent.
ii) Uneasy Balance
Countries such as Trinidad-Tobago and Malaysia, offer an example of uneasy balance. Although still
generally peaceful, interethnic relations are uneasy. balance, in which different groups predominate in specific
areas of society. For example, in Malaysia, the Muslim Malay majority dominates the political system,
including parliament and the government bureaucracy, while the Chinese minority dominates the private sector.
Race riots in 1969 led the Malaysian government to introduce a “New Economic Policy” designed, in part,
to redistribute more of the country’s wealth to the Malays. Fearful of Chinese domination, the Malays have
benefited from a system of ethnic preferences in education and civil service. However, interethnic relations
may soon be tested as the Malaysian government has announced plans to sharply reduce these preferences.
The Caribbean nation of Trinidad and Tobago offers another example of an uneasy balance. During the
second half of the nineteenth century, British colonial authorities encouraged the migration of indentured
plantation workers from India who joined the Black majority and the small White elite. Contrary to the
common Caribbean practice of extensive racial mixing, there was a less interracial marriage between Blacks
and East Indians (immigrants from India), at least until the twentieth century. Each group currently constitutes
about 40 percent of the population, with the remaining 20 percent made up of Chinese, Whites, Arabs, and
others. Following Trinidadian independence in 1962, ethnic frictions increased as Blacks and East Indians
competed for state resources. Most of the important political, civil service, military, and police positions since
that time have been held by Blacks, who predominate within the urban middle and working classes. Whites
continue to predominate in the upper ranks of the business community. Traditionally, most East Indians have
been either small to medium-sized business people (with significant collective economic power) or poor
farmers and farm workers.

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iii) Ethnic Dominance
One important factor permitting ethnic balance in countries such as Malaysia and Trinidad-Tobago has
been the division of political and economic powers between the different ethnicities. Typically, one ethnicity
predominates in the political arena and the other is more influential in the economy. But, in enforced
hierarchies, both forms of power are concentrated in the hands of the ruling ethnic group. South African
apartheid represented the most blatant example of such a relationship. Through the 1980s, Whites dominated
both the private sector and the state, including the courts, police, and armed forces. Blacks were denied the
most basic rights.
iv) Systematic Violence
Ethnic resentments have sometimes led to mass violence or even civil war. As we have seen, in several
Third World countries as well as in some European nations, systematic violence has resulted in thousands or
hundreds of thousands of deaths and huge numbers of displaced refugees and rape victims—in Myanmar,
Bosnia, Lebanon, India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Sudan, among others. Often, as with
enforced hierarchies, violence develops when ethnic divisions are reinforced by class antagonisms. Muslim
antipathy toward Lebanon’s Christian community has been fueled by Christian economic superiority. Similarly,
in Nigeria, many Islamic northerners resent the economic success of the Christian Ibos. Ethnic bloodshed
sometimes occurs when one ethnicity seizes political power and then takes retribution for real or imagined past
indignities.

6.9 Methods of Conflict Resolution

Whether ethnic resentments arise ‘from competition over government resources, resentment over the
division of political and economic powers, or an ethnic community’s demands for greater autonomy, there are
several possible results.’ Although some outcomes are peaceful, others may result in intense violence. It is,
however, the management of the crisis and the maturity shown by the political elites of a particular country
that determines the outcome. The different methods of conflict resolution as witnessed in diverse situations are
discussed in the following sections.
i) Power-Sharing Arrangements:
Power-sharing arrangements are designed to create stability by constitutionally dividing political power
among major ethnic groups. Federalism, the primary form of power-sharing, is “a system of government [that]
emanates from the desire of people to form a union without necessarily losing their various identities.” It may
involve the creation of autonomous or semi-autonomous regions, each of which is governed by a particular
ethnicity. It is only possible in situations where contending ethnic groups are concentrated in different regions
of the country. Industrialized democracies have had greater success with ethnically based federalism than less
developed countries.
Consociationalism offers another potential solution to ethnic conflict. It tends to be used where major
ethnic groups reside nearby and have no particular “homelands.” Consociational democracy in plural

64
(multiethnic) societies involves a careful division of political power designed to protect the rights of all
participants. It involves the following components: i) The leaders of all-important ethnic groups must form a
ruling coalition at the national level. ii) Each group has veto power over government policy, or at least over
policies that affect them. iii) Government funds and public employment, such as the civil service, are divided
between ethnicities, with each receiving several posts roughly proportional to its population. iv) Each ethnic
group is afforded a high degree of autonomy over its affairs. (Lijphart)
Thus, ‘consociational democracy consciously rejects pure majority rule. Instead, it seeks to create a
framework for stability and peace by guaranteeing minorities a share of political power—even veto power—
to protect them against the majority.’ It has been tried in several developing nations, including Cyprus (where
it failed) and Malaysia (where it has generally succeeded). Some degree of mutual trust and cooperation
between the leaders of contending ethnic groups is the key to effective consociational arrangements.
ii) Secession
When power-sharing or other forms of compromise do not succeed, discontented ethnic minorities may
attempt to secede (withdraw) from the country to form their nation or join their ethnic brothers and sisters
in a neighboring state. Ralph Premdas(1991) indicates that these movements have several characteristics: (i)
An ethnic group—defined by factors such as language, religion, culture, or race—claims the right of self-
determination (independence); (ii) the ethnic community has a defined territorial base that it claims as its
homeland; (iii) there is almost always some organized struggle.
Central governments, faced with such breakaway efforts, almost always try to repress them because they
are unwilling to part with some of their country’s territory or resources. Although many aggrieved Third World
nationalities would like to secede, few have accomplished that goal. Bangladesh is one such example.
iii) Outside Intervention
Such intervention can range from simply agreeing to take in refugees to an armed intervention aimed at
putting a stop to the bloodshed. However, leaders of outside nations may at times be constrained from
involvement due to international law (concerning national sovereignty), international power alignments, lack of
resources, or fear of alienating their citizens. Even the nonaggressive act of offering refuge to the victims of
ethnic strife and persecution may seem too costly, too risky, or too unpalatable to the home country’s
population.
iv) Settlement through Exhaustion
One of the most common types of outside intervention has come from a neighboring country that supports
an ethnic rebellion, thereby enhancing the conflict rather than containing it. Ethnic groups (usually minorities)
that reside along such borders are far more likely to rebel than those living elsewhere. Proximity to a
neighboring country often allows rebel soldiers and their supporters to take refuge from pursuing government
troops. In many, if not most, of these cases, the rebelling ethnic group lives on both sides of the border and
can take refuge and gain support from their fellow tribesmen or nationals.

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6.10 Conclusion
Finally, many ethnic conflicts have been resolved less through statecraft, constitutional arrangements, or
external intervention than through the exhaustion of the warring parties. If developing nations are to avoid the
horrors of civil war, secession, and foreign intervention, they must arrive at legal, political, and economic
solutions that can constrain ethnic tensions. That goal, though reasonable, is more easily articulated than
achieved. More difficult still is the task of repairing the damage done to plural societies that have been torn
apart by bloody conflict (e.g., Rwanda, Iraq, Kashmir, and Lebanon) or by decades of prejudice and
segregation (South Africa). We have seen that, while modern plural societies (such as Belgium and Canada)
are ultimately more capable of resolving ethnic tensions peacefully, in the shorter-term early modernization has
intensified such conflict in many LDCs. Creating peaceful scenarios for multicultural societies remains one of
the greatest challenges facing Third World leaders.

6.11 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Discuss in brief the major basis of ethnic divisions with suitable illustration.
2. Discuss in brief the major theoretical models for understanding ethnopolitics.
3. Examine in brief the various levels of ethnic conflict.
4. What are the different types of conflict resolution measures undertaken in case of ethnic conflict.
Answer with suitable illustrations.

6.12 Suggested Readings

(a) Handelman, H. (2011). The Challenge of Third World Development. Pearson.
(b) Hutchinson, J. & Smith, A.D. (Eds.). (1996). Ethnicity. Oxford University Press.
(c) Gurr,T.H. (1970). Why Men Rebel. Princeton University Press.
(d) Rudolph, J. (2006). Politics and Ethnicity. Springer.

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 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 3.1
Unit-7

!ÓŸªyÎ˚ò Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª

!Ó°ÏÎ˚¢)!Ⲡ:
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7.9 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

7.1 v˛zˆÏjüƒ
~£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ xy˛ô!ò ãyòˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓòÈÙÙÙÈ
 !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy

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 v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ïyÓ˚íy

7.2 !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò
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¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ â˛â≈˛y ˛ôÎ≈hs˘˛ ~Ó˚ xÓyï Ü!ì˛!Ó!ï– !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ÇK˛y !òˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¢õyã!ÓK˛yò#ñ Ó˚y‹T…!ÓK˛yò#ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ÎˆÏÌ‹T õì˛˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ
xyˆÏäÈ–

67
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e´õÓï≈õyò xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ õ%_´ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ~ÓÇ !ÓŸª xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ xD#¶)˛ì˛ ˆîü=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ü¶˛#Ó˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õß∫Î˚– õyÑ≈˛¢Óyî#Ó˚y
!ÓŸªyÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò ˆÑ˛Ôüú !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ Îy î!Ó˚o Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!úÓ˚ «˛!ì˛Ó˚ õ)ú
Ñ˛yÓ˚í– òÎ˚yÈÙÈv˛zîyÓ˚Óyî# xÌ≈ò#!ì˛!ÓîÜí !ÓŸªyÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ ¢#õyòy x!ì˛e´õ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ xÌ≈˜òÏ !ì˛Ñ˛
¢¡ôÑ≈˛ˆÏÑ˛ ¢¡ô,_´ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ ˆÑ˛Ôüú !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Óí≈òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäȉ– ì˛ˆÏÓ !ÓÇü üì˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˆü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÜ ˆÎ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ £yÁÎ˚y
v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈñ ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚í!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ÷ï%õye xyhs˘˛ã≈y!ì˛Ñ˛ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ ~Ñ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ ì˛y òÎ˚ñ ~Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢ˆÏD !ÓŸª ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ñ ≤ÃÎ%!_´!Óîƒy
Á Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÁ ~Ñ˛ !Óüyú ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ˆîÖy !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–

7.3 v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª

Óì≈˛õyò !ӈϟªÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÇü ˆîü£z v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü– v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü ÓúˆÏì˛ õ)úì˛ xy!ö˛Ñ˛yñ úy!ì˛ò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛y Á ~!üÎ˚y
õ£yˆÏîˆÏüÓ˚ xò%ß¨ì˛ ˆîü=ˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yˆÏòy £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– õ)úì˛ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õ,!k˛Ó˚ !ò!Ó˚ˆÏÖ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ v˛zß¨ì˛ Á
v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ~£z î%£z ¶˛yˆÏÜ ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=ˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ Úì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓÁ xyÖƒy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ì˛ˆÏÓ
~£z ¢Ó ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ñ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Á ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ô›˛ ~Ñ˛ òÎ˚–
v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !¶˛ß¨ì˛y ÌyÑ˛y ¢ˆÏcÁ ~£z ˆîü=!úÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ñ˛ì˛Ñ˛=!ú ¢yïyÓ˚í ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ÎÌyÈÙÙÙÈ
≤ÃÌõì˛ñ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!úÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÇü£z ˆÑ˛yò òy ˆÑ˛yò ¢y¡ÀyãƒÓyî# ü!_´Ó˚ xï#ˆÏò !äÈú ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚y ãyì˛#Î˚ì˛yÓyˆÏî
v˛zm%k˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ¢y¡ÀyãƒÓyˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ¢Ç@˘Ãyõ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ–
!mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆîü£z ãy!ì˛Üì˛ ¢y¡±îy!Î˚Ñ˛ì˛y Á v˛z˛ôãy!ì˛Üì˛ ¢õ¢ƒyÎ˚ ãã≈!Ó˚ì˛–
ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÇü ˆîˆÏü£z ãy!ì˛ Ü‡˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe òyòy ¢õ¢ƒyÎ˚ !ÓÓì˛–
â˛ì%˛Ì≈ì˛ñ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!ú ˆÓ!üÓ˚¶˛yÜ£z Ñ,˛!°Ï!ò¶≈˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ î%Ó≈ú– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú
ˆîü=!ú xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ãòƒ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛ Ñ˛yÎ≈¢)!Ⲡ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yúòy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ–
˛ôMÈ˛õì˛ñ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!ú ¢y¡ÀyãƒÓyîñ Óí≈˜ÏÓ°ÏõƒÓyî Á Óí≈!ÓˆÏm°Ï# xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ì˛#Ó !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ì˛#Ó
≤Ã!ì˛Óyî ãy!òˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
°Ï¤˛ì˛ñ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÇü ˆîˆÏü£z xyhs˘˛ã≈y!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆãy›˛ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xyˆÏ®yúˆÏò ˆÎyÜîyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ–

68
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ò Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ≠
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ò Îy õ)úì˛ ¢õ@˘Ã !ÓŸªˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛#¶)˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ˚y¢ñ Îy !Ñ˛òy ¢õ@˘Ã !ÓŸªˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¶%˛Óò @˘ÃyˆÏõ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– ÎyÓ˚y
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õÌ≈Ñ˛ ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú ¢õ@˘Ã !ӈϟªÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ñ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ î,벸 !ÓŸªy¢
~£z !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õyÏõ£z v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú Óy ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏì˛Á v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆãyÎ˚yÓ˚ xyòy ¢Ω˛Ó £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú ˆÎ v˛zߨ!ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ì˛y ÷ï%õye Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ õˆÏz ¢#õyÓk˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ˆÏäÈ–
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓ£z ¢õ@˘Ã !ӈϟª ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ v˛zߨ!ì˛ ¢yïò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚!ò– 1990ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛#≈Ñ˛yˆÏú !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎ
≤ö˛yÓ ¢õ@˘Ã !ӈϟª ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ˆÏäÈ ì˛yˆÏì˛ ¢Ó ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!ü «˛!ì˛@˘Ãhfl˛Ï £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúy– xÌ≈yÍ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò !òˆÏÎ˚
~Ñ˛y!ïÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# òyòyò Ó_´Óƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–

7.4 v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟª !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˝õy!eÑ˛ ≤ö˛yÓ

!ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ˆÎ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏì˛ Ó˝õy!eÑ˛ ≤ö˛yÓ ˆö˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈ ˆ¢ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢ˆÏ®£ ˆò£z– !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y
v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü¢õ)£ Óy ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ñ ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ«˛e=!úˆÏÑ˛ ΈÏÌ‹T ≤ö˛y!Óì˛
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢«˛õ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~£z ≤ö˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ xÓüƒ£z £z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ ˆò!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ !îÑ˛Á Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏì˛
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ=!ú !òˆÏÎ˚ !òˆÏ¡¨ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £ú–
S1V !ÓŸªyÎ˚òñ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ≠
Óì≈˛õyˆÏò !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Î%_´ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ òÎ˚y v˛zîyÓ˚#Ñ˛Ó˚í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ~ÓÇ ÎyÓ˚ õ)ú v˛zˆÏjüƒ õ%_´ ÓyãyÓ˚ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛– ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü
ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˆîü=ˆÏúy !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ≤Ã!e´Î˚y â˛y!úˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ WTO, IMF, World Bank ≤ö,˛!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ– õ%_´
Óy!íムӃÓfl˛iy ïò# ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ xò%Ñ)˛ú £ˆÏúÁ î!Ó˚o ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ «˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ£z ˆîÖy !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
v˛zîyÓ˚ò#!ì˛Ó˚ òyˆÏõ e´õyÜì˛ ˆÓ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚Ñ˛Ó˚íñ Ó˚y‹T…yÎ˚_ ¢Çfl˛iyÓ˚ ¢ÇÖƒy Á «˛õì˛y £…y¢ñ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ !Óú%!Æ á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚
Ó˝ãy!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl˛iyÓ˚ xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒ Ñ˛yˆÏÎ˚õ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty â˛yúyÎ˚ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò– ~Ñ˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ Óy ˆÎÔ̶˛yˆÏÓ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ¢Çfl˛iy ÓƒyB˛ñ Ó#õy
≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õyÏõ ïò# ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ Ó˝ãy!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Çfl˛iy=ˆÏúy !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆîˆÏü ˛ô%§!ã ú!@¿ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ õyò%°ÏˆÑÏ ˛
≤ÈÏúy!¶˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!òˆÏÎ˚yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ–
ÓúyÓy˝úƒ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúy !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢%!Óïy ¢!‡˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏäÈ òy– ÓÓ˚Ç òyòy !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ~£z
ˆîü=ˆÏúy «˛!ì˛@˘Ãhfl˛Ï £ˆÏFäÈ– v˛zß¨ì˛ Á xò%ß¨ì˛ ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ v˛z_ˆÏÓ˚y_Ó˚ ˜Ó°Ïõƒ Ó,!k˛ £ˆÏFäÈ– v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒ ~£z xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˜Ó°Ïõƒ
v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ xy¶˛ƒhs˘˛Ó˚#í ˆ«˛ˆÏeÁ â)˛v˛¸yhs˘˛– ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ õyG˛yÓ˚#ñ «%˛o !ü“=ˆÏúy
«˛!ì˛@˘Ãhfl˛Ï £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– x ◊!õÑ˛Ó˚y Ñ˛õ≈£#ò £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ˆÏäÈ– ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Óy v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ ü£Ó˚yMÈ˛ˆÏú ~Ñ˛
ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zFâ˛!Ó_ ÓƒÓ¢yÎ˚# Á Ó%!k˛ã#Ó# ˆ◊í# ˜ì˛!Ó˚ £ˆÏFäÈ ÎyÓ˚y ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# !ÓŸªyÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ fl˛∫yÜì˛ ãy!òˆÏÎ˚ ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˆîü¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚
ì˛yˆÏÓîyÓ˚# Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ–
xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ¢yõˆÏò ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛˛ôˆÏ«˛ ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò Ó˚*˛ô Îy Óyhfl˛ÏˆÏÓ òÎ˚y
v˛z˛ô!òˆÏÓüÓyˆÏîÓ˚ òyõyhs˘˛Ó˚– úy£zˆÏ¢™ ≤ÃÌyÓ˚ ¢Ó˚ú#Ñ˛Ó˚íñ o&ì˛ xˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ fl˛iyòyhs˘˛Ó˚ñ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ¢ÇflÒyÓ˚ ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õyÏõ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎ
≤ÈÏÓü áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ ì˛y ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!¶˛ß¨¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zˆÏmˆÏÜÓ˚ ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ˆÏ˛ôˆÏü ≤ö˛yˆÏÓ
!Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ãyì˛#Î˚ ì˛Ìy Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚Ñ˛Ó˚í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ÌõˆÏÑ˛ ˆÜˆÏäÈ ÓÓ˚Ç !ü«˛yñ ÓƒyB˛ñ Ó#õy Á xòƒyòƒ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ÓˆÏî!ü
!Ó!òˆÏÎ˚y܈ÏÑ˛ fl˛∫yÜì˛ ãyòyˆÏFäÈ– ÎyÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ !˛ô!äȈÏÎ˚ ˛ôv˛¸y õyò%°Ïãò !îˆÏü£yÓ˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ˆÏäÈ–

69
 ì˛ˆÏÓ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú ˆÎ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúy ~ˆÏÑ˛ÓyˆÏÓ˚£z ˆÑ˛yò ¢%ö˛ú ˛ôyÎ˚!ò ì˛y òÎ˚– !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õ%_´ÓyãyÓ˚
xÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú xyhs˘˛ã≈y!ì˛Ñ˛ !òˆÏÎ˚yÜÑ˛ì≈˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õyÏõ òì%˛ò òì%˛ò !ü“ ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe Ñ˛õ≈¢Çfl˛iyò xˆÏòÑ˛Öy!ò
Ó,!k˛ ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ ì˛Ìƒ≤ÃÎ%!_´Üì˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÁ xˆÏòÑ˛Öy!ò x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ– Ñ,˛!°Ï ~ÓÇ Óy!íˆÏãƒÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe £z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛
≤ö˛yÓ ˆö˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò–
S2V !ÓŸªyÎ˚òñ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ≠
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Á ˛ô!ÿ˛õy ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒÓyî e´õü !ÓÑ˛!üì˛ £ˆÏFäÈ– ≤ÃÌõ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆ¶˛yÜÓyî# ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚
myÓ˚y Óƒy˛ôÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £ˆÏFäÈ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛– !›˛!¶˛ñ xòƒyòƒ Üíõyïƒõñ £zr›˛yÓ˚ˆÏò›˛ñ ì˛Ìy ì˛Ìƒ≤ÃÎ%!_´Ó˚
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S3V !ÓŸªyÎ˚òñ ì˛Ìƒ≤ÃÎ%!_´ Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ≠
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S4V !ÓŸªyÎ˚òñ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ≠
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S5V !ÓŸªyÎ˚òñ !â˛!Ñ˛Í¢y ÓƒÓfl˛iy Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ≠
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13.1 üì˛yÇüñ 1939ÈÙÈ~ Îy ˆÓˆÏv˛¸ £Î˚ 20.7 üì˛yÇü– fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛“òy!¶˛!_Ñ˛ xÌ≈ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ¢õÎ˚ ïò#ì˛õ 1
üì˛yLjÏüÓ˚ xyÎ˚ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ˆõy›˛ xyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ xò%˛ôyˆÏì˛ úyÜyì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛õˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ Îy 1982 ¢yˆÏú £Î˚ õye 6.1 üì˛yÇü– ˆîˆÏü ÎÖò
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ò#!ì˛ â˛yú% £Î˚ ~ÓÇ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ £yÓ˚ ÓyˆÏv˛¸ñ ì˛Öò x¶)˛ì˛˛ô)Ó≈ Ü!ì˛ˆÏì˛ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ ˜Ó°ÏõƒÁ Óyv˛¸ˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– 2015ÈÙȈì˛
ì˛y xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ¢õhfl˛Ï ˆÓ˚Ñ˛v≈˛ äÈy!˛ôˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÎÖyˆÏò ïò#ì˛õ 1 üì˛yÇü õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ £yˆÏì˛ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ˆõy›˛ xyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ 21.3 üì˛yÇü– 1982
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ 2015 ¢yˆÏúÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ˆõy›˛ xyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ î!Ó˚oì˛õ 50 üì˛yLjÏüÓ˚ xò%˛ôyì˛ 23.6 üì˛yÇü ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ £Î˚ 14.7
üì˛yÇü– xÌ≈yÍñ xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ Ó,!k˛ ÎÖò ˆÓˆÏv˛¸ˆÏäÈñ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢%ö˛ú ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ïò#ì˛õ xÇüñ Ü!Ó˚ÓÓ˚y òÎ˚–

71
S7V !ÓŸªyÎ˚òñ îy!Ó˚oƒ Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ≠
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ òyˆÏõ ˆÎ òÎ˚y v˛zîyÓ˚Óyî# Ñ˛õ≈¢)!ⲠˆòÁÎ˚yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy Óúy £Î˚ñ ˆ¢›˛y xy¢ˆÏú õ%!‹TˆÏõÎ˚Ó˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ~ÓÇ õ%òyö˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈–
v˛zß¨ì˛ ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ~Ñ˛ òÎ˚y ˆÑ˛Ôüú ~£z !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ˆÎÖyˆÏò ˛ô%§!ã£z ¢Ó!Ñ˛ä%ÈÓ˚ !òï≈yÓ˚Ñ˛– !ÓŸªÓƒyB˛ Á xyhs˘˛ã≈y!ì˛Ñ˛
xÌ≈¶˛y[˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏî≈!üì˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÜì˛ ¢ÇflÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈¢)!Ⲡv˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!úˆÏì˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ᛲyˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚!òó ~õò!Ñ˛ xˆÏòÑ˛
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ì˛y v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe òì%˛ò !Ó˛ôî ˆv˛ˆÏÑ˛ ~ˆÏòˆÏäÈ– !ÓŸªÓƒyˆÏB˛Ó˚ !Ó˚ˆÏ˛ôy›≈˛ xò%ÎyÎ˚# 1980 ¢yú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ 2000 ¢yú
˛ôÎ≈hs˘˛ ~£z Ñ%˛!v˛¸ ÓäȈÏÓ˚ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÜì˛ ¢ÇflÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈¢)!â˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ 28!›˛ ˆîˆÏü 54 üì˛yÇü îy!Ó˚oƒ ˆÓˆÏv˛¸ˆÏäÈ– õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚
Üv˛¸ xyÎ˚% Ñ˛ˆÏõ ˆÜˆÏäÈ– v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=!úÓ˚ 40 üì˛yÇü ˆ«˛ˆÏe õyÌy!˛ôä%È ãyì˛#Î˚ v˛zͲôyîò £yÓ˚ ÓyˆÏv˛¸!ò– Ñ˛yÓ˚í v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú
!ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=!ú !ÓŸªÓƒyB˛ Á xyhs˘˛ã≈y!ì˛Ñ˛ xÌ≈¶˛y[˛yÓ˚ ~Ó˚ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÜì˛ Ñ˛õ≈¢)!â˛Ó˚ !òˆÏî≈üyÓú# õyòˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ ì˛yÓ˚y ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ˆîˆÏü
Ñ,˛!°ÏˆÏì˛ñ ÖyˆÏîƒñ ¢yˆÏÓ˚ñ ãμyúy!òˆÏì˛ ¶˛ì%≈˛!Ñ˛ ˆîÁÎ˚y Óı˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xyõîy!òˆÏì˛ ÷ÕÒ â˛y˛ôyˆÏòy Óı˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü äÈyv˛¸ ˆîÁÎ˚y
£Î˚ Ó,£Í !ü“˛ô!ì˛ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏ˛ô≈yˆÏÓ˚üò=!úÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÓyˆÏã›˛ Ñ˛õyˆÏòyÓ˚ ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü ¢Ó˚Ñ˛y!Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
!òˆÏÎ˚yÜ xˆÏòÑ˛Öy!ò ¢ÇÑ%˛!â˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ö˛ˆÏú fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ ¶˛yˆÏÓ£z v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ¢yïyÓ˚í ãò¢yïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏò xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆòˆÏõ xyˆÏ¢ xı˛Ñ˛yÓ˚–
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ ¢yïyÓ˚í õyò%°Ï ì˛Ìy î!Ó˚o õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏò Ñ˛ì˛Öy!ò ≤ö˛yÓ ˆö˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈ
ì˛y ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ô!Ó˚¢ÇÖƒyˆÏòÓ˚ !îˆÏÑ˛ ì˛yÑ˛yˆÏú ˆÓyG˛y ÎyˆÏÓ– 2011ÈÙÈ12 ¢yˆÏú ~Ñ˛ ãò Óƒ!_´ ܈Ïv˛¸ õyˆÏ¢ 1501 ›˛yÑ˛y
ˆ¶˛y܃˛ôíƒ ÓƒÎ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛òñ Îy 2017ÈÙÈ18ÛˆÏì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ 1446 ›˛yÑ˛y S2011ÈÙÈ12 xÌ≈õ)ˆÏúƒV– Üì˛ 45 ÓäȈÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÌõ ÓyÓ˚
¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛ ˆ¶˛y܃˛ôˆÏíƒÓ˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ÖÓ˚â˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõˆÏäÈ– !ÓˆÏü°Ïì˛ @˘Ãyõ#í ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛ ~£z £…yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚õyí 8.8 üì˛yÇü– ÷ï% ì˛y£z òÎ˚ñ
2011ÈÙÈ12 ~ÓÇ 2017ÈÙÈ18 ¢yˆÏúÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ @˘Ãyõ#í ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ Öyîƒ˛ôˆÏíƒ ÖÓ˚â˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõˆÏäÈ 9.8 üì˛yÇü– ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD ˆúÓyÓ˚
Ó%ƒˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ ì˛Ìƒ xò%ÎyÎ˚# 2019ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ˆö˛Ó&Î˚y!Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ @˘Ãyõ#í ¶˛yÓ˚ˆÏì˛ Ñ,˛!°Ï Á xÑ,˛!°Ï Ñ˛yˆÏã !òÎ%_´ x ◊!õˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ õã%!Ó˚
úyÜyì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛õˆÏäÈ–
S8V !ÓŸªyÎ˚òñ Üíõyïƒõñ Üíì˛s˛f Á v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ÓŸª ≠
Üíõyïƒõ £ú Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ â˛ì%˛Ì≈ hfl˛ÏΩ˛– ÓúyÓy˝úƒ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ Á fl˛∫yï#ò Üíõyïƒõ ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyˆÏÑ˛
¢Óú Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ Üíõyïƒõ Î!î ì˛yÓ˚ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ì˛y ÓãyÎ˚ Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ òy ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ì˛y£ˆÏú fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ£z ì˛y Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ xì˛ƒhs˘˛
£ì˛yüyãòÑ˛ £ˆÏÓ– v˛zîy!Ó˚Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ £yì˛ ïˆÏÓ˚ ÜíõyÏõÓ˚ ÓyãyˆÏÓ˚ ¢)!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ¢Çá!›˛ì˛ Ó,£Í ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚ xò%≤ÈÏÓü– ~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú
ÜíõyÏõÁ Ñ˛ˆÏ˛ô≈yˆÏÓ˚›˛ ¢Çfl˛iy=!úÓ˚ ú!@¿ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó,!k˛ ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Üíõyïƒõ=ˆÏúy Ñ˛yÎ≈ì˛ Óv˛¸ Óv˛¸ Ñ˛ˆÏ˛ô≈yˆÏÓ˚›˛ ¢Çfl˛iy=!úÓ˚
îÖˆÏú– fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ£z ì˛yÓ˚y ÜíõyïƒõˆÏÑ˛ !òÎ˚s˛fí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ– ÜíõyÏõÓ˚ Óy!íãƒÑ˛Ó˚í õyˆÏò Ñ˛yÎ≈ì˛ Üíì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ Óy!íãƒÑ˛Ó˚í–
Ñ˛ˆÏ˛ô≈yˆÏÓ˚›˛ ¢Çfl˛iy=!úÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD £yì˛ !õ!úˆÏÎ˚ fl˛∫yÌ≈yˆÏß∫°Ï# ˆÜy¤˛# Á Ó˚yã˜Ïòì˛!Ñ˛ îú=!ú úyÜyì˛yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ ÜíõyïƒõˆÏÑ˛ !òÎ˚s˛fí
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ ≤Ãâ˛yÓ˚ â˛yúyˆÏì˛– !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôíƒy!Î˚ì˛ ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ~Öò ¢ÇÓyî ˛ô탖 xÌ≈yÍ Ñ˛ˆÏ˛ô≈yˆÏÓ˚›˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛!ÓîÓ˚y
ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ Óyv˛¸yˆÏì˛ !õ!v˛Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ– Îy ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyˆÏÑ˛ Óƒy˛ôÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
«˛!ì˛@˘Ãhfl˛Ï Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ–

7.5 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò
~Ñ˛!ÓÇü üì˛y∑#ˆÏì˛ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ¢õ@˘Ã !ÓŸªˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¶%˛Óò @˘ÃyˆÏõ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˝õy!eÑ˛ ≤ö˛yÓ ¢õ@˘Ã
!ӈϟª äÈ!v˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ˆÏäÈ– Óì≈˛õyˆÏò !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò ˆîü xyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ ¶˛yˆÏÓ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ òy– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#úì˛y
~ˆÏì˛yÖy!ò Ó,!k˛ ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yò ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛£z !Ó!FäÈߨì˛yÓ˚ ò#!ì˛ xÓú¡∫ò Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó òÎ˚– ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí !ÓŸªyÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y

72
Óy òy Ñ˛Ó˚y xyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ~Ñ˛yhs˘˛ !òãfl˛∫ Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚ òÎ˚– ˆ¢ â˛y£zˆÏúÁ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ òy â˛y£zˆÏúÁ !ÓŸªyÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛
@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆìÏ ˛ £ˆÏÓ– ~ ≤âˆÏD !Ó!ü‹T ¢õyã!ÓK˛yò# ˛ôyÌ≈ â˛ˆÏRy˛ôyïƒyˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ó_´Óƒ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ã!íïyòˆÏÎy܃ ˆÎÈÙÈÚÚ¢yÓ≈ˆ¶Ï ˛ÔõˆÏcÓ˚
£y!ò £ˆÏÓ ~£z xyüB˛yÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yò Ó˚y‹T… !Ñ˛ xyãˆÏÑ˛ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ î)ˆÏÓ˚ î)ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄ ˆîÖy ÎyˆÏFäÈ î)ˆÏÓ˚ ¢ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyÑ˛yÓ˚
õ)úƒ ≤Ãâ˛[˛ ˆÓ!üñ ÎyÓ˚ «˛!ì˛ ¢yõúyˆÏòyÓ˚ Ñ˛õ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛£z ¢Ω˛ÓÛÛ xÌ≈yÍ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õyÏõ ãy!ì˛ÈÙÈÓ˚y‹T…=!úÓ˚
¢yÓ≈ˆÏ¶˛Ôõc xˆÏòÑ˛Öy!ò «%˛ß¨ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ Óy £ˆÏFäÈ ˆ¢ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yò ¢ˆÏ®£ ˆò£z– !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ì˛y ¢ˆÏ_¥Á !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò ˆîü !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ≤Ã!e´Î˚y
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!FäÈߨ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ òy– ~ÖyˆÏò£z !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õy£ydƒ–
~Öò ≤ß¿ £ˆÏúy ì˛y£ˆÏú v˛z˛ôyÎ˚⁄ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆÎ !ÓÓ˚*˛ô ≤Ã!ì˛!e´Î˚y ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ˆÏäÈ ˆ¢
ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ ˆîy°ÏyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ úy¶˛ ˆò£z– ¢õ¢ƒy £ú !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ ¢!‡˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yúòyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ
!ÓŸªyÎ˚ò xˆÏòÑ˛ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe£z v˛zß¨ì˛ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúy myÓ˚y !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ £ˆÏFäÈ ~ÓÇ ˆ¢ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí£z !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢%ö˛ú ¢Ñ˛ú ˆîü ¢õyò¶˛yˆÏÓ
ˆ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏäÈ òy– xyÓyÓ˚ xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛£z ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛Ó˚ ãòƒ ˆ¢£z ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ î%Ó≈ú ≤Ãüy¢!òÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy
~ÓÇ î%Ó≈ú ˆòì,˛cˆÏÑ˛£z îyÎ˚# Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xÌ≈yÍ v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúyÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛Ó˚ ãòƒ ÷ï%õye ~Ñ˛ˆÏ˛ôˆÏü ¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zߨì˛
!ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆîü=ˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ îyÎ˚# Ñ˛Ó˚y !‡˛Ñ˛ òÎ˚ ÓˆÏú xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛£z õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò–
!Ó!ü‹T xÌ≈ò#!ì˛!Óî xõì≈˛ƒ ˆ¢ˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ÚÚ!ÓŸªyÎ˚ò !Ñ˛ ¢!ì˛ƒ£z ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò ˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ x!¶˛üy˛ô⁄ ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ
~›˛y òì%˛ò òÎ˚ñ xÓïy!Ó˚ì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˛ôyÿ˛yì˛ƒ òÎ˚ñ ~õò!Ñ˛ x!¶˛üy˛ô òÎ˚– Ólfl˛ì˛ ºõíñ Óy!íãƒñ ¢yÇfl,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤ö˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ !Óhfl˛ÏyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
!ÓK˛yò Á ≤ÃÎ%!_´˜Ïüú#¢ˆÏõì˛ !Óîƒy Á ˆÓyˆÏïÓ˚ ≤âyÓ˚ £zì˛ƒy!îÓ˚ õyÏõ £yãyÓ˚ £yãyÓ˚ ÓäÈÓ˚ ïˆÏÓ˚ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ã܈Ïì˛Ó˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛ ¢yïò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xy¢ˆÏäÈ– ~£z !ÓŸªy!Î˚ì˛ xyhs˘˛É¢¡ôÑ≈˛ Ó˝ ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ˆÏì˛ xì˛ƒhs˘˛ ö˛ú≤â) £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– xyÓyÓ˚ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚
¢!e´Î˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚Ñ˛Ó˚y x~òÑ˛ ¢õˆÏÎ˚£z ˛ô!ÿ˛õ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ó˝ î)ˆÏÓ˚ xÓ!fl˛iì˛ !äȈÏúòÛÛ–

7.8 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#

(1) !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛# ˆÓyG˛⁄
(2) v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟªÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–
(3) v˛zߨÎ˚òü#ú !ӈϟª !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˝õy!eÑ˛ ≤ö˛yÓ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢!Óhfl˛ÏyˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚–

7.9 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

(a) Bigman, D. (Ed.). (2002). Globalization and the Developing Countries. CABI Publishing.
(b) Stiglitz, J. (2002).Globalization and Its Discontents. Penguin Books.
(c) Steger, M. (2020).Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
(d) ÓyÜâ˛#ñ x!õÎ˚Ñ%˛õyÓ˚ S¢¡ôy!îì˛Vñ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ¶˛yÓòyÈÙÈî%¶≈˛yÓòyñ ≤ÃÌõ Á !mì˛#Î˚ Ö[˛ñ ~ò. !Ó. ~.ñ Ñ˛úÑ˛yì˛yñ 2008–
(e) ˆ¢òñ xõì≈˛ƒñ ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛!ì˛ Á !£Ç¢yñ xyò®ñ Ñ˛úÑ˛yì˛yñ 2016–
(f) ˆáy°Ïñ Ó˚ì˛òì˛ò% S¢¡ôy!îì˛Vñ Ó˝õy!eÑ˛ !ÓŸªyÎ˚òñ Ñ˛Ìy≤ÃÑ˛yüñ ë˛yÑ˛yñ 2013–
(g) õ%ˆÏÖy˛ôyïƒyÎ˚ñ ¢OÎ˚ñ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ¢ÇÑ˛›˛ ≠ v˛z_Ó˚í ˆÎ¶˛yˆÏÓ â˛úˆÏäÈ î%!òÎ˚yñ õòö˛!Ñ˛Ó˚yñ 2016–
(h) xyò®ÓyãyÓ˚ ˛ô!eÑ˛yñ 29ˆü ~!≤Ãúñ 2020–

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 C.C : 3.1
Unit-8

New Social Movements and Politics of Alternative

Development
Content :
8.1 Objective
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Basic Characteristics of “New Social Movements”
8.4 Theories of New Social Movements
8.5 New Social Movement: Political or Cultural?
8.6 Politics of Alternative Development
8.7 Conclusion
8.8 Questions
8.9 Suggested Readings

8.1 Objective
 To learn about the concept of new social movements.
 To learn about the differences between the earlier types of social movements and new social
movements.
 To know about different theories of new social movements.
 To know major debates regarding new social movements.
 To know about politics of alternative development.

8.2 Introduction
Social movements are collective, organized, andsustained efforts to promote social change thatoccur
partially or entirely outside conventionalpolitics. Their participants are often drawn frommarginalized segments
of society that are excludedfrom decision-making processes. Thus, they mustengage in extra-institutional
methods of politicalaction to exert political influence. These methodsmay be violent, non-violent, or a
combination ofthe two.

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 New social movement theory is rooted in continental European traditions of social theory and political
philosophy. This approach emerged in large part as a response to the inadequacies of classical Marxism for
analyzing collective action. For new social movement theorists, two types of reductionism prevented classical
Marxism from adequately grasping contemporary forms of collective action. First, Marxism’s economic
reductionism presumed that all politically significant social action will derive from the fundamental economic
logic of capitalist production and that all other social logics are secondary at best in shaping such action.
Second, Marxism’s class reductionism presumed that the most significant social actors will be defined by class
relationships rooted in the process of production and that all other social identities are secondary at best in
constituting collective actors. These premises led Marxists to privilege proletarian revolution rooted in the
sphere of production and to marginalize any other form of social protest. New social movement theorists, by
contrast, have looked to other logics of action based in politics, ideology, and culture as the root of much
collective action, and they have looked to other sources of identity such as ethnicity, gender and sexuality as
the definers of collective identity. The term “new social movements” thus refers to a diverse array of collective
actions that have presumably displaced the old social movement of proletarian revolution associated with
classical Marxism. Even though new social movement theory is a critical reaction to classical Marxism, some
new social movement theorists seek to update and revise conventional Marxist assumptions while others seek
to displace and transcend them.

8.3 Basic Characteristics of “New Social Movements”

Despite the now common usage of the term “new social movement theory,” it is a misnomer if it implies
widespread agreement among a range of theorists on a number of core premises. It would be more accurate
to speak of “new social movement theories,” with the implication that there are many variations on a very
general approach to something called new social movements. As a first approximation to this general
approach, however, the following themes may be identified. First, most strands of new social movement
theory underscore symbolic action in civil society or the cultural sphere as a major arena for collective action
alongside instrumental action in the state or political sphere.
Second, new social movement theorists stress the importance of processes that promote autonomy and
self-determination instead of strategies for maximizing influence and power.
Third, some new social movement theorists emphasize the role of postmaterialist values in much
contemporary collective action, as opposed to conflicts over material resources.
Fourth, new social movement theorists tend to problematize the often fragile process of constructing
collective identities and identifying group interests, instead of assuming that conflict groups and their interests
are structurally determined.

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 Fifth, new social movement theory also stresses the socially constructed nature of grievances and
ideology, rather than assuming that they can be deduced from a group’s structural location.
Finally, new social movement theory recognizes a variety of submerged, latent, and temporary networks
that often undergird collective action, rather than assuming that centralized organizational forms are prerequisites
for successful mobilization. Many of these themes signify a divergence from both classical Marxism and
resource mobilization theory as well as some points of convergence with social constructionism. But once
again, various new social movement theorists give different emphases to these themes and have diverse
relations with Alternative traditions, thereby warranting a language that speaks of new social movement
theories (in the plural).
Beyond these themes is another defining characteristic of new social movement theories That warrants
special emphasis. In differing ways, all versions of new social movement theory Operate with some model
of a societal totality that provides the context for the emergence of Collective action. Different theorists
operate with different models (referring variously to postindustrial society, an information society, advanced
capitalism, etc.), but the attempt to theorize a historically specific social formation as the structural backdrop
for contemporary forms of collective action is perhaps the most distinctive feature of new social movement
theories. Having offered a first approximation to this paradigm, it will be helpful to consider several scholars
who exemplify the range of thinking among new social movement theorists.

8.4 Theories of New Social Movements

This overview of major new social movement theorists will serveseveral purposes. First, it will illustrate
the range of orientations that may be found in this area, as well as the distortion that is introduced when these
very different perspectives are referred to as a single paradigm. Second, it will provide a foundation for a
more detailed examination of the major debates associated with new social movement theories in the next
section. Third, it will suggest the need for some organizing typology that summarizes but does not oversimplify
the diversity of social movement theories. Four theorists best exemplify the range of new social movement
theories in the context of their own intellectual traditions: Manuel Castells (Spain), AlainTouraine (France),
Alberto Melucci (Italy), and JurgenHabermas (Germany).
Castells’s focus is the impact of capitalist dynamics on the transformation of urban space and the role of
urban social movements in this process. He argues that urban issues have become central because of the
growing importance of collective consumption and the necessity of the state to intervene to promote the
production of nonprofitable but vitally needed public goods. It is in this context that Castells sees the rise of
urban social movements in a dialectical contest with the state and other political forces seeking to reorganize
urban social life. He thus approaches the city as a social product that is a result of conflicting social interests
and values. On the one hand, socially dominant interests seek to define urban space in keeping with the goals

76
of capitalist commodification and bureaucratic domination; on the other hand, grassroots mobilizations and
urban social movements seek to defend popular interests, establish political autonomy, and maintain cultural
identity. While arguing that class relationships are fundamental, Castells recognizes that they exist alongside
other identities and sources of change, including the state as well as group identities based on gender, ethnicity,
nationality, and citizenship. For Castells, urban protest movements typically develop around three major
themes. First, some demands focus on the forms of collective consumption provided by the state, thereby
challenging the capitalist logic of exchange value with an emphasis on the provision of use values in community
contexts. Second, other demands focus on the importance of cultural identity and its links to territoriality,
thereby resisting the standardization and homogenization associated with bureaucratic forms of organization
by establishing and defending genuine forms of community. Finally, still other demands express the political
mobilization of citizens seeking more decentralized forms of government that emphasize self-management and
autonomous decision making. For Castells, the goals of collective consumption, community culture, and
political self-management may be found in a wide variety of cross-cultural settings that warranthe concept of
urban social movements.
Castells’s analysis of urban social movements exemplifies several new social movement themes while also
bringing a distinctive framing to these themes. The emphasis on cultural identity, the recognition of nonclass-
based constituencies, the theme of autonomous self-management, and the image of resistance to a systemic
logic of commodification and bureaucratization all serve to illustrate dominant strains in new social movement
theories. At the same time, Castells remains closer to some of the concerns of conventional Marxism than
many other new social movement theorists, and he does so by offering a “both/and” rather than an “either/
or” stance toward some familiar social movement dichotomies. Thus, rather than counterpoising “old” class-
based movements with “new” nonclass based movements, Castells recognizes the roles of both class-based
and nonclass-based constituencies in urban social movements. Rather than contrasting “political” and “cultural”
orientations, he recognizes that urban social movements contain a dialectical mixture of both orientations that
finds expression in civil society and the state. Rather than dichotomizing between “instrumental” strategies and
“expressive” identities, Castells acknowledges the mutual interplay between these themes in many urban social
movements. Because of this more catholic and inclusive approach, Castells’s version of new social movement
theory is more attentive to the role of the state than some other versions of the theory that appear to eschew
instrumental action altogether. As a result, he is more likely to recognize the role of political dynamics, such
as changing political opportunity structures, than some other scholars of new social movementtheory. Finally,
Castells’s approach suggests the compatibility of a certain style of neo-Marxist analysis with at least some
versions of new social movement theory.
Alain Touraine argues that with the passing of metasocial guarantees of social order, more and more of
society comes to be seen as the product of reflective social action. The growing capacity of social actors to

77
construct both a system of knowledge and the technical tools that allow them to intervene in their own
functioning-a capacity Touraine calls historicity-makes possible the increasing self-production of society, which
becomes the defining hallmark of post-industrial or programmed society. The control of historicity is the object
of an ongoing struggle between classes defined by relations of domination. Such classes take the form of social
movements as they enter into this struggle. In post-industrial society, the major social classes consist of
consumers/clients in the role of the popular class and managers/technocrats in the role of the dominant class.
The principal field of conflict for these classes is culture, and the central contest involves who will control
society’s growing capacity for self-management. As the state becomes the repository of society’s ever
increasing capacity to control historicity, there is reason to believe that the central conflict in post-industrial
society will come to center around this institution. In a recent formulation, Touraine (1992) locates new social
movements between two logics: that of a system seeking to maximize production, money, power, and
information, and that of subjects seeking to defend and expand their individuality.
Touraine’s work anticipates several of the major debates associated with new social movement theory.
One debate considers the likely constituency for such movements. In an empirical study of the workers’
movement in France, Touraine and his associates reiterate his distinctive claim that there is one central conflict
in every type of society. In industrial society, this conflict centred around material production and the workers’
movement posed the obvious challenge. With the coming of post-industrial society, Touraine and his associates
still expect one principal adversarial movement, although they remain uncertain about whether new social
movements will fill this role. In a 1988 work, Touraine suggests both that there is no single class or group
that represents a future social order and that different oppositional social movements are united simply by their
oppositional attitude. Touraine’s inability to define the constituency for collective action, despite his insistence
that each societal type has a single central conflict, underscores the difficulties that newsocial movement
theorists have in identifying the constituency for such movements. In Touraine’s case, this uncertainty may be
related to a second debate anticipated by his work concerning the seemingly apolitical nature of these
movements. He sees contemporary social movements as evidence of a displacement of protest from the
economic to the cultural realm, accompanied by the privatization of social problems. The typical result is an
anxious search for identity and an individualism that may exclude collective action (1985). In another context,
Touraine (1985) suggests that movements based on difference, specificity, or identity may too easily dismiss
the analysis of social relations and the denunciation of power, and instill another work he (1988) suggests that
appeals to identity are purely defensive unless they are linked with a counteroffensive that is directly political
and that appeals to self-determination. As we shall see, this uncertainty over the political status of new social
movements is a defining theme within this paradigm.
JurgenHabermas (1984-1987) proposes the most elaborate theory of modem social structure by
distinguishing between a politico-economic system governed by generalized media of power and money and
a lifeworld still governed by normative consensus. Whereas the system follows an instrumental logic that

78
detaches media like money and power from any responsibility or accountability, the lifeworld follows a
communicative rationality requiring that norms be justifiable through discussion and debate. The problem for
Habermas is that in modem society, system imperatives and logic intrude on the lifeworld in the form of
colonization, resulting in the media of money and power coming to regulate not only economic and political
transactions but also those concerning identity formation, normative regulation, and other forms of symbolic
reproduction traditionally associated with the lifeworld. Habermas suggests that the relationship of clients to
the welfare state is a model case for this colonization of the lifeworld, in that the welfare state monetarizes
and bureaucratizes lifeworld relationships as it controls the extent and kind of spending on welfare policy to
fit the imperatives of money and power. More generally, Habermas argues that the process of colonization
alters each of the basic roles that arise from the intersection of the politico-economic system and public and
private lifeworld: employee, consumer, client, and citizen. In each case, these dynamics locate more and more
decision-making power in the hands of experts and administrative structures, which operate according to the
system logic of money and power and whose decisions are correspondingly removed from contexts of
justification and accountability within the lifeworld.
Given this conception of social structure, Habermas locates new social movements at the seams between
system and lifeworld. This location leads him to identify two features of these movements that have shaped
further debates within new social movement theory. First, Habermas seems to imply that new social
movements will have a purely defensive character: at best, they can defend the lifeworld against the colonizing
intrusion of the system and sustain the role of normative consensus rooted in communicative rationality that
has been evolving within this sphere throughout the process of societal modernization. But Habermas offers
little evidence that new social movements can contribute to any broader social transformation, particularly
concerning the dominance of system over lifeworld and the dominance of generalized media of exchange like
money and power in the system world. As we shall see, while no one sees new social movements as bringing
about complete societal transformation, many of its theorists envision a more extensive and progressive role
for movements than simply defending the lifeworld. A second Habermasian theme, which is more broadly
accepted among new social movement theorists, concerns the nature of the goals or demands associated with
these movements. For Habermas, as for many others, the conflicts in which new social movements engage
are less about material reproduction and more about cultural reproduction, social integration, and socialization.
The new movements bring with them a new politics concerned with quality of life, projects of self-realization,
and goals of participation and identity formation. Many of these movements are united around the critique of
growth as a central ideological foundation, with ecology and peace movements playing central roles. Because
these are not traditional distributional struggles, Habermas implies that they cannot be channeled by political
parties or allayed by material compensation. The implication is that under some circumstances, the conflicts
associated with new social movements may contribute to the larger legitimation crisis that Habermas (1975;
1984-1987) associates with advanced capitalism.

79
 Alberto Melucci argues that the (post-)modem world brings new forms of social control, conformity
pressures, and information processing to which new social movements respond. The movements are triggered
by new sites of conflict that are interwoven with everyday life; the conflict itself involves symbolic codes,
identity claims, and personal or expressive claims. Melucci would thus concur with Touraine that the political
status of new social movements is unclear, but he is less troubled by this fact than Touraine. While these
conflicts are far removed from the conventional political sphere, they are not without structural effects that are
central in Melucci’s argument. In a society increasingly shaped by information and signs, social movements
play an important role as messages that express oppositional tendencies and modalities. The very focus on
personal, spiritual, or expressive aspects of modem life typical of new social movements is an implicit
repudiation of the instrumental rationality of the dominant society. Perhaps the most important systemic effect
of new social movements is to render visible the peculiarly modern form of power that resides behind the
rationality of administrative procedures; in this way, collective action emphasizes the socially constructed
nature of the world and the possibility of alternative arrangements. Melucci’s positive view of these movements
and their messages underscores the importance of free spaces between the level of political power and
everyday life in which actors can consolidate collective identities through both representation and participation.
Melucci’s work also helps to define some of the central issues of new social movement theory. One such
issue concerns the role of identity in modern collective action. Melucci’s starting premise is that in modern
society, the pace of change, the plurality of memberships, and the abundance of messages all combine to
weaken traditional points of reference and sources of identity, thereby creating a homelessness of personal
identity. This means that people’s propensity to become involved in collective action is tied to their capacity
to define an identity in the first place (Melucci 1988). It also means that the social construction of collective
identity is both a major prerequisite and a major accomplishment of the new social movements.’ The fluidity
of identity in the modern world and in its social movements is related to the fragility of organization in such
movements. Melucci is insistent that new social movements be seen as ongoing social constructions rather than
as unitary empirical objects, givens or essences, or historical personages acting on a stage. In contrast to these
concep-tions, whatever unity movements may achieve is a result of ongoing efforts rather than an initial starting
point for collective action. On another level, Melucci steers attention away from formal organization by
stressing that much collective action is nested in networks of submerged groups that occasionally coalesce into
self-referential forms of organization for struggle-but often on a temporary basis. He thereby suggests that we
speak less in terms of movements and more in terms of movement networks or movement areas to capture
the transitory nature of much contemporary mobilization.
These sketches hint at some of the main contours of new social movement theory while also suggesting
its diversity. This diversity derives in part from the different national settings in which theorists like
Castells,Touraine, Habermas, and Melucci have operated, as well as the rather different histories of social
protest within each nation. This diversity also derives from the different theoretical traditions that inform the

80
work of these theorists: Castells extends Marxist analyses of collective consumption, Touraine builds on his
pathbreaking work on postindustrial society, Habermas works out of the German tradition of critical theory,
and Melucci introduces some semiotic and postmodern elements. As suggested earlier, this diversity warrants
speaking of “new social movement theories” rather than a unitary “new social movement theory.” Yet there
are important threads of continuity across these thinkers. Despite their differences, all concur that their
societies have moved into a distinct social formation that might be designated as post-industrial, advanced
capitalism and that the structural features of their societies have shaped the kinds of current collective action
as decisively as the structural features of liberal capitalism shaped the dynamics of proletarian protest. While
these sketches have hinted at some of the issues that define the paradigm of new social movement theory,
a more systematic presentation of these debates is now in order.

8.5 New Social Movement: Political or Cultural?

There is a debate among the social movements scholars regarding the question: whether new social
movements are “political” in nature or are better classified in some other way (e. g., as “cultural”). One danger
in these discussions is that such terminology can create and perpetuate unfortunate dichotomies that obscure
more than they reveal about movements. That is, all movements rest on cultural foundations and play some
representational or symbolic function-hence all movements are cultural in some basic way (McAdam 1994).
Similarly, all movements take explicit or implicit political stances, and it can be argued that even those which
opt out of any conventional contestation for power have taken a political stance of quietism-hence all
movements are political in an equally basic way. These considerationsshould be taken as reminders that such
distinctions can be no more than sensitizing devices that highlight features of movements that are inevitably
more complex than any such binary classificatory system. Nevertheless, the discussions about the political
dimension of new social movements tap profound questions about their transformative potential. The operative
definition of political in most of these discussions seems to involve two fundamental dimensions: political
movements are at least in part focused on influencing or altering state power, and such movements must
thereby have some explicit strategy aimed at transforming power relations.
One way of challenging the political nature of new social movements is to argue that they are about
something larger than conventional politics; Brandt (1986) thereby casts new social movements as providing
a metapolitical challenge to modernity through a new historical type of protest. He sees these movements as
carriers of a classical critique of modern civilization as well as the very project of modernity. Even though he
classifies them as metapolitical, he identifies them as having discrete, political effects in terms of consciousness-
raising, political socialization, and the politicization of decision making. The more standard critique of new
social movements is that they are an apolitical or at least a prepolitical form of social activism. These critiques
typically use the protests of the 1960s as a positive benchmark, when moveMovements as providing a

81
metapolitical challenge to modernity through a new historical type of protest. He sees these movements as
carriers of a classical critique of modern civilization as well as the very project of modernity. Even though he
classifies them as metapolitical, he identifies them as having discrete, political effects in terms of consciousness-
raising, political socialization, and the politicization of decision making. The more standard critique of new
social movements is that they are an apolitical or at least a prepolitical form of social activism. These critiques
typically use the protests of the 1960s as a positive benchmark, when movements combined political and
cultural dimensions in a desirable balance that still attempted to transform power relations. In the 1970s and
1980s, however, some of these movements shifted to a predominantly cultural orientation in which questions
of identity and “identity politics” became predominant. With this change, the notion of “the personal is political”
became deformed in such a way that excessive attention to personal life came to substitute for any sustained
form of political action aimed at institutionalized power, and lifestyle politics thereby replaced previous
movement politics aimed at social transformation. As a result, such movements and their participants jettisoned
any concern with influencing or altering state power, abandoned discussions of strategy, and withdrew into
cultural cocoons of personal lifestyle issues as a replacement for a previously political orientation (Boggs
1986; Carroll 1992; Epstein 1991). In the sharpest version of this critique, L. A. Kauffman (1990) argues
that such antipolitics of identity leads to apolitical introspection, an emphasis on politically correct lifestyles,
and the substitution of personal transformation for political activity. Despite the radical veneer that may cover
such stances, Kauffman argues that they actually mirror and promote the values of the marketplace.
The most interesting rejoinder to these arguments can be derived from the work of Alberto Melucci
(1989), whose stance is not that the new social movements are political (in any conventional sense of the term)
but rather that it is just as well that they are not. If the new movements were more political in the conventional
sense of that term, they would be playing by sets of rules that benefit existing power-holders and they would
in all likelihood be much easier to co-opt through the normal channels of political representation and
negotiation. Hence, their apolitical or antipolitical stance should be regarded as a strength rather than a
weakness. However, to be apolitical in this sense does not mean a retreat into excessively individualist
orientations for Melucci. Although he operates with a culturalist reading of new social movements, he also
believes that such culturalist movements can pose major challenges to existing social relations. In part, this is
because these relations have come to be defined more and more in the cultural language of symbolic
representation. Thus, if power has become congealed, particularly in media messages and administrative
rationality, the most profound challenge to such power may come from cultural movements that challenge these
messages and rationality. By rendering power visible and by repudiating the instrumental rationality of the
dominant society, cultural movements may be more effective than conventionally political movements at, in
Melucci’s terms, breaking the limits of compatibility of the system.
Like other issues already discussed, this debate is about more than one issue, and sometimes it is not
about the same thing. For example, the sharpest critics of the apolitical turn in some new social movements

82
are writing in the context of the United States, while Melucci and new social movement theory generally has
emerged from a European context. Hence, a peculiarly American factor-such as individualism as a dominant
cultural theme-may be the target of these critics. The critics also tend to be affiliated with a New Left strain
of democratic socialism that provides them with an implicit model of which political stances movements ought
to take and forms the benchmark for their critiques of the movements that fall short of this standard. But the
positions in this debate ultimately reflect the theoretical stances of its participants as well as the way their
stances conceptualize the dominant society and its recent changes. Those who criticize the apolitical nature
of (some) new social movements tend to see modern society as predominantly capitalist. Although they may
have transcended traditional Marxist positions on the role of”old social movements,” they remain wedded to
aconception of capitalism as a systemic form of domination that must ultimately be challenged in political
terms. Those who defend the apolitical or cultural dimensions of new social movements appear to subscribe
to a different theory of modem society that leans more heavily on postmodem, semiotic, or generally culturalist
themes. Thus, each theoretical school can claim to have identified the more fundamental kind of (political or
cultural) challenge that new social movements might offer to the dominant society, but these claims reflect their
prior theoretical stances as much as any consistent set of observations about the movements themselves.

8.6 Politics of Alternative Development

Assuming a conventional understanding of ‘development’, there are many parts ofthe developing world
where such a process is littlein evidence and some where it might even seemto be in retreat. There are also
those who questionthe validity of such conventional understandingsof ‘development’, who indeed see
development itself as an ideological construct subservient to theinterests of Western donors, the international
aid‘industry’ and suchlike. We recognize the force ofmany of these arguments. At any rate, whatever term is
favoured, there has also been a growing appreciation of the very considerable diversity to be found among
and within those countries traditionally seen to come under its umbrella, and the widening of differences in
their role and stance towards major issues in world politics.
In many parts of the developing world, grass-roots movements have emerged as a political force to be
reckoned with. People excluded from politics are increasingly engaging in organized collective action to defend
their livelihoods, promote a more equitable distribution of land and resources, challenge state and corporate-
driven development policies, and advance democratization.From the 1980s onward, citizens in numerous
authoritarian regimes mobilized campaigns of non-violent resistance to challenge the entrenched political elite
and promote democratization (Schock2005). Marginalized peoples suffering from negative consequences of
the ‘development project’ and the globalization project of neo-liberalism struggle against deforestation, over-
fishing, industrial and export agriculture, large dam projects, and increasing land inequality. Furthermore,
resistance is being mobilizedagainst neo-liberal economic policies and the ‘newenclosures’, such as theprivatization

83
of public utilities and resources, andan intellectual property rights regime that contributes to the privatization
and commodificationof resources and traditional knowledge of peasantsand indigenous peoples.
Much resistance takes the form of people power movements that attempt to transform the politics,
economics, and social relations ofdeveloping countries. Traditional strategies such as participating in institutional
politics or seizing state power through violence are increasingly being discarded for a social movements
approach that mobilizes peoplethrough loose networks, engages in non-violentdirect actions, and promotes
democratization andsustainable development.
The development policies implemented by manydeveloping countries over the past half-centuryhave
prioritized constructing large dams, promoting industrial farming and export-orientedagriculture, and extracting
timber and minerals.These policies have contributed to the displacement ofpeople, the privatization of
communal landand resources, increasing levels of land inequality, and environmental degradation. They
havethreatened the material bases of small farmers,landless rural workers, and indigenous peoples.In
response, social movements with strong critiques of the dominant models of developmenthave mobilized and
pursued goals consistent withenvironmentalism, sustainable development, andgrass-roots democracy. Social
movements, likethose discussed above, not only resist destructivepolicies. They also challenge entrenched
systems of inequality and traditional rural social relationssuch as authoritarianism, violence, and patriarchy,with
traditional caste relations in India and traditional patron-client in both Thailand and Brazilbeing good examples.
All three organizations promote gender equality and empower people to take astand against corruption,
violence, and traditionaldeference to authority.
These social movement organizations, and others like them, have adopted organizational formsand politics
that represent a distinct break from thepast. They have broken from old ideological campsand deliberately
eschewed the conventional political party and lobby group format for a networkedsocial movement approach.
They reject the goals ofbecoming political parties or seizing state power.Instead they attempt to transcend
institutionalpolitics by emphasizing grass-roots participatorydemocracy, decentralization, and
organizationalautonomy from political parties and the state.They organize marginalized people to increasetheir
power to influence the state through extrainstitutional methods of protest, non-cooperation,and disruption. Just
as importantly they stress theempowerment of poor people and their collectivecapacity to address the
problems they experience.
In addition non-violentstrategies provide a sharpcontrast to guerrilla insurgencies and traditionalanti-
imperialist movements that used violenceto capture state power. They also contrast withthe violence that has
characterized enclosures,colonization, the expropriation of land and resources by states and corporations, and
violentrepression against people protesting elite imposeddevelopment policies.
In order to break vicious cycles of violence,these struggles have responded creatively. Theirmethods of
non-violent action have been used tomobilize people, draw attention to significant socialproblems, and

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generate pressure against their opponents. Direct actions have been taken to rectifyproblems that
governments have failed to address.Rather than challenging the state on its own terms,the people use
methods with which they have acomparative advantage, through mass-based non-violent resistance.
Significantly, there is an increasing tendency toward using non-violent resistance in struggles overland,
resources, and development policies, evenamong struggles that were originally violent, suchas the Zapatista
rebellion in the Chiapas state of Mexico. The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejercito Zapatista de
Liberacion Nacional,EZLN) emerged in 1994 in opposition to the NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) thatopened the Mexican economy to North Americanenterprises. Its struggle is framed as an
indigenousstruggle against imperialism. It promotes the autonomy of the indigenous people in Chiapas,
theirright to use and benefit from the resources in theirregion, and their right to exercise communal control
of land, something that was outlawed by theNAFTA agreement. After 1994 the Zapatistas increasingly
turned to non-violent action to promotetheir cause, although, isparadoxically, they continueto be armed.
Non-violent resistance may be the most promising strategy for addressing problems associatedwith
enclosures, commodification, and privatization, and for transforming the dominant development model. In
contrast, throughout Africa andAsia violent movements for national liberation,for example, have typically
resulted in authoritarian regimes that then used state power to exploitresources and labour.
Non-violent strategies have a number ofstrengths: (1) their means are consistent with theirends; (2) they
allow maximum popular participation; (3) they are more likely to win over opponentsand third parties; (4)
they lead to more lastingchange, because they mobilize a larger portion of the population in a participatory
fashion than violenceor official channels; and (5) their struggles usuallyresult in fewer casualties (Martin
2001; 2006).
Nevertheless, a problem with pro-democracymovements in particular is that while they unitea diverse
opposition to challenge the authoritarian regime, once a transition occurs, there tendsto be conflict and
fragmentation among the previously united opposition. In the Philippines, forexample, after the successful
people power movement, members of the traditional elite regainedpolitical prominence while the more
progressivesegments of the movement were marginalized(Mendoza 2009). Moreover, the process of
democratization may be deflected into moves to establishlimited democracy and a neo-liberal economy,under
the influence of the US government andinternational financial institutions seeking to prevent genuinely
popular democracy from taking root(Robinson 1996). Other problems with promotingsocial change
through social movements includethe inadequate resources available to poor people,the difficulty of
aggregating diverse groups into acoordinated movement, maintaining social mobilization and the capacity
to disrupt over extendedperiods, the co-option of movement leaders byruling elites, the formal
institutionalization of themovement and consequent loss of vitality, and, ofcourse, the vulnerability to state
or paramilitaryrepression.

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8.7 Conclusion
From the 1980s onward, a wave of people powermovements challenged authoritarian regimesthroughout
the developing world. Many movements contributed to human rights and democratization. Less dramatically,
but perhaps more importantly, people power movements have also emergedthroughout the developing world
to challengethe dominant development logic and neo-liberaleconomic policies. Drawing on human
rights,environmentalism, and sustainable developmentdiscourses, these movements are increasingly becoming
linked through transnational networks.

8.8 Self Assessment Questions

(1) Briefly discuss about the concept of new social movement. How does it differ from its older counter
part.
(2) What are the features of the new social movements?Analytically discuss the cultural and political
logic of new social movements.
(3) Critically discuss different theoretical approaches of new social movements.
(4) Critically evaluate the political logic of alternative development in the context of developing world.

8.9 Suggested Readings

(a) Burnell, Peter, Randall, Vicky, &Rakner, Lise. (2011). Politics in the Developing World. 3rd ed.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(b) Chesters, Graeme, & Welsh, Ian. (2011). Social Movements: The Key Concepts. Oxon: Routledge.
(c) Mukherjee, Subrata, &Ramaswamy, Sushila. (2017). Theoretical Foundations of Comparative
Politics. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan.

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