State the 3 aspects of cell theory:

1.​ All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

2.​ The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms
3.​ Cells arise from pre existing cells

Outline the 7 characteristics of living things:

M: M stands for movement, all living things move even plants

R: R stands for respiration, Respiration is the process of cells getting energy from food
S:S stands for sensitivity, sensitivity is the detection of changes in the environment.
G: G stands for growth, all living things grow
R:R stands for reproduction, all living things reproduce in order to make more living things of the
same type.
E: E stands for excretion, All living things excrete and excretion is the process of an organism
getting rid of waste. Humans typically excrete feces and urine.
N: N stands for nutrition, nutrition is a biochemical process by which an organism uses food to
enable themselves to grow and maintain themselves.

Deduce whether or not viruses are living things:

Viruses are not living things as they cannot do anything until they enter another living cell and
use the cell's machinery to reproduce the virus, this is known as reverse transcription. In
absence of a host viruses are unable to multiply or do anything.

Describe pasteur's experiment:

Louis pasteur designed an experiment to test whether sterile broth could generate microbial life.
First pasteur prepared a broth similar to soup, this broth was sterile as it was boiled. He placed
the broth in 2 long neck flasks. He left one flask with a straight neck and the other with a s
shaped neck. Then he boiled each flask to kill any living matter in the liquid, then he left both
broths to sit at room temperature whilst exposed to air. Several weeks later when he came to
check the broth he discovered that the broth in the straight neck flask was discolored and cloudy
while the broth in the s shaped neck flask had not changed. From this he concluded that germs
in the air were able to fall unobstructed into the straight neck flask while the other neck
prevented germs to reach the broth as it was curved which is why the broth in the s shaped
neck flask hasn't changed. This proved that sterile broth could not generate microbial life.
Draw and label eukaryotic cells (plant and animal):

Describe functions of cell organelles: Ribosome, Mitochondria, Nucleus, Cell wall, Plasma
membrane, Pili, Flagel, Chloroplast, Nucleatoid, Vacuole :

Ribosome: A ribosome is a macromolecular machine that is found in the cell that performs
biological protein synthesis. Ribosomes link amino acids together in the order specified by the
RNA to form polypeptide chains.

Mitochondria: The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell and it is responsible for
respiration. Respiration converts food into energy.

Nucleus: A nucleus is a membrane bound organelle that contains a cells chromosomes. Pores
in a nuclear membrane allow molecules to go in and out of the nucleus.

Cell wall: The cell wall provides tensile strength and protection against any stress or pressure
towards the cell.

Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane also known as the cell membrane us a
semi-permeable membrane. It has 2 main functions. It ensures nutrients get in the cell and toxic
substances get out of the cell.

Pili: Hair like found on the surface of many bacteria, it is a fibre made of protein attaches
bacteria cells to specific surfaces of other cells.

Flagella: Allows a cell to move, there are 3 types and they are all used for locomotion. They
contain the protein flagellin. Rotates anti clockwise like a propeller.
Nucleotide: Building blocks of DNA, contain a base, a sugar and a phosphate.

Vacuole: Large fluid filled sack that swells pushing cytoplasm against the wall and making cells
turgid. Cells shrink when a vacuole gets smaller.

Compare and contrast plant and animal cells:

Part of the Cell Function Animal or Plant

Nucleus Contains the genetic Both

information of the cell.

Cytoplasm Jelly like material that holds Both

everything together.

Cell membrane Semipermeable membrane Both

that controls the passage of
substances inside and
outside the cell.

Vacuole Large fluid filled sac that Plants

swells pushing the cytoplasm
against the wall and making
the cells turgid. Cells shrink
when the vacuole gets
smaller.

Cell wall Semi rigid structure that is Plant

made of cellulose and it
supports the cell.

Mitochondria The mitochondria is the Both

powerhouse of the cell and it
is where respiration occurs.

Plant Cell Animal cell

Multi cellular organism Multi cellular organism

They contain chloroplasts which mean they They do not contain chloroplasts so they can’t
can carry out photosynthesis carry out photosynthesis

They have cellulose cell walls They have no cell walls they usually have
 nervous coordination and are able to move
from one place to another.

They store carbohydrates as starch or They often store carbohydrates as glycogen

sucrose

Examples include flowers Examples include mammals and insects.

Compare prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

Prokaryotes ( Bacteria)
-​ They have no true nucleus, this means that the DNA isn’t contained within a membrane
bound nucleus
-​ They are smaller than the cells of other kingdoms
-​ They are unicellular which means they are only one cell. Occasionally they clump
together and form colonies.
-​ They don't have any internal organelle except for a ribosome which manufactures
protein.
-​ Their cell wall is made of something called a murein.

Eukaryote:
-​ Eukaryote cells have a nucleus enclosed within a nuclear envelope
-​ Includes plant and animal cells
-​ They have many membrane bound organelle inside the cell
-​ The cells are big
-​ They are usually multi cellular

Define the terms embryonic stem cells hierarchy, multicellular, organization, physical,
unicellular, differentiation.

Embryonic Stem cells: Embryonic stem cells can repeatedly develop into more stem cells that
are unspecialized. We retain some as adults and they are found in the bone marrow.

Hierarchy: Biological hierarchy refers to the systematic organization of organisms into levels
such as the linnaean taxonomy.

Multicellular : An organism that consists of many cells which are integrated and independent.

Organization: Biological organization is the hierarchy of complex biological structures and

systems that define life.
Physical: Physical is defined as pertaining to the body, material or physics in biology.

Unicellular: Unicellular organisms are made up of only 1 cell that carries out all of the functions
needed by the organism. One example is yeast.

Differentiation: Differentiation is the process of becoming different. Differentiation is the process

of which an unspecialized cell undergoes maturation to become more specialized.

Outline with a flow diagram the life cycle of a cell:

Explain 3 examples of specialized cells and explain how their specific functions differ.

Sperm cell: Sperm cells are specialized because they have a specific function of fertilizing the
female gamete the egg. It does this by swimming to the egg, in order to swim the sperm cell has
a tail called the flagellum which it uses to swim to the egg. The sperm cell also contains all of its
genetic information in its head.

Red blood cell: The red blood cell is specialized in order to transport oxygen to cells and they
transport carbon dioxide to our lungs to be exhaled. Red blood cells have no nucleus this allows
them to carry more hemoglobin. Red blood cells also have a hole in between them, this allows
them to squeeze through small capillaries.

Muscle cells: Muscle cells are specialized in order to allow the body to move. The muscle cell
contains protein fibers that can contract when energy is available making the cells shorter. A
single muscle cell contains many nuclei which are pushed up against the cell membrane.

Compare different organ systems:

Lymphatic system: Your lymphatic system is part of your immune system and it has many
different functions.Some of these are protecting your body from illness causing bacteria and
viruses, maintaining body fluid levels, absorbing digestive track fat and removing cellular waste. ​
Blockages or disease can affect the lymphatic systems function. The lymphatic system can
release white blood cells which can fight of foreign bacteria and viruses.

Digestive system:
The digestive system breaks down and absorbs nutrients from the food and liquid consumed for
the purpose of repairing cells, energy and growth. At the beginning of the digestive system lies
the mouth, the mouth contains teeth which are used to crush food, then the food goes through
the oesophagus into the stomach where Hydrochloric acid breaks it down. Then the food goes
through the small intestine where the food is broken down and absorbed by the vili. Then the
food goes to the large intestine where water is absorbed and the waste goes to the rectum and
is excreted. The digestive system also consists of the liver which produces bile, the gall bladder
which stores bile and lastly the pancreas which creates enzymes.

Circulatory system: The circulatory system delivers oxygen to cells and takes away waste such
as carbon dioxide from cells. The heart pumps oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood
throughout the body. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​

Summarize the levels of organization of life:

-​ Organelles
-​ Cells
-​ Organs
-​ Organ systems
-​ Species/organisms
-​ Populations
-​ Communities

Define classification :
Classification is the organization of organisms in different hierarchal ranks based on the natural
relationships of organisms.

Describe the features of the 5 kingdoms:

Kingdom Cell type Characteristics

Monera (Bacterial kingdom) Prokaryotic Single cells lacking distinct

nuclei and other membranous
organelles

Plantae (Plant Kingdom) Eukaryotic Single-celled or multicellular,

capable of photosynthesis

Animalia Eukaryotic
Multicellular organisms, many
with complex organ systems
 Protista (algaei) Eukayrotic Mainly unicellular or simple
multicellular, some containing
chloroplasts. Includes
protozoa, algae, and slime
molds

Fungi Eukaryotic Single-celled or multicellular,

including yeasts, not capable
of photosynthesis

​ ​ ​

Draw and label a prokaryotic cell:

Distinguish between analogous and homologous structures:

Analogous structures are structures that look different in species but have the same function an
example of this is the wings of a fly and a bird, the wings look different but they have the same
function.A homologous structure is a structure that looks the same across different species but
have a different function one example of this is the limb of a human and a whale.
How are organisms named according to binomial nomenclature:
Binomial nomenclature is the method used to name animals and it is done by adding the genus
of the animal to the species.

Stages of hierarchy of life:

molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem,
biosphere

READ ABOUT ARTIFICIAL LIFE

Unit 3:

Outline the main nutrients required by an organism with the functions:

Protein: Protein is needed to manufacture important molecules such as enzymes and

hormones. Protein is also used in order to build and maintain muscle tissue. Some examples of
protein are chicken, fish and cottage cheese. Protein is a macronutrient which means the body
needs a larger amount of protein.

Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are also a macronutrient that is needed in order to fuel and
provide energy to the body. Carbohydrates occur in many forms such as sugars and dietary
fibers. Some examples of carbohydrates are rice and pasta.

Fats: The body needs small amounts of fat in order to store calories in the body so that they
can be used in case the body is not getting enough energy. Some examples of fat are high fat
dairy such as milk and oil.

Vitamins: Vitamins are organic substances which are needed by the body in order to maintain
normal cell function and growth.An example of a vitamin is vitamin c.

Minerals: Minerals are inorganic substances which are needed by the body in order to maintain
normal cell function an example of this is calcium. Calcium is vital for maintaining bones.

Water: Water is extremely vital as it helps regulate body temperature, protects the organs,
lubricates the joints, reduces the stress on the kidneys and liver by flushing out waste products.

State the monomers of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids :

For carbohydrates the monomers are glucose fructose

For lipids the monomers are glycerol and fatty acids

For proteins monomers are amino acids

For nucleic acids the monomers are nucleotides

Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fat:

Saturated fats are fats that are tightly packed with no double bonds between the fatty acid,
saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature however there are a few exceptions. One
example of a saturated fat is meat. Unsaturated fats are fats which tend to be loosely packed
and they are normally liquid and room temperature.

Label the parts of the digestive system:

Describe the function of parts of the digestive system :

Part Function

Mouth The digestive process begins in the mouth

where food is chewed and made into a softer
form. Saliva also places a major role in
softening the food in the mouth.

Salivary Gland The salivary glands help make an empty

saliva into the mouth through openings called
ducts.Saliva contains an enzyme called
amylase which breaks down carbohydrates.
Esophagus The primary function of the esophagus is to
carry food from the mouth to the stomach.
When you swallows food moves from the
mouth to the stomach

Stomach A stomach is a hollow organ thats primary

function is to hold food while it is being mixed
with enzymes. These enzymes break down
the food into something known as chyme.
Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a
powerful acid known as hydrochloric acid and
they also secrete strong enzymes.

Liver All blood leaving the stomach passes through

the liver. The liver processes this blood and
breaks it down into a non toxic form and also
metabolizes drugs so that they are usable for
the body.The liver also produces bile.

Pancreas During digestion the pancreas produces

many enzymes known as pancreatic juices
which aid in breaking down foods.The
pancreas produces enzymes such as lipase,
amylase and protease. Lipase aids in
breaking down fats, amylase aids in breaking
down carbohydrates and protease aids in
breaking down protein.

Gallbladder The gallbladder's function is to store an

enzyme called bile which is produces by the
liver, bile aids in the breakdown of fats.

Small intestine The small intestine is broken in the 3 parts;

the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. In the
duodenum chyme is mixed with enzymes
produced from the pancreas and bile which
aids in breaking down food. In the jejunum
most foods are absorbed and in the ileum
bile, acids and vitamins and is the final part of
the small intestine.

Large intestine The purpose of the large intestine is to

absorb water and salts from the material that
is still remaining, by the time food reaches
your large intestine most of the digestion has
already taken place.

Appendix The function of the appendix is to hold good

bacteria for the digestive system.

Rectum The rectum is a 8 inch chamber that receives

 stool from the colon and it holds the stool until
it is excreted.

Anus The anal is 2 inches long and it is where

waste is excreted from the body.

State the location and PH requirements of digestive enzymes:

Enzymes in the saliva such as amylase and maltese is slightly alkaline and it has a ph between
6.7 and 7.4 which means it is normally very neutral but it could be slightly alkaline.

The stomach produces hydrochloric acid which has an acidic ph and an average ph of HCL is
3.01 making it acidic.
Bile is an enzyme produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder and it is alkaline, the
average ph of bile is 8.20 making it a base.

Distinguish between mechanical and chemical digestion:

Mechanical digestion uses mechanical means to break down foods, an example of this is when
the stomach churns in order to aid the process of breaking down food. On the other hand
chemical digestion is digestion that uses chemical processes in order to break down food, an
example of chemical digestion is when an enzyme such as protease is used to break down
proteins.

Draw and label the structure of the respiratory system:

Explain the mechanism of ventilation:

Ventilation or breathing is the movement of air through the conducting passages between the
atmosphere and the lungs. The air moves through the passage because of pressure gradients
that are produced by the contraction of the diaphragm and thoracic muscles.

Suggest how the alveoli are adapted for gas exchange:

-​ Many alveoli are shaped in a way to have maximum service area which allows more gas
to be absorbed
-​ Alveolar walls are one cell thick providing a short diffusion distance
-​ The alveoli has moist walls which allow gasses to pass along the gas exchange surface.
-​ Permeable walls: Allows gasses through
-​ It has a large diffusion gradient as breathing ensures that oxygen concentration in the
alveoli is higher than the capillaries so oxygen moves from the alveoli to the
blood.Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.

State that gases are exchanged by diffusion and outline the process:
during gas exchange oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream. At the same time
carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the lungs. This happens also because there is a higher
oxygen concentration in the alveoli than the capillaries which make the oxygen diffuse in the
capillaries and there is a higher carbon dioxide concentration in the capillaries than the alveoli
which makes carbon dioxide move to the alveoli.

Define deoxygenated, oxygenated, vessel, capillary,Artery:

Deoxygenated: Deoxygenated is when oxygen is removed, an example of this is when oxygen

is removed from the blood.

Oxygenated: Oxygenated is when oxygen is added, an example of this is when oxygen is added
from the blood.

Vessel:A vessel is part of a circulatory system and its function is to carry blood around the body.

Capillary:Capillaries are the thinnest and most abundant type of vessels in the body, red blood
cells can barley fit through them. The function of a capillary is to connect arteries and veins.

Artery: An artery is a larger vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the
body, an example of this is the aorta. Arteries are muscular wall tubes.

Draw and label the structure of a heart:

Outline the flow of blood through the heart:

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood through the vena cava. Deoxygenated blood is
then moved to the right ventricle from which is goes to the lungs via the pulmonary valve.. The
left atrium receives oxygen rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle.The left
ventricle pumps oxygenated blood through the aortic valve throughout the rest of the body.

Compare and contrast arteries, veins, capillaries:

Capillaries connect arteries to veins. The main function of the artery is to deliver oxygen rich
blood to the capillaries where the actual exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs. Then
the capillaries deliver deoxygenated blood to the veins where the blood is then taken to back to
the heart and lungs.

Define homeostasis, vasodilation, vasoconstriction, piloerection:

Homeostasis: Homeostasis refers to any process that helps keep the body in stable healthy
conditions.

Vasodilation:the dilation of blood vessels which decreases blood pressure and the purpose of
this is to increase blood flow to tissue in the body and reduce the body temperature.

Vasoconstriction: Vasoconstriction is the constriction or narrowing of blood vessels which

increases blood pressure and the purpose of this is to minimize blood loss and maintain heat in
the body.

Piloerection:Piloerection is when hairs on skin are raised up due to stimuli such as a cold
breeze on a warm day.

List the parameters controlled in homeostasis:

-​ Body temperature
-​ Blood glucose concentration
-​ Water levels

Explain the mechanism of maintaining blood glucose levels:

When there is too much blood sugar or too much glucose in the blood the liver releases insulin
in the blood which helps absorb glucose. On the other hand when there is to little blood sugar or
glucose in the blood the pancreas releases glucagon, glucagon instructs the liver to release
stored glucose which increases the blood glucose back to normal.

Compare type 1 and type 2 diabetes:

The main difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes is that type 1 diabetes is caused due to
genetics and can be found early in live however type 2 diabetes is largely diet related and
shows up later in life. In type 1 diabetes your immune system is attacking and destroying the
insulin producing cells in your pancreas . In type 2 diabetes there is to little insulin being
produces in order to regulate blood glucose levels and sugar levels and this is due to a bad diet
and a lack of exercise.