Gymnázium Jozefa Miloslava

Hurbana

BIOLOGY I 2023/2024
(Collection of Biology worksheets)

1
2
 What is biology?

➢ Biology is a scientific study (= a science about) of

…………………………………………………….
➢ The word biology comes from 2 Greek words:
BIOS = …………………. and LOGOS = …………………….
➢ Biology focuses on ……………………………………….. of
living organisms, their
…………………………………………………………………….
living organisms and non-living nature (e.g. Water, wind,
rocks…)
Basic characteristics of living things:
Organisms must carry out some important processes to stay alive. These processes
include ……………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
TASK: Match the characteristics of the living organisms with the descriptions below.
All living organisms are made of chemicals which are arranged into
higher structures

It is the ability to produce other individuals of the same species

It is a change of shape and form of an organism during its life

It is a process of elimination of metabolic waste products

It is an increase in size of an organism

It is a change from one place to another. This process can also be

found in plants in passive form.
It is a sensitivity to changes of the environment in which organism
lives. All organisms react to certain stimuli.

It is a process by which organism obtains energy and nutrients

3
It is an ability to evolve into a new form of life. Organisms develop
abilities to cope with their environment that their ancestors did not
have.

It is a process which involves gas exchange within organism

It is a process by which an organism reacts to changes. This process

enables stable conditions within every living organism

4
 The History of biology

Biology as a science in its modern sense appears to be formed in the ………………………………

century but early days of the biology are connected with ancient culture of Mesopotamia, Egypt,
the Indian subcontinent and China.

ANTIQUITY:
…………………………. (Greek philosopher)
o founder of …………………………….. - classified 540 animal species and
dissected at least 50
o divided the animals into two categories: animals ………….. blood and
………………… blood
o the author of the theory of ………………………….. - all the living things
come from non-living things

………………………….. (Aristotle’s pupil)

o described more than …………… species of plants
o founder of …………………………………

……………………………... (Roman scientist)

o summarized ancient knowledge of the nature in the book Historia naturalis

…………………………….. (Greek doctor)

o became the most important authority on medicine and anatomy until modern times

MIDDLE AGES:
………………………….. = Ibn Sin
o Arab doctor, who wrote the book called Cannen composed of 5 volumes.

HUMANISM and RENAISSANCE, MODERN TIMES

………………………………. (Belgian anatomist)
o was the first in a series of anatomists who gradually replaced scholasticism with empiricism
in physiology
o corrected some incorrect Galen’s statements and was the founder of
……………………………….

5
………………………………….. (English doctor)
o investigated the function of the ………………. and the roles of blood, veins
and arteries + blood circulation
o refused the theory of …………………….. and believed that all the living
things come from ovum
……………………………………
o invented …………………. with lens (the second half of the 17th century)

……………………………………….
o discovered that the basic elements of the living organisms are cells =
………………………… (Schleiden, Schwan)

……………………………………. (Swedish natural scientist)

o grouped species according to the morphological characteristics (Systema natura) of living
organisms → ……………………… taxonomy
o put whales into the class mammals and monkeys + human beings into the same genus
o author of …………………………………… → it means that each species must have a
double name = name of genus + name of species, e.g. fruit fly

…………………………….. (French chemic, doctor)

o founder of ………………………. and ……………………………
o discovered that bacteria are responsible for lots of illnesses
o explained the basic principle of …………………………….
o made …………………… against rabies

...................................................
o Author of the theory of ………………………. Author of the book: Evolution by
natural selection
…………………………………..
o author of ………………………………… = living organisms develop only from
living organisms and not from non-living matter

6
………………………………….
o founder of ……………………….. He formed laws of inheritance

………………………………………….
o in 1869 he isolated various phosphate-rich chemicals from the nuclei of white blood cells
in pus → discoverer of nucleic acids

……………………………………………..
o discovered the double helix structure of DNA (1953) authors of …………………………..
…………………………………………………….

TASK: Match the following historical personalities with their invention/theory or

book.

7
 Biological Sciences

Biology is divided into several sciences depending on the

object they study.

1. Object: ………………………………… :
microbiology, zoology, botany, palaeontology,
anthropology
2. Object: ………………………………… : anatomy,
histology, cytology, physiology, evolution biology,
genetics, molecular biology, ethology, parasitology, pathology, ecology

TASK: Fill in these biological sciences, whose object of study is a type of

organism, into the correct part of the text below

1. ………………………………… is a branch of biology that studies the members of the

animal kingdom and animal life in general.
2. ………………………………… is a branch of biology that deals with the
study of plants, including their structure, properties, and biochemical
processes.
3. ………………………………… is the study of human beings, their origin,
development of human societies and culture.
4. ………………………………… is the study of microorganisms (microbes) =
organisms too small to be visible with the naked eye (bacteria, viruses…)
5. ………………………………… is a branch of biology concerned with fossils of
prehistoric species which are extinct.

TASK: Match these biological sciences concerned with properties of living

organisms with their suitable characteristics.

A. is the study of evolution of species

1. Anatomy

B. is the study of the organ functions (e.g. excretion)

2. Histology

C. is the science about relationship between living

3. Cytology organisms and their environment

8
 D. Is the study concerned with animal behaviour
4. Physiology

E. is the study of the structures of human and animal body

5. Evolution biology

F. Is the study of the cell structure and its function

6. Genetics

G. Is the scientific study of genes and their involvement in

7. Molecular biology inheritance and development

H. Is the study of causes of diseases and their effects on

8. Ethology body

I. Is the scientific study about the structure and the function

9. Parasitology of living things on the chemical level

J. Is the study of organisms that live in or on other

10. Pathology organisms and get nutrition from them

K. Is the study concerned with structures of tissues

11. Ecology

1__ 2__ 3__ 4__ 5__ 6__ 7__ 8__ 9__ 10__ 11__

Some biological sciences are classified as related biological sciences and are divided into two
categories: ………………………………… and …………………………………

TASK: Decide which of the following biological sciences belong to boundary biological
sciences and which belong to applied biological sciences.

Biochemistry, agrology, medicine, biogeography, biotechnology, biophysics

1. Boundary biological sciences: …………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Applied biological sciences: ………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

9
 Levels of Life organisation

Living organisms are made of atoms, molecules, cells, tissue, organs, and organ systems. The
biosphere is made of individuals, populations, communities, and ecosystems.

1. ……………………: they are

the smallest units of
organization. They bind
together to create a
…………………………...
2. …………………: it is the basic
unit of all living organisms.
There are different types of
cells which together create
certain types of
……………………. Cells
contain organelles which
perform specific functions in
the cell.
3. ………………….: It is a group
of cells of the same shape
which perform specific
function.
4. ………………….: They are
made up from one or several
types of tissues. For example,
heart is composed of muscle,
cardiac and connective
tissues.
5. ………………………………: is
composed of several organs
with the same function. (E.g.
Digestive system…)
6. …………………: is a large
multicellular organism made of several organ systems (E.g. Human, turtle, fish...)
7. …………………………………: ………………… is a group of organisms of the same
species living in the same place and time. ………………… is a set of all populations

10
 living in the same place and time. (E.g. All species of animals and plants living in the
same pond)
8. …………………………………: includes all the communities in the area and all non-
living components as well (e.g. water, snow...)
9. …………………………………: All living things on the Earth

TASK: Label the pictures and arrange them according to the increasing levels of
organisation of life.

TASK: Which of the following statements is false?

a. Tissues exist within organs, which exist within organ systems.

b. Communities exist within populations, which exist within ecosystems.

c. Organelles exist within cells, which exist within tissues.

d. Communities exist within ecosystems, which exist in the biosphere.

11
 Ecological organisation

➢ The environment influences the living things that it surrounds. …………………………

is the discipline of biology that is concerned primarily with the interaction between
organisms and their environments.
➢ These interactions are frequently disturbed by ………………………
➢ The term ecology was first used in 1866 by ………………………and it comes from
Greek words OIKOS = …………………… and LOGOS= ………………………….

There are many levels of organization in the world of living things, and each level has specific
features The important levels are
………………………………………………………………………
TASK: Fill in the proper names of each level of ecological organisation into
correct place.

……………………is a group of individuals belonging to one species usually occupying a

defined area.
…………………..refers to all the populations of organisms that interact with each other in a
certain area. Interactions between communities and their non-living environment form systems

12
known as ……………………….All the ecosystems on Earth combined make up the
………………………. It is composed of living organisms as well as their physical environment.

TASK: Compare the differences between levels of Life organisation and levels of
Ecological organisation
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

➢ Ecologists study the living

components of the biosphere in
subunits called
……………………….
➢ A biome is a group of communities
dominated by a
……………………… Deserts,
forests, prairies, or taigas are
examples of biomes.
➢ Each biome represents a unique
situation where the ecosystem is
defined by the
………………………. Each type of
living thing is adapted to its own ………………………
➢ Habitat is the environment that presents the right conditions for an individual,
population or species to live.
➢ Habitat has its main focus on …………… species, population of a species or even an
individual.
TASK: Which of the following sentences are false?
a. Ecology focuses on the interactions
between living organisms and their
environment
b. A population is a group of more
than one species of organisms that
occupy certain habitat
c. Biomes are subunits which
together form biosphere

13
 d. Ecosystem includes interactions between living and non-living things.

Abiotic and biotic factors

➢ The living organisms on Earth live

and interact in different ecosystems
around the planet. An ecosystem
consists of the ………………….(non-
living) environment and
………………… (living) organisms.
➢ Ecologists study
………………………between biotic
and abiotic factors to predict
population changes and ecological
events.
➢ Biotic factors involve all living
organisms that survives in certain
area, their food chain, and the influence of human beings. Biotic factors include
interactions between organisms, such as …………… ………………………………..
➢ Abiotic factors include ………………
………………………………………. for example precipitation, temperature, pH, wind,
chemicals....Living organisms require abiotic factors to survive.

TASK: List some of the abiotic and biotic factors found in the picture of
grassland ecosystem.

14
 Limiting factors, Ecological valency, Ecological potency

Each living thing can exist and reproduce in certain range of ……………………….
These factors cannot be substituted by each other. They are needful conditions for all
………………………
Basic ecological factors are:

1. ………………………
2. ………………………
3. ………………………
4. ………………………

TASK: Decide whether these factors are

biotic, climatic, edaphic, or
physiographic.
Humus, humidity of air, altitude, light,
temperature, minerals in soil, rainfall, soil
humidity, elevation of slopes, plants, insect,
human, carbon dioxide, soil air

Climatic: …………………………………………

…………………………………………………….

Biotic:
………………………………………………

………………………………………………………

Edaphic:
……………………………………………

……………………………………………………..

Physiographic: …………………………………….

…………………………………………………….

15
 ➢ Living organisms can tolerate a certain range of a particular factor but cannot
……………………… if there is too much or too little of the factor. In case factors are
not suitable and organism dies, the factor is called ………………………. For example,
temperature. Polar bears survive very well in low temperatures but would die from
overheating in the tropics.
➢ Each organism has specific limiting factors. The extent of tolerance to these factors is
called the ………………………
➢ The best intensity of ecological factor for the species in which it can survive is called
……………………… (middle intensity of the factor).
➢ Intensity of factors can be decreased to ………………………or increased to

………………….
High ecological valency: organism has a large tolerance to a certain limiting factor, and it is
called ………………………. They are found in most parts of the world =
………………………species. (e.g., flies, ants…)
Low ecological valency: organism has a small tolerance to a certain limiting factor,
and it is called ………………………. These organisms are rare, typical of very
specific conditions and are often known as ………………………. (e.g., Crayfish in
freshwater)

16
 Population Ecology

➢ Population ecology is concerned with

the…………… of population and how it changes
over time.

➢ Population is a group of individuals belonging to

the ……………… species that inhabit a specific
area at a specific point in time. They depend on
the ……………………….. resources and are
influenced by similar environmental factors.

Characteristics of the populations:

1. Size: ……………………………………………….

2. Density: ………………………………per unit of area or volume (e.g., number of fish in

100l of water of certain pond)

3. Age structure: number of individuals belonging to

…………….

……………………… at a certain time

4. Dispersion: describes the

……………………………….within a habitat at a particular
point in time. There are three main dispersion patterns:
……………………………………………… These types often

occur in combinations.

5. Dynamics: constant ………………………which occur within a population (e.g., life

cycles)

17
 Community ecology

The term ………………………refers to all

the living organisms of an ecosystem. All
living organisms in a particular community
interact with each other inside a particular
…………………….
Three types of interactions can exist within
the living organisms in the community.
These are
1. ………………………: an interaction
in which both parties in the
relationship are benefitted
2. ………………………: an interaction
in which one party is benefitted,
while the other party is neither
benefitted nor harmed
3. ………………………: an interaction
one party is benefitted, while the
other is harmed

It could be classified according to its

complexity:
a) is composed of individuals of
………………………
b) contains ………………………. populations
A transitional zone between two communities is called ………………………. It has some of
the characteristics of each bordering biological community and often it’s rich in species.
TASK: Match the names of these communities with their proper characteristic
Phytocenosis Community of animals
Microbiocenosis Community of plants
Zoocenosis Community of fungi
Biocenosis Community of microbes
Mycocenosis Community of all living organisms

18
 Food chain

A food chain is a ………………………sequence of organisms through which nutrients and

energy pass as one organism eats another.
➢ At the base of the food chain lie
the …………………………… The primary
producers are autotrophs and are most
often ………………………organisms such
as plants, algae, or cyanobacteria.

➢ The organisms that eat the primary

producers are called ……………………….
Primary consumers are
usually ………………………, plant-eaters,
though they may be algae eaters or
bacteria eaters.

➢ The organisms that eat the primary

consumers are
called …………………………………
Secondary consumers are generally meat-eaters—……………………….

➢ The organisms that eat the secondary consumers are called ……………………….
These are carnivore-eating carnivores, like eagles or big fish.

➢ Some food chains have additional levels, such as ………………………—carnivores

that eat tertiary consumers. Organisms at the very top of a food chain are
called ………………………

➢ These organisms may after their death be decomposed by ……………………….

The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

1. ………………………: is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for

everything on the planet.

19
 2. ………………………: in a food chain include all green plants. The producers make up
the first level of a food chain. The producers utilize ………………………from the sun to
make sugars. Producers are also known as ………………………as they make their
own food. Producers are any plant or other organisms that produce their own nutrients
through photosynthesis.
3. ………………………: are all organisms that are dependent on plants or other
organisms for food. This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all living
organisms. It includes ………………………which are animals that eat plants,
………………………which are animals that eat other animals, ………………………are
those organisms that live on other organisms by harming them and lastly
………………………, which are animals that eat dead animals’ carcasses.
4. ………………………: are organisms that get energy from dead or waste organic
material. This is the …………………. stage in a food chain. Decomposers are an
integral part of a food chain, as they convert organic waste materials into
………………………materials like nutrient-rich soil or land. Decomposers complete a
life cycle, as they provide nutrients to soil or oceans, that can be further utilized by
autotrophs or producers. Thus, starting a whole new food chain.

We distinguish two main types of food chain:

1. ………………………: The detritus food chain includes different species of

organisms and plants like algae, bacteria, fungi, mites, insects, worms and so on.
The detritus food chain begins with ………………………. The food energy passes
into decomposers and detritivores, which
are further eaten by smaller organisms like
carnivores. Carnivores, like maggots,
become a meal for bigger carnivores like
frogs, snakes and so on. Primary
consumers like fungi, bacteria, protozoans, and so on are detritivores which feed
on detritus.

20
 2. ………………………: The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that starts with
………………………, passes through
herbivores and then to carnivores. In a
grazing food chain, energy in the lowest
trophic level is acquired from
……………………….

TASK: Answer the following questions

1) What are the first organisms in a food chain called?

………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2) What role do humans play in a food chain?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3) What are animals called in a food chain?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4) What do food chains end with?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5) What is the difference between the food chain and food web?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Food Web

21
Several interconnected food chains form a ………………………. A food web is similar to a food
chain, but the food web is comparatively larger than a food chain. Occasionally, a single
organism is consumed by many predators, or it consumes several other organisms. Due to
this, many trophic levels get ………………………, and the food chain fails to show
………………………in the right way. But the food web is able to show the proper representation
of energy flow, as it displays the interactions between different organisms. When there are
more cross interactions between different food chains, the food web gets more complex. This
complexity in a food web leads to a more ………………………ecosystem.

Population interactions

Population interactions describe ………………………of different species of organisms in the

ecosystem while taking into account the effects these organisms have on one another. These
interactions (relationships) may be …………………………………depending on the effect they
have on each other.

➢ ………………………: is a type of Interaction between two or more species who

compete for limited resources, which all the competitors want control of, at the same
time. These resources can be
………………………………………………………………………
➢ ………………………: is a type of relationship, where one species is fully
………………………on the other species for their survival and food. The one that gets
preyed on for food is called the ………………………. The species which feeds on prey
is called a ………………………
➢ ………………………: a relationship between individuals of two species in which one
species obtains food or other ………………………from the
other without either harming them. The second species does
not benefit from this relationship and is ……………………….
➢ ………………………: is a type of relationship where both
parties benefit from the interaction. (e.g, clownfish and sea
anemons- anemons produce chemical to which clownfish is
immune and is safe, clownfish attracts other bigger fish which
may be eaten by anemons)

22
 ➢ ………………………: is a type of relationship that is beneficial for both parties. Both
organisms live together for longer periods of time and provide each other
with……………………. (e.g., fungi and tree)
➢ ………………………: is an interaction between two organisms where one is
………………………and the other one is ………………………or destroyed (e.g.,
penicillin and bacteria)
➢ ………………………: is a relationship between two organisms where one organism is
beneficial and the other one is
……………………… (e.g., leeches and
humans). The organism which is harmed is
called a ………………………and the one who
uses the host is called ……………………….
Parasite usually does not kill its host, but they
can weaken it. There are two types of parasites:
1. ………………………parasite: They are
completely dependent on their host for their growth, reproduction and survival
(e.g. tapeworm, tick..)
2. ………………………: They need their hosts only for certain requirements for
example water (e.g., mistletoe)

TASK: Put the names of interactions into correct place in the table below.

Mutualism, predation, parasitism, neutralism, amensalism, competition,

semiparasitism, symbiosis, commensalism

Species A
Species Positive Neutral Negative
B

Positive

Neutral

Negative

23
TASK: Name types of interactions of the following pictures.

24
UNIT: Work in laboratory

➢ Laboratory safety rules

➢ Methods of scientific studying of living organisms

➢ Laboratory equipment

25
 Laboratory safety rules

✓ Students come to the laboratory together with the teacher and leave together after

finishing their work

✓ At the beginning of each lesson, student checks their workplace and takes care of its

tidiness

✓ Student immediately reports any detected deficiencies to the teacher

✓ When working, it is necessary to follow the work procedure and supplementary

instructions of the teacher, all ambiguities and doubts should be consulted with the

teacher

✓ If necessary - use a lab coat and rubber gloves

✓ No eating or drinking in the laboratory is allowed

✓ It is forbidden to damage aids, school equipment, damages caused by carelessness

will be replaced by the student who caused them

✓ After finishing, the student cleans their place, washes, and puts the tools away

✓ Student must wash hands thoroughly after experiments

✓ The student reports any accident, injury or nausea to the teacher !!

26
 Methods of scientific studying of living organisms

A method is a way in which scientists study living things.

Division of scientific methods:
1. ………………………: it is a passive method
The observation is done :
a. ………………………: it means by the senses such as sight, hearing, touch, olfaction
and gustation
e.g., watching a bird fly, listening to birds…
b. ………………………: it is done through instruments such as camera, magnifying
glasses, microscope…

……………………………………… (1632 – 1723) invented the microscope. The object under

the microscope is magnified = enlarged and inverted = overturned
There are 2 basic types of microscope:

1. ………………….microscope 2.
………………………microscope
(more precise)

Magnifying: ………………… ………………………

(Enlargement of the observed object)

Distinction: ……………… ………………..

27
(The smallest possible size that could be observed under the microscope)
TASK: Name all the parts of the microscope bellow

2. ………………………:: it is an active method; it is a scientific

test that usually occurs in the laboratory conditions. It is done
in order to get new knowledge or information. Researchers
also use experimentation to test existing theories or new
hypotheses to support or disprove them. Every experiment
must be repeatable!

28
The results of the observation and experiment are interpreted as laws and theories.

………………………: It is a set of
statements that, when taken together,
attempt to explain a broad class of
related phenomena. E.g., theory of
evolution, cell theory, the big bang
theory…
……………………… :(or rule or
principle) is a statement that
summarises an observed regularity or
pattern in nature. E.g., Law of
gravitation, Newton’s laws of motion….

29
 Laboratory equipment

TASK: Name laboratory equipment on the picture bellow

Beaker, beaker tongs, beaker brush, cover slip. Light microscope, depression
slide, dropping pipets, flask, electronic balance, evaporation dish, forceps,
funnel, spatula, cylinder, hot plate, microscope slide, petri dish, rubber stops,
plastic wash bottle, safety goggles

30
31
UNIT: THE CELL

➢ The Cell
➢ Chemical composition of cells
➢ The morphology of cells
➢ Eukaryotic cell: Plant cell, Animal cell. Fungal cell. Protist cell
➢ Prokaryotic cell: Bacteria, Archaea, Cyanobacteria
➢ Non-cellular organisms: Viruses

32
 The Cell
➢ All living things are made of ……………………….
➢ Cells represent basic units of life. Cells are the
……………………… blocks of organisms.
➢ They are not ……………………… to the naked
eye, but they can be easily viewed under the
microscope.
➢ Some organisms consist of a single cell, while
others have multiple cells organized into
……………………… and tissues organized into
organs.
➢ Cells contain ……………………… which perform
specific functions within each cell.

The English scientist ……………………… discovered cells in 1665. Hooke described the cork
as being made of hundreds of little boxes reminding him a beehive. In 1838, the German
botanist ……………………… proposed that all plants are composed of cells. A year later, his
colleague, the anatomist ……………………… concluded that all living organisms are
composed of cells. In 1858, the biologist ……………………… proposed that all cells are
created from already existing cells.
Eventually Mathias Jacob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann formed ………………………. The
cell theory is fundamental scientific theory of biology according to which cells are held to be
the basic units of all living tissues. The main ideas of the cell theory are

1. ………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………….
2. ………………………………………………………………….

33
 ………………………………………………………………….
3. ………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………….
4. ………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………….

TASK: Answer the following questions :

1. What are the living organisms made of?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. What is the main function of cells?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Is it possible to observe them with the naked eye? Explain why!
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Who discovered that cells exist?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. What is the name of the study concerned with structures and functions of cells?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

34
 Chemical composition of cells

Cells are composed of several chemical components:

1. ………………………………………….
2. ………………………………………….
3. ………………………………………….………………………………………….

1. Water: creates about ………….. of the cell

Importance:
➢ It provides …………………………. environment inside the cell
➢ It is useful …………………… of organic and inorganic compounds in the cell
➢ It is a place of chemical reactions inside the cell
➢ It is needed for biological activity of proteins and nucleic acids
➢ It is …………………………. of dissolved substances from one cell to another
➢ It is an important factor of getting stable …………………………. inside the cell
Its volume in the cell depends on the age of the cell (younger cells have usually _______
than older ones), type of the organ and type if the …………………………..
2. Minerals: Inorganic substances that usually exist in form of ions. They form about
………… of the cell. (E.g., Mg2+, K+…)
Importance:
➢ They determine …………………………. …………..properties of cells
➢ They are important for …………………………. of the cells and enzyme activity
➢ They keep …………………………. (stability of the inner environment)
➢ Minerals are …………………………. of free ions within the cell

TASK: Match these types of ions with their functions in the table bellow
Type of ion Function
+ +
1. K , Cl A. Part of haemoglobin found in red
blood cells
2. Mg2+ B. To keep water in the cell
3. Fe2+ C. Part of chlorophyl used in
photosynthesis
4. Na+ D. To keep stable pH

1. 2. 3. 4.

35
3. Organic substances: they are more complex than inorganic substances
A. ………………………….:
Importance:
➢ They are quick source of energy. There are several types
of sugars that provide quick energy such as: Glucose =
grape sugar, fructose = fruit sugar, sucrose = beet sugar,
lactose = milk sugar
➢ Many of them have …………………………. function, e.g., cellulose ( typical
of plant) or chitin (typical of animals and fungi )
➢ They represent energy for …………………………., e.g., starch (typical of
plants) or glycogen (typical of animals)
B. ………………………….:
Importance:
➢ Lipids have building function.
Phospholipids form a major part of
…………………………..
➢ They are source of energy for
storage
➢ They create structural part of
hormones or ………………………….
➢ Lipids have …………………………. function, e.g., waxes cover some plant
organs and protect them
➢ They enable conduction of nerve ………………………….
C. ………………………….:
Proteins are classified according to their function:
a) …………………………. proteins: they are building blocks of cells
b) ………………………….: they are very important for the proper functioning of
organism (e.g. digestion)
c) …………………………. proteins: provide
communication of cells (hormones)
d) …………………………. proteins: very
important for movement
e) …………………………. proteins: essential
to fight infections in body (antibodies)
f) …………………………. proteins: provide
transport of substances in the body (e.g.
Haemoglobin provides transport of oxygen in blood)

36
 D. ………………………….: are located in the nucleus of the cell. The basic structural
unit of nucleic acid is called …………………. It is composed of 3 parts:
1. Phosphoric acid residue (Phosphate) PO43+
2. 5-carbon sugar: either ribose or deoxyribose
3. Nitrogenous base
There are two types of nucleic acids:
A. ……………………. =deoxyribonucleic acid
B. …………………….= ribonucleic acid
Importance:
➢ They play a key role in …………………………..
➢ They form …………………………….of cells.
➢ They are important in protein synthesis

TASK: Which of the following sentences are true and which ones are false?
1. Water in the cell is important to maintain biological activity of proteins and nucleic acids
2. Enzymes are vital for communication of cells
3. Saccharides have building functions but also provide cells with energy
4. DNA and RNA are important in protein synthesis
5. Minerals are not a source of free ions for the cell
6. Cellulose is a sugar, typical of animals, with building function

37
 The morphology of cells

Cells are divided according to the complexity of their inner structure and function into two
groups:
1. ……………………. :simpler, e.g., bacteria, cyanobacteria…
2. ……………………. :more complex, they often combine to form larger organisms e.g.,
cells of plants, animals, fungi or human
Each type of cell has typical:
a. …………………….: globular, ovoid, staminate, fusiform, star-shaped, cubiform
b. …………………….: 10 – 100 μm
c. …………………….

TASK: Have a look at different types of cells and try to divide them according to
their shape

TASK: Match the type of cell (you can use cells from the first task)
with the value of its size

Size 0,5 – 10 8 μm 30-40 μm 60 μm 150 μm 200 μm

μm

38
 Eukaryotic cell

➢ All cells are similar in the way that they contain a gelatinous substance called
……………………. which provides the environment for the inner structures of the cell.
➢ Eukaryotic cells are more complex and larger than prokaryotic cells. The word
eukaryotic come from Greek. EU = ……………………. and KARYON =
……………………. and so all eukaryotic cells have genetic material stored in a nucleus
(exception are red blood cells).
➢ They can be combined to form …………….., organs, organ system and eventual
complex individual.
➢ The inner space is divided by membranes to form functional structures called
…………………….. Eukaryotic cells contain several organelles with different functions.
➢ Some organelles are typical of plant cell (e.g.,
chloroplasts) or animal cell (e.g., lysosomes).

There are 4 basic types of eukaryotic cells:

1. ……………………. cell
2. ……………………. cell
3. ……………………. cell
4. ……………………. cell

39
40
 Plant cell
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, that have regular shape thanks to their …………………….
made of cellulose. Plant cells can be distinguished from most other cells by the presence
of ……………………. and …………………….. Plant cells are able to perform photosynthesis
and, therefore, produce energy in form of …………………….. They also use starch to store
their energy.

TASK: Match each structure of the plant cell with suitable characteristics.
Cell wall, vacuole, chloroplast, ribosomes, cytoplasm, cell membrane, nucleus, golgi body,
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria
A. _________________________It is a rigid structure that surrounds each plant cell and
keeps its shape. It is made of cellulose. The main function is to protect the cell.
B. ________________________ It is a small organelle that contains pigment chlorophyll.
The process of photosynthesis is located in this organelle.
C. ________________________ It contains a watery liquid called cell sap. It is a storage
place for dissolved plant food and creates the inner pressure of the cell.
D. ________________________ It is a clear jelly. It contains many substances dissolved
in it and organelles. It is the place of many chemical reactions.
E. ________________________ They are important for synthesis of proteins =
proteosynthesis.
F. ________________________ It is a thin boundary layer and keeps the cell together.
It also controls the movement of the cell. It is partially permeable.

41
 G. ______________________ It is the largest cell organelle containing chromosomes
which are composed of nucleic acid (DNA, RNA) It is surrounded by a nuclear
membrane. It has an important role in inheritance.
H. ______________________ It is a system of membranes. It is important for protein
synthesis (rough) and lipids or vitamins (smooth) and that is why it is often called the
synthesis centre of cell.
I. ______________________It is cigar shaped organelle involved in production of
energy in the cell. It is often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.
J. ______________________It is a system of flattened membrane sacs. The main
function is to excrete waste products of metabolism. It is often called as apparatus.
Typical plant structures are chloroplasts, vacuole and plant wall made of cellulose.

TASK: Answer the questions bellow:

1. Name structures in a plant cell that are not found in an animal cell
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Is the shape of plant cell regular or irregular? Why?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. What is the function of chloroplasts?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. What is the function of the vacuole?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
TASK: Colour all the parts of plant cell in the picture according to the guide:
Cell Membrane (orange)
Nucleus (yellow) Mitochondria (red)
Vacuole (lt. Blue)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
(pink)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(gray)
Cell Wall (dark green)
Nucleolus (brown)
Chloroplasts (light green)
Ribosome (purple)
Cytoplasm (white)
Golgi Apparatus (dark blue)

42
 Animal cell

➢ Animal cells have various shapes because they lack ……………………. ,instead, they
are enclosed by cell membrane, which is semipermeable and allows some substances
to pass into the cell while ………………………………….
➢ The lack of a rigid cell wall allowed animals to develop a greater diversity of cell types,
tissues, and organs.(e.g., nerve cells, muscle cells, sperm cell...)
➢ Specific feature of animal cell is a ……………………., which contains enzymes used to
digest food and old organelles which need to be recycled.
➢ Animal cells store energy in form of …………………….

43
TASK: Fill the table below:

Part of the animal cell Characteristic

System of membranes important for synthesis

of proteins and lipids /vitamins. 2 types
smooth and rough
It controls all parts of the cell. It has the main
role in inheritance and reproduction of the
cell. Typical organelle of eukaryotic cells.
They are important for synthesis of proteins

A sac that contains enzymes responsible for

digestion of material
It is the energy centre of the cell

It contains all organelles, place of chemical

reactions
It excretes waste product of metabolism. Sac
like structure.
It keeps the cell together; it is partially
permeable.

TASK: Answer the questions bellow:

1. What is the difference between the smooth and the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. What does the animal cell have that the plant cell does not?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Why are plant and animal cells eukaryotes?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. What is the function of mitochondria?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

44
TASK: Colour all the parts of animal cell in the picture according to the guide:

Cell Membrane (orange)

Nucleus (yellow)
Mitochondria (red)
Vacuole (lt. Blue)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (pink)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (pink)
Nucleolus (brown)
Ribosome (purple)
Cytoplasm (white)
Golgi Apparatus (dark blue)
Nuclear membrane (gray)

45
 The cell of fungus (pl. Fungi)

➢ Fungal cells have ……………………. just

like plant cells and that is why they used to belong
to the same group. Now, fungi are grouped
separately and belong to fungi kingdom. (plant
kingdom, animal kingdom and fungi kingdom)
➢ The cells of fungi are similar to both animal and
plant cells, but there are some specific features in
their structure.
➢ Their cell wall is not made of cellulose but of
……………………..
➢ Energy is stored in the form of …………………….
(as animal cells).
➢ There are no ……………………. present in
cytoplasm meaning they are not capable of
photosynthesis.
➢ There are no ……………………. used to digest
food or old organelles.
TASK: Complete the table bellow. Notice the differences and similarities between
plant, animal, and fungal cells.

Animal cell Fungal cell Plant cell

Cell wall
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Golgi body
Endoplasmic r.
Vacuole
Lysosome
Chloroplast
Energy storage

46
 Protist cell

➢ Protists are eukaryotic ……………………. or, in some

cases, colonial organisms.
➢ The members of this diverse kingdom are primarily
unicellular and ……………………. ………………….in
structure than other eukaryotes.
➢ Protists contain …………………….,
……………………., …………………….,
……………………., ……………………., and nucleus.
Some protists also contain chloroplasts. There are
protists with extra features, for example, euglena has
……………………. (eyespot) : an organelle that
helps them to detect light, so they can move toward or away from light as desired.
➢ All of their cellular components are surrounded by a cell membrane and cell wall.
➢ Many species are ……………………., creating their own food, while others are
……………………., feeding on organic matter.
➢ Many species are nonmotile, but the majority of protists are able to move by various
means. For example, amoebas form
cytoplasmic extensions called
……………………. and anchor themselves
to a surface. Then they pull their body
forwards.
➢ They are morphologically
……………………. and can be found
in most terrestrial, aquatic, and marine
habitats.
➢ Many protists are pathogenic and cause ……………………., e.g., Trypanosoma
Protozoa causes sleeping sickness, Plasmodium Protozoa causes malaria
TASK: Can you come up with 4 examples of how protists may be beneficial ?
Protists play an important role in the environment:
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

47
 3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Prokaryotic cell

➢ Prokaryotic cells are ……………………………., structurally simpler cells than

eukaryotic cells.
➢ They do not have an internal space divided by membranes into structural and functional
units.
➢ Prokaryotic cells do not combine or form more ……………………………. organisms.
➢ The word prokaryotic also comes from Greek and means PRO=
…………………………….and KARYON= ……………………………..
➢ Prokaryotic cells do not have any nucleus only free-floating genetic material often
called as ……………………………..
➢ Prokaryotic cell is made of:

1. …………………………….: slime layer at the

surface of the cell – it is not always present,
protective function
2. …………………………….: made of murein
3. …………………………….: the only
membrane found in prokaryotic cell, it
regulates what can get in and out of the cell
4. ……………………………. (Nucleoid) : it is not
in the nucleus (There is no nucleus in
prokaryotic cells!), it floats freely in cytoplasm
5. …………………………….: they are numerous, they are important to form proteins
6. …………………………….: Inner watery environment of the cell in which DNA and
ribosomes are floating
7. …………………………….: not always present, used for movement of the cell

3 types of prokaryotes are : …………………………….…………………………….

48
 Bacterium (pl. Bacteria)

➢ An example of …………………………….cell is
bacteria.
➢ Bacterial cells are the smallest and the most
…………………………….of all living organisms.
➢ They are made of just single cell, meaning that
they are ……………………………..
➢ Bacteria live in virtually all the environments on
earth, including the soil, water, and air. Also, bacteria are found on our skin and in
our airways and mouth. They’re also in our digestive system, reproductive system
and urinary tract. Scientists estimate people have ………times more bacterial cells
than human cells in our body.

TASK: Name the types of bacteria according to their shape. Use the description
below.

Shapes of the bacteria:

….. = cocci / coccus – small spherical cells
….. = diplococci / diplococcus – cocci in pairs
….. = streptococci streptococcus – chain of
cocci
….. = staphylococci / staphylococcus - grape-
like masses of cocci
….. = bacilli / bacillus – rod-shaped cells
….. = streptobacilli / streptobacillus – chain of
bacilli
….. = vibrios / vibrio - comma shaped rods
….. = spirilla / spirillus – spiral bacteria
….. = spirochaetes / spirochaeta - flexible helical
bacteria

Bacteria are also classified according to the way they obtain nutrients (carbon):

a) ……………………………., : they acquire their food from organic matter. The largest
number of bacteria are ……………………………., meaning that they feed on dead or
decaying organic matter. A few bacterial species are …………………………….. These
bacteria live within host organisms and cause disease.

49
b) …………………………….: they synthesize their own nutrients. Such bacteria often
engage in photosynthesis.

Positive and negative effects of bacteria

Bacteria may be very beneficial to us and may have positive effect on the environment. For
example:

1. …………………………….: some are used to produce antibiotics, enzymes, vitamins….

2. …………………………….: a community of bacteria that exist on or inside the body, and
possess a unique ecological relationship with the host (probiotics in our intestines).
Bacteria synthesize several vitamins not widely obtained in food, especially vitamin K.
Bacteria also often break down certain foods that otherwise are not digestible
(cellulose)
3. …………………………….bacteria are used to prepare many products, such as
cheeses, fermented dairy products, or pickles
4. …………………………….: some bacteria break down
dead organic matter to obtain nutrients. The process of
decomposition releases chemicals (such as carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus) that can be used to build
new plants and animals.

However, many bacteria have negative impact on us. Many

bacteria are pathogenic; that is, they cause
…………………………….. Such diseases are for example
tuberculosis, gonorrhoea, syphilis, scarlet fever, food
poisoning… In many cases, the bacteria produce powerful
…………………………….that interfere with normal body
functions and bring about disease (e.g., tetanus toxins ). In
other cases, bacteria grow aggressively in the tissues (e.g.,
tuberculosis), destroying them and thereby causing
disease. Bacterial infections can be treated with
……………………………..

50
TASK: Name and colour all the parts of the prokaryotic cell in the picture.
Answer the questions bellow.

Name at least two foods that bacteria help make:

What does "decompose" mean?

What is the control centre of the bacteria cell?

What part of the bacteria cell helps it move?

Name at least three diseases caused by bacteria.

51
 Archaebacteria = Archaea (sg. Archeon)

✓ A group of unicellular prokaryotic organisms

that live in unusually
……………………………..
✓ They have different shapes and sizes (always
microscopic).
✓ Archaea are very similar to bacteria;
however, their cell wall does not contain
…………………………….. Instead, they have
specific chemical substances, which allow
them to survive in extreme conditions.
Division of archaebacteria (based on the environment where they live):

➢ …………………………….

o live in oxygen free environments (oxygen is poisonous to them) and produce

…………………………….gas

o they live in the water of swamps, sewage and in the digestive tract of the cows where
they break down cellulose (e.g. methanosipillum)
➢ …………………………….

o can live in water that is extremely hot (70 – 110°C) and ………………………(pH <
2)

o they live near volcanic vents on the land or near hydrothermal vents, oceanic
volcano → Yellowstone National Park (e.g., thermoproteus)
➢ …………………………….

o live in extremely salty conditions and use salt to generate ATP

o We can find them for example in the Dead Sea (e.g., halococcus)

Uses of archaea:

1. They are capable of producing gasses such as methane used for

…………………………….
2. …………………………….of organic matter

3. …………………………….: interactions between microorganisms and metals or metal-

bearing minerals

52
 Cyanobacteria

➢ Cyanobacteria are those organisms formerly known as blue-green algae. They are
one of the …………………………….organisms on the Earth.
➢ Most are found in the soil and in freshwater and
saltwater environments.
➢ The majority of species are
……………………………., but some may form
filaments.
➢ Cyanobacteria are capable of performing
…………………………….and play an important
role in production of oxygen. They contain
several pigments needed to perform
photosynthesis:
i. Green pigment = …………………………….
ii. Blue pigment = …………………………….
iii. Red pigment = …………………………….

➢ It is currently believed by scientists that

chloroplasts evolved from
cyanobacteria.
➢ Cyanobacteria usually live in colonies.
Cyanobacteria may live in symbiotic
relationships with another organism.
Some species of cyanobacteria coexist
with fungi to form
……………………………..
Cyanobacteria have many uses:
1. …………………………….: they are
used as a part of health supplements
e.g,. spirulina
2. …………………………….their pigments are used as dyes.
3. …………………………….: cyanobacteria are often used as biofertilizers
4. …………………………….: they are often used in skincare creams, make up,
sunscreens…

53
Cyanobacteria produce toxins (cyanotoxins) which can have harmful effect on humans.
People might be exposed to them in lakes or ponds, and they cause skin irritation, vomiting,
nausea, fever, headache and many other symptoms.

TASK: Compare eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. How do they differ and what

do they have in common? Enlist couple of examples to each.

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

They have in common:

e.g., e.g.,

54
 Non-cellular organisms

Organisms, which do not belong to either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. An example of such

organisms are ……………………………..

Viruses

A virus is an infectious agent that can only …………………………….within a host organism.

Viruses can infect a variety of living organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals. Viruses
are considered neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes because they lack the characteristics of
living things:
➢ they have no …………………………….
➢ they do not …………………………….
➢ they produce no …………………………….
➢ they do not respond to …………………………….
➢ they do not reproduce ……………………………. (need host for reproduction)
They are therefore defined as non-cellular (acellular) organisms and are often considered to
be “on the edge of life”. Viruses are very diverse. They come in different shapes
and structures, have different kinds of genomes, and infect different
……………………………..
Viruses are made of:
➢ DNA or RNA
➢ protein shell called a …………………………….
➢ Some viruses have an external membrane called …………………………….and protein
spikes

55
 ✓ Viruses can cause several human diseases, including measles, mumps, chickenpox,
AIDS, or influenza.
✓ Viral diseases cannot be cured by antibiotics. They can only be prevented using
…………………………….. A viral vaccine forces the
immune system to produce antibodies, which provide
long-term protection against a viral disease.
Viruses can also be beneficial for us and the environment , for
example:

1. They keep population of bacteria in check: Viruses kill

and break apart bacteria to maintain a population of
bacteria that is optimal for both the bacteria and for all other
life-forms
2. Medicine: Viruses are beginning to play major roles in
medical therapies. They can be harnessed to treat illness
or create vaccines.

Reproduction of viruses:
1. Virus is attached to the …………………………….of the host cell
2. Virus enters the host cell by endocytosis (whole virus or just the genetic information)
3. Viral content is released into the nucleus of the cell. This genetic material is replicated
in the nucleus.
4. Viral …………………………….are created by the host cells and are used to create new
viruses
5. New viruses are released from the host cells. During this process, the host cell is often
…………………………….and …………………………….

56
TASK: Which of these sentences are false and which ones are true? Correct
false statements!

1. Viruses can reproduce independently of their host

2. Viruses are prokaryotic organism.
3. Viruses are primarily made of genetic information and capsid.
4. Viruses can exist outside of their host.
5. Viral diseases can be treated using antibiotics.
6. Viruses can infect plants, animals, human but never bacteria.
7. Viruses can be used in medicine and genetic engineering.

57
TASK: Solve the crossword puzzle bellow:

Horizontal Vertical
1. non-cellular organism, which can 1. Organelle found only in plants
filled with cell sap
reproduce only in host
2. Green pigment found in
4. Saccharide found in cell wall of chloroplasts
plants 3. Organelle typical of eukaryotic
6. Prokaryotic organisms capable of cell
photosynthesis 5. The powerhouse of the cell
9. Organelle typical of plant cell 7. Type of drugs used to cure
which enables photosynthesis bacterial diseases
10. Structures of cell used to 8. Organelle found only in animal
produce proteins cell used to digest material
11. Saccharide found in cell wall of
bacteria

58
UNIT: FUNGUS KINGDOM

✓ Introduction to fungi
✓ Zygomycetes
✓ Ascomycetes
✓ Basidiomycetes
✓ Lichens

59
 FUNGI

➢ Large group of eukaryotic organisms. This group include : moulds, mushrooms,

ringworm, puffballs, rusts, smuts.
➢ Fungi cells do not contain …………………………….or chlorophyl and are unable to
perform photosynthesis. Nor do they contain …………………………….or
…………………………….
➢ Their cell wall is made of ……………………………..
➢ Their energy is stored in form of ……………………………..

Task: Can you remember what is the name of the scientific study concerned with
fungi?

……………………………………………………
➢ They may contain 1 cell (e.g., yeasts) = unicellular or more cells =
…………………………….
➢ In case they contain more than 1 cell their body is
made of …………………………….= threadlike
filaments that form mycelium. Mycelium may be
divided into discreet cells by cell walls called
…………………….
➢ Hyphae may grow into one to form false mycelium
which is not specialized. Its cells are only grouped
together. However, it can form
……………………………. which is composed of modified hyphae that is able to
produce asexual spores.
➢ There are 3 types of fruiting body:
1. Basidium: produce …………………………….
2. Ascus: produces …………………………….
3. Sporangium: Produces …………………………….

We distinguish 3 types of fungi based on nutrients they consume:

1. …………………………….: prefer dead and decaying organic material such as fallen

trees, cow patties, dead leaves, and even dead insects and animals. The largest group
of fungi. Important decomposers. For example: ……………………………. (prašnica
bradavičná), ……………………………. (trúdnikovec)

60
 2. …………………………….: prefer the living host, often attacking and killing. They can
do a lot of serious damage to its host
3. …………………………….: form …………………………….partnership with other
organisms such as trees and flowering plants.
➢ …………………………….: symbiotic association between fungi and green
algae or cyanobacteria
➢ …………………………….: symbiotic association between mycelium of the
fungus and roots of certain plants, such as conifers

TASK: Name all parts of fungus on the picture bellow:

Fungi reproduce both asexually and sexually:

1. …………………………….reproduction: can be
done in several ways:
✓ Binary fission
✓ …………………………….: typical of
yeasts, their cells pinch themselves off to
produce small offspring cells
✓ …………………………….: hyphae are
broken and then the pieces will grow into
complete new organism

61
 ✓ …………………………….: small reproductive particles produced by modified
cells at the end of the hyphae, are haploid

2. …………………………….reproduction:
✓ Fungi reproduce sexually when environmental conditions are
…………………………
✓ No male or female fungi, instead there are 2 mating types ……….. and
……………
✓ Fertilisation occurs when + hyphae fuse with (-) hyphae to form 2n ( diploid
zygote)
✓ Each division is typical of its own way of sexual reproduction

What do fungi do?

➢ …………………………….and recycling of death organic matter

➢ Some mushrooms are used as …………………………….
➢ Important in …………………………….. For example yeasts are used to produce wine,
beer, bread or blue cheeses (Niva, hermelin..) Aspergillus is used to make soy sauce.
➢ Fungal spores may cause …………………………….
➢ Some fungi are …………………………….
➢ Moulds, mildew, rusts and smuts damage crops
➢ They are used to produce antibiotics like …………………………….
➢ Some species may cause yeast …………………………….

TASK: Decide which of the things fungi are capable of are positive and which
are negative.

Where can we find them?

➢ Fungi can be found everywhere – in soil

air, on the body surface of plants, animals
and human beings
➢ There are about
……………………………. species

62
 Divison: Eumycota = True Fungi

A. class: Zygomycetes = …………………………….

➢ the most primitive terrestrial fungi

➢ …………………………….fungi
➢ most of them live on decaying plant or animal matter in the soil
(Decomposers) but some of them are animal parasites and cause mycosis
(parasites) + allergies or agricultural plant parasites and may cause apple scab,
strawberry stem rot (Parasites of agricultural crops)
➢ contain hyphae without septa → nonseptable (aseptable)
➢ their spores are called zygospores
o …………………………….= Rhizopus stolonifera → causes black bread mould
that forms cottony masses on the surface of moist bread exposed to the air
o …………………………….= Mucor mucedo → is usually on the top of decaying
vegetable

B. class: Ascomycetes = …………………………….

➢ the largest group of fungi - contain septate mycelium → …………………………….

➢ reproduction is done by production of specific sporangia called
……………………………. (pl. Asci) (may have different shape) with
…………………………….
➢ asci could be freely placed in fruiting body or could be arranged in
a continuous layer called …………………………….
1. order: Saccharomycetales = …………………………….
✓ are atypical ascomycetes → …………………………….
✓ reproduce asexually by binary fission or budding → spore formation is rare
✓ economically significant fungi → Baker's Yeast is used to make bread,
responsible for alcoholic fermentation of beer and wine
✓ some of them are used in ………………fermentation – production of yoghurt
and kefir
✓ are source of vitamins of B1 and B2
✓ some representatives may cause mycosis – e.g. Candida albicans → the yeast
which attacks mucous membranes
✓ some species of Candida can use different components of crude oil to produce
biomass rich on proteins and fats → production of fodder
2. order: Eurotiales= = …………………………….

63
 ✓ cause food spoilage, putrescence of fruit, vegetable, cereals, fodder → cannot
be used because of mycotoxin production
✓ most of them are …………………………….
✓ produce a lot of spores that may cause ………………….
✓ contain species that produces antibiotics like Penicilium
notatum → ……………………………. (inhibits the growth
of gram-positive bacteria, was discovered by sir Alexander Fleming in 1929)
✓ certain species give some types of cheese the flavour, odour → e.g. Roquefort,
Camembert, Niva, Hermelin
3. order: Clavicipitales
✓ usually …………………………….- Claviceps purpurea = Ergot → attacks
wheat or rye and produces highly poisonous and carcinogenic alkaloids,
causing ……………………………. if consumed, after attacking the ovary of
wheat it forms sclerotium which produces toxins. They are used in
pharmaceutical industry
4. order: Pezizales
✓ saprophytic and parasitic fungi
✓ composed of stalk = stipe and fertile portion = pileus
✓ contain macroscopic fungi like ………………(could be mixed up with poisonous
Brain mushroom); ……………………………. (hľuzovka) → is highly prized
edible fungus

C. class: Basidiomycetes = …………………………….

➢ include the largest and most highly developed fungi

➢ contains …………………………….mycelium
➢ the name is derived according to the presence of basidia = club-shaped structures
producing spores = basidiospores at the tips of minute projections - basidium could be
unicellular → species growing in Slovakia (their fruiting body is composed of stipe and
pileus) or tetra cellular. Basidia form …………………………….– the pore bearing layer
of the fruiting body.

64
 Life cycle of Basidiomycetes

The mycelium of the Basidiomycota is always septate and in most species passes through
three distinct phases -primary, secondary, and tertiary- during the life cycle of the fungus. When
it germinates, a basidiospore produces the primary mycelium. Initially the mycelium may be
multinucleate, but septa soon form and the mycelium is divided into monokaryotic (uninucleate)
cells. This septate mycelium grows by division of the terminal cell. Branches do occur, and the
mycelial mass can become very complex. Commonly the secondary mycelium is produced by
the fusion of primary mycelium from two different mating types (+ and -). The tertiary mycelium,
which is also dikaryotic, arises directly from the secondary mycelium, and forms the
basidiocarp = the multi-cellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne.
The spore forming basidia are produced by the terminal cell on millions of dikaryotic hyphae.
In a typical mushroom, basidia are found on gills, under the cup Karyogamy occurs between
the two haploid nuclei within a developing basidium. Then, the diploid nucleus undergoes
meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. These nuclei then migrate into four small extensions at
the apical end of the basidium and are walled off to form the four basidiospores.

65
order: Agaricales = …………………………….

➢ contain a lot of edible but also poisonous

species
➢ usually macroscopic, some of them are
microscopic → do not form fruiting body, are
parasitic, e.g. …………………………….=
Ustinaginales, …………………………….=
Uredinales
➢ fruiting body is distinguished into pileus =
………………….and stipe=
……………………
➢ basidia are placed in the ………………
(Meadow mushroom), ……………. (Birch
bolete) or teeth of the hymenium
➢ during fruiting body formation ,it is protected
by the covering = ………………. → in adult it
forms ring on the upper part of the stipe and
volva on the base of stipe
➢ most of the representatives are typical of
Micorrhizae
➢ representatives: ……………………………. (hríb obyčajný), …………………………….
(kuriatko jedlé), ……………………………. (kozák brezový), ……………………………
(hríb satanský), ……………………………. (hríb
kraľovský), ……………………………. (rýdzik pravý),
……………………………. (pečiarka poľná),
……………………………. (hliva ustricová),
……………………………. (bedľa vysoká),
……………………………. (muchotrávka zelená),
……………………………. (muchtrávka červená),
……………………………. (masliak žltý),
……………………………. (prášnica bradavičná)

66
 Lichens

➢ a group of organisms that is symbiotic association between ………………………→

usually one of ascomycetes and algae or cyanobacteria → they are called phototrophs
➢ Fungi provide …………………………….substances – water and minerals
➢ Algae/ cyanobacteria provide organic substances – saccharides- which they obtain
thanks to photosynthesis

➢ Lichens exist in …………………………….with extreme climatic conditions. They are

found on mountain tops, on rock faces, in the desert, or on tree bark
➢ Lichens can ………………………from freezing and drying to resume normal metabolic
activities

Uses of lichens:

✓ They are …………………………….of air pollution

✓ Secrete a variety of unusual chemicals – used in medicine
✓ They produce acids and that is why some of them assist in
the erosion of rocks which enables
…………………………….
✓ Source of food for animals living in
…………………………….

67
TASK: Match picture with the names of these representatives of lichens.

Map lichen (zemepisník mapový)

Maritime sunburst lichen (diskovka bublinatá)
Raindeer moss ( dutohlavka sobia)
Tarjelly lichen (collema)

68