1.
Solid State
Crystals: Solid materials with a regular arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules.
They are classified into:
Crystalline Solids: Have a definite shape and symmetry.
Amorphous Solids: Lack definite structure.
Types of Crystals:
Ionic: e.g., NaCl
Covalent: e.g., Diamond
Molecular: e.g., Ice
Metallic: e.g., Copper
Defects in Solids:
Point Defects: Vacancies, interstitial defects, and substitutional defects.
Line Defects: Dislocations (edge, screw).
Packing Efficiency: The fraction of volume occupied by atoms in a crystal lattice.
2. Solutions
Concentration Terms:
Molarity (M) = moles of solute / liters of solution
Molality (m) = moles of solute / kg of solvent
Mole Fraction (X) = moles of component / total moles of all components
Colligative Properties (dependent on the number of particles):
Relative lowering of vapor pressure
Boiling point elevation
Freezing point depression
Osmotic pressure
3. Electrochemistry
Redox Reactions: Involves the transfer of electrons.
Oxidation: Loss of electrons
Reduction: Gain of electrons
Electrochemical Cells: Devices that convert chemical energy to electrical energy
(e.g., Galvanic cells, Daniell cell).
Nernst Equation: Used to calculate the potential of an electrode under non-standard
conditions.
Faraday’s Laws: Quantitative relationship between electric charge and chemical
changes during electrolysis.
4. Chemical Kinetics
Rate of Reaction: Change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.
Rate Law: Expression showing relationship between rate and concentrations of
reactants.
Rate = k [A]^m [B]^n
Order of Reaction: Sum of the powers of the concentration terms in the rate law.
Activation Energy: Minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
Arrhenius Equation: k = A * e^(-Ea/RT), describes temperature dependence of rate
constant.
5. Surface Chemistry
Adsorption: Accumulation of molecules at the surface of a solid or liquid.
Catalysis: The acceleration of a reaction by a catalyst.
Heterogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst is in a different phase from reactants.
Homogeneous Catalysis: Catalyst and reactants are in the same phase.
Colloids: Mixtures where particles are dispersed in another substance.
Examples: Sol, gel, foam, emulsions.
Properties: Tyndall effect, Brownian motion.
6. General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
Extraction of Metals: Process includes crushing, grinding, concentration,
reduction, and refining.
Ore: Naturally occurring solid material from which a metal can be extracted
profitably.
Methods of Extraction:
Roasting: Heating ores in air.
Calcination: Heating ores in the absence of air.
Electrolytic Reduction: Used for metals like aluminum.
Alloys: Mixtures of metals (e.g., stainless steel, brass).
7. p-Block Elements
Group 15 (Nitrogen Family): Includes nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and
bismuth.
Nitrogen forms a variety of compounds like NH3, NO2, N2O.
Group 16 (Oxygen Family): Includes oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and
polonium.
Sulfur forms compounds like SO2, SO3, H2SO4.
Group 17 (Halogens): Includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.
Reactivity decreases down the group.
Group 18 (Noble Gases): Includes helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.
Inert gases, stable electron configuration, used in lighting, cryogenics.
8. d- and f- Block Elements
Transition Elements: Elements in the d-block, known for their variable oxidation
states and formation of colored compounds.
Lanthanides and Actinides: Rare earth elements (f-block), typically known for their
radioactive properties (e.g., Uranium).
9. Coordination Compounds
Ligand: A molecule or ion that can donate electron pairs to a metal ion.
Coordination Number: The number of ligand atoms bonded to the metal ion.
Chelation: A process where a ligand forms multiple bonds with a central metal ion.
Isomerism: Can be structural (linkage) or stereoisomerism (geometrical and
optical).
Werner’s Theory: Focuses on the bonding in coordination compounds.
10. Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Haloalkanes: Compounds containing a halogen atom bonded to an alkane.
Haloarenes: Compounds where a halogen atom is bonded to an aromatic ring.
Reactions: Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, and reduction reactions.
11. Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers
Alcohols: Contain -OH group; undergo reactions like dehydration, oxidation.
Phenols: Contain hydroxyl group attached to an aromatic ring.
Ethers: R-O-R’, with oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.
Reactions: Alcohols undergo esterification, phenols undergo electrophilic
substitution.
12. Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
Aldehydes: Contain -CHO group (e.g., formaldehyde, acetaldehyde).
Ketones: Contain a carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms (e.g., acetone).
Carboxylic Acids: Contain -COOH group (e.g., acetic acid).
Reactions: Oxidation, reduction, condensation.
13. Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles and Techniques
IUPAC Nomenclature: Systematic way of naming organic compounds.
Functional Groups: Groups of atoms that determine the chemical reactivity of a
compound.
Isomerism: Structural and stereoisomerism in organic compounds.
14. Biomolecules
Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches, consist of monosaccharides (glucose, fructose).
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids, enzymes are biological catalysts.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, carry genetic information.
Vitamins: Organic compounds essential for metabolic processes.
15. Polymers
Addition Polymers: Formed by the addition of monomers (e.g., polyethylene).
Condensation Polymers: Formed by elimination of a small molecule (e.g., nylon,
polyester).
Biodegradable Polymers: Polymers that can be broken down by microorganisms.
16. Chemistry in Everyday Life
Drugs: Medicinal compounds, such as analgesics (pain relievers), antibiotics, and
antiseptics.
Soaps and Detergents: Used for cleaning purposes. Soaps are made from natural fats
and oils, while detergents are synthetic.
