Exercise

1.What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective
identity among French people?

Ans. The French revolutionaries took the following steps to create a sense of collective
identity among the French people

• They introduced the ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen),
emphasising the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a
Constitution.

• They chose a new French flag, the tricolour, to replace the royal standard.

• The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National
Assembly.

• In the name of the nation, new hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs
commemorated.

• They established a centralised administrative system, which formulated uniform laws for
all citizens

• They adopted a uniform system of weights and measures.

• All internal custom duties were abolished.

• They promoted the French language, as spoken and written in Paris and discouraged
regional dialects.

• They declared that it was the mission and destiny of the French nation to liberate people
of Europe from despotism. It is meant that they would help other people of Europe to
become nation-states like them.

2.What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more
efficient in the territories ruled by him? Or

Explain any five reforms introduced by Napoleons in the regions under his control.

•Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more
efficient in the areas ruled by him
• He established the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code. This did away
with all privileges based on birth. It established equality before law and secured the right to
property.

• He simplified administrative divisions.

• He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

• In towns, guild systems were removed.

• Transport and communication systems were improved.

•Due to the above measures, peasants, artisans, businessmen and workers enjoyed a new
found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers realised that uniform laws, a
common currency and standardised weights and measures would facilitate movement and
exchange of goods between regions.

3. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Or Explain the nation building process of Germany after 1848.

Or Analyse the process of German Unification.

Ans. The Frankfurt Parliament, which was convened in the church of St Paul on 18 th May,
1848, was the first major step towards the unification of German states. Otto von
Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, carried out the process of unification with the help
of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy.

The building process of Germany after 1848 include the following events

• The liberal initiatives of nation building were repressed by the monarchy and big landlords
of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took the initiative to unify Germany.

• There were widespread nationalist feelings among middle-class Germans, who in 1848,
tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a Nation-state.

• Bismarck was convinced that the unification of Germany could be only achieved by the
princes, not by the common people. He wanted to achieve his aim by merging Prussia into
Germany. In 1867, Bismarck became the Chancellor of the North Confederation.

• Bismarck’s main objective was to unify Germany and was accomplished by three wars
with Austria, Denmark and France which were fought in a brief period of seven years. These
wars were ended with the victory of Prussia which helped in completing the process of
German unification.
• On 18th January, 1871, in the Royal Palace of Versailles, the king of Prussia, Kaiser William
I was crowned as the German Emperor. It symbolised the birth of a United Germany.

4. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of way in which they
were portrayed?

Ans. Marianne and Germania were the female allegories of France and German nations
respectively.

Significance/Importance of portraying Female Figures

The female allegories stood as personifications of the 'Republic' and 'Liberty'. They were
portrayed such that would instill a sense of nationality in the citizens of these countries.

In France, Marianne's characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic-
the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares
to remind the public of national symbol of unity. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves
which stands for heroism.

5. Write a note on

(a) The Greek War of Independence

(b) Frankfurt Parliament
(c) The Role of Women in Nationalist Struggles
(d) Giuseppe Mazzini
(e) Count Camillo de Cavour

Ans

(a) The Greek War of Independence It was a successful war waged by Greek
revolutionaries between 1821 to 1832 against the Ottoman Empire. Greek nationalist were
influenced by the idea of liberal nationalism. They were supported by the West European
countries in this war of independence.

Further, the poets and artists, who added romanticism to the Greek struggle of
independence participated in this war against the Ottoman empire With the Treaty of
Constantinople in July 1832, Greece was recognised as an independent nation.

(b) Frankfurt Parliament It is the name of the Germa National Assembly, founded during
the Revolutior 1848 that tried to unite Germany in a democratic way. The assembly was
attended by 831 deputies.
The members had drafted the Constitution for a new German nation. The new Constituion
was rejected by Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the king of Prussia. Though the Frankfurt Parliament
failed to unite Germany, it had consequences on Germany.

The Parliament also faced strong opposition from the aristocracy and military as it was
dominated by the middle-class who resisted the demands of workers and artisans. As
result of this, the middle-class lost their mass support. Ultimately, the monarchy and
military combined together with the aristocracy and won over the liberal nationalist middle-
class.

This forced the assembly to disband. Therefore, the Frankfurt Parliament is famous in
history as a failure of liberalism and a victory of the monarchy.

C) The Role of Women in Nationalist Struggles

A large number of women had participated in liberal and national movements in European
countries. They had formed their own political association, started newspapers and taken
part in political meetings and demonstrations. Universal male suffrage was adopted in the
country and the women were hoping for the voting right.

However when the Frankfurt Parliament was convened in Church of St Paul, women were
admitted only as observers to stand in the visiter’s gallery.

(d) Giuseppe Mazzini He was an Italian revolutionary, who was born in Genoa in 1807. He
was sent into exile at the age of 24 in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He
founded underground societies named ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in
Berne whose members were like minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the
German states. He believed that God had intended notions to be the natural units of
mankind. He opposed monarchy and supported the vision of democratic Republic.

Following his ideas and on the model of his secret societies, more such societies were set
up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Austrian Chancellor Duke Matternich once
described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

e) Count Camillo de Cavour He was the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. He was

neither a democratic nor a revolutionary. But he led the movement to unify the regions of
Italy. Through tact and diplomacy, he entered into an alliance with France and succeeded
in defeating Austrian forces in 1859 and thereby freed the Northern part of Italy from the
Austrian Habsburg.

6. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of

nationalism in Europe.
Ans

Examples of contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe are

• The idea of a nation can be created through stories, poems and writings. Music too can
help in expressing nationalist feelings or sentiments.

Collecting and recording the different forms of folk culture was important for building a
national conciousness. Being a part of the lives of the common people, folk culture
enabled nationalist to carry the message of nationalism to a large and diverse audience.
For example, Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music
turning Folk dances like the Polonaise and Mazurka into nationalist symbol.

• Romanticism, a cultural movement which emerged in Europe, sought to develop a

particular form of nationalist sentiments or national feelings. The main aim of Romantic
artists was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage and a common cultural past.

• Language also played an important role in developing the national sentiments or

nationalist feeling. For example, in Poland, language began to be used as a weapon of
national resistance. The wide scale use of Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of
struggle against national dominance.

7. Explain what is meant by the ‘1848 Revolution of the Liberals’. What were the
political, social and economic Ideas supported by the liberals?

Ans. By the 1848 Revolution of the Liberals, we mean, the revolution led by the educated
middle classes of Europe. Events of February 1848, in France, brought about the abdication
of the monarchy and a republic based on universal male franchise was formed.

The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals in 19 th century were

• Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent, abolition of autocracy

and special privileges.

• Socially, the liberals supported the abolition of discrimination based on birth.

• Economically, it stood for the abolition of trade restrictions imposed by the state.

8 . Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the 19 th
century.

Ans. The German and Italian nation-states in the 19th century developed in the following
ways
• Political Fragmentation Till the middle of the 19th century, the present-day states of
Germany and Italy were fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms ruled by different
Princely Houses.

• Revolutionary Uprisings 19th century Europe was characterised by both popular

uprisings of the masses and revolutions led by the educated and liberal middle classes. In
the case of the German people, the middle classes belonging to different German regions
came together to form an all German National Assembly in 1848.

However, on facing opposition from the aristocracy and military and on losing its mass
support base, it was forced to disband. In the Italian region, during the 1830s,
revolutionaries like Giuseppe Mazzini tried to establish an Italian Republic. However, the
revolutionary uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed to unite Italy.

• Unification with the help of the Army

After the failure of the revolutions, the process of unification was pursued by the
aristocracy and the army in both these nations.

Germany United

Germany was united by the Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck with the help of the
Prussian Army and bureaucracy. Prussia fought three wars with Austria, Denmark and
France over seven years and won. It completed the process of unification. Finally, the
German Empire was proclaimed in 1871.

Italy United

The Italian state of Sardinia-Piedmont played the role of uniting Italy, similar to that played
by Prussia in the case of Germany. Count Camillo de Cavour (the Chief Minister of Sardinia-
Piedmont) led the movement to unite the separate states of 19 th century Italy with the help
of the army and an alliance with France.

The regions annexed by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red hirts joined with the Northern
regions to form a United Italy in 1861. The Papal states joined it in 1870.

9. How was the history of nationalism In Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Ans. In Britain the development of nationalism followed a different pattern from the rest of
Europe. Before the 18th century, different ethnic groups of people were there in the British
Isles, such as English, Welsh, Scot and Irish. Each of these ethnic groups had its own
cultural and political traditions. The British Parliament became the chief instrument to curb
the power of the monarchy in 1688 through a bloodless revolution.
The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland formed the United Kingdom of
Great Britain. With the advent of English power, the English removed the cultural, political
institutions of Scotland forcefully and the Scots were banned from speaking the Gaelic
language and put on their national dress.

The English with the help of the protestants suppressed the Catholics of Ireland and
forcibly incorporated United Ireland with the United Kingdom in 1801. Scotland and Ireland
became the subordinate partners of the United Kingdom. The symbols of the New Britain,
the National Flag (Union Jack), the National Anthem (God save our Noble King) and the
English language were actively promoted.

10.Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Ans. Nationalist tension emerged in the Balkans because the Balkan states were aspiring
for nationalism. The Balkans was a region comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria,
Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and
Montenegro and their inhabitants were called Slavs.

In 19th century, the major portion of the Balkans was under the Ottoman Empire. The ideas
of romantic nationalism developed in the Balkans. The rebellions nationalities in the
Balkans thought that their struggle was the attempt to win back their long-lost
independence.