Final summary

ANCIENT ROME
• Rome is located in the center of the Italian peninsula. This location helped the
Romans expand in Italy and beyond.
• The Apennine Mountains run down the center of Italy but are not too rugged.
• Fertile plains supported a growing population.
• Ancestors of the Romans settled along the Tiber River. These villages eventually
grew into Rome.
Etruscan influence
• In early times, the Romans were dominated by the Etruscan people of northern
Italy. The Etruscans lived in wealthy city-states that were ruled by kings. Under
their influence, Rome began to grow from a small village into a city.
• The Etruscans were skilled artists who created beautiful wall paintings and
statues in terra-cotta and bronze. This bronze statue is of a mythical creature
called a chimera.
• In the 6th century BC, Rome was a small city-state in Italy ruled by kings.
• By the end of the 1st century BC, it had conquered the entire Mediterranean
world.
• In 510 BC, Rome became a republic. Rome firstempror
I (later
• In the 1st century BC, after a series of civil wars, a general named Octavian
known as Augustus) took over the republic and became Rome’s first emperor.
Civil Wars
• In the 1st century BC, there was a series of bloody civil wars in which ambitious
Roman generals fought each other for power. The most successful was Julius Killing
Caesar, who made himself ruler of Rome. In 44 BC, a group of leading senatorsFresits
stabbed Caesar to death, hoping to save the republic. His assassination only led
to more civil wars.
• Caesar is killed by enemies who feared that he planned to make himself king of
Rome.
• Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in a struggle for power.
Also known as Augustus
• The Roman senate gives Octavian the title of Augustus and declares him first
citizen.
The First Emperor
• The final victor of the civil wars was Octavian, Caesar’s great nephew and heir.
• After defeating his enemies, he became Rome’s first emperor, taking the name
Augustus, meaning “the honored one.”
• Under Augustus, who ruled from 27 BC to 14 CE, Rome became a monarchy.
• Growth of the empire
• Until 117 AD, the Roman Empire continued to expand. It reached its greatest size
under Emperor Trajan (ruled 98–117 AD), who conquered Dacia (modern
Romania) and Mesopotamia (modern Iraq).
• However, his successor, Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), believed that the empire
had become too vast to control and gave up many of Trajan’s conquests.
• Hadrian strengthened the empire with frontier defenses, including a wall that
ran for 73 miles (117 km) across northern Britain.
• Roman soldiers constructed a vast network of straight roads that enabled their
armies and official messengers to move rapidly throughout the empire.
• The Roman Empire depended on slave labor. In many areas, slaves worked on
huge farming estates owned by wealthy Romans. These estates were run by a
villicus (steward), who was usually a slave himself.
• The main crops produced on the estates were wheat, olives, and grapes for
making wine.
HOW WAS GRECO-ROMAN CIVILIZATION FORMED?
• The Romans borrowed heavily from Greek culture after they conquered Greece.
• At the same time, Roman generals carried achievements of Roman civilization to
conquered lands.
• The blending of Roman, Hellenistic, and Greek traditions produced Greco-
Roman civilization.
• Trade and travel during the Pax Romana helped spread this new civilization.
The army
• Rome’s success was due to the discipline of its armies and its ability to win
support from the peoples they conquered.
• The best soldiers in the Roman army were the legionaries. These were heavily
armored foot soldiers who carried long shields and were armed with javelins and
short stabbing swords for close combat.
• Legionaries were Roman citizens who served as part-time (Republic) or full-time
(Late Republic and Empire) professional soldiers.
• Fighting alongside them were noncitizen soldiers called auxiliaries.
The City of Rome
• In the 1st century AD, Rome was the largest city on Earth, with a population of
at least 1,200,000 people, drawn from many different lands.
• It was a city full of magnificent public buildings including temples, racetracks,
theaters, bathhouses, and the Colosseum, where public shows were held.
• There were 11 aqueducts, supplying the city with water, and more than 40 parks
and gardens.
TWO REFORMERS
Diocletian
1. Divided the empire into two parts to make it easier to govern.
2. Tried to increase the prestige of the emperor.
3. Fixed prices to slow inflation, or the rapid rise of prices
4. Established laws to ensure steady production of food and goods.
Constantine
1. Continued Diocletian’s reforms
2. Granted toleration to Christians, which led to the rapid growth of Christianity.
3. Built a new capital at Constantinople, making the eastern part of the empire
the center of power.
FOREIGN INVASIONS
• A weakened Rome could not withstand the forces of Germanic invasions.
• The Huns dislodged other Germanic peoples and, little by little, conquered the
Roman empire.
The Islamic world
Short History of the Islamic world
Eve of Islam
1. c. 570 AD: Birth of prophet Muhammad.
2. c. 610 AD: Prophet Muhammad receives first oracle in a cave near Mecca.
3. c. 610-22 AD: Prophet Muhammad preaches in Mecca.
4. 622 AD: Hijira - Muhammad and followers flee to Medina. Islamic calendar (AH,
Anno Hegirae) begins. 624 AD: Muslims successfully won the battle of Badr.
5. 625 AD: Muslims are defeated by Meccans at Uhud.
6. 630 AD: Muslims capture Mecca. Ka'ba is cleansed.
7. 632 AD: Death of Prophet Muhammad. Abu Bakr chosen as caliph.

Chronology of Islamic states and caliphates

• The Rashidun Caliphate (632-661)
• The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) - Successor of the Rashidun Caliphate
• The Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba in Islamic Spain (756-929-1031)
• The Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) - Successor of the Umayyad Caliphate
• The Fatimid Caliphate (910-1171)
• The Ayyubid dynasty (1171-1260)
• The Mamluk Caliphate (Bahri dynasty then succeeded by Burji dynasty) (1250–
1517)
• The Ottoman (1517–1923)
Creation of An Arab Empire
• After the death of Prophet Muhammad, unity was difficult to maintain.
• The companion and father-in-law of Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr, was chosen
to be the first Caliph, or successor to Prophet Muhammad.
• Abu Bakr helped to unify the Muslim world and expanded in Arabia and beyond.
Arab Rule
• The Arabs were now united and expanded their territory instead of fighting each
other.
• They defeated the Byzantine army in 636 taking the province of Syria. By 642
they took Egypt and by 650 they controlled the Persian Empire.
Administration
• Muslim administrators were fairly tolerant of the people they defeated.
• Initially, both Christians and Jews were allowed to practice their religions
because they were “People of the Book” who had written scriptures revealed to
them by God before the time of prophet Muhammad. Those who chose not to
convert had to be loyal to the Muslim state and pay a special tax called “Jiziah”.
• At the beginning of the eighth century Islam had expanded across northern
Africa and had converted the Berbers (a pastoral people along the
Mediterranean coast) to the faith.
• By 710 combined Berber and Arab forces crossed the Strait of Gibraltar into
Spain and had taken most of the country by 725. In 732, however, the Muslim
advance into Europe was halted at the Battle of Tours (France).
• By 750 the Muslim advance came to an end. The southern and eastern
Mediterranean and parts of the old Roman Empire were now Muslim territory.
• The Umayyad Dynasty was centered in Damascus, in modern-day Syria and was
wealthy. This was also a very diverse empire as many different peoples had been
conquered in the new territory.
Aspects of Islamic Civilization
Prosperity in the Islamic World
• The Muslim empires carried on extensive trade with China, the Byzantine
Empire, India, and SE Asia.
• Trade was done by ship and by camel caravans which traveled from Morocco
into West to the countries beyond the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
• Goods:
1. Sub Saharan Africa: Gold and Slaves
2. China: Silk and Porcelain
3. E. Africa: Gold and Ivory
4. SE Asia and India: Sandalwood and Spices.
5. Egypt: Grain
6. Iraq: Linen, Dates, and Precious Stones
7. W. India: Textiles
• The development of banking helped to facilitate trade and eventually influenced
European banking systems during the European Renaissance.
The Cities
• Flourishing trade led to wealthy and successful cities.
• BAGHDAD: Was known as the city of peace and was highly successful under the
Abbasids
• CAIRO: Was part of the Fatimid Dynasty
• CORDOBA: Capital of Umayyad Spain
• Cities had Palaces for the Caliphs and mosques for worship.
• There were also public buildings with fountains, courtyards, public baths, and a
bazaar.
Preservation of Knowledge
• Muslim scholars helped to preserve the knowledge of Greece and Rome by
translating works and making them available to other scholars.
• It is because of this that European scholars were able to rediscover the works of
Aristotle and other Greek philosophers.
• In the twelfth century these works were translated into Latin.
• The discovery of paper-making technology from China made this much easier.
Math and Science
• Muslim scholars adopted and passed on the numerical system of India, and the
use of zero. These numbers came to be known in the west as Arabic numbers.
• A ninth-century Arab mathematician also developed algebra.
Case Study:
• Ibn Khaldun's Historical Writing Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis (Tunisia) in 1332
C.E. In his autobiography (Al-ta 'rif bi Ibn Khaldun), he explains that his ancestors
served in administrative and political posts under three dynasties in Seville,
Spain from the 9th to the 13th century C.E.
• Ibn Khaldun's family then moved to North Africa in 1248 where his father
worked as an administrator and soldier in Tunisia until he decided to devote his
life to studying theology.
• Ibn Khaldun received a formal education, during which time he memorized the
Qur'an, gained experience writing verses, and learned about Arabic literature,
Muslim law, mathematics, and philosophy.
• In the Muqaddimah, IBN KHALDUN DESCRIBES A NEW PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY,
arguing that history requires more than the recording of historical events.
• Khaldun argued that historians need to critically investigate how natural, social,
economic, and political environments impact the rise and collapse of civilizations
over time.

Medieval Europe (5th-15th Century)

Early Medieval Europe (The Middle Ages/Dark Ages) 5th to 12th Century
• Begins with the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE)
• Germanic tribes form independent kingdoms.
• Time of violence, illiteracy, and isolation.
• The majority of the population is poor and uneducated.
• Little / no trade.
• Decrease in population (warfare, raids, disease).
• Christianity was the single unifying force.
• A blend of Greco-Roman, Germanic and Christian Traditions
The Age of Charlemagne (768-814)
• Charles the Great – Carolus Magnus
• Considered the father of Europe since he reunites much of Europe for a brief
time.
1. He rules over the Frankish Empire, whose capital was Aachen.
2. Improves education and economy.
3. Developed a bureaucracy (administration)
4. Crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope (Christmas Day 800).
• Died in 814.
• By the Treaty of Verdun (843), his Empire is divided into three Kingdoms.
Time of Invasions: 800 – 1000 CE
• Threats from the Muslims (south), Slavs (East) and the Vikings (North).
• The Vikings were the most dangerous and constituted the biggest threat to
safety.
1. Impacted on European way of life – raid and loot town (brutal)
2. Warrior society
3. Great seafarers
4. Long boats – sail up stream and in open waters.
Feudalism

The Medieval Church

• Village Church with a parish priest
• Emergence of the monastic life:
 1. ◦ Nuns and monks withdraw from worldly life.
2. ◦ Monasteries and convents are centers of leaning and social services.
• The Papal Supremacy was a unifying force in Europe
The High Middle Ages 1050-1300’s
• Rise of the Nation-States in Europe
1. Monarchies begin to consolidate and strengthen power.
2. The economy, education and art begin to flourish.
• Cause: Expansion of the royal domain: justice system, royal taxes, efficient
bureaucracy, and royal army.
• The rise of royal power means strong central governments with organized
democracy.
1. England: united by a limited (Parliamentary) Monarchy
2. France: united by an Absolute Monarchy
3. Holy Roman Empire (Germany): remains fragmented.
The crusades – Holy War
European Christians attempt to retake the Holy Land
• Advocated by the Pope Urban in 1095 – « God wills it ».
• Reasons for participation:
1. ◦ Religious zeal
2. ◦ Wealth and land
3. ◦ Escape / opportunity
4. ◦ Adventure
• Four crusades between 1096 and 1202
The End of the Middle Ages
A Time of Crisis
• The black death – bubonic plague (1348) has a huge demographic and economic
impact on Europe.
• Division of the Church
• The Hundred Year’s War (1337-1453 ) – a series of conflicts between England
and France.