ASSIGNMENT No.

01
Foundations of Education (6502) M.A/M.ed
Spring, 2022
Q. 1 Discuss the issues of financing in educational planning. Give your suggestions to
improve financial constrains in educational planning in Pakistan. (20)

As with any other system or institution, financial management is an important consideration in

education. Learn more about the role of finances in education, record keeping, communication with
stakeholders, and the laws that govern school finance.

Education & Finances

As the principal of Jackson Middle School, Sam knows that one of his biggest responsibilities is to
oversee the financial management of his school. At Jackson, a public school, financial
management includes overseeing the funding for:

 Employee salaries
 Maintenance of the building and grounds
 Student after-school and lunch programs, field trips, and special events; and
 Classroom supplies, including textbooks and technology

Sam knows that being a good manager, or overseer, of his school's finance is not only a major
component of his duties as administrator but also a serious ethical area. As such, he's always thinking
about what's right and what's wrong when it comes to funding and tracking of funds and often consults
with others before making a financial decision.
Sam also understands that the key characteristics of financial management include organization,
oversight, and transparency. Remaining aware of these features will help Jackson Middle School
operate both ethically and legally while remaining financially solvent.

Importance of Records
One of the most important things that Sam does is keep strong records, or documentation, of all of
his school's finances. District procedures include a central, confidential database accessible only by way
of a password, where principals can input major expenditures.
On the classroom level, minor expenditures are tracked by Sam's school secretary, who maintains
separate accounts for each teacher and requires receipts for reimbursement. She also uses the school
credit card to order supplies and technology and keeps track of these expenditures in a spreadsheet.
Sam sets aside one afternoon each month to go over the school's financial records with his secretary to
ensure that its accounts and checkbook are balanced. These sessions are a crucial part of the fiscal
oversight employed by the school.
On the district level, Sam meets each month with its accountants and the superintendent to discuss
what money is coming into the district and the individual schools and their corresponding major
financial needs. For instance, at one district meeting Sam lobbies for funding to remodel the science
wing at Jackson Middle School.

Laws & School Finance

Sam knows that oversight and reporting of school finances are not simply a matter of personal
preference. Different states and towns have different laws in place to guide what schools and
administrators are supposed to do financially.
As an administrator, Sam considers it his responsibility to be familiar with these laws. That's why he
meets twice a year with the other principals in his school district and the district lawyer to ensure that
they're in legal compliance and up-to-date with any legislative changes.

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The objective of this lesson is to discuss school finance plans, including state and local revenue
sources, capital and operational funding, and federal funding.

As an educational leader, one of your most important jobs will be to develop and adhere to an
educational budget. This lesson discusses some of the issues involved in making a budget for an
educational system.

Why Budgeting Matters

As the principal of Larkville Elementary, Lauren has been tasked with turning the school around. She
knows that Larkville has a strong community and many dedicated teachers. However, previous leaders
have not been careful or thoughtful in their management of resources at the school.
One of the first things Lauren does is talk with her colleagues about the significance of a budget, or a
document that will guide the financing of the Larkville school.
Lauren knows that a budget will help her organize priorities, advocate for the needs of students and
teachers, and get the school back on track financially as well as educationally.

Developing a Budget
The first step Lauren takes has to do with simply outlining a budget. She begins by getting as much
information as she can about the different funding sources available to her.
For instance, Lauren has access to district money, state money, and federal assistance. She makes a
spreadsheet to keep track of how much money she has from each source and any restrictions on these
funds.
She also talks with the Parent Teacher Association (PTO) about their projected fundraising for the year
and adds this to her spreadsheet.
Next, Lauren meets with teachers, parents and community members to find out stakeholders' hopes
and dreams for the school in the upcoming year. She makes lists of needs and separates needs from
wants.
A teacher might, for instance, need chairs for her students to sit on. The same teacher might also want
science materials to enhance the lab experiments she does with students. Both are important, but one
is more necessary and takes priority over the other.
Finally, Lauren is able to put together a budget that shows exactly how much money the school will
spend this year to achieve established goals. She ensures that the budget is aligned with the school's
mission, goals, and strategic plans.
Lauren presents the budget at a faculty meeting and makes it available to her district supervisors as
well.

Managing the Budget

Now that the budget is firmly in place and has been reviewed by a variety of stakeholders, Lauren is
ready to think about how she will manage it. The key to managing an educational budget is good
record-keeping.
Lauren knows that some principals keep these records themselves, whereas she prefers to share the
task with her office secretary. The secretary keeps files on which teachers are using funds and for
which purposes. Larger expenditures must go through Lauren so that she can make sure they never go
outside of their budget.
Sometimes, the school receives unexpected funding, such as from donors or fundraising successes.
Lauren keeps these funds in a separate account; she would rather put the funds aside for next year's
budget or special needs that arise than immediately spend them.

Monitoring the Budget

Lauren knows that it is crucial to monitor, or oversee, the budget over time. This is especially true
during the first year that a new budget is in place. Every month, Lauren meets with her school
leadership team to discuss how the budget is going, audit the various bank accounts the school holds,
and strategize solutions for any budgetary problems that are coming up.

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School Financial Plan
The love of money may be the root of all evil, but the handling of finances is an integral part of any
organization. School districts are no exception.
In a landmark school funding case, San Antonio School District v. Rodriguez, the US Supreme Court
decided that education was not explicitly protected under the US Constitution, and therefore, each
state government had the responsibility to fund public education. This ruling created great variance in
the process and amount of school finance plans around the United States. States have variety in their
funding practices, and, narrowing the funnel even further, local entities have even more diversity in
funding sources. An awareness of the possible variation in this practice is the key to being effectively
informed on school finance plans.
San Antonio School District v Rodriguez did create a precedent that relied upon states to fund schools,
but this is not done without any guidance or communication among states. According to the National
Conference of State Legislatures, states do have some help in determining what makes a solid school
finance system. These include:

 Efficiency - using the funds in an effective manner to decrease waste and increase impact.
 Equality - for taxpayers and students.
 Adequacy - providing enough in the way of resources that schools can operate in a manner
that achieves the goals of education.
 Accountability - measures to ensure there are proper budgeting systems as well as auditing
for transparency.
 Stability of educational funding over a period of time.
 Student learning - supported by the financial plans put in place.

Revenue Sources
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics, during the 2016-2017 school year, 47% of
funding came from states, 45% came from local funding, and 8% came from Federal funds.
Since states are the primary source of the funds, they rely upon the money generated by taxes to
support schools at both an elementary and secondary level. The most commonly used methods for
distributing funds to schools from the state level is following a formula. These financial formulas vary,
but often consider factors such as poverty, disabilities, and students who speak English as a Second
Language (ESL).
Local funds make up a significant portion of school funding income. Most often, the taxes paid on
property support the school system. Those that reside in a wealthier area have the benefit of collecting
higher amounts of property taxes. This enables wealthier areas to keep tax rates relatively low and still
provide adequate funding for the local schools. However, areas with higher rates of poverty often have
less of a tax base to raise funds. Often the schools with the highest needs often have a lowered ability
to raise the necessary funds. The inability of poorer districts to raise equal amounts of funds leads to a
disparity between school funding. This is evident across states, within states, and even within school
districts.

Operational and Capital Funding

Operating budgets refer to the cost of keeping the school up and running. These include salaries of
teachers, materials (such as textbooks), transportation, and keeping the building utilities paid.
During the 2016-2107 school year, the distribution of operational funds within an average American
school fell into several different categories.

 Salaries 57%
 Benefits 23%
 Purchased services 11%
 Supplies 7%

(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2016)

Capital improvement budgets are related to long-term spending. This includes obtaining land,
construction costs, or monies spent on the renovation of school buildings. Essentially, the capital

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improvement budget is a list of requests that need attention. Typically, the board of education
considers the list and the money available before approving a renovation or construction project.
Capital funds are usually funded through voter-approved bond issues. Districts generally borrow funds
for new buildings on credit and repay these borrowed funds with property tax income.

School administration:

School administration plays a very important role in student development. While research has not
determined a direct relationship between administration and student achievement, administration does
strongly influence school environmental conditions affecting such growth. Classroom experiences
represent one area. Classroom teachers strongly motivate students and stimulate their long term
successes. These motivations have lasting effects. School administrators should facilitate environments
allowing classroom teachers such opportunities. Such processes would use intrinsic motivators, prompt
self-reflection and development to prompt a cooperative, trusting relationship. Unless the
administration provides a school setting that supports teacher morale, only the most mentally
disciplined teacher will differentiate between the administrative burdens and learner needs. Future
research should consider the effectiveness of teacher coping measures for dealing with such
circumstances. Findings from such research would provide teachers stronger abilities to focus on
student developmental needs. Research into effective methods for developing administrator
prioritization and personal skills would also support environments promoting student development.

Q.2 Elaborate the types of supervision. Which type of supervision is curried out education
system in Pakistan. (20)

The review distinguishes between supervision, inspection, evaluation, and support; it defines
supervision as: "the regular/periodic oversight of individuals or entities, which uses the results of
evaluation (and sometimes inspection) to inform and direct action of those supervised." It is perfectly
possible that a single individual or entity may provide several functions at the same time and also that
the name of the entity (for example, Inspectorate) may not reflect other important aspects of its work
and mission. Supervision, according to this definition, has some overlap with evaluation and inspection,
and often also with support, at least in the form of advice.

Supervising employees or tasks is not a simple matter. Supervisors need a certain set of skills in order
to accomplish their job efficiently and effectively. In this lesson, you'll learn about some of these core
skills. A short quiz follows.

Types of supervision are generally classified according to the behaviour of supervisors towards his
subordinates. These are also called as techniques of supervision.

These are explained as under:

1. Autocratic or Authoritarian supervision:

Under this type, the supervisor wields absolute power and wants complete obedience from his
subordinates. He wants everything to be done strictly according to his instructions and never likes any
intervention from his subordinates. This type of supervision is resorted to tackle indiscipline
subordinates.

2. Laissez-faire or free-rein supervision:

This is also known as independent supervision. Under this type of supervision, maximum freedom is
allowed to the subordinates. The supervisor never interferes in the work of the subordinates. In other
words, full freedom is given to workers to do their jobs. Subordinates are encouraged to solve their
problems themselves.

3. Democratic supervision:

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Under this type, supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and discussion or in other words he
consults subordinates in the process of decision making. This is also known as participative or
consultative supervision. Subordinates are encouraged to give suggestions, take initiative and exercise
free judgment. This results in job satisfaction and improved morale of employees.

4. Bureaucratic supervision:
Under this type certain working rules and regulations are laid down by the supervisor and all the
subordinates are required to follow these rules and regulations very strictly. A serious note of the
violation of these rules and regulations is taken by the supervisor.

This brings about stability and uniformity in the organisation. But in actual practice it has been
observed that there are delays and inefficiency in work due to bureaucratic supervision.

Skill Set

Meet Melissa. She's a supervisor at a company that manufactures toys. Her job is to oversee
employees engaged in their assigned tasks and projects. Supervisors are front line mangers, which
means that they are down on the ground and in the trenches.

Melissa, like all supervisors, needs a specific set of skills to successfully supervise. In fact, the
American Management Association has identified six essential skills that Melissa needs to master. (You
can find more information on the association's website.) Let's take a quick look at each of these skills.

Management & Leadership

Supervisors may be on the lowest end of the management totem pole, but their leadership and
management skills are absolutely essential to the success of any organization. Melissa is where the
rubber hits the road; where the business of the business is done.

She's on the production room floor making sure that her employees are getting the toys produced. She
needs to be able to set goals and prioritize. She also has to be able to delegate tasks to capable
subordinates. Melissa must also be able to develop and coach her employees.

Communication

Melissa also needs to have effective communication skills. She needs to be able to inspire and
persuade. She also needs to be an active listener, which is being able to understand not only the
content of a message, but also its intent and the circumstances that the message is being
communicated. She also needs to be able to read non-verbal communication cues, such as hand
gestures and facial expressions.

Supervision can be viewed as a process of managing functions intended to promote the achievement of
institutional goals and to enhance the personal and professional capabilities of staff. Supervision
interprets the institutional mission and focuses human and fiscal resources on the promotion of
individual and organizational competence.

Supervision attends to the accomplishment of the institution and unit's goals and to the personal and
professional welfare of the staff. An effective supervisor provides by assistance to staff members in
meeting their personal and professional goals within the context of the division and the institution.
Supervision policy should, then, be directed toward the following objectives:

 Model practice focused on student learning and education of the whole person.
 Accomplish the unit and institution's goals and mission.
 Fulfill the institutional functions assigned to the unit.
 Coordinate the recruitment and selection process of new staff members.
 Coordinate the orientation and training of new hired staff members.
 Consider the personal and professional welfare of the staff members.
 Establish good communication between members of the unit and division.
 Conduct and coordinate the performance appraisal of staff members.

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 Address needs of departing and remaining staff members when employee separation occurs.

Supervision Policy Statement

All staff members are entitled to quality supervision. Supervision is ongoing and includes two-way
communication to achieve the dual purposes of institutional and staff member development.
Supervision will focus on competence with the supervisor responsible for leadership toward the
accomplishment of meeting institutional and staff needs. Staff members should be given clear guidance
regarding expectations about their role in the unit.

Using The Staffing Model In Supervision

The integrated staffing model operates on the principle of all components of the model being
interrelated and strongly influenced by supervision. Therefore, it is important to mention the five other
dimensions of the model: , orientation, staff development, performance appraisal, and separation.
Supervision, as the linchpin of the model, permeates each of these dimensions. Consequently,
supervision principles as discussed here should not be considered in isolation, rather, should be applied
to each dimension of the model.

Functions of Supervision - Supervision is not always easy. A supervisor is often called upon to make
decisions based upon the knowledge and skills which have been acquired through the years of
professional involvement. A supervisor must serve many functions. Among these are:

 Articulating and achieving the unit's missions and needs

 Monitoring and managing the climate of the unit
 Fostering individual development
 Developing teamwork capabilities and group resources
 Coordinating work activities
 Promoting active problem solving

Approaches to Supervision - The process of supervision can take on one or a combination of styles,
and one particular style may not be appropriate for every supervisory situation. It is important that a
supervisor is aware of his or her predominate approach to supervision so that the style may be
adapted as the situation or the staff member requires. Winston and Creamer (1994) provide an
instrument to identify supervisory approaches. The four approaches included in the instrument are:

 Authoritarian - based on the belief that staff members require constant attention
 Laissez Faire - based on the desire to allow staff members freedom in accomplishing job
responsibilities
 Companionable - based on a friendship-like relationship
 Synergistic - a cooperative effort between the supervisor and the staff member

Synergistic Supervision

Synergistic supervision has been described as having the greatest utility for working with student
affairs professionals. Its cooperative nature allows joint effects to exceed the combination of individual
efforts. Important characteristics of synergistic supervision include:

Dual Focus - Staff members need to feel that they have a significant influence on selecting and
defining the goals of the unit and in devising strategies to accomplish them. If staff members perceive
goals as being imposed on them, they may not make a personal investment in trying to achieve the
goals of the unit. For example, it is a given that a successful Residence Life operation has a process for
assigning rooms and roommates to new students. However, the individual staff members can play a
large part in defining how that process will most effectively work.

Joint Effort - Supervision is not something done to staff but rather a cooperative activity in which
each party has an important contribution to make. Plans for accomplishing tasks such as determining
unit priorities, scheduling and distributing work, and coordinating the efforts of the division are worked
out jointly between the supervisor and the staff member.

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Two-way Communication - In the synergistic model of staffing practices, supervision is dependent
upon a high level of trust between staff members and supervisors. Staff members must be willing to
allow supervisors to learn personal information about them. Staff members must also feel free to give
their supervisors honest, direct feedback. Communication is key in developing this trust.

Focus on Competence - Supervision should concentrate on four areas of staff competence:

Knowledge and information - Staff members must understand how to effectively perform the duties
of their job. This includes, but is not limited to understanding college student development theory,
current laws and other legal parameters of practice, standards of professional practices, ethical
standards, and institutional rules and policies.

Work-related skills - Supervisors must ensure that staff members stay current on developing trends
within the field of student development and that they are trained in a wide range of skills related to
their job description, such as interpersonal communication, goal setting, and computer skills. For
student affairs professionals to remain effective, these skills have to be refreshed regularly. This is
especially true for skills that are not used on a regular basis. Supervisors must also provide the means
for staff members to develop and acquire new skills.

Personal skills - The synergistic style emphasizes a holistic approach to supervision. Just as attention
must be paid to development of a staff member's work-related skills, so too must personal skills be
developed. To function successfully as a professional, individuals must acquire skills in areas such as
time management, anger control, diet and exercise, and retirement planning.

Attitudes - Supervisors must maintain a positive attitude among their staff members. Positive
attitudes can motivate individuals to apply knowledge or skills to strive toward personal, unit, and
division goals.

Student affairs professionals are involved in a people business. Therefore, their attitude toward people,
especially students, must be appropriate. Whether a staff member approaches tasks with an attitude of
enthusiasm or sarcasm often determines that staff member's success.

Q.3 Compare the need and scope of integrated planning and indicative planning in
educational setting. (20)

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR EXPANSION

Quantitative approach is directed at addressing dissatisfaction with direction of growth in education. It

confronts with resolution of the Jomtien conference (UNESCO, 1990) that all countries in the world
should attain 100% universal access to basic education by 2000 and the Dakar Declaration (2000) that
called for commitment a collective commitment to basic education for all. Planning for educational
extension involve.

Targets for increasing enrolment until all eligible children have access to basic education. · The
extension of basic compulsory schooling. · The expansion of post-secondary and technical institutions
after a country after a countries independence so as to supply enough indigenous human resources for
various section of the economy. Many countries are realizing that the higher the knowledge and skills
levels of their population, the more family the country stand in the part to development. Many
countries pursuing this policy demand the government be responsible Educational plan under this
approach may involve a systematic incremental approach where expansion is gradually under taken as
the economic improves and human resource capacity increases. Although quantitative approach to
educational approach to educational planning in popular among politicians and generals community if
suffer from number of down backs. First:

Expansion and extension of schooling

The expansion and extension of schooling alone does little to enhance the knowledge and skills
necessary for national development. Unless matched with consideration of the relevance, quality,
efficiency and effectiveness of the education provided similarly, when education is free parent may find
that there is nothing to lose if they exclude their children particularly where opportunity for post-
primary is slim and returns for participating in other economic activities with immediate returns are
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higher. Second: If the school system lacks the ability to support increased demand it will be unable to
provide an environment conducive to effective teaching and learning, this has been the experience of
many developing countries especially in rural areas there are shortage of basic physical facilities (
classroom desk, chairs, and teachers house) supplies (textbook and others teaching and learning
materials) In addition, teachers quality is often poor and salaries are low.

Many teachers have not benefited from staff development programme and hence were not motivated
to teach effectively (Mosha and Sumra,1992) There has been and remains to day a wide gape between
words and deeds between policies proclaimed by ministers attending conferences and action taken in
their countries for mobilizing sufficient resources to make effectives learning possible.

Quality improvement strategies

Quality improvement strategies need to be implemented manageable pieces. Top managers must
support these strategies and provide the needed leaderships. · Managers and teachers must discharge
their efficient essentials roles effectively. · Quality is change process and not a programme meaning
that it is continuous enduring and unending. Quality strategies do not address crisis. Quality
improvement procedures short-term results as well and · Quality requires additional resources but not
many. Plans for high quality education need to focus on developing the child holistically so that the
primary goal of education is not merely scholastic achievements- vobotic craming to pass examinations
but also acquisition of the values, attitudes, knowledge, skills and other dispositions needed to be a full
participants of society. Education should also nurture creativity in order to develop self reliance skills.

EDUCATION PLANNING FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

This policy approach gives primes importance to education as procedure of the stock of human capital
required for economic development. The major emphasis is to provide the educational planners with
vital information about the link between education and the labour market. There is no doubt that all
over the world to day education is viewed as a key input for economic growth, as well as social,
political and cultural progress . There are two critical inputs feed into national economy through
education system. · First, it provides the human resources necessary to manage all sectors of economy
including the social and political process associated with the economic well being of the nation.

Second, it generates the knowledge, attitudes, motivation and entrepreneurial dispositions that are
essential for the economic and social health of the country. Ultimately, all the evidence show that
without quality education the process economic development can be seriously jeopardized. In
summary, the economic policy approach to educational planning should concerned with planning the
supply and demand of high quality human resource to meet the demands of the global economy.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

The approach emerges from observation that the mere expansion of an education system does not
reduce disparities in enrollment and achievement among different groups, defined by either economic
or social criteria. The social change perspectives therefore requires educational planners to address in
inequalities in the education sectors which tend to exacerbate inequalities in the societies at large.
Social change approach has five tenets, · Seek to address the barriers confronting women in male
dominated societies by stressing the needs for greater females participation in education. · Meant to
enhance opportunities for minorities, low income group, the less privileged and less developed
communities especially youth and adults without basic life skills. Ill health population expansion and
infant mortality which are caused by lack of knowledge.

Rural areas

Many in rural areas are also marginalized because their parents ability to demand for their right to
education or gender, for this reason some countries and Tanzania in particular, have eliminated school
fees at primary school levels for that marginalized children can participate. Other system however,
insisted on the need for cost sharing between public and private funding · The social change approach
also tend to address the often unmet educational needs of people with physical challenges that quality
to enroll are not sent to school at all in many developing countries. These societies are just beginning
to realize that children with physical challenges have the same rights to education as other children do

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school must therefore be equipped to provide for the special needs of children with disabilities not only
in terms of physical facilities and books but also teachers training.

Focuses on the social returns

This perspective also focuses on the social returns from investing in certain type and level of education
especially for women. Education should have several positives externalities or benefits i.e improved
health and nutrition, lower petty crime rates and achieve population growth resulting from low fertility
rates, child spacing and smaller family sizes. Improvement in water quality, health services,
environmental conditions, governance and participation in civil life. Moreover, education should change
values, raises awareness, develops emotional sensitivities, forges relationships, reduces bigotry,
reinforces empowers communities, revitalizes religions organizations and increases political
commitments to safeguarding human rights and promoting democracy.

In our country and other countries promotion private school might re-entre element of racial and class
segregated education if educational planners in developing countries do not come forward with viable
strategies for bridging the emerging gap. In most African countries and Tanzanian in particular, (
cultural and religious practices and taboos have always left the female children disadvantaged in gaing
access to education in many developing countries where parental resources are limited permits many
face a choice between investing in son’s or a daughters. Many choose to educate the boys since it is
perceived that the girl’s education once married would mainly benefit her new family

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR EQUITY

Equity is a higher level that equality. The main objectives of equity is to correct imbalance in the
system so that every one receives a higher quality education with focus on correcting disparities
performance for education provided especially in urban versus schools and in advantaged versus
disadvantaged schools plans therefore should focus on improving method of teaching that are designed
to empower often condemned student to gain hope and opportunity thought schooling. Equity does not
mean that every one attains an “A” grade, it does mean however that every one can be helped to do
better in whatever one is best at. Research shows that if more interest is paid to child learning,
coupled with proper guidance assistance, those regarded as slow learner can do just as well in school if
not better even those students considered to be

EDUCATIONALPLANNING FOR INCREASED EFFICIENC

The focus is on the rising cost of education and the fact that, education sector must compete for
limited recourses with other social services (Colton, 1983). Pressure for increased efficiency therefore
stem from the assumption that there is either, inefficiency in the educational system or that there
needs to be a better means of setting priorities within the system. Hence the goal according to this
approach is to reduce the amount of input per unit of output or increase the amount of output per unit
of input. Many efficiency driven measures, including pressures to increase teachers; work load,
increase class size and introduce double shift in urban schools, this must be weighed carefully by policy
makers and planners in developing countries because they are rarely associated with improvement in
quality, equity and providing an all round education to children. Similarly, difficult choices have to be
made concerning the programmes and investment that are necessary to accomplish specific goals in
the most efficient manner possible. Modern management techniques must be applied in order to
improve resource allocation and use. There is also a need to make better use of space and time;
however, there is danger of being too excessively concerned with the issue of efficiency.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR GLOBALISATION

Globalization is a process of penning up national economy to free market forces. The focus is on
competition and the use of information technology to drive the revolution in the organization of work,
production of goods and the provision of service. It is also transforming culture world wide and
recognizing relations among countries. Educational planning designed to meet the demand of
Globalization should focus on improving the quantity and quality of skills in the labor force, with
increased emphasis on the teaching of science and mathematics. Under this approach, there are four
main tenets: Ø It calls for improving student achievement at all educational levels, with the goals of
increasing labor force productivity to meet the demands of a competition-driven globalization process.
teachers recruitment and training.

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Q.4 What are the major educational management issues of Pakistan and suggest some
solution for those issues. (20)

There are four major approaches to educational planning.

1. Social Demand Approach:

This approach was used in the Robbins Committee Report on Higher Education in Britain. In India too,
this approach is a popular one while opening new schools and colleges in particular.

In this method are involved the following steps:

(a)To estimate the proportion of students completing school education and are likely to enter into
higher education.

(b)To estimate how many of these successful school leaving students would actually apply for
admission to colleges.

(c)To determine how many of the applicants should be given admission to higher education.

(d)To determine the length and duration of the study.

Thus, the major issue involved in this approach is to forecast future demands for seats keeping in mind
social and educational trends as well as demographic changes. The underlying assumption in this
approach is that expansion of education is beneficial to the economy and thus, additional expenditure
on education would not create a burden too heavy to bear.

This approach is more prevalent in those societies which favour traditional cultural values, where
decisions are taken on the basis of public opinions (in a fragile polity and sometimes in a democracy)
and in societies where the social environment is generally pessimistic in nature.

The approach is based on currently expressed preferences and does not take into account public
expenditure on education vis-a-vis the benefits as the demand for education may far exceed the
resources available in a vast country like India. Also, it sometimes leads to a mismatch between the
output of higher education and the demands of the economy.

Social Justice Approach:

This approach emphasizes justice to the disadvantaged sections of society and is based on Article 45 of
the Indian Constitution. This approach is aimed at making special provisions for the socially,
economically and educationally disadvantaged communities for a longer duration. This includes opening
Ashram schools for tribal areas, special concessions and scholarships, incentives and relaxation.

Rate of Returns Approach:

According to this approach, investment in education should take place in such a way that the returns
from the investment are equal to the returns from other kinds of investment of capital, e.g.,
investment in industry. This principle is known as ‘equi-marginal returns’ in economic theory and could
be extended to educational sector.

This approach treats education as an investment in human capital and uses rate of returns as a
criterion in allocation of financial resources. The approach implies that if the rate of return is low,
expenditure on education should be curtailed.

However, in reality, it is difficult to apply this approach to education due to problems associated with
measuring rate of returns in education.

An educated person’s earnings or rate of returns depend upon his/her innate intelligence, parental
socio-economic status, motivation and aspirations. Hence, it is not easy to attribute the rate of returns
only to education acquired. Hence, this approach is least frequently applied to education.

Manpower Planning Approach:

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In this method, the general demand for and the capacity of supply of human resources in different
streams of and at different levels of the educational sector are estimated.

The approach asserts that the system of education produces the right quality of human resources with
desirable knowledge, attitudes and skills in the right numbers and thus, education is directly linked
with economic development.

The application of the manpower planning approach depends on these factors:

(a) An appraisal and analysis of the existing employment conditions and the system of education,

(b) Planning the system of education vis-a-vis the manpower needs of the economy, and

(c) Using the financial resources (which are limited) in an optimum way so as to fulfill the demands of
the employment sector without incurring wastage on account of unemployment.

The manpower planning approach takes note of the fact that the teaching profession requires
approximately 60% of the highly qualified human resources of a country which competes with the
demand for manpower in other economic sectors.

Process of educational planning in Pakistan

Pakistan is a country of 160 million populations where right to education like other countries of
the world is a fundamental human right. Education is seen as a tool for human development.
The country Pakistan is comprised of four provinces Punjab, Sindh, Blochistan and NWFP. Urdu
is national language but English is mostly used as an official language and in the same way for
official correspondence.

(Country Report of Pakistan Regarding 2013) Literacy rate is 55 % (Govt. of Pakistan, 2008).
English language literacy is around 30%. Per capita income is around US$ 1085. The GDP
growth rates were 8.3% and around 6.5 % 7 % respectively for the years 2004-05, 2005-06
and 2006-2007.

(Country Report of Pakistan Regarding 2013) According to the Constitution of Pakistan 1973,
the Federal Government is entrusted with the responsibility for policy, planning, and promotion
of educational facilities in the federating units. This responsibility is in addition to the overall
policymaking, coordinating and advisory authority; otherwise education is the provincial
subject. Pakistan follows three tier education system which includes Elementary Education (8
years), Secondary Education (4 years) and Higher Education. Overall enrollment in educational
institutions is 34.84 million with teaching staff of 1.307 million. Out of total institutions, there
are 50% primary schools, 16% middle, 10% high, 4.95% Deeni Madaris and 1.2% vocational
Institutions.

Factors contributing

(Country Report of Pakistan Regarding 2013) Factors contributing to the low levels of literacy
(and education) include poverty, lack of educational facilities, especially teaching staff; and
parental values affected by invisibility of benefits to education. Drop out rates have soared in
the recent years also due to high incidence of child labour and high opportunity costs of
attending school.

The HEC is governed and chaired by the appointed chairman who is assisted by the secretaries
of education, science and technology, telecommunications, and information technology
(Country Report of Pakistan Regarding 2013). The Chairman and secretaries are assisted by the
additional members who are appointed from the four provinces as well as university vice-
chancellors. Other members are included from state and private-sector and executive director
of the HEC. The Chairman of HEC is appointed by the Prime Minister of Pakistan for four
tenured term based upon the requests and recommendations send by the Ministry of Education
(MoEd). According to HEC Ordinance altered in Constitution, the Prime Minister is the
controlling authority of the HEC and the shortlisted names are to be forwarded to Him for the
final say.
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The Prime Minister reserves the right to re-appoint or give extension to the designated
chairman. Though the executive director is the administrative head of the HEC, almost every
decision in the commission is taken with the consent of the chairman.

Existing education delivery system

(Country Report of Pakistan Regarding 2013) The existing education delivery system is not
meeting the needs and aspirations of the society as such particularly, it is a challenge to the
provinces and districts for the 21st century. Moreover, prior to devolution, the policy and
planning have been undertaken by the central and provincial governments without taking into
account the ground realities and without the participation of community. The main objectives of
the devolution plan is to empower the community at the grassroots level in planning,
management, resource mobilization and utilization, implementation, monitoring and evaluation
of the education system to improve the service delivery at that level. The main inherent issues
of education systems are: teachers absenteeism, high drop out rates particularly at primary
level, high repetition rates, low completion rates, inequalities by gender, location and social
groups, low literacy rate and unsatisfactory performance of schools, these issues have been
addressed under DOP through empowerment of local communities.

Primary Schooling: This stage consists of five classes I-V and enrolls children of age 5-9
years. Since independence, the policy makers pronounced to make primary education free and
compulsory (Malik, A. B. 2011). According to Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS)
1998-99, the gross participation rate was 71 percent in 1999, for male it was 80 percent and
for female it was 61 percent. For urban female it was 92 and for rural it was 50 percent. The
lowest participation rate observed for rural female in Sindh Province that was 33 percent. The
net enrolment rate was 42 percent, for urban male it was 47 percent and 37 percent for rural
female.

Middle Schooling: The middle schooling is of three years duration and comprised of class VI,
VII and VIII. The age group is 10-12 years. The participation rate at middle school was about
34 percent during 2000-2001. Males were 36 percent and females were 33 percent.

High Schooling: The high school children stay for two years in classes IX and X. The Board of
Intermediate and Secondary Education conducts the examination. A certificate of secondary
school is awarded to the successful candidates. The participation rate at high school was about
22 percent in 2000-2001 of which, 24 percent were males and 20 percent were females.
Vocational Education is normally offered in high schooling. There are varieties of trades offered
to the students and after completion of the course they get jobs as carpenters, masons,
mechanics, welders, electrician, refrigeration and similar other trades. There are 498 vocational
institutions with an enrolment of about 88 thousand in 2001-2002 (Malik, A. B. 2011).

Higher Secondary Education: The higher secondary stage is also called the “intermediate
stage” and is considered a part of college education. Higher Secondary Education consists of
classes XI to XII. During two years stay in this cycle of education, a student at the age of 16
years in this stage can opt for general education, professional education or technical education.
The Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) conducts the examination and
awards a Certificate of Higher Secondary School Education (HSSC). According to 1979
Education Policy, all schools were to be upgraded to higher Secondary Schools. Middle sections
of high schools were to be linked with primary schools (designating elementary education).
(Malik, A. B. 2011) This system has limited success and some problems were experienced.
Keeping in view the problems this system is being introduced gradually.

Higher Education: To obtain a degree, 4 years of higher education after 10 years of primary
and secondary schooling is required. Students who pass their first-degree stage are awarded a
Bachelor’s degree in arts or science, typically at the age of 19 years. In order to complete an
honors course at Bachelor’s degree level an additional one year’s study is required. Further, a
two years course is required for Master’s degree who has completed two years Bachelors’
degree. A doctoral degree requires normally 3 years of study after the completion of a master’s
degree course.

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(Malik, A. B. 2011) It has been observed that most of the private schools select their own
curricula and textbooks, which are not in conformity with public schools. Majority of the schools
are “English Medium” which attracts the parents for sending their children to these schools.
Most of the schools are overcrowded and do not have adequate physical facilities. These schools
are usually charging high fees from the students. Most of the schools are unregistered;
therefore, in most cases the certificates issued by these institutions are not recognized by
public schools. Majority of these institutions are functioning in the rented buildings.

The National Education Policy 1998-2010

The National Education Policy 1998-2010 proposed that there shall be regulatory bodies at the
national and provincial levels to regulate activities and smooth functioning of privately managed
schools and institutions of higher education through proper rules and regulations. A Reasonable
tax rebate shall be granted on the expenditure incurred on the setting up of educational
facilities by the private sector (Shami, P. A., & Hussain, K. S. 2005). Grants-in-Aid for specific
purposes shall be provided to private institutions. Setting up of private technical institutions
shall be encouraged. Matching grants shall be provided for establishing educational institutions
by the private sector in the rural areas or poor urban areas through Education Foundation. In
rural areas, schools shall be established through public-private partnership schemes. The
government shall not only provide free land to build the school but also bear a reasonable
proportion of the cost of construction and management. Liberal loan facilities shall be extended
to private educational institutions by financial institutions.

Suggestions

 Private education is surely here to stay, and it should be allowed to flourish and
expand. However, private education should not be seen as a solution for the education sector
problems that Pakistan is facing now.

 Moreover, the fact that private education is better than the current public sector
education should not be taken as a reason for abandoning public sector.

 Rather, it should be seen as a challenge for the public sector. Federal and
provincial, both governments have to get the public sector in order.

 If we are to address the problems of the education system in Pakistan, there

seems to be a need of advocacy for creating a movement to demand quality from the public
sector education system.

 Other obstacles identified by various studies include the non-availability of

teachers, non-availability of schools, especially for girls in the vicinity, insecurity (to and from
schools, as well as within schools),

 lack of female teachers in rural areas, lack of gender-sensitive and clean learning
environment, lack of secondary level education in the communities, and early marriages
(Shami, P. A., & Hussain, K. S. 2005).

Q.5 Highlights qualities of effective supervisor and its importance for supervisor at
secondary level? (20)

It's been said many times that employees don't leave their companies; they leave their bosses. That's
a generalization, and there are exceptions. Facebook recently conducted a study of its employees and
found that those who left did so because they were unhappy with the work they were given. However,
that could boil down to a problem with their supervisors. Good supervisors know what's going on with
their employees, whether they're happy or unhappy, and why. Good supervisors know the secret is
two-way communication in many different forms.
Showing the Way
Psychologists say children learn by what they see their elders do much more than by what they hear
them say. As adults, we learn to listen and hear direction, but if employees then see their bosses

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acting differently, they may think the behavior must be OK because the boss does it. Supervisors need
to be role models who follow their own advice.
Example: Your supervisor says organization is the key to working efficiently. However, her desk looks
like a tornado just blew through the office. That tells her employees that being organized isn't that
important after all.
Putting on a Happy Face
As the supervisor, you set the tone for your employees. If you want them to have a positive attitude,
you need to have one first. It's OK to be human and let them know you had a tough time getting to
work today, but if you're grumpy about it all day, they're going to pick up your attitude. People don't
do their best work when they're in a bad mood. Show them that although a tough thing happened,
you're putting it behind you.
Example: The department manager storms down the hall, waving a copy of the latest production
numbers. After he storms out, you take a deep breath, stand up tall, smile, and say with a slight
chuckle, "That didn't go so well," diffusing the tension. A good sense of humor is a great supervisory
trait. Then you continue, "Now, let's talk about our plan to boost those numbers."
Teaching So Everyone Learns
A good supervisor has a lot of knowledge to share, but good teachers know that not everyone learns
the same way. When you're teaching your group a new skill, you need to make sure everyone gets it.
If they don't, you have to find another way to get through to them with patience and a smile. Your
employees need to know they can be honest with you when they don't understand and that they're not
going to be laughed at or ridiculed.
Example: You're giving a presentation, and you put up a bar graph that you think makes the idea
clear. Most people nod their heads, but a few look puzzled. You point to each section of the graph and
explain again, but it's not helping. So, you go to the whiteboard and demonstrate the concept in
another way. Now everyone understands, and you go back to the presentation.
Coaching and Cheerleading
A coach is different from a teacher. Even when everyone understands what to do, they need coaching
to remain motivated, to push through the hard parts, and to overcome the disappointments. A good
supervisor provides encouragement. When a supervisor needs to give criticism, the employees should
be made to understand it's a critique of a particular piece of work, not a critique of all their work or of
them personally. It's equally important to celebrate the wins and let them know you're always rooting
for their success.
Example: You put out a short, informal newsletter to your group weekly. It includes an encouraging
"Coach's Corner" with a new, positive tip. In it, you cheer on one or two employees who did something
great this week, and you rotate the praise, so everyone is mentioned eventually. If the week was bad
and everyone knows it, you can acknowledge that, but finding the positives will keep morale up.
Encouraging and Exchanging Feedback
A good supervisor is a positive communicator who encourages the group to communicate regularly.
She confers with each of them daily, even for just a few minutes, to see how things are going. She
sincerely wants to know if they need help. By doing this daily and helping when someone needs it, the
employees realize she's there to help them, not just oversee them.
Planning

Planning helps an organization chart a course for the achievement of its goals. The process begins with
reviewing the current operations of the organization and identifying what needs to be improved
operationally in the upcoming year. From there, planning involves envisioning the results the
organization wants to achieve, and determining the steps necessary to arrive at the intended
destination – success, whether that is measured in financial terms, or goals that include being the
highest-rated organization in customer satisfaction.

Efficient Use of Resources

All organizations, large and small, have limited resources. The planning process provides the
information top management needs to make effective decisions about how to allocate the resources in

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a way that will enable the organization to reach its objectives. Productivity is maximized and resources
are not wasted on projects with little chance of success.

Establishing Organizational Goals

Setting goals that challenge everyone in the organization to strive for better performance is one of the
key aspects of the planning process. Goals must be aggressive, but realistic. Organizations cannot
allow themselves to become too satisfied with how they are currently doing – or they are likely to lose
ground to competitors.

The goal setting process can be a wake-up call for managers that have become complacent. The other
benefit of goal setting comes when forecast results are compared to actual results. Organizations
analyze significant variances from forecast and take action to remedy situations where revenues were
lower than plan or expenses higher.

Managing Risk And Uncertainty

Managing risk is essential to an organization’s success. Even the largest corporations cannot control
the economic and competitive environment around them. Unforeseen events occur that must be dealt
with quickly, before negative financial consequences from these events become severe.

Planning encourages the development of “what-if” scenarios, where managers attempt to envision
possible risk factors and develop contingency plans to deal with them. The pace of change in business
is rapid, and organizations must be able to rapidly adjust their strategies to these changing conditions.

Team Building and Cooperation

Planning promotes team building and a spirit of cooperation. When the plan is completed and
communicated to members of the organization, everyone knows what their responsibilities are, and
how other areas of the organization need their assistance and expertise in order to complete assigned
tasks. They see how their work contributes to the success of the organization as a whole and can take
pride in their contributions.

Potential conflict can be reduced when top management solicits department or division managers’ input
during the goal setting process. Individuals are less likely to resent budgetary targets when they had a
say in their creation.

Creating Competitive Advantages

Planning helps organizations get a realistic view of their current strengths and weaknesses relative to
major competitors. The management team sees areas where competitors may be vulnerable and then
crafts marketing strategies to take advantage of these weaknesses. Observing competitors’ actions can
also help organizations identify opportunities they may have overlooked, such as emerging
international markets or opportunities to market products to completely different customer groups.

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