CAMBRIDGE IGCSE HISTORY TEACHING NOTES

PEACE TREATIES
KEY QUESTION: WERE THE PEACE TREATIES OF 1919-23 FAIR?

SPECIFIED CONTENT

 The roles of individuals such as Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George.

 The terms of the treaties.
 The impact of the treaties on the defeated countries.
 Contemporary opinions about the treaties.

MOTIVES OF THE BIG THREE

 The Big Three ere the great powers that had won the war, U.S.A, Britain and France.
They were represented at the Conference by President Woodrow Wilson, Prime
Ministers Lloyd George and George Clemenceau. Italy and Japan were the other
members and they met daily at the Conference to make all the important decisions.
 The Big Three had very different ideas about the settlement. Wilson was the
unworldly idealist whose plans were undermined by the unscrupulous Europeans.
Clemenceau was cunning and cynical, determined that France should have its
revenge on Germany. Lloyd George acted as a balance between the other two, doing
his best to make the treaty less harsh on Germany.
 The Big Three came to realise that compromises were necessary. Wilson gave way to
Italy and Japan’s territorial demands that violated his principle of self- determination
because they would have refused to sign the treaties. Lloyd George fought hard to
keep German border areas to be given plebiscites but he was also capable of
insisting on increases in reparations payment to suit British interests. When
Clemenceau insisted on the German frontier being pushed back to the Rhine, Wilson
threatened to quit the Conference and return home. The French had to be satisfied
with the demilitarisation of the Rhineland. According to Kelly and Lacey, “ Like all
compromises, the final treaties satisfied nobody.”

MOTIVES OF U.S.A-WILSON AND A JUST PEACE

 Wilson was a man of strong principles who found it hard to accept other people’s
views. At first, he kept the U.S.A out of the war until 1917. Once the war was won,
he wanted a fair settlement that would guarantee future world peace. In January
1918, he outlined the famous ‘ 14 Points’ the peace proposals that he believed
should guide peacemaking when the war ended. These were as follows:

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  Abolition of secret treaties and diplomacy.
 Free navigation at sea.
 Removal of economic barriers.
 Disarmament.
 Self-determination of former European colonies.
 Evacuation of German forces from Russian territory.
 Restoration of Belgium.
 Return of Alsace and Lorraine to France.
 Independence of the Austro-Hungarian empire.
 Readjustment of Italian boundaries along nationality lines.
 Balkan states to be free, namely Romania, Serbia and Montenegro.
 Independence to the people under the Ottoman empire.
 Poland to be independent.
 Formation of a general association [League of Nations] to preserve peace.
 The 14 points aimed at self –determination which meant that each nation had the
right to decide for itself how it should be governed. This explains why many points
were rejected because Britain and France were imperialists who aimed at controlling
weaker nations. Clemenceau even ridiculed the 14 points by asking why Wilson
wanted as many as 14 points when God had made only 10 commandments! Both
France and Britain were annoyed by the fact that the 14 points were silent about
reparations which they wanted Germany to pay for starting the war.
 At Paris, Wilson tried to have every decision debated by all 32 nations. This was too
slow and most were interested only in their own problems. Wider issues had to be
decided by the great powers. Wilson was increasingly forced to compromise on his
14 Points and had to place his hopes in the new League of Nations. Wilson’s
authority was weakened by lack of support for his ideas in the U.S.A. Many
Americans were determined never to dragged into Europe’s troubles again. In March
1920, the US Senate finally failed to give the majority needed for the peace treaties
to be ratified.
 Overall, Wilson wanted a just peace, self- determination of nations and democracy.

MOTIVES OF BRITAIN-LLOYD GEORGE AND A COMPROMISE PEACE

 Lloyd George became leader of Britain’s coalition government in 1916. In Dec 1918,
his government won a massive election victory by promising to ‘ squeeze the
German lemon till the pips squeak.’ The British public blamed the Germans for the
war and wanted to make them pay. Some even suggested that the Kaiser should be
hanged. George knew early that a harsh peace would store up trouble but he was
constrained by British public opinion and election promises.
 According to McAleavy, “ Lloyd George was not personally anxious to punish the
Germans severely as he was afraid that if Germany was too weak this would give
France too much power in Europe.

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 The chief concern of Lloyd George was to make sure that the British empire did not
suffer as a result of the settlement. He was determined to preserve Britain’s
interests as the greatest naval power. He disliked Wilson’s idea of ‘ freedom of the
seas’ which was referred to the League of Nations for discussion. He also wanted the
German fleet sunk. He wanted former German colonies to be divided up between
the winning powers. Both Britain and France also wanted a share of the former
Turkish lands of the Middle East.
 By the completion of the treaty, however, British public opinion was shifting and
Lloyd George was prepared to make some amendments to the terms. As a trading
nation, Britain knew that German recovery was essential to the European economy
and that large reparations payments would make this impossible. Lloyd George was
also worried that a weak Germany would be unable to stop the spread of
communism.
 The British government was suspicious of France. Traditionally, France had been an
enemy of Britain. The British did not want a Europe dominated by France any more
than they wanted a German controlled Europe. According to Kelly and Lacey, “ The
British were not prepared to help France keep Germany weak.” Because of these
factors, Lloyd George managed to persuade Clemenceau to make a number of key
concessions:
 to abandon the idea of an independent Rhineland state.
 to abandon the idea of naming a definite and very high figure for reparations
in the treaty.
 to abandon the idea that the Saar basin on the border shared by Germany
and France be transferred to France.
 to abandon the idea that Danzig be handed over to Poland.

MOTIVES OF FRANCE - CLEMENCEAU AND A HARSH PEACE

 Clemenceau became French Prime Minister in 1917 when defeat in the war seemed
a real possibility. He rallied the country and led it to victory. As Chairman of the
peace Conference, he was personally willing to compromise in order to find a
settlement acceptable to all the victorious powers but he knew what his countrymen
expected. France had borne the brunt of the fighting on the Western front. The
Germans had systematically looted areas under their occupation and deliberately
destroyed mines, railways, factories and bridges during their retreat. According to
Kelly and Lacey, “ The French expected Germany to pay for this destruction and
wanted to ensure that Germany could never invade France again.”
 Ideally the French wanted to break up Germany into a number of small, weak states.
Failing this, Clemenceau called for Germany to lose the Rhineland, Saarland, Upper
Silesia, Danzig and East Prussia. These areas included much of Germany’s coal and
heavy industry.

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  The French leaders disagreed strongly with the USA over the question of
compensation or reparations. The USA had not suffered economically during the war
and had no demands for substantial reparations.
 Clemenceau found it hard to achieve his aims because neither Britain nor the USA
shared France’s enthusiasm for punishing Germany. Clemenceau’s demand for the
German frontier to be pushed back to the Rhine was bluntly rejected. France was not
given the Saar although it did receive its coal production for fifteen years. The
reparations issue was referred to a commission which did not report until 1921.
 When the terms of the Treaty of Versailles became known, it was condemned
throughout France. Within a few months, Clemenceau’s government was
overthrown and his political career ended.

TREATY OF VERSAILLES
TERRITORIAL TERMS

Germany lost areas [territories] in Europe, Africa and Asia.

AREAS LOST IN EUROPE

 Alsace-Lorraine returned to France.

 The Saar coalfields were given to France for 15 years as compensation.
 The Saar basin was to be administered by the League of Nations also for 15 years.
 North Schleswig was given to Denmark whilst South Schleswig remained with
Germany.
 Belgium was given Eupen-Malmedy.
 Lithuania was given Memel.
 Poland received East Germany and the Silesian coalfields.
 Danzig became a free city under the control of the League of Nations.
 The Kiel canal was opening to shipping of all nations.
 The Union between Germany and Austria. ( Anschluss ) was forbidden.
 Germany renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which enabled Eastern European
countries such as Finland, Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia to be independent.

AREAS LOST IN ASIA/ PACIFIC/ CARRIBEAN

 Lebanon, Syria went to France.

 Palestine and Iraq went to Britain.
 Caroline islands, Marianas and Marshalls went Japan.
 German New Guinea, Nauru and Solomon islands went to Australia/ New Zealand.
 Samoa went to New Zealand.

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 AREAS LOST TO AFRICA

 Namibia went to the Union of South Africa.

 Cameroon and Togo went to France.
 Tanganyika went to Britain.
 Burundi and Rwanda went to Belgium.

NON TERRITORIAL TERMS

Germany armed forces were limited.

GERMANY ARMY

 The German army was reduced to 100 000 and conscription was not allowed. The
German General Staff was dissolved. The Rhineland was to be occupied by the Allied
army for 15 years. War plans were forbidden. The airforce was to be handed over to
the Allies. Tanks and heavy artillery were forbidden.

GERMANY NAVY

 The Germany navy was reduced only to 6 battleships, 6 light cruisers, 12 torpedoes
and 12 destroyers. Submarines were forbidden [U boats] The naval base of
Heligoland in the North sea was to be demolished. The rest of the navy was to be
handed over to the Allies. Instead of doing this, Germany sank all their ships in the
Scapa Flow.

REPARATIONS

 Germany was blamed for causing World War 1 ( War Guilt clause ) hence she was to
pay for the total cost of the war. A Committee of Allied businessmen came up with
an enormous sum of 6, 6 million pounds. Germany started paying in August 1921 but
she failed to afford the huge sum. This prompted France and Belgium to occupy the
Ruhr in 1923.
 U.S.A came up with economic recovery plans to assist Germany in paying the
reparations. In 1924, U.S.A gave Germany 40 million pounds under the Dawes plan
as a loan to help Germany invest in her industries so that she could be economically
stable to repay her reparations. In 1928, U.S.A gave Germany 60 million pounds
under the Young plan to further invest and the reparations payments were relaxed
and fixed in instalments to be paid until 1988.

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 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS-WEIMAR CONSTITUTION

 The German monarchy was abolished and Kaiser William 11 abdicated. Germany
became a republic. ( Weimar Republic ) A new liberal Constitution, the Weimar
Constitution was established whereby Germany was to be headed by a President
who was to be nationally elected namely Fredrich Ebert (1919-1923) and Paul Von
Hindenburg (1923-1934).
 The head of government was to be a Chancellor, chosen from a party with a majority
in the Reichstag namely Gustav Stresemann (1924-28), Bruning (1929-30), Von
Papen (1930-32), Von Schleicher (1932) and Adolf Hitler (1932-34).
 In addition, there was to be two houses of Parliament, an Upper house (Reichsrat)
and the lower house (Reichstag).
 Furthermore, the government was to have a Cabinet and a standing army.

IMPACT OF THE VERSAILLES TREATY ON GERMANY UP TO 1923.

POLITICAL IMPACT

 The treaty of Versailles was signed under duress on 28 June 1919. The treaty became
a symbol of German’s dishonour and humiliation hence the new Weimar
government associated with it became highly unpopular. According to Cantrell and
Smith, “ The authority of the new republic was seriously undermined.”
 Right wing politicians and activists expressed their disapproval by supporting
attempts to overthrow the government, such as the Munich putsch of November
1923.
 Right wing extremists carried out a number of assassinations of high ranking
government ministers, such as Walter Rathenau (foreign Minister) and Matthias
Erzberger (finance Minister).
 Left wing extremist groups exploited the unpopularity of the Weimar government by
promoting rebellions, such as that in the Ruhr of March 1920.
 Many members of the army, furious with the government for agreeing to the
disarmament clauses of the treaty, joined the Freikorps, an unofficial, anti
communist vigilante group. When the government tried to disband this group in
March 1923, Freikorp units under the command of Wolfgang Kapp staged a coup in
Berlin.
 Overall, the signing of the treaty of Versailles, therefore meant that the new
democratic Weimar Republic was operating under a major disadvantage from the
very beginning of its existence and was deprived of much needed support during its
early years.

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 ECONOMIC IMPACT

 The treaty of Versailles undoubtedly caused major economic problems for Germany
and the Weimar Republic. Germany lost valuable economic resources, yet had to
repay war debts together with reparations. The immediate post war period was
characterised by inflation, rising unemployment and the attendant problems of
poverty and homelessness. Crisis came in 1923 and was triggered by the reparations
issue.
 Germany paid its first instalment of reparations in 1921 but then claimed that it was
unable to make the 1922 payment. The French felt that Germany was simply trying
to escape from its treaty obligations and together with Belgium decided to take
direct action. In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr,
Germany’s most valuable industrial area. The German government ordered the
German population of the Ruhr to offer passive resistance. The French responded by
expelling more than 100 000 Germans from the region and killing over 130.
 The Ruhr invasion affected German economy significantly. To make up for the loss of
revenue, the German government began to print money. This exacerbated inflation
into hyperinflation. The German mark became worthless and middle class savings
lost their value. This prompted the intervention of U.S.A and the election of Gustav
Stresemann as the new Chancellor of Germany hence from 1924, German economy
was on a path of recovery.

FAIRNESS OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

 Germans had difficulty in coming to terms with defeat. Although the strict terms of
the treaty of Versailles aroused much criticism, the treaty makers had not acted
foolishly. It should be underscored that the Big Three met after the most terrible war
in history hence Germany had to be weakened to ensure future peace.
 In addition, some of the decisions the peacemakers made were extremely difficult.
The Austro-Hungarian empire was breaking up, large areas of Europe had been
devastated. Communism was spreading and Europe’s economy was in tatters hence
there was need to restore stability which the peacemakers did.
 The terms of the treaty were strict but they were not entirely unexpected. When the
armistice was signed in November 1918, the Germans knew they would have to pay
reparations, surrender territory and have their armed forces reduced. These were
the usual consequences of defeat in war. Ironically, German had imposed similar
tougher conditions on Russia in 1918 under the treaty of Brest-Litovsk!
 Further, the treaty removed only limited amounts of land from Germany. In places
like Alsace-Lorraine and the Polish corridor most people were not German speakers
and saw themselves as French or Polish.

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 Moreover, the basic strength of the German economy was not destroyed by the
treaty. Germany soon recovered its position as the most successful economy in
Europe by 1925.
 The Germany army was reduced in size but the leaders of the German army were
not removed. The Generals were ready and able to rebuild German armed forces
when the time was right. This explains why Adolf Hitler rearmed easily in 1933.
 Overall, historians Kelly and Lacey argue that those who have condemned the treaty
of Versailles have been over critical. Nowadays, most historians think that the
peacemakers did a reasonable job considering the problems they faced.

GERMAN REACTION TO THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

NON FAIRNESS OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

 According to Lowe, “ The Versailles settlement was one of the most controversial
settlements ever signed.” The settlement was criticised for being too hard on the
Germans. It made another war inevitable and many of its terms, such as reparations
and disarmament proved impossible to carry out.
 The Germans condemned the war guilt clause. Germans argue that it was wrong to
put sole blame for the war on Germany. Other countries had been culpable as well
namely Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Serbia and Austria-Hungary.
 The treaty was also unfair because it punished the people of Germany instead of the
rulers of Germany. Reparations hurt ordinary Germans who were not guilty.
 Germans also complained because the thought, as they had been promised that they
were going to be treated under the 14 points. These were ignored by the Allies who
imposed reparations and the war guilt which were not part of Wilson’s provisions.
 The treaty aimed at destroying the economy of Germany. According to Kelly and
Lacey, “ Germany lost all its colonies and in total, 13% of its land.” This severely
affected German economy which nearly crumbled in 1923.
 The Germans were angered by the fact that the treaty was a diktat. The Geramns
were not allowed into the discussions at Versailles, they were simply presented with
the terms and told to sign.
 The disarmament clauses were deeply resented by the Germans. The Germans
claimed that 100 000 troops were not enough to keep law and order at a time of
political unrest. This explains why political revolts became commonplace between
1919-23.
 Reparations were the final humiliation for the Germans. The Germans claimed that
in signing the treaty they were signing a blank cheque and no figure was actually
stated in the treaty. The Germans were thus appalled by the astronomical figure of
6,6 billion, according to Cantrell and Smith or 6,6 million, according to B. Walsh
which was announced by the Reparations Committee in 1921.

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  The reparations were therefore too high for Germany to afford hence they soon
defaulted when they tried to pay in 1921. The reparations triggered a hodgepodge of
economic challenges that culminated in hyperinflation in 1923. This set Germany on
the verge of collapse.
 Overall, most historians concur that the treaty of Versailles was too harsh and was
likely to lead to a future war. This explains why Britain and France later followed the
policy of appeasement in the 1930s.

OTHER TREATIES
TREATY OF ST GERMAIN, 1919 [AUSTRIA]

The treaty had both territorial and non territorial terms.

Territorial terms

 Bohemia and Moravia went to Czechoslovakia.

 Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina went to Serbia.
 Bukovina went to Romania.
 Galicia went to Poland.
 South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and Trieste went to Italy.
 Union between Austria and Germany was forbidden. (Anschluss)
 Union between Austria and Hungary was also forbidden.

Non territorial terms

 Austrian army was reduced to 30 000 men.

 Austria was to pay reparations.
 League of Nations covenant was enshrined in the treaty.

IMPACT OF THE TREATY

 Austrian population dropped from 30 million to only 6, 5 million.

 Key Austrian industrial areas went to Czechoslovakia and Poland.
 Vienna, the Austrian capital, was left high and dry, surrounded by farming land which
could hardly support it. According to Lowe, Austria was soon facing a severe
economic crisis and was constantly having to be helped out by loans from the League
of Nations.

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 TREATY OF NEUILLY, 1919 [BULGARIA]

The treaty had both territorial and non territorial terms.

Territorial terms

 Thrace went to Greece.

 A small area went to Yugoslavia and Romania.

Non territorial terms

 Bulgarian army was reduced to 20 000 men.

 Bulgaria was to pay reparations, 10 million pounds.
 The League’s covenant was to be enshrined in the treaty.

IMPACT OF THE TREATY

 At least a million Bulgars were placed under foreign governments.

 Bulgarians faced economic problems because of reparations.
 Loss of land was a blow to Bulgarian national pride.

TREATY OF TRIANON, 1920 [HUNGARY]

The treaty had both territorial and non territorial terms.

Territorial terms

 Slovakia and Ruthenia went to Czechoslovakia.

 Croatia and Slovenia went to Yugoslavia.
 Transylvania and the Banat of Temesvar went to Romania.

Non territorial terms

 Hungarian army was reduced.

 Hungary was to pay reparations but its economy was weak hence it never did.
 League’s covenant was to be enshrined in the treaty.

IMPACT OF THE TREATY

 Hungary was dismayed by these terms as more than 70 per cent of its territory was
lost.
 Hungarians also lampooned the fact that a third of its population had been lost,
reduced from 20 million to 8 million.
 The treaty also deprived Hungary of its seaports hence it was now a landlocked
nation.
 Further, the new states quickly introduced tariffs which hampered the flow of trade
through the Danube area thereby affecting Hungary negatively.

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 TREATY OF SEVRES, 1920 [TURKEY]

The treaty had both territorial and non territorial terms.

Territorial terms

 Eastern Thrace, Aegean islands and Smyrna went to Greece.

 Adalia and Rhodes went to Italy.
 The Straits were to be permanently open.
 Syria became a French mandate.
 Palestine, Iraq and Transjordan became British mandates.
 Dobruja and Bessarabia went to Romania.

Non territorial terms

 Turkish army was reduced.

 Turkey was to pay reparations.
 League’s covenant was to be enshrined in the treaty.

IMPACT OF THE TREATY

 The treaty violated Turkish national pride. (self determination)

 The Turks under Mustafa Kemal rejected the treaty and chased the Greeks out of
Smyrna.
 The French and Italians withdrew their occupying forces from the Straits area,
leaving only British troops at Chanak.
 Eventually, a compromise was reached by the treaty of Lausanne.

TREATY OF LAUSANNE, 1923. [TURKEY]

Terms

 Turkey recovered Smyrna and Eastern Thrace from Greece.

 All foreign troops left Turkey.
 Turkey regained control over the Straits.
 Turkey was not to pay reparations.
 No limit was placed over Turkish armed forces.

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 CONTEMPORARY VIEWS ON THE PEACE TREATIES

 It can be said that the collection of the peace treaties was not a conspicuous success.
The treaties had the unfortunate effect of dividing Europe into the states which
wanted to revise the settlement and those which wanted to preserve it.
 The U.S.A failed to ratify the settlement and never joined the League of Nations. This
in turn left France completely disenchanted with the whole thing because the Anglo-
American guarantee of her frontiers given in the agreement could not now apply.
 Italy felt cheated because she had not received all the territory promised her in
1915. Russia was ignored because the powers did not want to negotiate with its
Bolshevik government. Germany on the other hand was only temporarily weakened
and was soon strong enough to challenge certain of the terms. G. White argues that,
“ It is not surprising that they made a bad peace, what is surprising is that they
managed to make peace at all.”

PREPARED FOR IGCSE 0470 CANDIDATES BY CHAIRMAN MAO 2020

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