Chronology of Peace Psychology

Word “peace” is derived from the old French “pias” and the Latin word “pax” (pac).

Peace is often defined in terms of what it is not: “Peace is the absence of war and violence.”

However, psychologists defined it in terms of what it is: “the presence of qualities, values and

approaches in human relationships that build greater harmony” (Handwerker, n.d.). Peacekeeping,

peacemaking, and peacebuilding are in practice since day one, but there was no solid establishment

to endorse this concept and practice. Thus, it remained either in shadows or little to nothing.

Ancient Period of Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding

In ancient ages, several prophets advised that war causes the existence of unhealthy social norms:

the exploitation of poor, greed, lying, and worship of multiple gods. They encouraged people to

establish peace and its practice by adopting behaviors that are not only universal but has justice.

Additionally, to care for the weak and devotion to one holy being.

Lao Tse – ca. 604 to 531 BC, the Chinese philosopher, and writer, in his book Tao Te

Ching he explained the ways of integrity, to live with goodness in the world, and follow the patterns

of the universe to achieve balance and compassion in one’s life.

Pythagoras – ca. 570 to 490 BC, a Greek philosopher and mathematician who was a great advocate

of peacemaking. For personal development and good social conduct, he continuously took peace,

harmony, and friendship as the premier principles. Pythagoras talked about the equality of all beings

and human development to self-control, reason, and transcendence. He was against the killings of

other beings: animals, to satisfy human needs.

Siddhattha Gotama Buddha – c. 563 to c. 483 BC, in “the Four Noble Truth” he explained that

people suffer because of greed and temporary wishes. He taught people to end suffering by

eliminating their ignorance and greed. He proposed several guidelines for the wellbeing of oneself,

including practicing compassion, nonviolent behaviors, and spirituality.

Confucius – ca. 551 to 471 BC, the Chinese philosopher and politician taught people that war is the

cause of disharmony, and to prevent it there should be a hierarchical social order.

arrogance of men and their lust for a higher power.

Jan Amos Comenius – 1592 to 1670, Czech philosopher proposed peace can be acquired by

education. In purpose, he published a series of books in 1628, on understanding the difference

between religions, languages, and ways of life. He argues that to build peace education must be

shared to all, internationally and universally.

Jeremy Bentham – 1748 to 1832, was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer who tried

to establish civil law and social order, regarding psychological principles. He coined the term

“utilitarianism” which explains: the basic of people is to seek pleasure, thus they avoid pain, and

one can gain the greatest amount of pleasure by practicing moral behavior (Murray, 1988). In his

publication “Plan for a Universal and Perpetual Peace”, he proposed several ideas, much similar to

current issues: equality must be practiced beyond social, political, and economical groups. War

outweighed the cost of human power and the economic condition of the countries involved; trade

should be used for the utility of mutual sides. International law and the world court must be

established. Military often leads to war more than preventing it, there should be limitations in

practices military and naval forces. Claims to foreign land and domination of foreign lands increases

the opportunity for disputes, and thus often lead to war, and that secrecy in international relations is

a major cause of war (Bentham, 1989/1939).

Jonathan Dymond – 1796 to 1828, an English Quaker and an ethical philosopher, reasoned and

illustrated many topics, including the cause and effect of war, the impact of arms races, the pressure

of destructive obedience to authority, and the dynamics of noncooperation, etc. (MacNair, 2016).

Mark Twain – 1835 to 1910, an American writer wrote the story “The War Prayer”, the

phenomena also known as War Hysteria. Non-literally, meaning: the enthusiasm of war, ignorance of

effects, over oversimplification of reason, and issues involved in a dispute. In another parody “The

Battle Hymn of the Republic” he explained that greed is the drive behind a feud (Anderson, 1972).
Franz Brentano – 1838 to 1917, was a German philosopher, psychologist, and priest. He was an

active body who advocated peace and included it as one of the objectives of psychology. He was

against the practices of contemporary psychology in physiological and psychophysical, on the

contrary, he preferred psychology that focused on human consciousness, and that addressed social

issues (Rudmin, 1991).

Modern Period of Peace Psychology

During modern era researches and practices on prevention of direct violence, structural

violence, and promotion of peacekeeping, peacemaking, peacebuilding took place as the main

concern was the prevention of war. Thus, peace psychology began to take a structural form as one of

the sub-fields of psychology.

William James – 1842 to 1910, was an American philosopher and psychologist, who also

considered the first peace psychologist. In 1910 James wrote an essay “The Moral Equivalent of

War”, in which he argued the readiness of people to unite under a flag, a phenomenon:

“nationalism”, and classified six aspects: (a) satisfaction from belonging to a greater group, (b) war

gives meaning and sense of purpose, (c) it let to vent self-doubt or selfhatred, (d) external threat

increases group cohesion, (e) good qualities like discipline, bravery, and self-sacrifice are included,

and (f) as war hysteria appears, uncertainty dies out.

Thus, to prevent war James argued that human beings must find ways that are altered to the war but

“morally equivalent” (MacNair, 2016).

World War I (1914 – 1918) and Psychologists Role

Psychologists during war collaborated with the military and developed group intelligence
tests for the purpose of selection and categorization of new recruitment. However, this was
a major advancement in the field of psychology (Smith, 1986).

Ivan Pavlov – 1849 to 1936, was a moderate liberal Russian psychologist with high integrity.

Throughout his life, he never opposes war publicly until inspired by Einstein. His antiwar statement

came late in his career. In 1930, along with Einstein and others, Pavlov was a prominent promoter of
peace petition, which argued, “the present armament of policies does not furnish any safety to the

people of the world and, in fact, lead all nations to economics disaster. That this policy makes a new

war inevitable. That the declarations of peace in behalf of governments remain futile as long as these

government keep on delaying disarmament, which should be the logical sequel to renouncing war”

(Nathan & Norden,

1968).

Sigmund Freud – 1856 to 1939, was an Austrian neurologist and the initiator of psychoanalysis. The

natural treatment of Freud clinical practice leads him to subject matters like social issues, peace, and

war (Watson, 1978). His writing included, “Thoughts for the Times on War and Death” written during

World War I, “Civilization and Its Discontents”, and “Why War?” In his scripts, he has discussed

about psychological roots of antiwar attitudes, the death instinct, social structures that control the

death instinct and build shortlived peace. In 1932, on the request of Einstein, Freud coined the

educative methods to reduce psychological restrains to peace, (a) Eternal peace is achievable when

all power will be centralized, (b) regarding power social categorization should be limited, (c)

motivation and reasons behind war are much complex, (d) human aggression is natural, there must

an outlet for it other than war, (e) contrary to death instinct is the life instinct, the solution of war,

and (f) Plato’s utopian and objective scientist rulers are required (Nathan & Norden,

1968).

James Mckeen Cattle – 1860 to 1944, was an American Psychologist and first psychology professor.

He was an antiwar activist, and was against militarism, and its obligation. He was later dismissed

from his position in university due to his activities but his loss paved the way for the freedom of

expression for faculty (Rudmin, 1991).

During Cold War, many psychologists broke from supporting U.S. government. Thus, a
peer-reviewed Journal of Social Issue (JSI) published, which discussed psychological and
logical critique of U.S. foreign policy, nuclear deterrence (Russell, 1961).
Mary Whiton Calkins – 1863 to 1930, was an American philosopher and psychologist. In 1917,

during World War I, she wrote an essay “Militant Pacifism”, foreseeing that human has an instinct to

be aggressive, but that does not defend hopelessness of war. Instinct like fear, social protectiveness

made pugnacity (instinct of aggressiveness) especially strong. Martial virtues of courage, devotion,

selflessness, though unappreciated but should not be out thrown. As a resolution, pugnacity should

be redirected to ignorance, injustice, and nature-evils (Calkins, 1917).

Alfred Adler – 1870 to 1937, was an Austrian doctor, psychotherapist, and the funder of individual

psychology. He was a social activist, to him mental health implies “socially affirmative action” (Adler,

1929), he opposed violence of all kind while promoting social interest within individual and group

and argued that social responsibility is crucial. He proposed several ideas regarding war, and wrote

an article for a volume named “Violence and Non-Violence: A Handbook of Active Pacifism”, stating

that war is the greatest social crime against the unity of humanity.

William McDougall – 1871 to 1938, was a social psychologist. He was a peace activist and after

World War I, he devoted his time to peace approaches and advancement. In

1927, he wrote a book named “Janus: The Conquest of War” in which he outlined the

sources of war, its outcome. How some military fundamental topics can cause war and various

aspects: industrial leadership, technology, strategy, and tactics are evolved. He explained that (a)

economic, social justice and wellbeing is required for peace to exist, (b) nations will never

demilitarize, (c) discussions on demilitarization is a mere exhibition, unless in-depth processes are

debated, and (d) advancement in science and technology will not provide security (McDougall, 1931).

World War II (1939 – 1945) and Psychologists Role

During the second war, psychologists were more immersed in supporting it. Personnel
Selection tests were made, assignments were designed, Treatment of PTSD was developed,
to endorse war propaganda was designed, and training of animals to guide weapons to
target (B.F. Skinner pigeons’ experiment) were included (Herman, 1955).

Cold War (1947 – 1991) and Psychologists Role

Psychologists and public continued to support the U.S. government policies while tension
grew more and more between U.S and Soviet Union. During 1950s, psychologists worked to
 make to commoners and military similar, through changing public opinion, inclusion of
people to nuclear testing and minimizing soldier fear (Rand, 1960). From mid-1960s until
late 1970s, U.S. psychologists shifted their interest from Cold War to topics like student’s
activism, population growth, changes in sex-roles, and race relations. Nevertheless, the
debate on Cold War still remained close. The grand-scale Cold War conflict got a big deal of
research and practice of methods to resolve conflict. Fisher and Ury (1981), published a book
named Getting a Yes, which not only became a bestseller but also a valuable guide for
conflict resolution. In the late 1980s the Cold War ended with the fall of Soviet Union Under
its own economic problems (Kennedy, 1986).

Edward Tolman – 1886 to 1959, was an American psychologist and a professor. He was a social

activist and paid heed to molar behavior and purposiveness under cognitive behaviorism. He

hardheadedly opposed the war, during World War I, he was fired from a job as he stood by an

antiwar journal, later during World War II, he linked to Office of Strategic Services (Tolman, 1952). He

made much effort for psychology to initiate peace, he proposed that, to some war is cruelty and

death, but it is also a way of selflessness and devotion. As per temperament, one chooses either to

reduce distress and boost dedication or vice versa.

However, still to Tolman war was extreme and horror, thus, he did his utmost to prevent it.

Tolman studied several psychological concepts, hence, stating that war has biological and social

drives, the hostility and frustration one has for the superior is dumped on the inferior.

The answer is in putting aside all the concepts of how one should be, and established

“Psychologically Adjusted Man” norm, requiring (a) advanced economic order, (2) developing an

education and social system which aid in understanding and tolerance towards parents and

authorities, (3) establishment of supranatural state as individuals can be more devoted to their

groups (Tolman, 1942).

Realpolitik

The practice of realpolitik (politics based on and practiced considering the present
circumstances, not taking account the beliefs, ethics, and morals) stood its ground
throughout 1950s. It was not until the end of 1950s and the beginning of 1960s that
psychology encompassed topics like Cold War and realpolitik, thus, the idea of promoting
peace arose along with it (Jacobs, 1989; Wanger, 1985). Several important papers were
published during that time, including, “The Journal of Conflict Resolution”, “Preventing
World War III: Some Proposals”, and “Behavioral Science and Human Survival.”
Gordon Allport – 1897 to 1967, was an American personality psychologist. He was a peace

advocate and developed a ten points statement which was encouraged by almost all members of

APA. The statement argued that war was not innate, people can be educated to minimize their

prejudice, individuals’ personal choices must be respected, and that postwar isolationism better to

be circumvented. Allport also joined a renowned organization

UNESCO project to explore strains that lead to war beyond borders (Allport, 1950).

APA Division 48
The Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict and Violence: Peace Psychology
It was launched in 1990, with the surpassed concern of buildup arm in the U.S and Soviet
Union. The division set up a number of task forces, including, support to children and families
subjected to war, creation of peace among different ethnic groups, elimination of the
streaming of weapons and set trends to exchange military cultures for peace. Additionally,
division conduct research on peace related topics and publication of the findings. Moreover,
it educates the members associated with the division and includes active practice and
application of nonviolent methods.

Charles Egerton Osgood – 1916 to 1991, was an American psychologist and professor. He proposed

a strategy Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in TensionReduction (GRIT), a de-escalation

approach to reduce nuclear war tension. He also published a book named Perspective in Foreign

Policy, Osgood made a remarkable success in his under Kennedy presidency, but to his dismay, it

came to an end with Kennedy’s murder (Osgood,

1980).

Post-Cold War Era

Cold War made various features of violence prominent, including, interstates wars, wars of
liberations, secessionist movements, civil wars, and interventionist wars. A much more
complexities are emerging in post-cold war, such as people are not only divided by
boundaries but also being differentiated by ethnicity, religion, economic conditions, mass
population, and environment sustainability (Klare, 1998). Thus, within and across
boundaries ethnic violence, other types of groups violence, economic devastation, basic life
need insecurity, terrorism are the main concerns of post-cold war. Therefore, the 21st
Century of Peace Psychology is mainly concern with the formation of theories and practices,
concerning current challenges.
Defining Peace Psychology, after the Cold War, the scope of peace psychology became broader and

encompassed various topics like, types of violence, human well-being, and survival. Christie, Wanger,

and Winter (2001), presented the following definition of peace psychology which is based on the

four-way model:

“Peace psychology seeks to develop theories and practices aimed at the prevention and

mitigation of direct and structural violence. Framed positively, peace psychology promotes the

nonviolent management of conflict and the pursuit of social justice, what we refer to as

peacemaking and peacebuilding, respectively.”

Another similar definition of peace psychology was offered by MacNair (2003):

“Peace Psychology is the study of mental processes and behavior that lead to violence, prevent

violence, and facilitate nonviolence as well as promoting fairness, respect, and dignity for all, for the

purpose of making violence a less likely occurrence and helping to heal

its psychological effects.”

Hence the current theme of peace psychology is the investigation of processes that lead to violence,

unfairness, inequality, discrimination among people, and the evaluation of techniques that

encourage nonviolent acts, promote fairness, respect to all.