🌍 Transportation and Communication

The development of a transport system is key to a country's socio-economic growth. As the

population grows and agriculture and industry expand, so does the need for efficient transport.

🚂 Pakistan Railways

Pakistan's railway network stretches across 8775 km of track, with about 900 stations and 54 train
halts.

It runs from Karachi to Peshawar and Peshawar to Dargai.

A branch extends from Sukkur to Sibi and on to Quetta.

From Quetta, one branch goes to Chaman, and another to Zahidan in Iran.

Punjab and Sindh have dense railway networks.

Pakistan Railways (PR) uses a multi-gauge system:

Broad gauge: 5 feet 3 inches wide

Metre gauge: 3 feet 3 inches wide

Narrow gauge: 2 feet 6 inches

Unfortunately, PR has faced deterioration due to:

Lack of investment

Worn-out rails and sleepers

Operational inefficiencies

Overstaffing and corruption

Uneconomic stations

A poor reservation system

Absence of dual lines

Note: 65% of rails, 55% of sleepers, 60% of diesel locomotives, and 100% of steam & electric
locomotives are outdated.

Developments in Pakistan Railways

Replacement of steam engines with diesel engines

Introduction of faster trains from Karachi to Lahore

Electric traction on 289 km from Lahore to Khanewal

Establishment of repair workshop (Moghalpura)

Construction of Karachi Circular Railway

Construction of railway track to Gwadar

Computerized ticketing system

🔄 Karachi Circular Railway (KCR)

The Karachi Circular Railway began operations in 1969 to provide better transportation in Karachi and
surrounding areas.

The original line ran from Drigh Road Station to Karachi City Station.

It carried 6 million passengers annually.

The KCR was highly successful initially, but corruption in the 1990s led to major losses.

Operations were discontinued in 1999, causing gridlock on Karachi streets.

Revival plans were initiated in 2005.

🚀 Karakoram Express

A major development by PR was the launch of a new Chinese-made train in 2002.

The Exim Bank financed $200 million, meeting 88% of the financial requirements.

It has 14 air-conditioned coaches with 9 compartments and 6 berths each.

📦 Dry Ports

Dry ports are established in inland cities far from seaports to promote foreign goods and speed up
export/import procedures. There are currently 9 dry ports.

Six dry ports are managed by Pakistan Railways:

Lahore Dry Port (1973)

Karachi Dry Port (1974)

Quetta Dry Port (1984)

Peshawar Dry Port (1986)

Multan Dry Port (1988)

Rawalpindi Dry Port (1990)

Four dry ports are managed by the private sector:

Sialkot Dry Port (1986)

Faisalabad Dry Port (1994)

Pak-China Sust Dry Port

NLC Dry Port at Thokar Niaz Beg Lahore

NLC Dry Port at Quetta

QICT Dry port at Premnagar Railway station (Karachi, 2010)

🎯 Aims of Establishing Dry Ports

To reduce the workload at Karachi Port & Port Qasim

To speed up cargo checking and clearance

To help the government collect revenue

To provide hassle-free cargo transportation

To stimulate foreign trade in distant cities

⚙️Requirements for Dry Ports

Efficient rail transport with container service

Efficient managerial staff

Huge storage sheds and open areas

Refrigeration facilities for perishable items

Roads

Road transport handles 82% of passenger traffic and 54% of freight in Pakistan. The total network
spans 181,836 km.

118,194 km are metalled (paved).

63,642 km are non-metalled (unpaved).

There's been little development in KPK & Balochistan.

The National Highway Authority (NHA) is responsible for construction and maintenance.

📍 Principal Roads of Pakistan

N5

Stretches 1260 km from Karachi through Lahore and Peshawar to Turkham.

Changes name at Lahore.

National Highway (Karachi to Lahore)

Passes through Hyderabad, Sukkur, Bahawalpur, and Multan.

Grand Trunk Road (GTR) (Lahore to Peshawar)

Built by Sher Shah Suri.

Links Kabul, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Lahore, Delhi, and Bengal.

Total network is 181,836 km.

Indus Highway (N-55)

A 1,264 km long four-lane highway.

Runs along the Indus River, connecting Karachi and Peshawar via D.G. Khan.

Maintained by the National Highway Authority.

Passes through the Kohat Tunnel.

Proposed in 1980 as a shorter route to the N-5.

Construction began in 1981 and completed in 1985.

RCD Highway
Connects Karachi to Quetta (over 600 km).

Passes through Lasbela, Khuzdar, Quetta, Nushki, and Nok Khundi in Pakistan.

Leads to Iran & Turkey.

Lahore-Quetta Road

Sukkur-Quetta Road

Karakoram Highway (KKH/N-35)

The highest paved international road in the world.

Connects China and Pakistan through the Khunjerab Pass (4,693 meters/15,397 ft).

Connects China's Xinjiang region with Pakistan's Gilgit-Baltistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Also known as China National Highway 314 (G314) and Asian Highway AH4.

Sometimes referred to as the "Eighth Wonder of the World" due to its high elevation and
construction challenges.

Makran Coastal Highway (N10)

A 653 km-long coastal highway.

Runs along Pakistan's Arabian Sea coastline.

Passes through Balochistan between Karachi and Gwadar, near Ormara and Pasni.

Motorways of Pakistan

A network of multiple-lane, high-speed, controlled-access highways.

Owned and operated by Pakistan's National Highway Authority.

Motorway Course Length (km) Lanes Completion Year Status Remarks

M-1 Peshawar - Islamabad 155 6 2007 Operational

M-2 Islamabad - Lahore 367 6 1997 Operational

M-3 Pindi Bhattian - Faisalabad 54 4 2003 Operational Connects the M-2

Motorway (near Pindi Bhattian) to Faisalabad and the M-4 Motorway

M-4 Faisalabad - Multan 233 4 2014 Under Construction Under construction

since 2009. Faisalabad-Gojra section scheduled for completion in March 2014.

M-5 Multan - Rajanpur 165 4 2017 Planned Construction planned to

commence in 2014.

M-6A Rajanpur - Ratodero 264 4 2017 Planned Designated the M-6A,

construction is planned to commence in 2014.

M-6B Ratodero - Dadu 150 4 2017 Planned Designated the M-6B,

construction is planned to commence in 2014.

Dadu - Hub - Liyari 350 4 2017 Planned Construction is planned to

commence in 2014.

Ratodero - Gwadar 892 4 2016 Partially Operational/Under Construction 2-

lane Ratodero-Khuzdar section complete and operationalized. 2 lanes nearing completion, 2
additional lanes to be added in future.

Hyderabad - Karachi 136 6 2017 Planned Upgradation of existing Super

Highway into 6-lane motorway. Construction scheduled to commence in 2014 and to be completed
in 4 years.

M-9 N-25 (Karachi Northern Bypass) 57 4 2009 Operational Currently 2-lanes, to

be upgraded to 4-lanes

Why Motorways are Needed

Quicker and faster transport

Industrial estates established close to highways

Promote industrial growth

Employment opportunities

Connection to Afghanistan and Central Asian States

✈️Air Transport

Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) is the national flag carrier and a state-owned enterprise.

Headquartered at Jinnah International Airport in Karachi.

Operates scheduled services to 24 domestic and 38 international destinations in 27 countries.

Main bases are in Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad/Rawalpindi.

Secondary bases include Peshawar, Faisalabad, Quetta, Sialkot, and Multan.

PIA has a fleet of 33 airplanes with at least 20 more on order.

PIA was the first Asian airline to operate a jet aircraft and Boeing 737 aircraft.

PIA is currently undergoing privatization. As of May 2008, it employed 18,043 people.

📜 History of Air Transport in Pakistan

In 1947, Orient Airways was operating in Pakistan.

By 1949, Pakistan Airways, Orient Airways & Crescent Airways were operating in Pakistan.

PIA was established in 1955.

Some private airlines like Aero Asia, Shaheen & Air Blue are operating in Pakistan.

📈 Development of Air Transport

Faster means of communication

Rise in general living standards

Air transport can access mountainous regions

Large numbers of people have settled in the Middle East, Far East, Europe, and America

The world has turned into a global village

Karachi is an important air transit route to and from Europe and East Asia

Frequent visits of diplomats and foreign delegations

Faster movement of perishable items

🌊 Water Transport

Pakistan has a 1,200 km long coastline with the Arabian Sea.

Karachi Port has been serving the region since 1947.

Other ports being developed include Pasni, Jiwani, Gadani, Ormara, and Gwadar.

Gwadar is the latest development, recently handling shipping operations since December 2008.
Water transport in Pakistan is mainly for international transport.

⚓ Important Ports in Karachi

Kemari Port

Mohammad Bin Qasim Port

📍 Kemari Port

It is a deep-sea port.

Larger coaches, flyovers, and overheads are being developed to ease traffic.

Extension in cargo handling facilities.

Provision of navigational aids & radars.

Expansion in storage & refrigeration facilities.

Environment protection equipment to keep seawater clean.

📍 Port Qasim

Located about 20 km southeast of Karachi at the Gharo Creek.

Built in 1980, it is also a deep-sea port.

Modern facilities to handle raw material for Pakistan Steel.

Integrated multipurpose deep-sea port and industrial zone.

Spread over 12,000 acres of land.

🚢 Pakistan National Shipping Corporation (PNSC)

Established in 1979 to develop maritime shipping industries.

To serve as operational links between major trading partners.

To maintain influence on freight rates.

To save foreign exchange.

🌊 Gwadar Port

Located on the Makran coast in Balochistan.

Could be a support port for Bin Qasim and Kemari.

Can provide a shorter route to Central Asian States (CAS).

Total area is 2500 acres.

The idea was initiated in 1993, with an agreement signed with China in 2001.

📈 Future Prospects of Gwadar

Balochistan, being the largest province, needs its own fully developed seaport.

Support port to Bin Qasim & Kemari.

Can help industries to be set up in the region.

👥 Population

Population: The number of people living in an area at a particular time.

Overpopulation: When a country's population cannot generate sufficient resources according to their
needs.

Birth Rate: Number of babies born per thousand or per hundred in one year.

Death Rate: Number of people dying per thousand or per hundred in one year.

Growth Rate: Birth rate - death rate

Life Expectancy: Number of years a person is expected to live.

Population Density: Number of people living per square area.

a
t

150

000

000

796

096

188.5

people/km

PopulationDensity=

796,096

150,000,000

≈188.5 people/km

2
📈 Causes of High Population Growth Rate

Early marriages: Common in villages.

Religious controversies: Belief that Allah is the provider.

Opposition to contraceptives

Wish to have a son

Illiteracy

Refugees (Afghan)

Frequent government changes: Hinders welfare programs.

Child labor

Large families preferred: Employed in agricultural fields.

💡 Solutions to High Population Growth

Educating the people

Convincing people about contraceptives

Seeking endorsements from religious leaders (ulemas)

Improving the role of NGOs

Delayed marriages

Educating women

🚶 Migration

Migration: Moving from one place to another with the intent of staying, permanently or for a long
period.

Migration can be driven by push or pull factors.

🚫 Push Factors

Lack of study opportunities

Lack of job opportunities

Social discrimination

Less medical facilities

Religious discrimination

Lawlessness
Lack of infrastructure

Political instability

✅ Pull Factors

Study opportunities

More job opportunities

Social equality

More medical facilities

Less religious discrimination

Law and order

More infrastructure

Political stability

📊 Population Pyramid

A population pyramid shows the age and sex structure, providing insights into political and social
stability, as well as economic development.

🎂 Age Structure (2013 est.)

0-14 years: 34% (male 33,774,720/female 31,967,787)

15-24 years: 21.6% (male 21,560,699/female 20,223,691)

25-54 years: 35.1% (male 35,272,193/female 32,587,417)

55-64 years: 5% (male 4,767,260/female 4,832,047)

65 years and over: 4.3% (male 3,877,418/female 4,375,636)

This data affects a nation's key socioeconomic issues and can predict potential political issues.

🤝 Trade

Trade: The exchange of goods and services between different areas.

No country is self-sufficient and trade helps in providing goods and services.

🌟 Benefits of Trade

Specialization of production

Promotes industrialization
May lead to rise in GNP

Production of value-added goods

Transfer of information technology

Creation of employment opportunities

📦 Exports and Imports

Exports: Goods and services sold to other countries, representing foreign exchange coming into the
country.

Imports: Goods and services bought from other countries, representing foreign exchange leaving the
country.

Imports of Pakistan

Wheat, edible oil, sugar, pulses

Machinery (textile, electrical, construction, mining, agricultural)

Petroleum and petroleum products

Textile (synthetic fibers)

Fertilizers and other chemicals

Metals (iron and steel)

💰 Major Exports

Cotton products: 58.4%

Leather: 6.1%

Synthetic textile: 1.2%

Rice: 6.9%

Sports goods: 1.9%

Others: 25.5%

🌎 Main Trading Partners (2015)

CountryPercentage of Imports Percentage of Exports Percentage of Total Trade

China 19.7 11.1 16.9

European Union 10.4 18.2 13.0

United Arab Emirates 12.1 8.5 10.9

Saudi Arabia 12.2 8.5 9.0

United States 3.2 13.6 6.7

Kuwait 6.3 0.07 4.4

India 3.7 2.1 3.2

Malaysia 3.9 0.9 2.9

Japan 3.6 1.6 2.9

Iran 3.4 1.8 2.9

Afghanistan 0.3 7.6 2.8

Singapore 4.1 0.3 2.8

⚖️Balance of Payments

e
o

BalanceofPayments=ValueofExports−ValueofImports

Pakistan typically has a negative balance of payments.

📉 Measures to Correct Negative Balance

Increasing exports

Restricting imports
Curtailing imports related to the tertiary sector

🏭 Export Processing Zones (EPZ)

Export processing zones contain industrial units that manufacture products with export potential.

The EPZ Authority Pakistan was established in 1980.

Karachi Export Processing Zone (KEPZ)

Located near Landhi Industrial Area, close to the airport, Port Qasim, and Karachi Seaport.

Linked with the National Highway network.

Offers access to markets in the Middle East, Far East, Africa, Europe, America, and Central Asian
Republics.

Gwadar Export Processing Zone

An area of 1000 acres.

Sialkot Export Processing Zone

Managed by Punjab Small Industries Corporation.

Diversified products located in Punjab.

Risalpur Export Processing Zone

Managed by KPK Development Authority.

Diversified products located in KPK Province.

Gujranwala Export Processing Zone

Infrastructure being developed.

Diversified products located in Punjab.

Saindak Export Processing Zone

Operated by a Chinese company.

For exploration of gold and copper in Chagai District, Balochistan.

Reko Diq Export Processing Zone

Operated by an Australian company.

For exploration of gold and copper in Chagai District, Balochistan.

Duddar Export Processing Zone

Operated by a Chinese company.

For exploration of Lead and Zinc in Chagai District, Balochistan.

Tuwairqi Export Processing Zone

Operated by a Saudi company.

For exploration of Steel Billets located in Port Qasim Area, Karachi.

Infrastructure Required for EPZs

Located near the seaport

Consistent government policies

Adequate air travel facilities

Adequate transport facilities

Efficient transport links to raw material sources

Strategic geographical situation

🌍 Strategic Geographical Situation of Gwadar

Gwadar's location between Karachi and UAE, and near Central Asian States (CAS), makes it suitable
for EPZs.

Attracts foreign investment and high-tech industries.

Serves as a regional trade hub, especially with developments in Afghanistan and CAS.

Deep-water port and EPZ can be developed simultaneously.

🏢 Functions of Export Promotion Bureau

The Export Promotion Bureau (EPB) was formed to organize and regulate export activities.

Creating awareness about potential exports.

Exploring and identifying market opportunities.

Assisting Pakistani entrepreneurs.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

The WTO is an international institution for free trade between member countries.

Established in 1995, succeeding the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

Pakistan's accessibility into international markets depends on its competitiveness.

🏢 Trade Development Authority of Pakistan (TDAP)

TDAP replaced the Export Promotion Bureau.

Under the administrative control of the Ministry of Commerce.

Mineral Resources

Mineral: A naturally occurring element or compound formed by inorganic processes with a crystalline
structure.

Minerals form the basic framework of soil.

🧱 Formation of Minerals

Minerals form when magma (molten rock) cools and forms solid igneous rock.

The Earth's crust contains silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium.

Key Points:

Over 3000 minerals are known, with about 50 new ones discovered each year.

Some minerals are formed from hot magma, which cools and crystallizes.

Most minerals form underground through heat and pressure.

Decomposition of organic matter can transform into minerals over millions of years, particularly in
oceans.

Mining Processes

Mining: The process of extracting rocks and minerals from the earth.

Minerals are found at varying depths.

Main Methods of Mining

Open Cast Mining

Used for minerals near the surface like coal and iron.

Giant excavators scoop up minerals and load them into lorries or railway wagons.

Underground Mining

Adit Mining:

Used in hilly districts where a mineral seam is exposed.

Horizontal tunnels are dug into the hillside to reach the mineral deposit.

Shaft Mining:

Vertical shafts are dug down to reach minerals, especially coal.

Expensive and dangerous.

🪨 Metallic and Non-Metallic Minerals

🔩 Metallic Minerals

Many articles are made from metallic minerals.

Some elements like gold and copper occur in pure form, but most are found as ores.

Ores are compounds containing a high proportion of the metal.

Mineral resources are non-renewable, although many can be recycled.

Examples:

Iron ore

Copper antimony

Chromites

Celestite

Manganese
Gold

Silver

Tin

Bauxite

🧱 Non-Metallic Minerals

Metallic and Non-Metallic Minerals

Organizations Involved in Mining in Pakistan

Several organizations have been established to explore and develop mineral resources in Pakistan:

Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP): Established in 1947 to investigate mineral deposits.

Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation (PMDC): An autonomous corporation attached to the

Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, responsible for exploring and marketing minerals.

Resource Development Corporation (RDC): Started in 1974 to investigate and develop copper mines
in Saindak, Balochistan.

Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan: Established in 1979 to develop gemstone resources.

Description and Uses of Non-Metallic Minerals

Rock Salt:

Seams vary in thickness from 20 to 100 meters.

White and pink in color.

Overlain by gypsum and clay.

Used for cooking, preservation, and manufacturing soda ash, caustic soda, and other sodas.

Brine:

Used in the chemical and fertilizer industries.

Limestone:

A major sedimentary deposit widely found in Pakistan.

Main raw material for cement.

Used in the manufacture of bleaching powder, glass, soap, paper, paints, and lime.

Used to treat sugarcane waste to produce alcohol fuel.

Painted on tree barks to counter pests and termite attacks.

Coal:

Low quality in Pakistan, mainly used in brick kilns.

Some used to make coal gas.

A small percentage is used for power generation.

Thermal power stations are also run by coal.

Natural Gas:

Used for domestic and industrial purposes.

Gypsum:

Found in grey, white, and pink colors.

Used in the manufacture of paints, fertilizers, and prefabricated construction boards.

White gypsum is used for making cement and plaster of Paris.

Spread on saline soil to help with land reclamation for farming.

Marble:

Found in bands of white, grey, yellow, and brown.

Used in buildings and for making chips for flooring and decorative pieces.

Clays:

China clay is used in the ceramic industry and for special cement.

Fire clays are used to make fire bricks, pottery, and chemicals.

Magnetite:

Used in the manufacture of cement, fertilizer, rayon, paper pulp, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.

Sulphur:

Used in chemical industries to manufacture sulfuric acid, paints, explosive materials, rayon, and
fertilizers.

Description and Uses of Metallic Minerals

Chromite:

Gives hardness and electrical resistance to steel.

Used for bridges, railway carriages, metallurgical furnaces, engineering tools, and stainless steel.

Iron Ore:

Used in steel making, construction, and the transport industry.

Copper:

Used for making electrical wires and other electrical appliances, especially switches.

Used in making alloys, water pipes, and tanks.

Manganese:

Used in making dry batteries and paints.

Vital alloy in steel making.

Bauxite:

Used in utensils, tins, and cans.

Power Resources ⚡

Pakistan's Energy Deficit

Despite having enormous potential energy resources, Pakistan is energy deficient and relies heavily
on imports. A large part of the rural areas lacks electrification due to remoteness and high
connection costs.

Primary Energy Sources:

Oil: 43.5%

Gas: 41.5%

LPG: 0.3%

Coal: 4.5%

Hydroelectricity: 9.2%

Nuclear electricity: 1.1%

Electric Power Generation:

Thermal: 71.9%

Hydel: 25.2%

Nuclear: 2.9%

Pakistan faces a serious challenge of energy deficit and needs to explore and utilize its coal reserves
and renewable energy sources.

Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Coal:

A very old fossil fuel formed by the decomposition of natural vegetation over millions of years.

* **Types of Coal**:

* **(a) Anthracite**:
 * Best quality coal.

* Hardest with the highest hydrocarbon content.

* Burns quietly with great heat.

* Blackest coal.

* Formed in thin layers very deep underground.

* **(b) Bituminous**:

* Steam coal and coking coal.

* A superior black, hard coal found in highly compressed seams.

* Burns with great heat.

* Its hydrocarbon content is less than anthracite.

* Coking coal is burnt to produce coke.

* Used in blast furnaces for the extraction of iron from the iron ore.

* Formed between lignite and anthracite.

* **(c) Lignite**:

* Found near the surface, easier to mine.

* Lower quality coal with a high moisture and ash content.

* Low heating value.

* **(d) Peat**:

* Exclusively vegetative matter and represents the initial stage of coal formation.

* Slow carbon content.

* **Transportation of Coal**:

* Coal is loaded onto trolleys inside the coal mine.

* Donkeys are used in some small coalmines for underground transport.

* Qualities of coal are separated and sold to middlemen.

* Middlemen load coal into trucks and supply it to brick kilns and cement factories.

* Rail transport is used for supplying coal to thermal power stations, where economically feasible.

* Brick kilns use a large percentage of Pakistan's coal production.

* **Coal as a Preferred Source of Power**:

* New reserves of coal have been discovered.

 * Pakistan has significant proven coal reserves.

* Use of indigenous coal is considered an alternative to importing oil due to price uncertainty and
foreign exchange issues.

2. Mineral Oil (Petroleum):

The most important fossil fuel today, found in porous spaces of sedimentary rocks, derived from the
decomposition of marine animal and vegetation matter over millions of years.

* Occurs in dome-shaped anticlines between two layers of non-porous rocks.

* Oil is trapped in the anticline with gas above and water below.

* **Oil Prospecting and Drilling**:

* Wells are drilled to pump the liquid fuel out of the ground.

* A derrick or drilling rig is set up.

* **Oil Refining**:

* Crude oil is processed and refined into useful products such as petrol, heating oil, kerosene, and
diesel oil.

* Cheaper to import crude oil and refine it locally.

* Crude oil production accounts for a certain percentage, and import oil accounts for the rest.

* A substantial proportion of Pakistan's import bill is spent on petroleum products.

* **Oil Refineries**:

* Pak-Arab Refinery Ltd.

* National Refinery Ltd.

* Byco Petroleum Pakistan Ltd. (Byco)

* Pakistan Refinery Ltd. (PRL)

* Enar Petroleum Refining Facility (Enar)

* Indus Oil Refinery Ltd

* **Uses of Oil**:

* By-products (wax, plastics, synthetic rubber, detergents, pharmaceutical products, furnace oil).

* Source of power (thermal electricity, heating).

 * Lubricant for machines.

* Indispensable motor fuel (petrol, diesel, aircrafts, cars, buses, rail engines).

* **Transportation of Imported and Local Petroleum**:

* **(i) Transport at Sea**:

* Imported petroleum is transported by sea from oil-producing countries through oil tankers.

* At Keamari port or Port Qasim, the oil tanker is berthed at the designated oil pier.

* The pier is a platform with an oil handling system.

* Oil products are pumped from the oil tanker to storage tanks.

* **(ii) Transport on Land**:

* (a) by pipeline

* (b) by road tanker

* (c) by rail tanker

* Pipeline transportation is the most efficient, convenient, and cheapest mode.

* **PARCO's Project for the Transportation of Oil**:

* In 2002, PARCO launched a white oil pipeline project (WOPP) to carry refined oil from Karachi to
the north.

* The white oil pipeline transports refined petroleum products to the central and northern
regions of Pakistan.

* Bin Qasim Port is the initial point of the white Oil Pipeline project.

* The new underground pipeline carries refined oil from the Pakistan oil refinery at Port Qasim to
Mahmood Kot.

* The demand for petroleum products is rising.

3. Natural Gas (NG):

Found in oil-bearing rocks above the oil, trapped underground by a layer of non-porous rocks. Made
up of gases like methane, ethane, propane, and butanes.

* Natural gas was discovered in 1952 at Sui, Baluchistan.

* When natural gas is cooled to a very low temperature, it turns into a liquid called liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG).

* LPG can be moved in special cylinders and is used in mountainous areas for heating and cooking.
* **Organizations to Develop Oil and Gas Resources**:

* Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP)

* Oil and Gas Development Company Limited (OGDCL)

* Sui Northern Gas Pipeline Limited (SNGPL)

* Sui Southern Gas Company Limited (SSGCL)

* Pak Arab Refinery Co. Ltd.(PARCO)

* Pakistan State Oil Company Limited (PSO)

* Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan

* **Main Gas Fields**:

* Sui, Baluchistan

* Pirkoh, Baluchistan

* Mari, Lower Sindh

* Meyal ,potwar

* Dhurnal, Potwar

4. Nuclear Energy (NE):

Power that is released from atoms through atomic fission (splitting atoms) or atomic fusion (fusing
atoms).

* Nuclear power stations are based on atomic fusion.

* Pakistan is utilizing nuclear energy for electricity generation.

* The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was commissioned in 1971.

* The Chashma Nuclear Power Plant was commissioned in 1999.

5. Thermal Electricity:

Electricity generated by non-renewable resources like coal, gas, or nuclear fuel. Fossil fuels and
nuclear power stations produce heat energy, which turns water into steam to run turbines.

Renewable Energy Resources

Hydro Electric Power (HEP):

HEP stations use the force of flowing water to spin hydro-turbines.

* The spinning turbine spins a shaft inside a magnetic field in the generator, generating electricity.

* Best developed in mountainous regions with adequate precipitation and a steep gradient.

* **Locations for HEP**:

* Kurramgari, Warsak, Dargai, Malakand, Tarbela, Mangla, Rasul, Shadiwal, Nandipur, renalakurd,
chichokimalian

* **Location thermal power station**:

* Daudkhel, shahdara, sahiwal, multan, quetta, guddu, sukkur, kotri, Hyderabad

* **Location for nuclear power station**:

* Chasma,Karachi

* **Profile of Electricity Generation**:

* WAPDA and KESC are the main organizations involved in power generation, transmission, and
distribution.

* The Karachi nuclear power plant (KANUPP) and some independent private producers (IPP) are
also involved.

* **Installed Generation Capacity**:

* HEP produces 4,825 MW

* Thermal produces 6,741 MW

2. Solar Power:

Uses sunlight, collected in solar cells (photovoltaic cells), to power devices or to heat water.

* Solar furnaces use mirrors to focus sunlight on a boiler.

* Steam from the boiler is used to make electricity.

* Pakistan has potential for solar energy with many sunny days.

* Solar power is safe, pollution-free, efficient, and limitless.

3. Bio Gas:

Produced from animal and plant waste through fermentation of cow dung, which gives off methane
gas used for cooking, heating, and other purposes.

* Biogas projects are in development.

* Although biogas is a cheap source of energy, it may mean cow dung can no longer be used as
manure, potentially aggravating soil deficiencies and increasing air pollution (methane is a
greenhouse gas).

Secondary and Tertiary Industries 🏭

Pakistan's Industrial Sector

Pakistan ranks around 43-44 in GDP and 55 in factory output globally. The industrial sector accounts
for about 24% of GDP. Cotton textile production and apparel manufacturing are Pakistan's largest
industries, accounting for a significant portion of merchandise exports and employment.

Other major industries include cement, fertilizer, sugar, steel, tobacco, chemicals, machinery, and
food processing.

Secondary Industries

Concerned with changing raw materials from the primary sector or secondary products to form semi-
finished or finished products.

Inputs:

Capital: Finance to establish and manage factories.

Enterprise: Business skills to develop ideas for products and market them successfully.

Land: The location where the industry is situated.

Raw Material: Required for production.

Labor: Workforce characteristics.

Process: Smelting, weaving, spinning, dyeing, printing, knitting, molding.

Outputs: Cement, cotton yarn, ghee, lime, sugar, wheat flour, soft drinks, etc.

Factors for Industrial Location

Physical:

Natural routes.

Site requirements.

Human:
Raw material.

Access to market.

Capital.

Government policies.

Skilled labor.

Industrial linkages.

Power supply.

Principal Factory Industries in Pakistan

Cotton Textile Industry (CTI):

Largest manufacturing industry in Pakistan.

Generates huge employment for skilled and unskilled labor.

Pakistan is a significant exporter of textile products in Asia.

Dominated by Punjab.

The demand for textile products is growing.

Importance of Cotton Textiles for Pakistan:

Largest and most important sector of the economy.

Comprises cotton yarn, cotton fabrics, and finished goods.

Contributes significantly to total exports and GDP.

Key Points:

Provides employment to a large percentage of the industrial labor force.

Main centers are Karachi, Hyderabad, and Faisalabad.

Exports include raw cotton, cotton yarn, cotton cloth, and ready-made garments.

Sugar Industry:

Sugar is mainly made from sugarcane.

Sugar mills are located in Punjab, NWFP, and Sindh.

Sugar mills need to be located near sugarcane fields due to the rapid loss of sugar content after
harvesting and the bulkiness of sugarcane.

Uses of By-Products:

Bagasse: Used as fuel in sugar mills, chipboard, paper, and animal feed.
Molasses: Used to manufacture acids in the chemical industry.

Fertilizer Industry:

Chemical fertilizers have increased since the green revolution in the 1960s.

Essential for increasing agricultural production.

Various raw materials are used, with natural gas being the main one.

Main locations are Faisalabad, Daud Khel, Haripur, and Dharki.

Nitrogenous fertilizer is most commonly used due to soil deficiencies.

Cement Industry:

Favorable factors for development:

Availability of raw material (limestone and gypsum).

Good domestic market with high demand.

Natural gas is used as a cheap fuel.

All Pakistan Cement Making Association (APCMA) is the apex body.

Steel Industry:

Establishment of the steel industry is a milestone in industrialization.

Pakistan Steel Mill Corporation was established with assistance from the USSR.

Pakistan Steel provides raw materials to the engineering and construction industries.

The Heavy Mechanical Complex Ltd (HMC) was established at Taxila with Chinese assistance.

HMC is helpful in manufacturing industrial plants and machinery and equipment for power plants.

Industrialization and the Private Sector

After 1947, the private sector was reluctant to invest in capital-intensive industries.

The Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC) was established to invest in industries in
which the private sector was hesitant.

PIDC later transferred projects to the private sector when the risk was reduced, stimulating industrial
activity in the 1960s.

During the 1960s, the country became self-sufficient in most agro-based industries.

Cottage / Craft Small Scale Industries in Pakistan

Hold an important position in the rural set up.

Most villages are self-sufficient in basic necessities with carpenters, blacksmiths, potters, craftsmen,
and cotton weavers.

Many families depend on cottage industries for income.

Gained immense importance in cities and towns.

High demand for hand-woven carpets, embroidered work, brassware, rugs, and traditional bangles.

Considered important export items in international markets.

Government Policy Towards Small Scale and Cottage Industries

Pakistan Small Scale Corporation

Punjab Small Industries Corporation

Sindh Small Industries Corporations

The Small Industries Development Board KPK

The Directorate of Small Industries Baluchistan

How Industrial Pollution Affects People

Serious health hazards in the form of various diseases.

Contamination of subsoil water affects food crops and drinking water supplies.

Dumping of industrial waste causes land pollution.

Industrial wastewater is harmful for the irrigation of crops, including food crops.

Threat to marine life and mangroves, reducing fish production.

Seaport pollution due to nearby industries.

Creating noise pollution.

Tertiary Industry

Concerned with providing a service, also known as a service industry.

Divided into different groups such as public administration, transport, defense, and tourism.

Tourism

The business of providing accommodations and recreation facilities for people traveling and visiting a
place for a limited time, primarily for pleasure.

Recently, tourism has been the world's fastest-growing industry.

An important factor in the economy of most developed countries for income and job creation.

In Pakistan, domestic and foreign tourism is small-scale at present.

International visitors to Pakistan:

Visitors on business.

People visiting families.

Tourists.

The Natural Attractions of Pakistan:

Northern areas

Kaghan Valley

Swat Valley

Gilgit Valley

Skardu

Hunza Valley

Chitral

Cultural Attractions in Pakistan:

Archaeological sites (Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Taxila)

Historic sites (Khyber Pass, Badshahi Mosque, Shalimar Gardens Lahore)

Modern buildings (Faisal Mosque, Parliament Building, Mausoleum of Quaid)

Salt mines

Traditional bazaars

🌾 Agriculture in Pakistan

Pakistan's agricultural sector is a significant contributor to the national economy, employing 44% of
the labor force. The country is a major producer and supplier of various agricultural products.

Production Rankings 🏅

According to the 2014 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Pakistan holds the
following rankings:

Crop Rank

Apricot 4th

Cotton 4th

Sugarcane 4th

Milk 5th

Onion 5th

Date Palm 6th

Mango 7th

Oranges 8th

Rice 8th

Wheat 9th

Pakistan ranks fifth in the Muslim world and twentieth worldwide in farm output.

Major Crops 🌱

The most important crops in Pakistan are wheat, sugarcane, cotton, and rice, accounting for over
75% of the total crop output value. Pakistan is generally a net food exporter, except during drought-
affected years. The country exports rice, cotton, fish, fruits (especially oranges and mangoes), and
vegetables, while it imports vegetable oil, wheat, cotton, pulses, and consumer foods. Pakistan is also
notable as Asia's largest camel market, the second-largest apricot and ghee market, and the third-
largest market for cotton, onion, and milk.

Livestock 🐄

The livestock sector contributes nearly 11% of Pakistan's GDP.

Defining Agriculture 🚜

Agriculture is a primary industry focused on obtaining raw materials from the ground for immediate
use or further processing.

The Agricultural System ⚙️

All types of agriculture can be viewed as a system:

Inputs: Factors that determine the type of processes on farms.

Processes: The actions taken by farmers.

Outputs: The result of the farmer's actions.

Inputs are categorized into:

Natural (Physical):

Factors of nature affecting crop and animal possibilities.

Examples: Land, soil, climate, water.

Human (Economic):

Involvement of human beings through various means.

Examples: Capital, machines, fertilizers, labor, knowledge, land ownership, traditions, irrigation,
pesticides.

Types of Farming 👨‍🌾

Small-scale subsistence farming

Cash crop farming

Cropping Seasons in Pakistan

Pakistan has two main cropping seasons:

Rabi Crops:

Sown from October to November (winter season).

Harvested from April to May (early summer).

Kharif Crops:

Sown from April to June (summer).

Harvested from October to November (early winter).

Examples: Rice, sugarcane, millets, maize, and cotton.

Main Crops in Detail 🌾

Wheat:

A staple food for bread and baked products.

Low grades and by-products used as livestock feed.

Mostly grown in canal-irrigated areas of Punjab and Sindh.

Waterlogged areas of the Indus plain are unsuitable.

Also grown in a few areas of KPK and Baluchistan.

Cultivation: Seeds are sown directly into the ground in October-December after plowing. Requires
limited water; irrigated twice. Harvested after three months.

Production: Yield has increased with new varieties and improved methods. Water management has
improved. Chemical fertilizers are widely used.
Challenges: Pakistan is rarely self-sufficient due to increasing population and decreasing cultivable
area from waterlogging and salinity.

Varieties: Maxi pak is widely used.

Rice:

Grown on a large scale for commercial purposes in Punjab and Sindh.

Small-scale subsistence farming in northern hilly regions.

Cultivation: Seeds are sown in beds or nurseries and transplanted into flooded fields (30-37 cm
deep).

Fields are kept full of water until the rice is ripe. Threshing is done by animals or mechanically.

Processing: Rice is taken to mills for polishing and packing. Husks are used for cardboard or roofing
after mixing with mud and water.

Production: Use of Irri Pak variety has doubled production. Export of basmati rice has increased.

Cotton:

Known as the "king of fiber," widely used in textiles.

A kharif crop.

Cultivation: Seeds are sown 30-45 cm apart in April-May and irrigated. Cotton bolls ripen in October-
November.

Plants reach 135-150 cm in height.

Processing: After picking, cotton bolls are transported to ginning mills for seed separation. Seeds are
used as animal feed or for oil extraction. Lint is tied into bales.

Varieties: Old varieties include Pak. Upland and Desi. High-yielding varieties include Nayyab 78, B-
557, 149 F.

Sugarcane:

Used to make sugar, brown sugar, and Gur.

Cultivation: Stalks (30 cm high) are planted in April-May with 30 cm spacing. Requires proper
irrigation and potash fertilizers.

Reaches 6-7.3 feet in height and can be harvested for 2-3 years due to ratooning (new shoots).

Processing: Requires manual labor for cutting. At mills, cane is scrubbed, juice extracted, and
processed into white sugar. Bagasse and molasses are major by-products.

Maize:
A food and industrial raw material for edible oil production.

Used in corn flour, custard powder, processed foods, and as fodder.

Pulses:

Rich in proteins and popular in the local diet.

Fix nitrogen in the soil, fertilizing subsequent crops.

Considered low-value crops due to low cash returns and minimal inputs.

Important types: Mung, Mash, Grams, Masoor.

Millets:

Includes Jowar and Bajra.

Used as fodder for animals and poultry.

Oil Seeds:

Includes sunflower, soybean, rapeseed, mustard, sarson, rai, linseed.

Used for edible oil extraction.

Production is insufficient, with 68% of edible oil imported.

Tobacco:

Mainly grown in NWFP (Mardan and Peshawar), accounting for about 65% of total production.

Crop Rainfall Requirements

Crop Rainfall (mm)

Wheat 450 - 600

Rice 1200 - 2000

Sugarcane 1500 - 2000

Cotton 750 - 1300

Tobacco 400 - 600

Citrus 1000 - 1200

🐄 Livestock Farming in Pakistan

Rearing animals is a common and old occupation in Pakistan.

Types of Livestock Farming

Subsistence Livestock Farming:

Nomadic: Practiced by nomadic people in Baluchistan and desert areas of Punjab and Sindh. They
move with their animals in search of food and water, rearing sheep, goats, and camels.

Transhumance: Animals are kept on high mountain pastures in summer and brought to lower
pastures in winter. Common in northern and western mountains.

Settled: Practiced in villages of Punjab and Sindh. Cows and hens are kept for milk and eggs. Excess
milk is processed into butter or ghee.

Commercial Livestock Farming:

Practiced on a small scale by private owners or on a large scale by government or military farms.

Scientific methods may not always be used. Some farms lack proper drainage or water supplies.

Fodder is brought from crop-growing areas. Cattle dung is collected and sold as manure or domestic
fuel.

Subsistence Livestock Farming as a System ⚙️

Inputs:

Natural grazing fields for fodder.

Water from ponds and lakes.

Open land.

Labor from women and children.

Process:

Natural breeding.

Feeding.

Manual milking.

Slaughtering.

Shearing wool.

Outputs:

Milk.

Meat.

Wool.

Eggs.

Main Livestock Resources 🐂

Cattle:

Bullock.
Cow.

Camels.

Mules.

Buffaloes:

Nili bar.

Kundi.

Ravi.

Sheep and goats.

Poultry:

Chicken (egg).

Factors Affecting Farming

Natural (Physical):

Topography.

Soil.

Water, including rainfall.

Temperature.

Pests and diseases.

Human (Economic):

Irrigation.

Marketing.

Farm size.

High-yielding varieties.

Mechanization.

Fertilizers.

Plant protection programs.

Environmental Impact of Chemical Use 🧪

Nitrate fertilizers increase crop yields but are expensive.

Pesticides drain into rivers, causing pollution.

Nitrates in rivers promote algae growth, depleting oxygen.

Fish die due to lack of oxygen.

Contaminated water affects human health.

🎣 Fishing Industry

Fishing involves catching fish through various techniques like hand gathering, spearing, netting,
angling, and trapping.

Introduction to Fishing in Pakistan 🇵🇰

Fishing is an ancient occupation, particularly for those living near water bodies.

Fish farming or aquaculture involves breeding fish. Pakistan has many inland fish farms using man-
made ponds and protected areas in rivers and lakes.

Marine fishing includes modern processing and exporting techniques.

The fishing industry contributes a share to Pakistan's GDP.

Pakistan earns 6% of its total foreign exchange through fish, shrimp, and fish product exports.

Fishing is the primary occupation in coastal settlements of Sindh and Baluchistan.

The total number employed in fishing is 395,000, with 125,000 (31.6%) in marine fishing and 270,000
(68.4%) in inland fishing, but the marine catch is nearly three times that of the inland catch.

Fishing Areas and Methods

Marine Fishing:

Pakistan's coastline is divided into Sindh (30%) and Makran (70%) coasts.

Karachi is the main fishing center in Sindh.

On the Makran coast, fishing ports are small villages like Sonmiani and Jiwani, with Gwadar being the
most important port.

Types of Marine Fishing:

Subsistence fishing: Fishermen and their families consume the fish they catch, with fish being a main
dietary component. Traditional nets and small wooden sailboats are used.

Commercial fishing: Fish is sold in the market as the sole income source for fishing communities.

Sindh Coast Advantages 🌊

Accounts for 68% of the total marine catch.

More developed with numerous creeks, sheltered harbors, and a wide shallow sea.

Wider continental shelf.

The Indus delta is rich in fish food.

Better export and processing facilities.

Gill netters and mechanized boats enable fishing 50-60km from the coast in deep sea water.
The Korangi fish harbor in Karachi provides storage and packing facilities.

Types of Marine Catch 🐠

Sharks

Drums

Croakers

Cat Fish

Skates

Rays

Inland Fishing

Practiced in almost all rivers and lakes.

Large reservoirs behind dams, lakes of Sindh, and irrigation channels are utilized for fish farming.

Dug ponds are also used.

Fish Farms 🚧

Rectangular, man-made ponds for breeding fish.

Concrete or cemented base to prevent water loss.

Sides edged with solidified mud.

Trees planted around the fish farms to keep the water cool.

Main Fishing Centers 📍

Manchar Lake in Dadu district.

Kairi (Keenjhar) Lake north of Thatta.

Haleji Lake west of Thatta.

Reservoirs of Mangla and Terbela Dams.

River Indus at Sukkar, Kotri, and Thatta.

Types of Inland Fish 🐡

Manaseer

Palla

Thalla

Rahu

Trout

Fish Marketing 🛒

Pakistan has both domestic and international markets for fish, shrimps, and fish products.
Marine fisheries catch is supplied to local fish markets through wholesale dealers.

Karachi is the main fishing center with street hawkers providing door-to-door service.

Frozen or processed fish is supplied to a few large departmental stores, but fresh fish is generally
preferred.

Local demand for fish is less than its catch.

Per capita consumption is 1.6 kg per annum, compared to 20 kg in European countries.

About 30% of the total fish catch is exported to 30 countries.

Japan is the main market for fish and shrimps, with the USA, UK, and France as other markets.

About 80% of the total fish catch of the Makran coast is dried for export to the Middle East.

Sustainable Fishing ♻️

Fishing of endangered species must be banned.

Nets with specific hole sizes should be used to avoid catching smaller fish.

Illegal fishing must be stopped to conserve stocks.

Quotas must be set for countries in international waters.

🌲 Forests

A forest, also called woodland, is an area with a high density of trees. Forests cover approximately
9.4% of the Earth's surface (30% of the total land area).

Forest Cover in Pakistan 🌳

Pakistan has a low forest cover, even compared to other South Asian countries. A report to the
Ministry of Environment stated that Pakistan has a 5.2% forest cover, while Bhutan has 70%, Sri
Lanka 37%, India 25%, and Bangladesh 18%.

According to the National Forest Policy draft, Gilgit-Baltistan has the highest forest cover at 27%,
followed by Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa at 13.9%, AJK at 11%, Sindh at 4.8%, Punjab at 3.1%, and
Baluchistan at 2.9%.

Deforestation Issues 🚧

Since 1993, there has been a ban on deforestation, but much forestland has been converted into
commercial and residential areas. The situation is exemplified by the brutal slaughtering of trees in
Murree and its adjoining areas for commercial development.

Government Efforts 🌱

The government aims to increase forest cover from 5.2% to 6% by 2016 through concerted efforts.
Key Points about Forests 🔑

A forest is a large area dominated by trees.

Ideally, about 25% of the total area should be covered with forests.

In Pakistan, forests cover only 4-5% of the area.

Types of Forests 🌲

Productive Forests:

Produce wood for furniture and herbs for medicines.

Thick forests with dense canopies.

Can be natural or irrigated.

Planted to maintain ecological balance.

Protective Forests:

Planted to protect the environment along roads, railways, and rivers.

The canopy is less thick than productive forests.

Mostly man-made but can be natural.

Main function is to protect the soil and prevent erosion.

Help keep the environment pleasant by lowering temperatures and providing shade.

Alpine Forests:

Located in north and north-western mountains above 4000 meters.

Found in snow-covered areas.

Trees have stunted growth due to low temperature and less sunlight.

Roots spread sideways on thin soil to absorb nutrition and grip the ground.

Leaves are directed downwards to avoid snow accumulation.

Commonly used as fuel wood.

Examples: Gilgit, Skardu, Chitral, Dir.

Coniferous Forests:

Found between 1000 and 4000 meters.

Evergreen forests that grow to 20-25 meters.

Cone-like shape to shed snow.

Sloping branches prevent snow accumulation.

Wood is used for furniture, fuel, and herbs for medicine.

Important for birds and wildlife.

Add to the scenic beauty of the area.

Examples: Murree, Abbotabad, Muzaffarabad, Swat, Mardan, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Quetta.

Species include Cheerch and Deodar.

Subtropical Scrub Forests:

Located at the foothills of mountains and in plain areas.

Trees grow to a reasonable height and remain green for a long period.

Include subtropical broad-leaved and tropical thorny species.

Species include Shisham, Babool, Diar, and Willow.

Wood is used for furniture, sports goods, and fuel wood.

Also used for grazing.

Examples: Gujrat, Sheikhpura, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Peshawar, Kohat, Mardan.

Tropical Thorn Forests (Rakh):

Found in Punjab plains, southern and western Baluchistan, and Sindh plains.

Trees do not attain good height (6 to 10 meters).

Mainly thorny bushes with deep roots to search for water.

Wood is used as fuel wood.

Riverain or Bela Forests:

Found in the active flood plains of the Indus River and its tributaries.

Linear plantation along river banks.

Trees grow to good height.

Species include Eucalyptus, Popular, Shisham, and Babul.

Wood is used in furniture making, sports goods making, and papermaking.

Located in areas of the upper Indus plain.

Mangrove Forests:

Found in coastal areas of Sindh and Baluchistan.

Grow in salty water and require marshy soil.

Do not grow to good height, with roots remaining in water.

Trees can rise to 6-8 meters in better water areas, but their general height is 3 meters.

Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees adapted to harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt
filtration system and root system to cope with saltwater immersion and wave action, adapted to low
oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud.

Irrigated Forests:

Planted mainly by humans.

Can be both productive and protective forests.

Examples: Changa Manga, Chicha Watni, Guddu barrages.

Planted in a linear style on both sides of roads, railways, canals, etc.

Used to protect the environment, produce wood for furniture and sports goods, address water
logging, and for paper making.

Deforestation 🪓

The removal of trees on a large scale.

Sustainable Forestry 🌳

Sustainable forestry (SF) means managing forest resources in such a way as to ensure that we can
obtain what we need from forests regularly while conserving the natural environment.

💧 Development of Water Resources

The Indus River provides key water resources for Pakistan's economy, supports heavy industries, and
supplies potable water.
The Indus River 🌊

The Indus originates in Tibet and flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, south of
the Karakoram Range. The Shyok River and Gilgit streams carry glacial waters into the main river. It
bends south, emerging from the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi, flows across Hazara, and is
dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul River joins it near Attock. The river flows through the
plains of Punjab and Sindh, becoming slow-flowing and braided, and joins the Panjnad River at
Mithankot, ending in a large delta east of Thatta.

Pakistan's Irrigation System ⛲

Pakistan has the world's largest unified irrigation system, consisting of:

Three major reservoirs: Chashma, Mangla, and Tarbela.

19 barrages: Ferozepur, Sulemanki, Islam, Balloki, Marala, Trimmu, Panjnad, Kalabagh, Sukkur, Kotri,
Taunsa, Guddu, Chashma, Mailsi, Balloki, Sidhnai, Rasul, Qadirabad, and Marala.

12 link canals.

45 irrigation canals.

Key Points About Natural Resources

Natural resources: Land, water, air.

Classified as renewable or non-renewable.

Renewable Resources:

Can be recycled or reused repeatedly.

Examples: Water, sunlight, wind power, tidal power, and geothermal power.

Sustainable resources like vegetation, soil, landscape.

Non-Renewable Resources:

Occur in limited quantities.

Will run out with continuous use.

Examples: Fossil fuels and minerals.

Hydrological cycle:

The hydrological cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface
of the Earth.
Hydrological Cycle

The hydrological cycle describes how water moves on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.

Precipitation: Water falls from the atmosphere to the ground as rain, snow, or hail.

Surface Runoff: Some water flows on the surface as rivers and streams, draining into lakes and the
sea.

Utilization or Soakage: The rest of the water is either used by plants or soaks into the ground.

Evaporation & Transpiration: Water returns to the atmosphere as water vapor through evaporation
from surface water and transpiration from plants.

Condensation: Rising into the atmosphere, water vapor cools to form water droplets.

🌊 Indus River System

The Indus River is the largest river in Pakistan.

Source: Lake Mansorowar in Tibet, China.

Water Source: Glaciers of the Karakoram and Hindu Kush mountains.

Course:

Crosses the Himalayas.

Turns southwest and enters Pakistan.

After Kalabagh, enters the plains of Punjab and Sindh.

Flows into the Arabian Sea, forming a delta at its mouth.

Basin Area: Approximately one million square kilometers, irrigating about 60% of cultivatable land.

Total Journey: About 2900 km from source to mouth.

Tributaries:

Eastern: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.

These rivers rise in the Himalayas, pass through Kashmir, and enter the plains.

The Beas joins the Sutlej before entering Pakistan.

All Eastern tributaries join at Panjnad and flow as a unified stream for 72 km before joining the Indus
at Mithankot.

Western: Swat, Kabul, Kurram, Tochi, Gomal, Zhob.

These are smaller in length and width with less water compared to the eastern tributaries.

Discharge: Highest mean monthly discharge in June and July.

Baluchistan River System

Drainage Pattern: Quetta is centrally positioned due to its high altitude.

Eastward Draining Rivers: Zhob, Khandar, and Kalachi drain into the Indus River.

Kalachi Sibi Plain Absorbed Rivers: Loralai, Chakar, Bolan, and Mula.

Arabian Sea Draining Rivers: Hab, Porali, Hingol, and Mashkel.

Humuns: Small rivers flow westward and drain into shallow depressions called Humuns.

Inland Drainage: A unique drainage pattern where many rivers are absorbed into the land and do not
join any other water body.

Braided River Channels: Depressions that flood only during heavy rainfall and remain dry otherwise.

💧 Ground Water

Ground Water (GW): Water available under the ground.

Extraction: Brought to the surface through lift irrigation methods like shallow wells, tube wells, and
the Karez system.

Quality: Can be sweet or saline, but typically sweet near sources or recharge areas.

⚙️Methods of Irrigation

Traditional Methods

MethodDescription

Shaduf A large pole balanced on a crossbeam with a rope and bucket on one end and a
counterweight on the other, used to lift water from canals or rivers.

Charsa Animal power is used to pull water from the well, irrigating small areas with a significant time
investment.

Well A hole dug in the ground to obtain subsoil water, typically 3-5 meters deep, but can be up to
15 meters.

Persian Wheel A device with a chain of buckets around a vertical wheel, powered by an ox or bull,
to raise water from a well or river.

Karez An underground channel for collecting groundwater and conveying it to the surface, used in
mountainous and foothill areas for water supply and irrigation.

Inundation Canals Long canals taken off from large rivers that receive water when the river is
high, especially during floods.

Modern Methods

MethodDescription

Perennial Canals Linked to dams and barrages to provide water throughout the year, irrigating
vast areas.
Tubewells Diesel or electrically operated pumps that raise water from depths up to 92 meters
(300 feet), irrigating farms of over 1000 hectares and lowering the water table.

Sprinkler Connected to public water supply pipes and centrally placed in fields to water plants,
mainly used in orchards and market gardening with efficient water usage.

💦 Uses of Water

Major Uses: Agriculture, domestic, and industrial.

Agriculture: 95% of water is used for irrigation.

Domestic Uses

Drinking

Cooking

Washing

Sanitation

Industrial Uses

Pharmaceutical industry

Tanning industry (washing, dyeing)

Food processing (juices, syrups)

Chemical industry (acids, liquid bleach)

Textile industry (washing, printing)

Mineral water industry

Iron and steel industry

Thermal power stations (to produce steam to move turbines)

Hydroelectric power stations

Irrigation

Artificial supply of water.

75% of cultivated area in Pakistan is under irrigation.

Canal systems irrigate vast areas, making deserts productive.

Dams and barrages regulate irregular water supply from rivers.

Reservoirs store monsoon rainfall and melting snow during the summer.

⚠️Siltation in Reservoirs

Silt: Deposition of materials brought by rivers in reservoirs.

Causes
Abundance of silt eroded from the Karakoram, Hindukush, and Himalayan mountains.

Deforestation

Rivers from narrow and deep valleys in mountainous areas washing eroded material into plains and
reservoirs.

Effects

Blockage of canals due to silt accumulation.

Weakens the foundation of dams.

Choking of irrigation canals.

Reduced reservoir capacity, affecting hydroelectric power generation and irrigation water availability.

Hampered flood water flow, causing heavy damage to dams.

Control

Large-scale afforestation, especially on the foothills of the Himalayas.

Cemented embankment of canals for easier cleaning.

Installation of silt traps before water flows to the dams.

Raising the height of the dam to increase reservoir capacity.

⛲ Types of Canals

Canal Type Description

Inundation Canals Provide water only when there is a high water table in the rivers (seasonal).

Perennial Canals Provide water for irrigation all year round.

Unlined Canals Canals that do not have concrete or cemented embankments.

Lined Canals Canals having concrete embankments.

Water Logging and Salinity

Water Logging: The condition when the water table of the ground rises.

Salinity: Occurs when ground water rises and evaporates, leaving salt behind.

Causes: Unlined perennial canals and slow water movements.

Mechanism: Water from unlined canals penetrates into the ground, causing water logging, leading to
salinity.

Solutions

Solution Description
Installation of Tube wells Tube wells are installed to lower the water table by boring 100
meters below ground and using electric pumps to lift the ground water. First used in 1953.

Planting Eucalyptus Trees Eucalyptus trees absorb and utilize extra water present in the soil,
thriving in waterlogged areas.

Lining of Canals Canals are lined from the banks to prevent water absorption.

SCARP Programme Salinity Control and Reclamation Project was framed in 1959, dividing the
Indus basin into 28 zones. WAPDA was responsible for carrying out the project, using tube wells and
surface drains.

Climate of Pakistan

Climate: The statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, and other
meteorological elements in a given region over long periods of time, typically averaged over 30 years.

Contrast: Differs from weather, which is the present condition of these elements over periods up to
two weeks.

Factors: Affected by latitude, terrain, altitude, and nearby water bodies.

"Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get."

Rainfall

Characteristics: Most of Pakistan experiences a dry climate, with humid conditions prevailing only
over a small area in the north.

Annual Rainfall: Sindh, most of Baluchistan, major parts of Punjab, and central parts of Northern
Areas receive less than 250 mm of rainfall annually.

Major Sources:

Monsoon (July to September)

Western Depression (December to March)

Climatic Elements

Element Description

Temperature A degree of hotness or coldness measured using a thermometer, generally in

degrees Celsius.

Atmospheric Pressure The force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above that
surface in the Earth's atmosphere.

Precipitation Rainfall

Humidity The amount of water vapor in the air.

Winds Air in motion, produced by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface. Characterized by speed
and direction.
Temperature Diversity Factors

Latitude: Large spread from 24° South to 37° North.

Relief: Diversity ranging from high mountains in the north to low-lying coastal areas in the south.

Temperature Extremes: High temperatures in upper and lower Indus plains (up to 45°C in summer,
with Jacobabad as a thermal pole).

Maritime Effect: Coastal areas have moderate temperatures due to sea breezes.

Angle of the Sun

Main Sources of Rainfall in Pakistan

Source Season Description

Monsoon Winds July - September Originate from the Bay of Bengal in the Indian
Ocean. Heat on land creates low pressure, attracting cooler, moist sea winds. These winds cause
rainfall over Bangladesh and India before reaching Pakistan, where only the tail end of the monsoon
is received, resulting in variable and typically limited rainfall.

Western Depression November - March Winds originate from the Mediterranean Sea and
move east, causing rainfall over Turkey, Middle East, Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan before reaching
Pakistan. Pakistan receives less rainfall during winters than summers from this source. Causes rainfall
at lower altitudes and snowfall at higher altitudes.

Convectional Rainfall April - June, Oct-Nov Experienced by locally evaporated winds. Water
molecules rise into the atmosphere through local evaporation and transpiration, forming clouds that
cause rainfall nearby. Often associated with windstorms or thunderstorms, causing uprooting of trees
and destruction. Can occur anywhere in Pakistan, particularly in the North and Northwest.

Relief Rainfall Confined to northern mountainous areas with extensive forests. High rates of
evapotranspiration lead to more water in the atmosphere, resulting in rainfall. The windward side of
mountains receives more rainfall than the leeward side, creating rain shadow areas like Gilgit.

Tropical Cyclones Originate over the Arabian Sea, bringing a few hours of very heavy rainfall
with destructive winds to coastal areas. This source of rainfall is unreliable.

Temperature Inversion

A temperature inversion layer at a low elevation of about 1,500 m in the south during the summer
prevents moisture-laden air from rising and condensation from taking place.

🌍 Climatic Zones

Zone Characteristics Lifestyle of the People

High Land Zone Northwestern and western mountains. Extremely cold and long winters; mild to hot
and short summers. Temperature falls below freezing in winters and rises to 20°C in summers.
Monsoon winds cause rainfall in summers, and western depressions cause rainfall and snowfall in
winters. Convectional currents and relief rainfall also occur. Alpine and coniferous forests are found.
Nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyles are common at higher altitudes. Animal rearing is the
main profession. Transhumance is practiced. Terrace farming is common. In winter, people stay
indoors, engaging in cottage industries like carpet making. Agriculture is practiced on a limited scale.
Mineral deposits are found in the western mountains. Examples include Swat, Abbottabad,
Peshawar, Quetta, and Kaghan.

Low Land Zone Eastern and southeastern sides of Pakistan (Indus Plain). Hot and long summers; cool
to cold and short winters. Summer temperatures range from 30 to 40°C, while winter temperatures
fall to 5-10°C or below. Monsoon winds cause rainfall in the upper Indus Plain during summers, while
depressions cause rainfall in northern Punjab during winters. Convectional currents also bring
rainfall. Large agricultural plains are found. Fully developed with transport, power generation, and
communication facilities. Large agricultural plains. Fully developed infrastructure and facilities.
Examples include Lahore, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Faisalabad, Multan, Bahawalpur, Sukkur, and Rohri.

Arid Climate (Deserts) Deserts: Thal, Kharan, and Tharparkar. Extremely hot and long summers;
mild and short winters. Hot, dusty winds prevail from May to September. Summer temperatures
range from 40 to 50°C, while winter temperatures range from 20 to 30°C. Hardly any rainfall. High
rate of evaporation. Days are very hot, and nights are very cold. Dust storms and windstorms are
common. Nomadic lifestyle is common, with animal rearing as the main profession. People
wear thick clothes for protection from extreme heat and cold. Agriculture is practiced on a small
scale. Cactus-type plants are common.

Coastal Climate (Maritime) Approximately 1000 km long coastline (750 km in Baluchistan, 250
km in Sindh). Dominated by sea breezes. Summers are hot, humid, and long; winters are mild, humid,
and short. High relative humidity. Low rainfall due to high humidity. Fishery is the main
profession. Mangroves are found, providing shelter, breeding grounds, and food for fish, as well as
wood for people. Gwadar is undergoing rapid development.

🌊 Causes of Floods

Melting of snow during winter

Heavy monsoon rainfall

Cutting of trees on the foothills increases surface runoff

Failure to strengthen or heighten embankments alongside rivers

🌵 Causes of Droughts in Pakistan

Unreliability of monsoon winds

Global climate change

Deforestation

Mismanagement of water resources

Disputed and unfair distribution of water

Overgrazing

Pakistan: The Natural Topography

Topography: The study and description of the surface features of land.

Major Natural Topography Areas

The northern and northwestern mountains (Himalayas, Hindukush, and Karakoram)

The western mountains (Safed Koh ranges, Waziristan hills, Suleiman range, and Kirthar range)

The Baluchistan plateau

Potwar plateau and Salt ranges

The Indus plain

Desert areas (Kharan, Thar, and Thal deserts)

Karakoram Range

Location: North of the Himalayas, including Northern Kashmir and Gilgit.

Highest Peak: K-2 (8,611 meters).

Relief

Average altitude of about 6000 m.

Extends over 400 km from Hunza to the Shyok River.

Runs in an east-to-west direction.

Very rugged landscape with snow-covered peaks, valleys, gorges, cliffs, and gullies.

Steep-sided peaks and deep, narrow valleys.

Cold winds blow during winters, and temperature falls below freezing point.

Precipitation is mainly in the form of snowfall at higher altitudes and rainfall at lower altitudes during
winter.

Winters are long and cold, while summers are mild and short.

Alpine forests are located here.

Famous glaciers: Siachen (78km), Biafo (62.5km), Baltoro, Batura, and Hispar.

Khunjerab and Karakoram passes are located in the Karakoram Range.

Drainage

Total runoff of water.

Main sources of drainage: River Shyok and River Gilgit.

Melting snow from glaciers contributes to the water table.

Fast flow of rivers in the upper course.

Silt deposition in reservoirs decreases storage capacity.

Himalayan Range

Location: Surrounds most of Pakistan towards the North.

Meaning: "The house of ice."

Extent: Spreads up to Gilgit.

Notable Peak: Nanga Parbat.

Relief

Located south of the Karakoram Range.

Runs in an east-to-west direction.

Comprises:

Siwaliks (600-1200 meters): Located near Attock.

Lesser or lower Himalayas (1800-4500 meters): Represented by the Pir Panjal Range and includes
Murree, Nathia Gali, and Gora Gali.

Central Himalayas or great Himalayas (5000-8126 meters): Located between the Pir Panjal Range and
the Karakoram Range. Includes Nanga Parbat (8126 meters) and Rakhiot (7074 meters).

Snow-covered mountains.

Steep-sided mountains and deep, narrow valleys.

Extreme cold winds during winters.

Winters are cold and long, while summers are mild and short.

Snowfall at higher altitudes and rainfall at lower altitudes during summers.

Alpine and coniferous forests.

Drainage

Main sources of drainage: River Indus and River Chenab.

Melting snow contributes to the water table.

Fast flow of rivers in the upper course.

Silt deposition in reservoirs decreases storage capacity.

Hindu Kush Range

Location: Northwest of the Karakoram Range.

Extent: Most of the mountains are in Afghanistan.

Highest Peak: Tirich Mir (7690 meters).

Areas Included: Chitral and Dir.

Relief

Located where the borders of Afghanistan and China meet on Pakistan’s north and northwest border.

Located southwest of the Karakoram range.

Average height of mountains is 5000 meters.

Runs in a north-to-south direction.

Highest peaks: Tirch Mir (7690 meters) and Noshaq (7484 meters).

Snow-covered peaks.

Steep-sided mountains and deep, narrow valleys.

Many passes including Khyber Pass, Lawari Pass, and Shandur Pass.

Winters are cold and long, while summers are mild to hot and short.

Extreme cold winds blow during winters.

Temperature falls below freezing point.

Snowfall at higher altitudes and rainfall at lower altitudes during winters.

Alpine and coniferous forests.

Drainage

Main sources of drainage: River Swat and River Kabul.

Warsak Dam on the River Kabul provides irrigation, drainage, and power generation.

Melting snow contributes to the water table of the rivers.

Fast flow of rivers in the upper course.

Silt deposition in reservoirs decreases storage capacity.

Lifestyle & Economic Activities

Nomadic to semi-nomadic lifestyle is common at higher altitude areas.

Animal rearing is the main profession.

Transhumance is practiced at higher altitude areas.

Agriculture is also practiced on a smaller scale.

Warsak dam on the River Kabul provides irrigation, drainage, and power generation.

Mining is one of the professions (on Hindu Kush).

Primary, secondary, and tertiary industries are found here.

Tobacco, wheat, rice, and sugarcane are grown here.

Apple, apricot, grapes, and peaches are common here.

🧊 Glaciers

Glaciers: A mass of snow

Pakistan's Natural Topography

Pakistan's diverse landscape can be divided into six major natural topographical areas:
The northern and northwestern mountains (Himalayas, Hindukush, and Karakoram)

The western mountains (Safed Koh ranges, Waziristan hills, Suleiman range, and Kirthar range)

The Balochistan Plateau

Potwar Plateau and Salt Ranges

The Indus Plain

Desert areas (Kharan desert, Thar desert, and Thal desert)

Plate Tectonic Theory 🌍

The theory that the Earth's surface is made up of rigid plates of lithosphere that float on the more
mobile asthenosphere. These plates are in constant motion, leading to processes like continental
drift, mountain building, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.

This activity primarily occurs at the edges or margins of the plates.

Karakoram, Himalaya, and Hindukush Ranges

Relief

Average altitude: 3000 to 6000 meters

Mass of rock and ice

Rugged landscape with:

Snow-covered peaks

Valleys

Gorges

Cliffs

Ravines

Gullies

Gorges: A narrow valley between hills or mountains, typically with steep rocky walls and a stream
running through it.
Steep-sided peaks and deep narrow valleys

Cold winds during winters with temperatures falling below freezing point

Precipitation mainly as snowfall at higher altitudes and rainfall at lower altitudes during winter

Winters are long and cold; summers are mild and short

Alpine forests

Glaciers

Many of the world's glaciers are located in the mountains of Pakistan, including:

Baltoro Glacier: 58 km long in the Karakoram Range

Batura Glacier: 58 km long in the Hunza Valley, Karakoram Range

Siachen Glacier: 78 km long in the Karakoram Range

Drainage

Drainage refers to the total runoff of water from an area.

River Shyok and River Gilgit are the main sources of drainage in the Karakoram Range.

Melting snow raises the water table.

Rivers in the upper course have a very fast flow.

Pebbles, stones, and silt are carried and deposited in reservoirs, reducing their storage capacity.

River Indus & River Chenab are the main sources of drainage in the Himalayas.

River Swat & River Kabul are the main sources of drainage in Hindukush.

Warsak Dam on River Kabul is a major source of irrigation, drainage, and power generation.

Lifestyle & Economic Activities

Nomadic to semi-nomadic lifestyle is common at higher altitudes.

Animal rearing is the main profession.

Transhumance is practiced at higher altitudes.

Transhumance: The seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed summer and
winter pastures.
Agriculture is practiced on a smaller scale.

Mining occurs in the Hindu Kush region.

Primary, secondary, and tertiary industries are present.

Common crops: Tobacco, wheat, rice, and sugarcane.

Common fruits: Apple, apricot, grapes, and peaches.

Importance of the Northern Mountains

Historical passes connect Pakistan to China and Afghanistan.

The Karakoram Highway provides a land route for trade.

Snow-capped peaks melt during summer, draining water into the Indus River and its tributaries,
which irrigate the vast Indus Plain.

Source of valuable minerals, timber, and fruits.

Provides raw materials to industries like furniture, paper, chipboard, and chemicals.

Protects Pakistan against cold winds from Central Asia, keeping temperatures tolerable throughout
the year in the upper Indus Plain.

Scenic beauty promotes tourist resorts, which generate income for local people during summer.

Important Passes of the Northern Mountains

Pass Altitude (m) Connects

Karakoram 5575 Kashmir with China

Khunjrab 4733 Northern Areas with China

Lawari 3188 Dir and Chitral

Babusar (Himalayas) 4173 Northern Areas and Mansehra

Western Mountains

Safed Koh (White Mountains)

Located south of the Kabul River.

Called "White Mountains" because their peaks are often snow-covered.

Steep-sided mountains and deep narrow valleys.

Height reaches up to 4712 meters.

Snowfall at higher altitudes and rainfall at lower altitudes during winters.

Winters are cold and long; summers are mild, hot, and short.

Passes like Kurram Pass provide a route to Afghanistan.

Cities like Peshawar and Kohat are located there.

Alpine & coniferous forests.

Waziristan Hills

Located between the Kurram River and Gomal River.

Reach up to a height of 3513 meters.

Form a rampart between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Passes like Tochi and Gomal Pass are located there.

Snowfall at higher altitudes.

Winters are long and cold; summers are mild to hot and short.

Coniferous forests.

Important towns: Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu Valley (important military center).

Highly mineralized hills.

Sulaiman and Kirthar Range

Sulaiman Range is located to the west of the Indus River.

Takht-e-Sulaiman, at 3500 meters, is the highest peak.

Moving southward, the Sulaiman Range is joined by the Kirthar Range, backed by the Pab Range.

Main minerals: Limestone and sandstone.

Drainage (Western Mountains)

River Kabul and River Kurram drain the Safed Koh.

Warsak Dam on River Kabul and Kurram Dam on River Kurram are the main sources of drainage,
irrigation, and power generation.

Melting snow gives rise to the water table.

Rivers in the upper course have a very fast flow.

River Kurram & River Gomal drain Waziristan hills.

Kurram Dam on river Kurram provides irrigation, drainage & power generation at Waziristan hills.

Rivers Hub, Porali & Hingoli drains Sulaiman Range.

Braided river channels drain the Suleiman range.

Hub dam on river Hub provide irrigation, drainage & power generation.

Lifestyle & Economic Activities (Western Mountains)

Mostly bare of vegetation; climate and relief do not support farming.

Canal irrigation is limited.

Transportation is limited; except for Peshawar and Kohat, the area is not well-connected by air or rail.

High infrastructure costs.

Nomadic to semi-nomadic lifestyle is common at higher altitudes.

Animal rearing is the main profession.

Rich in mineral resources like natural gas, coal, iron ore, and copper.

In-house cottage industry of carpet making and hand-knotted articles is common in the winters.

Important Passes

Khyber Pass: Leads to the fertile vale of Peshawar.

Kurram Pass: A route to Afghanistan.

Tochi Pass: Connects Ghazni to Bannu.

Gomal Pass: Connects Afghanistan to Derajats.

Bolan Pass: Connects the Kachhi Sbi Plain to Quetta.

Balochistan Plateau

Located in the southwest of Pakistan with an altitude from 600-3010 meters.

Total area: 347190 sq km.

Natural Topographical Features

Basins of northern Balochistan: Irregular depressions like Zhob & Loralai basins between Toba Kakar
& Sulaiman Ranges. The Quetta valley is southwest of the Loralai Basin. Rain is infrequent. Alluvial
fans are formed by river channel deposits on the piedmont plains.

Basins of western Balochistan: Basins between mountain ranges like the Chagai hills, Ras Koh, Siahan
& central Makran. Devoid of vegetation and little rainfall. These basins have no outlet to the sea,
leading to inland drainage basins where temporary rivers and streams soak into the ground.
Temporary lakes are called Hamuns. Salt lakes leave a salty crust when water evaporates, called a Salt
Pan. The largest temporary lake is Hamun-i-Mashkel in the western part of the Kharan desert.

Mountain ranges: Barren mountain ranges with an altitude of 600-3010 meters, highly mineralized,
especially the Chagai Hills (copper, gold, & sulfur).

Toba Kakar Range

Central Barahvi Range

Chaghai Range

Ras Koh Range

Makran Range

Siahen Range

The Coastal areas: Divided into eastern (Lasbela Plain) and western parts (Makran coast). Important
rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea: Hab, Porali, Hingol & Dasht.

Lifestyle & Economic Activity

Nomadic to semi-nomadic lifestyle is common at higher altitudes.

Animal rearing is the main profession.

Agriculture is performed with irrigation from canals linked with dams & barrages.

Fruit orchards grow apple, apricot, peach, etc. in large quantities.

A mineralized zone with natural gas, coal, limestone, copper, etc., extracted.

Fishing is the main profession for people in coastal areas.

Mangrove forests are the main vegetation in coastal areas.

Potwar Plateau & Salt Range

Location, Relief & Drainage

Located south of Islamabad between the Indus River and Jhelum River.

Height varies from 300 to 600 meters.

Referred to as "bad land topography."

Dominated by limestone ridges, salt, coal & oil mines, and ravines.

Salt lakes: Kalar-Kahar Lake & Khabaki Lake.

Prominent hill ranges: Kala-Chitta & Khairi Murat Range (1000 meters).

Main sources of drainage: River Jhelum & River Soan.

Mangla Dam on River Jhelum is the main source of irrigation, drainage, & power generation.

Lifestyle & Economic Activity

A mineralized zone with coal, rock salt, & limestone.

Agriculture is practiced on a very small scale.

Attock Oil refinery is located here.

High population density with all three types of industries.

Important towns: Rawalpindi, Jhelum & Chakwal.

Well-developed place linked throughout the country via roads, rail & airways.

The Indus Plain

Plains formed by the Indus River & its tributaries.

Located throughout most of Punjab & the central part of Sindh.

The northern part is known as the upper Indus plain.

Five main tributaries of the Indus joined at Panjnad.

River Panjnad flows 72 km before joining the Indus near Mithankot.

Below Mithankot in Sindh, the Indus flows as a gigantic river till it falls into the Arabian Sea. This part
is known as the lower Indus plain.

Types of Areas in the Indus Plain

Active Flood Plain areas:

Narrow strip of land on both sides of the River Indus & its tributaries.

Actively inundated.

Locally called Bet or Khaddar land.

Fertile topsoil formed by the annual deposition of fresh alluvium.

Flood plain is around 40 km wide.

Meanders, oxbow lakes & levees are important features.

The old flood plain areas:

Formed by the deposition of old alluvium.

Higher in height than the active flood plains.

Inundated once a decade or in heavy monsoon.

Among the most fertile plains in the world.

Meanders scars, oxbow lakes, old levees are also found there.

Alluvial Terraces:

Locally called Bars.

Found in the Doab.

Doab: The land between two rivers.

Bars are 15 to 20 meters high and considered ideal for agriculture with irrigation.
Piedmont plains:

Located at the foothills of the Suleiman, Kirthar, and Himalayan mountains.

The most dominant features are the alluvial fans.

They become active only during the rainy season.

The Suleiman PP is also known as Derajat.

Mainly agricultural.

Tidal delta:

The Indus delta is located to the south of Thatta.

A delta is often triangular or fan-shaped.

When a river flows into the sea, its speed is checked, and alluvium is dropped on the sea floor.

The Indus delta has mangrove swamps.

The coastal area is generally low and flat.

Cuestas:

Cuestas: Limestone ridges with a gentle slope on one side and a steep slope on the other.

Small variable height features.

Rohri Cuesta attains a height of about 80 meters & is about 40 km long.

Provide a firm foundation for the construction of barrages for irrigation.

Provide scenic beauty and flat landscape.

Doabs (Land Between Two Rivers)

Doab Between Rivers

Sindh-Sagar Indus & Jhelum

Chaj Jhelum & Chenab

Rachna Ravi & Chenab

Bari Ravi & Beas

Desert Areas

Located in three places:

The Sindh Sagar Doab or Thal desert: Located between the Indus River and Jhelum River.

The Thar Desert: Located towards southeastern Pakistan. Divided into:

Cholistan

Nara

Tharparkar (thar)

The Kharan desert

Main Features

Rolling sand dunes

Weathering of rocks

Lack of vegetation

Bare rocks

Scanty rainfall

Extremely low water table

Important Terms 📝

Term Definition

Avalanche A huge mass of snow that moves down the slope.

Bar Alluvial terrace, an old flood plain fairly high to active flood plain.

Bet Active flood plain.

Doab/Interfluves Land between two rivers.

Dhand Small salt lake.

Khaddar Fresh Alluvium.

Karez Irrigation method used in Baluchistan; a water tunnel or a narrow underground canal.

Landslide The movement of rocks and soil down the mountain slopes.

Mountain A raised part of the earth with a peak, steep slope attaining over 1000 meters height
than a hill.

Range A group of mountains.

Plateau An area of fairly level high ground.

Plain A flat land with fertile soils used to grow crops.

Topography The arrangement of the natural and artificial features of an area. Synonyms:
landforms/physical features/physiography/configuration.

Relief The specific forms of a physical feature.

Economic activities All activities which are carried out to produce something.

Landforms and Topography

Interfluves: The land situated between two rivers.

Dhand: A small salt lake.

Khaddar: Fresh Alluvium.

Karez: An irrigation method used in Baluchistan, consisting of water tunnels or narrow underground
canals.

Landslide: The movement of rocks and soil down mountain slopes.

Mountain: A raised part of the Earth with a peak and steep slope, attaining over 1000 meters in
height compared to a hill.

Range: A group of mountains.

Plateau: An area of fairly level high ground.

Plain: A flat land area with fertile soils, used for growing crops.

Defining Topography and Relief

Topography:

The arrangement of the natural and artificial features of an area. Synonyms include landforms,
physical features, physiography, and configuration of Earth's surface.

Relief: The specific forms of a physical feature.

Economic Activities

Economic activities: All activities carried out to produce something.

Climate of Pakistan

Weather vs. Climate

Weather: Day-to-day changes in the atmosphere.

Climate: Long-term changes in the atmosphere, typically over 30 years.

Climatic Elements

Temperature

Atmospheric pressure

Precipitation (rainfall)

Humidity
Winds

Temperature Diversity Factors

Large spread of altitude from 24° North to 37° North.

Diversity of relief, ranging from high mountains in the north to low-lying coastal areas in the south.

High temperatures in the upper and lower Indus plain, reaching up to 45°C in summer (Jacobabad
known as the thermal pole).

Moderate temperatures in coastal areas due to sea breezes.

Main Sources of Rainfall

Rainfall through Monsoon winds (July-September)

Rainfall through Western depressions (November-March)

Rainfall through Thunderstorms (October-November, April-June)

Relief Rainfall

Tropical cyclones

Monsoon Winds (July - September)

Monsoon means "season."

Winds originate from the Bay of Bengal in the Indian Ocean.

Move from east to west, causing rainfall over Bangladesh and India before reaching Pakistan.

Pakistan receives the tail end of the monsoon, resulting in variable and little rainfall.

Mean rainfall in July and August is 125 mm.

Northern, North Western, & Eastern sides of Pakistan receive summer rainfall.

Examples: Murree, Abbotabad, Peshawar, Swat, Islamabad, Gujrat, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Lahore,
Faisalabad.

Western Depressions (November - March)

Winds originate from the Mediterranean Sea and move east.

Cause rainfall over Turkey, Middle East countries, Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan before reaching
Pakistan.

Pakistan receives little rainfall during winters.

Causes rainfall at lower altitudes and snowfall at higher altitudes.

Northern, North Western, and Western sides of Pakistan receive winter rainfall.

Examples: Murree, Swat, Gilgit, Hunza, Mardan, Peshawar, Quetta, Ziarat.

Convectional Rainfall (April - June, Oct - Nov)

Experienced by locally evaporated winds.

Water molecules go up to the atmosphere through local evaporation & transpiration.

After condensation, clouds form and cause rainfall at nearby places.

Convectional currents can cause windstorms or thunderstorms.

Can be experienced at any place in Pakistan, particularly North and North-Western areas.

Rawalpindi and Peshawar receive rainfall in early summer.

Relief Rainfall

Mainly confined to northern mountainous areas.

High rate of evapotranspiration.

Windward side of mountains receives more rainfall than the leeward side.

Tropical Cyclones

Bring a few hours of very heavy rainfall with destructive winds to coastal areas.

Originate over the Arabian Sea.

Considered an unreliable source of rainfall.

Climatic Zones

High land Zone

Low land Zone

Arid Climate

Coastal Climate (Maritime Climate)

Causes and Benefits of Floods

Causes of Floods

Melting of snow during winter.

Heavy monsoon rainfall.

Cutting of trees on the foothills increases surface run-off.

Failure to strengthen embankments alongside rivers.

Benefits of Floods

Return nutrients to the land.

Distribute rich sediment and refresh streams.

Spread a layer of alluvium, increasing fertility.

Beneficial for the reproduction, breeding, and multiplication of inland freshwater fish and prawn
species.

Recharge ground water supplies.

Droughts in Pakistan

Impacts of Droughts

A prolonged shortage of water.

Lack of rainfall destroys crops.

Brings famine, disease, and death on a massive scale.

Types of Drought

Permanent droughts

Seasonal drought

Invisible drought

Unpredictable drought

Causes of Droughts in Pakistan

Unreliability of monsoon winds.

Global climate.

Deforestation

Mismanagement of water resources.

Disputed and unfair distribution of water.

Overgrazing

💧 Water Resources

Natural Resources

Renewable Resources

Can be recycled or reused.

Examples: water, sunlight, wind power, tidal power, and geothermal power.

Sustainable resources: vegetation, soil, landscape.

Nonrenewable Resources

Occur in limited quantity.

Will run out if use continues.

Examples: fossil fuels and minerals.

Hydrological Cycle

The process where water reaches the ground from the atmosphere as rain, snow, or hail
(precipitation). Some water runs off as rivers and streams into lakes and the sea. The rest is used by
plants or soaks into the ground. Water returns to the atmosphere as vapor through evaporation from
surface water and transpiration from plants. Rising water vapor cools to form water droplets through
condensation.
The Indus System

Largest river of Pakistan, watered by glaciers of the Karakoram and Hindu Kush.

Source: Lake Mansorowar at Tibet, China.

Flows southwest after crossing the Himalayas and enters Pakistan.

Enters the plains of Punjab and Sindh after leaving the mountainous region of Kalabagh.

Flows into the Arabian Sea.

Total journey: about 2900 km.

Tributaries of the Indus

Tributary Type Rivers

Eastern Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej

Western Swat, Kabul, Kurram, Tochi, Gomal, Zhob

Eastern Tributaries

Rise in the Himalayas and pass through Kashmir.

The river Beas joins the river Sutlej before entering Pakistan.

All join at Panjnad and flow for about 72 km before joining the Indus at Mithankot.

Western Tributaries

Smaller in length and width, with less water than eastern tributaries.

Baluchistan River System

Quetta is central to the drainage pattern of Baluchistan due to its high altitude.

Rivers Zhob, Khandar, and Kalachi drain into river Indus (eastward flow).

Rivers Loralai, Chakar, Bolan, and Mula are absorbed into Kalachi Sibi Plain.

Rivers Hab, Porali, Hingol, and Mashkel drain into the Arabian Sea.

Many small rivers are absorbed in the land, creating an inland drainage pattern.

Braided river channels: Depressions flooded only during heavy rainfall, otherwise dry.

Indus Waters Treaty (1960)

A water-distribution treaty between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank.

Signed in Karachi by Jawaharlal Nehru and Ayub Khan.

Control of the three "eastern" rivers (Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej) was given to India.

Control of the three "western" rivers (Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum) was given to Pakistan.

Dams in Pakistan
Tarbela Dam: Earth fill dam on the Indus River.

Mangla Dam: Multipurpose dam on the Jhelum River.

Warsak Dam: Concrete gravity dam on the Kabul River.

Kalabagh Dam: A proposed hydroelectric dam on the Indus River.

Diamer-Bhasha Dam: A gravity dam on the River Indus.

Khanpur Dam: A dam on the Haro River.

Baglihar Dam: A run-of-the-river power project on the Chenab River (in Kashmir, India).

Ground Water

Water available under the ground, brought to the surface via lift irrigation: shallow wells, tube wells,
and the Karez system.

Can be sweet or saline (but not saline near the sources or recharge).

Traditional Methods of Irrigation

MethodDescription

Shaduf A pole balanced on a crossbeam with a rope and bucket on one end and a counterweight on
the other.

Well A hole dug in the ground to obtain subsoil water (3-5 meters deep, sometimes up to 15
meters).

Inundation canals Long canals taken off from large rivers, receiving water when the river is high
(especially during floods).

Charsa Animal power is used to pull water from the well.

Persian Wheel A chain of buckets slung around a vertical wheel, turned by interlocking wheels
powered by an ox or bull.

Karez An underground structure for collecting groundwater and conveying it to the surface.

Modern Methods of Irrigation

MethodDescription

Perennial canals Linked to dams and barrages to provide water throughout the year.

Tubewells Diesel or electrically operated pumps raise water from 92 meters to irrigate farms;
also lower the water table.

Sprinkler Connected to public water supply pipes, placed centrally in fields to water plants;
efficient with less water wastage.

Uses of Water

Agriculture (95% for irrigation)

Domestic uses:

Drinking
Cooking

Washing

Sanitation

Industrial uses:

Pharmaceutical industry

Tanning industry

Food processing

Chemical industry

Textile industry

Mineral water industry

Iron and steel industry

Thermal and hydroelectric power stations

Irrigation

Artificial supply of water.

75% of the cultivated area in Pakistan is under irrigation.

Canal systems irrigate vast areas and make deserts productive.

Dams and barrages regulate water supply.

Reservoirs store water from monsoon rainfall and melting snow.

Siltation in Reservoirs

Definition: The deposition of materials brought by the rivers in the reservoirs.

Causes of Siltation

Abundance of silt eroded from the Karakoram, Hindukush, and Himalayan mountains.

Deforestation

Rivers from narrow and deep valleys.

Effects of Siltation

Blockage of canals due to silt accumulation.

Weakens dam foundations.

Choking of irrigation canals.

Reduced reservoir capacity, affecting hydroelectric power generation.

Less water for irrigation.

Hampered flood water flow, causing damage to the dam.

Control of Siltation

Large-scale afforestation.

Cemented embankment of canals for easier cleaning.

Installation of silt traps.

Raising the height of the dam.

Types of Canals

Inundation Canals/Seasonal Canals: Provide water only when the water table in the rivers is high.

Perennial Canals: Provide water for irrigation all year round.

Unlined Canals: Canals without concrete or cemented embankments.

Lined Canals: Canals with concrete embankments.

Water Logging and Salinity

Water Logging: The condition when the water table rises close to the ground surface.

Salinity: Occurs when ground water rises and evaporates, leaving salt behind.

Causes: Unlined perennial canals and slow water movement.

Solutions to Water Logging and Salinity

Installation of tube wells to lower the water table.

Planting of Eucalyptus trees to absorb extra water in the soil.

Lining of canals to avoid water absorption.

SCARP (Salinity Control and Reclamation Project) program launched in 1959.

🌳 Forests

Definition: A large stretch of area dominated by trees.

Ideally, about 25% of the total area should be covered with forest.

In Pakistan, forests dominate only 4-5% of the area.

Types of Forests

Productive Forests: Produce wood for furniture, herbs for medicines, etc.

Protective Forests: Planted to protect the environment, such as along roads, railways, and rivers.

Types of Forests Found in Pakistan

Forest Type Location Characteristics Uses

Alpine Forests North and North-Western mountains above 4000 meters. Stunted growth due
to low temperature, less sunlight, leaves directed downwards to avoid snow accumulation. Fuel
wood.
Coniferous Forests Between 1000 meters and 4000 meters height. Evergreen, cone-like shape,
sloping branches prevent snow accumulation. Furniture making, domestic fuel, medicine, wildlife
conservation, scenic beauty.

Subtropical Scrub Foothills of mountains and in plain areas. Good height, green for long
periods, broad-leafed and thorny species. Furniture making, sports goods, fuel wood, grazing.

Tropical Thorn (Rakh) Punjab plains, Southern and Western Baluchistan, and Sindh plains.
Trees do not attain good height (6-10 meters), thorny bushes, deep roots to search for water.
Fuel wood.

Riverain or Bela Active Flood Plains of river Indus and its tributaries. Linear plantation along river
banks, good height. Furniture making, sports goods making, paper making.

Mangrove Forests Coastal areas of Sindh and Baluchistan. Grow in salty water and marshy soil,
don't grow to good height.

Irrigated Forests Planted mainly by humans. Can be both productive and protective,
planted in linear style along roads, railways, canals. Protect environment, provide wood for
furniture, sports goods manufacturing, solution to water logging, paper making.

Deforestation

Definition: The removal of trees on a large scale.

Sustainable Forestry

Managing forest resources in a way that ensures regular access to forest products while conserving
the natural environment.

🎣 Fishing Industry

Overview

One of the oldest occupations for people near lakes, rivers, and the sea.

Breeding fish is called fish farming or aquaculture.

Share of 0.9% in Pakistan's GDP.

Earns 6% of total foreign exchange earnings by exporting fish, shrimps, and fish products.

Main occupation in the coastal settlements of Sindh and Baluchistan.

Total employed: 395,000.

125,000 (31.6%) in marine fishing

270,000 (68.4%) in inland fishing

Marine catch is nearly three times that of the inland catch.

Marine Fishing

Pakistan has a coastline divided into Sindh (30%) and the Makran (70%) coasts.

Karachi is the main fishing center in Sindh.

On the Makran coast, fishing ports are small (villages like Sonmiani and Jiwani).

Gwader is the most important fishing port on the Makran coast.

Types of Marine Fishing

Subsistence fishing: Fishermen and their families consume the fish they catch.

Commercial fishing: Fish is sold in the market. Fishing communities depend on fishing as the sole
source of income.

68% of the total marine catch is at Sindh coast.

Inland Fishing

Practiced in almost all the rivers and lakes in the country.

Large reservoirs behind dams, lakes of Sindh, and irrigation channels are utilized.

Dug ponds are also made for fish farming.

Fish farms: Rectangular man-made ponds with concrete or cemented bases to prevent water losses.

Main Fishing Centers

Manchar Lake in Dadu district

Kairi (Keenjhar) Lake north of Thatta

Haleji Lake west of Thatta

Reservoirs of Mangla and Terbela Dams

River Indus at Sukkar, Kotri, and Thatta

Fish Marketing

Pakistan has a domestic and an international market for fish, shrimps, and fish products.

At the domestic level, the catch is supplied to local fish markets through wholesale dealers.
Karachi is the main fishing center.

Per capita consumption is 1.6 kg p.a., which is quite low compared to European countries (20 kg
p.a.).

About 30% of the total fish catch is exported to 30 countries of the world.

Japan is the main market for fish and shrimps.

USA, UK, and France are other markets.

About 80% of the total fish catch of the Makran coast is dried for export.## 🐟 Sustainable Fishing

Banning fishing of endangered species is crucial to allow stocks to recover.

Using nets with specific hole sizes can help avoid catching smaller fish unintentionally (bycatch).

Illegal fishing must be stopped because it often disregards regulations, leading to the destruction of
fish stocks by catching immature fish.

Quotas need to be set for countries fishing in international waters to manage fish populations.

Mineral Resources

Formation of Minerals

Currently, there are over 3,000 known minerals, with about 50 new ones discovered each year.

Some minerals originate from hot magma. As the magma cools, mineral crystals form.

Most minerals form underground, where heat and pressure transform rocks.

Decomposition of organic matter (leaves, plants, bones) can also create minerals, a process that
takes millions of years and often occurs in oceans.

Mining Processes

Mining is the process of extracting rocks and minerals from the earth.
There are three main methods:

Open Cast Mining:

Used for minerals like coal and iron found near the surface.

Giant excavators and power shovels scoop up the minerals.

Underground Mining:

Two methods to access minerals underground:

Adit Mining:

An adit is an opening or passage into a hillside.

Horizontal tunnels are dug into hillsides to reach mineral deposits.

Shaft Mining:

Vertical shafts are dug down to reach minerals, especially coal.

This method is expensive and dangerous.

Metallic and Nonmetallic Minerals:

Both are highly prized. Many items are made from metallic minerals.

Some elements (gold, copper) occur in pure form, but most are found as ores.

Ores are compounds containing a high proportion of the metal.

The ore is crushed, and the worthless rock is removed.

Mineral resources are non-renewable, but many can be recycled.

Types of Minerals

Metallic Minerals Non-Metallic Minerals

Iron oreCoal

Copper Sulphur
Antimony Rock salt

Chromite Gypsum

Celestine Soapstone

Manganese Limestone

Gold Marble

Silver Clays

Tin

Bauxite

Organizations for Mining in Pakistan

Organization Year Started Main Function

Geological Survey of Pakistan 1947 Investigate mineral deposits

Pakistan Mineral Corporation 1974 Explore and market all minerals

Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation (PMDC) N/A Autonomous corporation attached

to the Ministry

Resource Development Corporation 1974 Investigate and develop copper mines at Saindak,
Balochistan

Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan 1979 Develop gemstone resources

Descriptions and Uses of Metallic and Non-Metallic Minerals

Mineral Description Uses

Rock Salt Seams vary in thickness (20-100 meters). White and pink in color, overlain by gypsum
and clay. Cooking, preservation, manufacture of soda ash, caustic soda, and other sodas for
laundries, textiles, and tanning.

Brine Chemical and fertilizer industry.

Limestone Major sedimentary deposit, widespread in Pakistan. Main raw material for
cement, manufacture of bleaching powder, glass, soap, paper, paints, and lime. Used to treat
sugarcane waste to produce alcohol fuel. Painted on barks of trees to counter pests and termite
attacks.

Coal Low quality coal. Mainly used in brick kilns, some for coal making, and a small
percentage for power generation. Thermal power stations.

Natural Gas Domestic and industrial uses.

Gypsum Grey, white, and pink. Manufacture of paints, fertilizers, and prefabricated
construction boards. White gypsum is used for making cement and plaster of Paris. Spread on saline
soil to help land reclamation for farming.

Marble Bands of white, grey, yellow, and brown.Buildings, flooring chips, and decorative pieces.
Clays China clay is used in the ceramic industry, for special cement. Fire clays (enduring
high temperature) are used to make fire bricks, pottery, and chemicals.

Magnetite Manufacture of cement, fertilizer, rayon, paper pulp, chemicals, and

pharmaceuticals.

Sulphur Chemical industries to manufacture sulfuric acid, paints, explosive materials, rayon,
and fertilizers.

Chromite Gives hardness and electrical resistance to steel. Used for bridges, railway
carriages, metallurgical furnaces, engineering tools, and stainless steel.

Iron Ore Steel making, construction, and the transport industry.

Copper Making electrical wires and appliances, especially switches that carry current. Also
used in making alloys, water pipes, and tanks.

Manganese Making dry batteries and paints. A vital alloy in steel making.

Bauxite Utensils, tins, cans, etc.

🌾 Agriculture

Agriculture is a primary industry that obtains raw materials from the ground for immediate
consumption or further processing.

All types of agriculture can be viewed as a system with inputs, processes, and outputs.

Inputs

Natural (Physical):

Land

Soil

Climate

Water

Human (Economic):

Capital

Machines

Fertilizers

Labor

Knowledge
Land ownership

Traditions

Irrigation

Pesticides

Types of Farming

Small Scale Subsistence Farming

Cash Crop Farming

Cropping Seasons in Pakistan

Rabi Crops:

Sown in October to November and harvested in April to May.

Kharif Crops:

Sown in April to June and harvested in October to November.

Examples: Rice, sugar cane, millets, maize, and cotton.

Main Crops

Wheat:

A staple food used in the manufacture of bread and baked products.

Low grades are used as livestock feed.

Grown in canal-irrigated areas of Punjab and Sindh.

Waterlogged areas are not suitable.

Cultivation:

Sown in October-December after plowing.

Requires less water; irrigated twice.

Harvested after three months.

Growing wheat production: Increased due to new varieties and improved farming methods.

Pakistan is rarely self-sufficient in wheat due to increasing population and decreasing cultivable area.

Maxi pak is one of the most widely used varieties in Pakistan.

Rice:

Grown on a large scale in Punjab and Sindh.

Small-scale subsistence farming in northern hilly regions.

Cultivation:

Seeds sown in nurseries, then transplanted to flooded fields (30-37 cm deep).

Fields kept full of water until rice is ripe.

Threshing is done by animals or mechanical threshers.

Rice husks are used for making cardboard or covering roofs of houses.

Use of the Irri Pak variety has doubled rice production.

Export of Basmati rice has increased.

Cotton:

Known as the king of fiber, widely used textile fiber.

A Kharif crop.

Cultivation:
Seeds sown in April-May, 30-45 cm apart.

Irrigated one month later, then again after two months.

Cotton bolls ripen in October-November.

Plant reaches 135-150 cm in height.

After picking, bolls are transported to ginning mills where seeds are separated from the lint.

Cotton seeds are used as animal feed and for oil extraction.

Varieties: Old varieties like Pak. Upland and Desi. High-yielding varieties like Nayyab 78, B-557, 149 F

Sugar Cane:

Used to make sugar, brown sugar, and Gur.

Cultivation:

Stalks (30 cm high) are planted in April-May, 30 cm apart.

Quality depends on proper irrigation and fertilizers.

Reaches 6-7.3 feet in height.

The crop can be rattooned (harvested for 2-3 years).

New shoots (rations) grow after harvesting.

Cutting requires manual labor.

At the sugar mill, cane is scrubbed, and juice is extracted and processed to produce white sugar.

Bagasse and molasses are major by-products.

Maize:
A Kharif crop.

Used as a food grain and raw material for edible oil production.

Used in the manufacture of corn flour, custard powder, and other processed foods.

Also used as fodder for animals and poultry.

Pulses:

Rich in proteins and popular in the local diet.

Fix nitrogen in the soil, helping to fertilize the following crop.

Considered low-value crops due to low cash returns.

Important pulses: Mung, Mash, Grams, Masoor.

Millets:

Jowar and bajra are two millets produced.

Used as fodder for animals and poultry.

Oil Seeds:

Sunflower, soya bean, rape seed, mustard, sarson, rai, linseed are used to extract edible oil.

Production is insufficient, so 68% of edible oil is imported.

Tobacco

🐄 Livestock Farming in Pakistan

Rearing animals is one of the oldest and most common occupations in Pakistan.

Shamilat are the grazing fields of the villages.

Farmers who own bullocks, cattle, buffaloes, or sheep are considered respectable.

Types of Farming

Subsistence Farming

Commercial Farming

Types of Subsistence Livestock Farming

Nomadic:

Practiced by nomadic people in Baluchistan and desert areas of Punjab and Sindh.
People move with animals in search of food and water.

Rear sheep, goats, and camels.

Sheep and goats provide milk and meat; camels carry loads.

Transhumance:

Animals are kept on pastures high in the mountains in summer and brought down to lower pastures
in winter.

Common in the northern and western mountains.

Meat, dairy products, and wool are the main outputs.

Settled:

Practiced in the villages of Punjab and Sindh.

Cows and hens are kept for milk and eggs for the family.

Excess milk is processed to make butter or ghee.

Subsistence Livestock Farming as a System

Inputs:

Natural grazing fields

Water from ponds and lakes

Open land

Labor (women and children)

Process:

Natural breeding

Feeding

Milking manually

Slaughtering

Shearing wool from sheep

Outputs:

Milk
Meat

Wool

Eggs

Livestock Farming on a Commercial Farm

Practiced on a small scale by private owners or on a large scale by government-owned or military

farms.

Scientific methods are not necessarily used.

Dairy farms often lack drainage or water supplies.

Fodder is brought from crop-growing areas.

Cattle dung is collected, dried, and sold as manure or domestic fuel.

Notable exceptions include Australian-designed dairy farms for Islamabad and Karachi, and the Govt.
dairy farm for Quetta.

To boost livestock production, scientific breeding methods and better nutritional diets are in use on
many government farms.

Veterinary facilities are also provided.

Main Livestock Resources

Cattle:

Bullock

Cow

Camels

Mules

Buffaloes:

Nili bar

Kundi

Ravi

Sheep and Goats

Poultry:

Chicken (egg)
Factors Affecting Farming

Natural (Physical):

Topography

Soil

Water (including rainfall)

Temperature

Pests and diseases

Human (Economic):

Irrigation

Marketing

Size of farm

High-yielding varieties

Mechanization

Fertilizers

Plant protection programs

Effects of Chemical Use on the Environment

Farmers add nitrate fertilizer to increase crop yields, which is expensive.

Pesticides also drain into river water and cause pollution.

Nitrates in rivers encourage the growth of algae and large plants, using up oxygen and causing fish to
die.

Water used for domestic supply affects human health.

⚡ Power Resources

Nonrenewable Energy Resources

Coal:

A very old fossil fuel, formed by the decomposition of natural vegetation over millions of years.

Pakistan has bituminous to lignite types in limited quantity.

Types of coal:

(a) Anthracite:

Best quality coal.

Hardest with the highest hydrocarbon content.

Burns quietly with great heat.

Blackest coal.

Formed in thin layers very deep underground.

(b) Bituminous:

Steam coal, coking coal.

A superior black, hard coal found in highly compressed seams.

Burns with great heat.

Lower hydrocarbon content than anthracite.

Coking coal is burnt to produce coke.

Used in blast furnaces for the extraction of iron from the iron ore.

Formed between lignite and anthracite.

(c) Lignite:

Found near the surface and is easier to mine.

Lower quality coal with a high moisture and ash content.

Low heating value.

(d) Peat:

Exclusively vegetative matter, representing the initial stage of coal formation.

Slow carbon content.

Transportation of coal:

After extraction, coal is loaded onto trolleys that run on tracks to the outside surface.

In small coal mines, donkeys are used for underground transport.

Coal is separated by quality and sold to middlemen who supply it to brick kilns and cement factories.

Rail transport is used when supplying to thermal power stations if economically feasible.

Brick kilns use 65% of Pakistan’s coal production.

Coal as a preferred source of power:

Until the late 1990s, coal was considered the least popular energy fuel due to poor quality and
dangerous mining conditions.

Recently, the government has considered using coal in the industrial sector and for power generation
due to:

New reserves of coal discovered.

Pakistan has 7508 million tons of proven coal reserves.

Uncertainty surrounding oil prices and the foreign exchange involved in importing oil.

Mineral Oil (Petroleum):

The most important fossil fuel today, also known as black gold.

Occurs in porous spaces of sedimentary rocks, derived from the decomposition of marine animal and
vegetation matter over millions of years.

Found hundreds of meters underground or under the sea bed.

Occurs in dome-shaped anticlines between two layers of non-porous rocks.

The oil is trapped in the anticline with gas above and water below.

Oil Prospecting and Drilling:

Wells are drilled to pump the liquid fuel out of the ground.

Once the drilling site is selected, a derrick or drilling rig is set up.

The derrick is a large steel structure that holds the drilling pies and other equipment.
Oil Refining:

Crude oil cannot be used in its raw state.

It has to be processed and refined into useful products such as petrol, heating oil, kerosene, and
diesel oil.

It is cheaper to import crude oil and refine it locally than to import refined products.

Crude oil production accounted for 36.15% and import oil accounted for 63.85%.

Refined oil production is 33.58%, whereas the import of refined oil accounted for 64.42%.

A substantial proportion of Pakistan’s import bill is spent on petroleum products, which is a great
burden on foreign exchange reserves.

Oil Refineries:

Pak-Arab Refinery Ltd.

National Refinery Ltd.

Byco Petroleum Pakistan Ltd. (Byco)

Pakistan Refinery Ltd. (PRL)

Enar Petroleum Refining Facility (Enar)

Indus Oil Refinery Ltd

Attock oil refinery

Uses of Oil:

By-products (wax, plastics, synthetic rubber, detergents, pharmaceutical products, furnace oil)

Source of power (thermal electricity, for heating)

Lubricant for machines

Indispensable motor fuel (petrol, diesel, aircrafts, cars, buses, rail engines)

Transportation of Imported and Local Petroleum:

(i) Transport at Sea:

Pakistan’s imported petroleum is transported by sea from oil-producing countries through oil
tankers.

At Keamari port or Port Qasim, the oil tanker is berthed at the designated oil pier.
The oil products are pumped from the oil tanker to the oil marketing companies/refineries storage
tanks.

(ii) Transport on Land:

(a) By pipeline

(b) By road tanker

(c) By rail tanker

Transportation by road and rail tankers is relatively costly, time-consuming, and inefficient compared
to transmission by pipelines.

Movement of these products by roads is dangerous for traffic and causes extreme degradation to the
existing road surface.

Pipeline transportation is the most efficient, convenient, and cheapest mode of transportation,
besides being environmentally friendly.

PARCO’s project for the transportation of oil:

In 2002, PARCO launched a white oil pipeline project (WOPP), which carries refined oil from Karachi
to the north.

After conversions of PARCO’s existing pipeline network for crude oil transportation, the white oil
pipeline is used for the transportation of refined petroleum products to the central and northern
regions of Pakistan.

These areas account for almost 60% of the total petroleum consumption in the country.

Bin Qasim Port is the initial point of the White Oil Pipeline project.

The new underground pipeline cost $480 million and also carries refined oil from the Pakistan oil
refinery at Port Qasim to Mahmood Kot in district Muzaffargarh, covering a distance of 817 KM.

Natural Gas:

Found in oil-bearing rocks above the oil.

These rocks have millions of tiny holes.

Above these rocks is a layer of non-porous rocks that trap the gas underground.

Natural gas is made up of many gases, especially methane, ethane, propane, and butanes.
Natural gas was discovered in 1952 at Sui, Baluchistan.

When natural gas is cooled to a very low temperature, it turns into a liquid called liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG).

It can be moved from place to place in special cylinders.

In mountainous areas where there are no gas pipelines, many people use LPG for heating and
cooking.

Main Gas Fields:

Sui, Baluchistan

Pirkoh, Baluchistan

Mari, Lower Sindh

Meyal, Potwar

Dhurnal, Potwar

Organization to Develop Oil and Gas Resources:

(i) Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) 1947

(ii) Oil and Gas Development Company Limited (OGDCL) 1961

(iii) Sui Northern Gas Pipeline Limited (SNGPL)

(iv) Sui Southern Gas Company Limited (SSGCL) 1963

(v) Pak Arab Refinery Co. Ltd.(PARCO) 1974

(vi) Pakistan state oil company limited (PSO) 1976

(vii) Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan 1970

Nuclear Energy:

Power released from atoms.

The most powerful source of energy.

In atomic fission, energy is released when atoms split into their constituent parts.

In atomic fusion, energy is released when atoms are fused together.

At present, nuclear power stations are based on atomic fusion.

Pakistan is trying to utilize nuclear energy for electricity generation.

The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was commissioned in 1971 as the first nuclear power station. It has
an installed capacity of 137 MW.

The second Nuclear power plant, Chashma Nuclear Power Plant, was commissioned in 1999.

Thermal Electricity:

Electricity generated by non-renewable resources (coal, gas, nuclear fuel).

Fossil fuels and nuclear power stations produce heat energy, which turns water into steam, which
runs turbines.

Renewable Energy Resources

Hydro Electric Power (HEP):

HEP stations use the force of flowing water to spin the hydro-turbines.

From a hydro turbine, a shaft goes into the generator.

The shaft spins rapidly inside a magnetic field in the generator, generating electricity.

The electric current is regulated by the transformer and sent through the power line at the required
voltage.

HEP is best developed in mountainous regions where precipitation is adequate and there is a steep
slope or gradient.

Locations for HEP:

Kurramgari, Warsak, Dargai, Malakand, Tarbela, Mangla, Rasul, Shadiwal, Nandipur, renalakurd,
chichokimalian

Locations:

Thermal Power Station:

Daudkhel, shahdara, sahiwal, multan, quetta, guddu, sukkur, kotri, Hyderabad

Nuclear Power Station:

Chasma, Karachi

Profile of Electricity Generation

WAPDA and KESC are the main organizations involved in power generation, transmission, and
distribution of electricity.

The Karachi nuclear power plant (KANUPP) a public sector organization and some independent
private produces (IPP) are also involved in power generation.

Installed Generation Capacity:

HEP produces 4,825 MW (41.72%)

Thermal produces 6,741 MW (58.28%)

Alternative Sources of Energy

Solar Power:

Solar power is used in several ways.

One way is to collect it in solar cells (photovoltaic cells).

Solar cells can power radios and even small cars.

Solar furnaces use giant mirrors to focus the sun's rays on boilers.

Steam from the boiler is used to make electricity.

Solar panels collect heat energy from the sun.

Pakistan has the potential for solar energy as there are 250-300 sunny days.

Solar power is safe, pollution-free, efficient, and limitless.

Bio Gas:

Produced from animal and plant waste.

Fermentation of cow dung gives off methane gas, used for cooking, heating, and other purposes.

Bio gas projects are in the process of development.

Although bio gas is a cheap source of energy, it means cow dung can no longer be used as manure.
Methane is a greenhouse gas and will increase air pollution.

Wind Energy:

Wind turbines operate on a simple principle.

The energy in the wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a rotor.

The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity.

🏭 Secondary and Tertiary Industries

Secondary Industries

Secondary Industries (SI) are concerned with changing raw material from the primary sector or
secondary products to form a semi-finished or finished product.

Industrialization in Pakistan 🏭

Inputs and Outputs

Industry can be viewed as a system that takes inputs, applies a process, and produces outputs.

Inputs:

Capital: Finances for establishing and managing factories.

Enterprise: Business skills to develop ideas, manufacture products, and market them successfully.

Land: Location for the industry.

Raw Material: Resources and power used in the industry.

Labor: The workforce's size, skills, and characteristics.

Processes: Smelting, weaving, spinning, dyeing, printing, knitting, molding.

Outputs: Cement, cotton yarn, ghee, lime, sugar, wheat flour, soft drinks, tinned fruit, bottles, cotton
cloth, nuts and bolts, steel sheets, wire, electric motors, wheel hubs, drugs, fans, garments, motor
cycles, factories, office blocks, hospitals, and schools.

Factors for Industrial Location

The location of an industry is influenced by both physical and human factors:

Physical Factors:
Natural routes

Site requirements

Human Factors:

Raw material availability

Market access

Capital availability

Government policies

Skilled labor

Industrial linkages

Power supply

Principal Factory Industries in Pakistan 🏭🇵🇰

Cotton Textile Industry (CTI)

Largest industry in Pakistan, employing 50% of the industrial labor force.

Main centers: Karachi, Hyderabad, and Faisalabad.

Exports: Raw cotton, cotton yarn, cotton cloth, and ready-made garments.

Importance: Contributes 7% of the GDP and nearly 60% of total exports.

Sugar Industry 🍬

Located in Punjab, NWFP (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), and Sindh. Balochistan has no sugar mills.

Mills must be near sugarcane fields because:

Sugarcane loses sugar content after harvesting.

Sugarcane is bulky and expensive to transport.

By-products and their uses:

Bagasse: Fuel in sugar mills, chipboard, paper, and animal feed.

Molasses: Manufacturing various acids in the chemical industry.

Fertilizer Industry 🧪

Increased since the Green Revolution in the 1960s.

Important for increasing agricultural production.

Raw materials: Sulphur, phosphate, gypsum. Natural gas is the main raw material now.
Main locations: Faisalabad and Daud Khel in Punjab, Haripur in NWFP, and Dharki in Upper Sindh.

Nitrogenous fertilizer is most commonly used (92%) due to soil deficiencies.

The Pak Arab Fertilizer Factory at Multan started production in 1979.

Cement Industry 🧱

Favorable factors for development:

Availability of raw materials (limestone and gypsum)

Good domestic market with high demand.

Natural gas used as a cheap fuel.

All Pakistan Cement Manufacturers Association (APCMA) is the apex body.

Steel Industry ⚙️

Milestone in industrialization.

Pakistan Steel Mill Corporation was established in 1973 at Pipri with USSR assistance.

Provides raw materials to the engineering and construction industries.

Products: Coke, pig iron/hot metal, rolled and cast billets, galvanized products, and raw steel.

The Heavy Mechanical Complex Ltd (HMC) was established at Taxila in 1979 with Chinese assistance.

HMC manufactures industrial plants and machinery.

The Heavy Forge Factory (HFF) at this complex is crucial for Pakistan’s defense production needs.

HMC also manufactures equipment for power plants, oil and gas processing plants, chemical plants,
boilers, cranes, construction machinery, and railway equipment.

Industrialization and the Private Sector

After 1947, the private sector hesitated to invest in capital-intensive industries.

The Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC) invested in industries (fertilizers, textiles,
cement, chemicals, sugar, paperboard) in which the private sector was reluctant.

PIDC later transferred projects to the private sector when the risk was reduced.

During the 1960s, the country became self-sufficient in most agro-based industries, known as the Era
of Industrialization.

Cottage/Craft Small Scale Industries

Important in the rural setup.

Villages are mostly self-sufficient with carpenters, blacksmiths, potters, craftsmen, and cotton
weavers.

Many families depend on cottage industries for income.

Cities and towns also have gained importance.

High demand for hand-woven carpets, embroidered work, brassware, rugs, and traditional bangles.
Important export items in international markets.

Government Policy

Pakistan's Small Scale Corporation

Punjab Small Industries Corporation

Sindh Small Industries Corporations

The Small Industries Development Board KPK

The Directorate of Small Industries Balochistan

Industrial Pollution ⚠️

Serious health hazards

Contamination of subsoil water

Land pollution from industrial waste

Harmful wastewater for irrigation

Threat to marine life and mangroves

Reduction in fish production

Seaport pollution

Noise pollution

Tertiary Industry 🧑‍ገልግሎකයින්

Definition

Provides a service and is sometimes known as a service industry.

Examples: public administration, transport, defense, and tourism.

Tourism ✈️

Providing accommodations and recreation for travelers for pleasure.

Fastest growing industry.

Important factor in the economy for income and job creation.

Small scale in Pakistan.

International visitors:

Visitors on business

People visiting families

Tourists
Natural attractions of Pakistan:

Northern areas

Kaghan Valley

Swat Valley

Gilgit Valley

Skardu

Hunza Valley

Chitral

Cultural attractions in Pakistan:

Archaeological sites: Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Texila.

Historic sites: Khyber Pass, Badshahi Mosque, Muhabat Khan in Peshawar, Shalimar Gardens Lahore,
Allama Iqbal’s tomb.

Modern buildings: Faisal Mosque, Parliament Building and Presidential Palace, Mausoleum of Quaid,
Minar-e-Pakistan, dams, and barrages.

Salt mines

Traditional bazaars

Trade 🤝

Definition

Exchange of goods and services between different areas.

Benefits of Trade

Specialization of production

Promotes industrialization

May lead to rise GNP

Production of value-added goods

Transfer of information technology

Creation of employment opportunities

Exports and Imports

Exports: Goods and services sold to other countries, bringing foreign exchange into the country.
Imports: Goods and services bought from other countries, leading to a flow of foreign exchange
leaving the country.

Imports of Pakistan:

Wheat, edible oil, sugar, pulses

Machinery (textile, electrical, construction, mining, agricultural)

Petroleum and petroleum products

Textiles (synthetic fibers)

Fertilizers and other chemicals

Metals (iron and steel)

Major Exports:

Export Percentage

Cotton products 58.4%

Leather 6.1%

Synthetic textile1.2%

Rice 6.9%

Sports goods 1.9%

Others 25.5%

Balance of Payments

Balance of payments = value of exports - value of imports

Pakistan has a negative balance of payment because imports exceed exports.

Measures to correct negative balance:

Increasing exports

Restricting imports

Curtailing imports related to the tertiary sector

Export Processing Zones (EPZ)

Industrial units manufacturing products with export potential.

EPZ Authority, Pakistan was established in 1980.

EPZs in Pakistan:
Karachi Export Processing Zone (KEPZ)

Sialkot Export Processing Zone

Gujranwala Export Processing Zone

Infrastructure required for EPZs:

Located near seaports

Consistent government policies

Adequate air travel facilities

Efficient transport facilities

Efficient links to raw material sources

Strategic Geographical Situation of Gwadar

Location between Karachi and UAE and near Central Asian States (CAS).

Potential for EPZs due to:

Foreign investment along with Hi-Tech

Regional trade hub

Deep water port and export processing zone development

Functions of Export Promotion Bureau

Creating awareness about potential exports

Exploring and identifying market opportunities abroad

Assisting Pakistani entrepreneurs in international markets

World Trade Organization (WTO)

International institution for free trade by reducing restrictions.

Established in 1995, successor to GATT.

Pakistan's accessibility into international markets is based on competitiveness.

Trade Development Authority of Pakistan (TDAP)

Replaced the Export Promotion Bureau.

Under the administrative control of the ministry of commerce.

Transport and Communication 🚚

Importance

Development of transport system provides a sound base for the socio-economic growth of a country.
Major Means of Transport in Pakistan

Rail

Road

Air

Water

Pakistan Railways

Network of 8,775 km of track with about 900 stations & 54 train halts.

Stretches from Karachi to Peshawar & from Peshawar to Dargai.

Gauge system:

Broad gauge (5 feet 3 inches wide)

Meter gauge (3 feet 3 inches wide)

Narrow gauge (2 feet 6 inches)

Causes for Deterioration:

Lack of investment

Worn out rails & sleepers

Operational inefficiencies

Overstaffing & corruption

Uneconomic stations

Poor reservation system

Absence of dual line

Developments in PR:

Replacement of steam engines with diesel engines

Introduction of faster trains from Karachi to Lahore

Electric traction on 289 m from Lahore to Khanewal

Establishment of repair workshop (Moghalpura)

Construction of Karachi Circular Railway

Construction of railway track to Gwadar

Computerized ticketing system

Karakoram Express
Dry Ports 📦

Inland cities established dry ports to promote foreign goods.

Speeds up export & import procedures.

There are nine dry ports.

Aims of Establishing Dry Ports:

To reduce workload at Karachi Port & Port Qasim.

To help govt. in smooth collection of revenue.

To provide hassle-free transportation of cargo from production point to sea port.

To stimulate foreign trade activities in cities far from the sea port.

Requirements for Dry Ports:

Efficient rail transport with a container service.

Efficient managerial staff.

Huge storage sheds & open areas.

Refrigeration facilities for perishable items.

Roads

Road transport carries 82% of passenger traffic & 54% of freight.

Total network is 181,836 km.

The National Highway Authority is responsible for construction and maintenance.

Principal Roads of Pakistan:

The N5: Stretches for 1,260 km from Karachi through Lahore and Peshawar to Turkham.

The National Highway: From Karachi to Lahore.

The Grand Trunk Road (GTR): From Lahore to Peshawar. Built by Sher Shah Suri. Linking Kabul,
Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Lahore, Delhi, and Bengal.

The Indus Highway (N-55): 1,264 km long, runs along the Indus River, connecting Karachi with
Peshawar via D.G. Khan.

The RCD Highway: Connects Karachi to Quetta over 600 km away, then leads to Iran & Turkey.

Lahore-Quetta

Sukkur-Quetta
Karakoram Highway (KKH) (N-35): Connects China and Pakistan across the Karakoram mountain
range.

Makran Coastal Highway (N10): 653 km-long, runs along Pakistan's Arabian Sea coastline between
Karachi and Gwadar.

The Motorways of Pakistan: Network of multiple-lane, high-speed highways.

Why Need Motorways:

Quicker and faster mode of transport

Industrial estates to be established close to highway

Promote industrial growth

Employment opportunities

The motorways can be connected to Afghanistan and central Asian States to provide all year round
sea access to landlocked countries

Air Transport ✈️

In 1947, Orient Airways operated in Pakistan.

PIA was established in 1955.

Some private airlines like Aero Asia, Shaheen & Air Blue are operating in Pakistan.

Development of Air Transport:

Faster means of communication

Rise in general living standard.

Air transport can be accessed through the mountains.

The world has turned into a Global village due to improvement in Communication.

Karachi is an important air transit air route to and from Europe and East Asia.

Frequent visits of diplomats and foreign delegations.

Faster movement of perishable items

Water Transport 🚢

Developed only for international transport.

Kemari Port and Mohammad Bin Qasim are two important ports of Karachi.

Kemari Port:

Deep sea port.

Larger coaches.

Flyover & overhead etc. are being developed to ease out traffic problems.

Extension in the facilities to handle cargo.

Provision of navigational aids & radars.

Expansion in the storage & refrigeration facilities.

Environment protection equipment to keep sea water clean.

Port Qasim:

Located at about 20 km South East of Karachi at the Gharo Creek.

Also deep sea port, built in 1980.

Modern facilities to handle raw material for Pakistan steel.

Integrated multipurpose deep sea port and the industrial zone.

Pakistan National Shipping Corporation (PNSC):

Established in 1979.

Objectives:

Serve as operational links between major trading partners

Maintain influence on the freight rate

Save foreign exchange

Gwadar Port:

Located on the Makran coast in Baluchistan.

Could be a support port for Bin Qasim and Kamari.

Can provide a short way to Central Asian States.

Future Prospects of Gwadar:

Baluchistan needs its own fully developed sea port.

Support port to Bin Qasim & Kamari

Can help industries to be set up in the region.

Population 🧑‍🤝‍🧑

Demographic Transition Model

Population: The number of people living in an area at a particular time.

Overpopulation: When the population of a country couldn't generate its resources according to their
need.

Birth Rate: Number of babies/infants born per thousand or per hundred in one year.

Death rate: Number of people dying per thousand or per hundred in one year.

Growth rate: Birth rate - death rate.

Life expectancy: Number of years a person is supposed to live unless killed by an unnatural way
(calamity, murder & accidents etc.)

Sustainable population growth: Population size that can be supported by available resources

Population density:

No. of people living

per square area

per square area

No. of people living

Example:

200

000

000

796
,

096

251

people/km

796,096

200,000,000

=251 people/km

Causes of High Population Growth rate:

Early marriages

Religious Controversies

Opposition to contraceptives

Wish to have a son

Illiteracy

Refugees (Afghan)

Frequent changes in government hinders population welfare programmes

Children are employed as labor force in the forms and in the cottage industry

Larger families are preferred in villages to be employed in agricultural fields.

Solutions to High Population:

Educating the people

Convincing the people about the use of contraceptives

Convincing the Ulemas to give fatwas about the population planning

Improving the role of NGOs and other organizations.

Delayed marriages

Educating the women.

Migration ➡️

The process of moving from one place to another with intent of staying at the destination,
permanently or for a long period of time.

The difference between immigrate and emigrate is that immigrating is the act of entering a foreign
country to live, while emigrating is the act of leaving a country to live in another. Migration can be
done by push factor or pull factor.

One of the factors affecting population growth is international migration.

In recent years Pakistan has experienced more emigration than immigration.

Advantages of International Emigration for the People of Pakistan:

Can earn higher income / better prospects

Remittances sent home

Jobs for educated individuals (e.g., doctors, engineers, university lecturers)

Jobs for construction in the Middle East / domestic, restaurants, shops

Better living condition (e.g., Housing, electricity, sanitation etc.)

Social benefits (e.g., Education, healthcare etc.)

Religious freedom

Better food

Disadvantages:

Loss of educated workers (e.g., doctors, teachers)

Qualifications may not be accepted / language problems

High cost of living abroad

Prejudice (e.g., thought to be extremist)

Too many people there already

Need for permits (e.g., to enter country, work permit)

Exploited by traffickers / poor working and living conditions

Homesick / different culture

Rural Push Factors:

Lack of study opportunities

Lack of job opportunities

Social discrimination

Less medical facilities

Religious discrimination

Lawlessness

Lack of infrastructure

Political instability

Urban Pull Factors:

Study opportunities

More job opportunities

More or less social equality

More medical facilities

Less religious discrimination

Law is properly followed and obeyed

More infrastructure

Population Structure 🏢

Population structure means the 'make up' or composition of a population.

Looking at the population structure of a place shows how the population is divided up between
males and females of different age groups.

Population structure is usually shown using a population pyramid.

Population Pyramid 📊

A population pyramid illustrates the age structure of a country's population.

The population is distributed along the horizontal axis, with males shown on the left and females on
the right.

The male and female populations are broken down into 5-year age groups represented as horizontal
bars along the vertical axis, with the youngest age groups at the bottom and the oldest at the top.

The shape of the population pyramid gradually evolves over time based on fertility, mortality, and
international migration trends.

🌍 Population Movements: Migration, Emigration, and Immigration

Definitions

Migration: Movement of people from one place to another.

Emigration: The act of leaving a country.

Immigration: The act of entering a country.

Emigrants: Those who migrate.

Immigrants: Those who immigrate.

Types of Migration

Internal Migration: Movement within a country.

Rural to Urban

Rural to Rural

Urban to Rural

Urban to Urban

External/International Migration: Movement from one country to another, intending to stay a year or
more.

Seasonal Migration: Movement due to climatic changes.

Causes of Rural-Urban Migration

Rural Push Factors

Lack of employment opportunities.

Limited educational facilities.

Droughts damaging farmlands.

Water logging and salinity.

Poor law and order.

Poor standard of living.

Less access to qualified doctors and hospitals.

Shortage of clean water.

Traditional lifestyle.
Limited shopping opportunities.

Limited access to electricity and gas.

Urban Pull Factors

Better employment chances.

Higher paid jobs.

Better educational institutions.

Attractiveness of city lights.

More cultural freedom.

Better law and order.

Reliable food supplies.

Recreational facilities (parks, malls).

Better infrastructure.

Easy access to hospitals and doctors.

Easy access to gas, electricity, telephones.

Effects of Rural-Urban Migration

On Urban Areas

Burden on economy (increased demand for electricity, water, gas).

Increased pollution (air, water, noise).

Traffic issues.

Increase in crime rate.

Poverty leading to slums.

Changes in population distribution.

Spread of diseases.

On Rural Areas

Loss of workforce.

Loss of educated people.

Unbalanced sex ratio.

Government attention shifts away.

Less developmental funds.

Loss of infrastructure.

Lack of government investment.

Causes of Emigration from Pakistan

Better education opportunities abroad.

Expectations of getting a job.

Chances for higher wages.

Political instability and insecurity.

Terrorism activities.

Desire for a less culturally bound lifestyle.

Medical reasons.

Support families in Pakistan by earning better abroad.

Government encouragement for foreign exchange.

Causes of Seasonal Migration

Avoid severe summers/winters.

Find jobs in plains.

Nomadic movements in search of pastures and water.

Work in cotton/sugar mills.

Save from floods.

Enjoy holidays.

📊 Population Distribution and Density

Definitions

Population Distribution: The spread of people across the world.

Population Density: The number of people per unit area.

Factors Affecting Population Density

Factor Description

Topography Flat plains with well-drained, soft, deep, and alluvium-rich soils are ideal for
settlements, farming, and infrastructure development.

Climate Areas without extreme temperatures or rainfall are heavily populated due to favorable
conditions for crop growth and human sustenance.

Infrastructure Availability of facilities like gas, electricity, and water supply increases the standard of
living and attracts industries, leading to higher population density.

Resources Regions with natural resources such as minerals are densely populated due to
employment opportunities and economic benefits from resource extraction and export.
Political Stability Stable political environments attract investment and promote economic
growth, leading to higher population densities, while unstable conditions deter investment and lead
to population decline.

👨‍💼 Employment Divisions by Occupation

Definitions

Occupation: Employed labor force by sectors.

Employment: A job done for payment, using a person's services in return for payment.

Employee: A person employed for wages, paid to work.

Employer: A person or company that pays people to work for them.

Self-Employed: Working independently, not for an employer.

Underemployed: Not having enough work or work that fully utilizes skills and abilities.

Unemployment: Occurs when people who have

Primary Occupation

Extracting raw materials directly from the earth or sea (e.g., agriculture, mining, fishing).

Why people work in the primary sector:

Simpler skills required.

Inherited land.

High illiteracy rate.

Large percentage of rural population.

Two cropping seasons.

Need to feed a growing population.

Reserves of natural gas, petroleum, and other minerals.

Increased demand for fuel wood.

Large fish catch on the coasts.

Agro-based industries.
Why the rate is decreasing:

Division of land leads to small farms.

Waterlogging and salinity.

Rise in rural education.

Increased mechanization.

Consolidation of holdings.

Problems with landlords.

Industries developing outside of cities.

Secondary Occupation

Processing and manufacturing primary products (e.g., steel making, shipping, furniture making).

Tertiary Occupation

Providing services such as transport, banking, trade, insurance, administration, health, education.

Why the rate is increasing:

Higher earnings.

Increase in literacy rate.

Better working conditions.

Rise in the standard of living.

Growth of tourism.

Higher government investments in education and medicine.

Expansion of retail outlets.

Increased industrialization.

Growth of telecommunications.

Unemployment in Pakistan

Causes of Unemployment

Inability and unwillingness to work: Some individuals may lack the necessary skills or motivation to
find employment.

Political instability: Discourages both local and foreign investment, leading to fewer job
opportunities.

High population growth: Exacerbates the scarcity of available jobs.

Mismatch of labor supply and demand: The skills, gender, or age of job seekers may not align with
employer requirements.

Rural-to-urban migration: Individuals moving to cities in search of work may remain unemployed due
to factors like illiteracy.
Technological advancements: Increased automation in production reduces the need for human labor.

Mechanized farming: Reduces the number of workers required in agriculture.

Solutions to Unemployment

Technical education and skill training: Equip individuals with marketable skills.

Establishment of heavy industries: Encourage job creation through industrial development, including
inviting foreign investors.

Cottage industries in rural areas: Promote local employment opportunities.

Computer education: Enhance skills relevant to modern industries.

Establishment of technical institutions: Provide specialized training.

Industrial estates and export processing zones: Create concentrated areas for industrial activity.

Dry ports: Facilitate trade and logistics.

Seasonal industries: Utilize seasonal opportunities for employment.

Government schemes: Implement programs to stimulate employment, such as the Khushal Pakistan
Programme.

Overseas employment opportunities: Explore avenues for Pakistanis to work abroad.

Literacy and Education

Definition of Literacy

The ability to read and write.

Reasons for High Illiteracy

Lack of government investment: Insufficient funding for educational projects.

Child labor: Children leaving education to work.

Low priority in rural areas: Education is not emphasized in rural communities.

Lack of schools and colleges in rural areas: Limited access to educational institutions.

Poverty: Families cannot afford school fees and related costs.

Expensive private schools: Private education is unaffordable for many.

Lack of teaching staff: Shortage of qualified teachers and lecturers.

Large rural population: Remote areas lack educational facilities.

Reasons for Higher Female Illiteracy

Lack of public institutions for girls: Fewer schools specifically for girls.

Parental preferences: Parents may prefer educating boys over girls.

Poverty: Families prioritize boys' education due to limited resources.

Traditional attitudes: Beliefs that women's roles are domestic.

Male-dominated society: Prioritization of male education.

Importance of Education

Agriculture: Enables farmers to read instructions on fertilizers and pesticides, leading to better yields.

Finance: Necessary for understanding and signing bank loans.

Operation of Machinery: Required for operating complex machines in agriculture and industry.

Extraction of Minerals: Provides skilled workers for mineral extraction, contributing to self-
sufficiency.

Technology: Enables workers to operate computers and advanced machinery.

Leadership and Management: Develops organizational skills needed for successful companies.

Healthcare: Increases the number of doctors and improves health conditions.

Family Planning: Improves family planning services, leading to better resource distribution and
reduced rural-urban migration.

Telecommunications: Facilitates the use of the internet and other technologies for research and
business.

🚏 Road Network of Pakistan

Distribution and Density of Roads

Region Description

Sindh Major highways (N-55, N-5) run along both banks of the Indus River, connecting Karachi,
Thatta, Hyderabad, and Sukkur. The M-10 motorway is near Karachi, with Karachi and Hyderabad as
main hubs.

Punjab Dense road network interconnects cities along riverbanks and across doabs, with main foci at
Lahore, Faisalabad, and Multan. Motorways connect Lahore with Faisalabad and Islamabad.

Balochistan Quetta is the central focus with roads leading in all directions: to Afghanistan
(Chaman), Iran (Dalbandin), and Punjab/Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa (Zhob). N-40 and N-25 form the RCD
highway to Karachi/Iran.

Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa The Indus Highway connects Dera Ismail Khan and Peshawar. A highway
leads to Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass. M-1 connects Peshawar with Islamabad.

Gilgit-Baltistan The Karakoram Highway connects Hassan Abdal (near Islamabad) with China via the
Khunjerab Pass.

Reasons for Road Distribution

Punjab: Highest density due to large population and economic activity.

Balochistan: Low density due to rugged terrain and sparse population.

Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa: Road network connects valleys, limited by rough terrain.

Sindh: Primarily South-North pattern following the Indus River.

Importance of Road Network

Versatility: Serves areas inaccessible to rail and air.

Door-to-door service: Provides direct delivery.

Dominant mode: Most goods are transported via roads.

24/7 availability: Operates at all times.

Cost-effective: Cheap for short distances.

Less documentation: Simplified paperwork compared to rail and air.

Reduced handling time: Faster loading and unloading.

Limitations of Road Network

Expensive over long distances: Costly and time-consuming.

Limited capacity: Cannot carry goods in bulk like rail.

Terrain limitations: Difficult to serve mountainous areas.

Traffic jams: Susceptible to delays.

Recent Developments and Future Plans

M4 Motorway: Links Southern Punjab with the motorway network.

M8 Motorway: Connects Gwadar to Ratodero, serving the Makran Coast.

Islamabad-Murree-Muzaffarabad Expressway: Improves connectivity to northern areas.

Torkham-Peshawar Expressway: Planned to facilitate trade with Afghanistan.

Sialkot-Lahore Expressway: Under consideration to improve trade between key cities.

M-7 and M-6 Motorways: Planned to connect Rotadero with Karachi and Dera Ghazi Khan,
respectively.

M-5 Motorway: Connects Multan with Dera Ghazi Khan, improving access to Southern Punjab.

Advantages of Developing Motorways

Industrial growth: Facilitates transport of products and raw materials.

Improved dry port operations: Provides alternate transport during rail disruptions.

Wider and better quality roads: Enhances traffic flow.

Congestion relief: Reduces traffic on existing highways.

Tourism boost: Easier access for tourists and professionals, boosting local economies.

Disadvantages of Developing Motorways

High costs: Expensive to build and maintain.

Limited suitability for bulk transport: Railways may be more economical for bulk goods.
Incomplete connectivity: May not connect all towns, leaving rural poverty unaddressed.

✈️Air Route of Pakistan

Distribution of Air Routes

South-North direction: Most routes run from south to north.

Indus Plains: Air routes primarily traverse the Indus Plains.

Major foci: Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Quetta, and Peshawar are major hubs with
international airports.

Minor routes: Branch from major airports to smaller cities like Bannu.

Limited flights: Few flights in the north and west of Balochistan due to low population and harsh
climate.

Reasons for Air Route Distribution

International airports: Karachi and other major cities have international airports serving domestic
and international commuters.

Population density: Airports in densely populated areas serve a larger affluent population.

Infrastructure: Cities with good transport infrastructure are preferred.

Plain areas: International airports require long runways, which are easier to construct in plain areas.

Administrative capitals: Cities like Quetta, Peshawar, Lahore, Karachi, and Islamabad are
administrative centers requiring connectivity.

Requirements for an Airport

Cheap, flat land: Essential for runway construction.

Capital: Required for lounges, parking, and control tower.

Utilities: Water supply, electricity, sanitation, and security.

Trained staff: Customs and traffic controllers.

Transport infrastructure: Good road and rail connections.

Nearby population: Sufficient population to use the airport.

Importance of Air Transport

Speed and distance: Quick and cheap over long distances, suitable for intercontinental travel.

High-value goods: Ideal for transporting lightweight, high-value items like computers.

Remote areas: Serves areas inaccessible by rail and road, such as Skardu.

Tourism: Facilitates tourism.

Emergency supplies: Important for distributing food and medical aid during disasters.

Recent Developments and Future Plans

Sialkot International Airport: Completed by the Sialkot Chamber of Commerce, facilitating exports of
high-value goods.

Multan International Airport: Runway extension and terminal building expansion to accommodate
larger aircraft and cargo flights.

Gandhara Airport: New airport being constructed to serve Islamabad, designed to be the largest and
most modern in Pakistan.

Railway Network of Pakistan

Distribution of Railways

Region Description

Sindh Starts from Karachi, broad gauge double lines to Hyderabad, then along the Indus to
Northern Sindh. Single line branches to India.

Balochistan From Rohri a single broad gauge line branches to Quetta. From Quetta, lines lead to
Afghanistan and Iran. Rail network density is low.

Punjab Double broad gauge from Rohri to Lodhran. Electrified lines from Khanewal to Lahore. Lines
run across doabs and along rivers. Single broad gauge lines are common.

Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa From Rawalpindi to Attock has a double broad gauge line. Major cities are
served by single broad gauge or narrow gauge lines. Rail network density is low.

Importance of Rail Transport

Cost-effective: Cheap for long distances within a country.

Speed: Quick for long distances.

Bulk transport: Can carry goods in bulk.

Suitable cargo: Ideal for low-value, high-weight cargo.

Traffic independence: Less affected by traffic.

Dry ports: Vital for the success of dry ports and deep-sea ports like Gwadar.

Limitations of Rail Transport

High maintenance costs: Costly maintenance of railway tracks.

Expensive for small quantities: Not suitable for small amounts of goods over short distances.

Fixed schedule: Lacks flexibility and door-to-door service.

Handling time: Time wasted during loading and unloading.

Old infrastructure: Unreliable infrastructure prone to accidents.

Recent Developments and Future Plans

Gwadar-Quetta Railway Line: Proposed railway line between Gwadar and Quetta.

Bostan-Zhob Railway: Conversion of narrow-gauge to broad-gauge line.

Increased train speeds and double track: Plans to increase train speeds and install more double
tracks.

Havelian-Kashgar Rail Link: Feasibility study for a rail link between Havelian and Kashgar (China) via
the Khunjerab Pass.

Electrification: Project for whole electrification of railways.

Mass transit systems: Planned for Lahore and Karachi.## 🚢 Trade

Trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders. It can be:

Domestic: Occurring within a country.

International: Occurring between two different countries.

International trade significantly contributes to the gross domestic product (GDP) of many countries.
Key differences between international and domestic trade include varying currencies, weight
systems, transport types, and higher quantities of goods traded to achieve economies of scale.

📈 Importance of Trade

Specialization of production

Promotes industrialization

May lead to rise in GNP (Gross National Product)

Production of value-added goods

Transfer of Information Technology

Utilization of domestic resources/raw material

Employment opportunities

Earning foreign exchange

Increasing national income

🌍 Reasons for Increase in World Trade

Industrialization: Increased production leads to surplus goods for export after local demand is met.

Increased communication facilities: Easier contact between people in different countries links
producers with consumers.

Better transport facilities: Perishable items can be stored longer and transported quickly over long
distances.

World Trade Organization (WTO): Facilitates trade by limiting or reducing trade barriers and
supervising international trade for fairness.

International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank: Provide loans to prevent countries from running
out of cash, although these must be repaid.
Trading blocs: Agreements like SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) reduce or
eliminate regional trade barriers.

💰 Imports

Imports are goods and services one country buys from another, leading to foreign exchange leaving
the country.

Pakistan imports from over a hundred countries, but approximately 40% of imports come from six or
seven countries.

Main Importing Partners

Saudi Arabia

Kuwait

United States of America

Japan

Malaysia

Germany

UK

China

EU

Trading Partners and Imports

Trading Partner Import

UK Machinery, Electrical appliances

Eastern Europe Machinery, Electrical appliances

USA Machinery, Vegetable Oil, and Wheat

Middle East Mineral Oil

Malaysia Edible Oil

Japan Machinery, Electrical appliances

Sri Lanka Tea

China Machinery, Electrical appliances, Stationery

📉 Methods to Reduce Imports

Increase the standard and quality of goods.

Impose heavy taxes on imported goods.

Apply quota system.

Stop the import of tertiary sector.

Reduce taxes on Pakistani goods.

Stop the import of luxury items.

Use local raw material instead of imported.

💸 Exports

Exports are goods and services one country sells to another, earning foreign exchange.

Pakistan trades with many countries, but its exports primarily go to six or seven countries.

Main Exporting Partners:

United States of America

Germany

Japan

UK

Saudi Arabia

China

Hong Kong

EU

Trading Partners and Exports

Trading Partner Export

UK Raw Cotton

Eastern Europe Cotton Cloth

USA Carpets, Rugs, Surgical & Sports Goods

Middle East Spices, Rice, Ready-made garments

Japan Fish and Fish Products

China Cotton Yarn

📈 Methods to Increase Exports

Reducing imports, especially capital and consumer goods.

Maintaining the standard and quality of the goods.

Export of value-added goods.

Establishment of small-scale industries.

Incentives to the investors.

Establishment of EPZ and industrial estates.

Establishment of Airports.

Stop the export of raw material.

Competitive prices.

⚖️Economic Measures

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

GDP measures the value of goods and services produced within a country's borders by citizens and
non-citizens alike.

Gross National Product (GNP)

GNP measures the value of goods and services produced by only a country's citizens, both
domestically and abroad.

Balance of Trade

Balance of trade is the difference between visible imports and visible exports.

Balance of Payments

Balance of payments is the difference between (visible and invisible imports) and (visible and
invisible exports). Invisible imports/exports are services like professional Pakistanis working in the
Middle East.

Negative Balance of Trade/Payment

The value of imports exceeds that of its exports.

Causes

Import of capital goods

Import of consumer goods

Import of mineral oil

Import of food items

Import of raw material for the steel industry

Less exports due to poor standard and quality

Effects

Developmental projects have to be curtailed.

Reliance on foreign assistance increases.

The imbalance of trade has to be filled by taking loans, which increases debt.

In case of non-payment of loans, an economic or trade embargo may be imposed.

In order to repay the loans, the assets of the country may have to be sold to foreign companies.

Higher taxes imposed, which limits the purchasing power of the consumer, resulting in lower
demand and less production.

Business and commercial activities slow down.

Effects on the Economy

A negative balance of payments necessitates that Pakistan urgently raises money to pay for its excess
imports. This often results in:

Taking out big loans from the IMF and World Bank.

Since these loans come with high-interest rates, the government needs to raise taxes to pay them
back.

This means that prices of goods increase in the local market.

Peoples real income decreases as they are able to buy fewer goods.

This results in low demand.

Dry Ports

Dry ports are inland ports, essentially inland terminals directly connected to seaports via rail or road
networks. They can be export or import oriented.

Sialkot dry port: export-oriented, organized for easier export of goods.

Dry Ports Under Pakistan Railways Management

Lahore Dry Port (1973)

Karachi Dry Port (1974)

Quetta Dry Port (1984)

Peshawar Dry Port (1986)

Multan Dry Port (1988)

Rawalpindi Dry Port (1990)

Dry Ports Under Private Sector Management

Sialkot Dry Port (1986): Busiest and first private dry port in Asia.

Faisalabad Dry Port (1994)

Pak-China Sust Dry Port

NLC Dry Port at Thokar Niaz Beg Lahore

NLC Dry Port at Quetta

Features of a Dry Port

Facilities for storage, preservation, and consolidation of goods

Refrigeration facilities

Loading area with lifts and cranes, etc.

Custom clearance services

Connection with road and railway infrastructure

Importance of Dry Ports

Custom clearance services: Goods are cleared inland, saving hassle at seaports, which saves time and
allows for easy and on-schedule exports.

Storage space is saved at the port area.

Containerization reduces the chance of damage or theft.

Taxes can be collected at the dry port.

Less storage space is required at the seaport, freeing up land for port extension.

Refrigeration facilities are available for perishable items.

Reduced transport charges due to bulk transport.

Producers inland can easily export their products at higher prices, incentivizing increased production
and improved quality.

📞 Communication

Communication is successful when the sender sends the correct message to the receiver, who
understands the message and responds, confirming understanding and acting upon it if necessary.

Pakistan has around a million broadband users and approximately 100 million mobile subscribers.
The telecom industry has a very high growth rate.

Means of Communication

Internet/Email

Telephone

Mobile

Fax

Radio

Video Conferencing

Importance in Buying and Selling

Locating suppliers: Customers can search and order goods online or by phone, both domestically and
internationally.

Advertising: Producers can advertise goods online and show customers the progress of their orders.

Logistics: Mode of transport and means of payment can be decided.

Importance in Developing Industries

Machinery procurement: Search over the internet, compare prices and specs, view pictures and
videos, and read reviews.

Advertising: Increases sales and market share, boosting profits and freeing up capital for investment.

Hiring: Online advertisements allow for hiring the best people from a wide pool.

Attracting foreign investment: Foreign investors can read news of promising developments, such as
Thar Coal deposits, fueling contract bidding.

Banking and finance: Bank policies and interest rates can be determined online, and online payments
save time.

Training: Employees can be trained via video clips.

Research and development: Research papers on new techniques can be read and implemented.

Video conferencing: Facilitates decision-making between managers in different locations.

Importance in Education

Broadcasting television lectures: Pakistan has the largest Wimax network in the world, enabling
television lectures to be broadcast to schools.

Online learning: Lectures can be recorded and put online for repeated viewing.

Visual aids: Videos can be made of complex models and put online.

Expanded reach: One teacher can do the work of many by leveraging technology.

Importance in Alleviating Rural Poverty

Controlling population growth: Education via telecommunications helps rural communities realize
the benefits of smaller families.

Increasing agricultural productivity: Farmers can be shown new methods and weather patterns to
plan their processes, increasing yields and profits, and enabling investment in fertilizers, insecticides,
etc.