Journal of American College Health

2024, VOL. 72, NO. 7, 2156–2163

https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2022.2103704

MAJOR ARTICLE

Black heterosexual college men’s masculinity dimensions, protective

behavioral intentions, and sexual risk behaviors
Samuella Ware, Ph.D., MPHa , Jennifer Toller Erausquin, Ph.D., MPHb, Amanda E. Tanner, Ph.D., MPHb
and Yarneccia D. Dyson, Ph.D, MSWc
Mirror Group LLC, Washington, D.C., USA; bDepartment of Public Health Education, University of North Carolina – Greensboro, Greensboro,
a

North Carolina, USA; cDepartment of Social Work, University of North Carolina – Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Objective: To examine the associations of dimensions of masculinity—respect/toughness and Received 28 January 2021
anti-femininity/hypersexuality—with sexual risk behaviors and protective behavioral intentions and Revised 20 June 2022
the effects of awareness of anti-Blackness. Participants: 127 Black heterosexual men were recruited Accepted 27 June 2022
from four Historically Black Colleges and Universities and one Minority Serving Institution in the KEYWORDS
South. Methods: Students completed an online survey as part of a pilot study to assess the sexual Masculinity; Black college men;
health needs of Black college students. Results: Our results indicated that respect/toughness and anti-Blackness; sexual risk;
anti-femininity/hypersexuality were significant correlates of protective behavioral intentions. After protective behaviors
accounting for awareness of anti-Blackness and age, anti-femininity/hypersexuality was a significant
correlate of sexual risk behaviors. Conclusions: Our study highlights the complex multi-dimensional
construct of masculinity and how forms of anti-Blackness continue to influence HIV vulnerability.
Therefore, there is a need to include structural factors within research to better understand
behaviors among Black college men and incorporate dimensions of masculinity that promote
healthy sexual behaviors in interventions and programming.

Introduction norms and behaviors for young Black men may be impacted
by awareness of anti-Blackness.
In the United States, Black heterosexual men make up 62% In this study, we first tested the association between
of all new HIV infections among all heterosexual men. masculinity dimensions and protective behavioral intentions
Young Black heterosexual men ages 15-24 make up 69% of and sexual risk behaviors. Then we examined the role of
new HIV infections among all young heterosexual men awareness of anti-Blackness on these associations among
within that age group.1 Additionally, 52% of new HIV infec- Black heterosexual college men.
tions occur in the southern region of the U.S. The Southern
United States,2 where many Historically Black colleges and
Universities (HBCUs) are located, has the highest rate of Masculinity and HIV vulnerability
HIV among youth. College campuses reflect the sexual
health disparities seen within the general population.3 Thus, Behaviors do not exist in a vacuum, but rather within social,
Black heterosexual college men are more vulnerable to HIV economic, political, and historical contexts. Masculinity also
than other heterosexual college men. HIV vulnerability has influences behaviors among Black heterosexual men.
been linked to sexual risk behaviors, such as concurrent Masculinity has been described as the observable traits,
and multiple sexual partnerships and condomless vaginal expected roles, and performances of men that occupy dom-
and anal sex.4 Conversely, decreased HIV vulnerability has inant spaces of gendered relations.7–9 It emphasizes domi-
been linked to protective behaviors such as sexual commu- nance over women and sexual minority groups. 8 Most
nication and HIV testing.4 Behaviors that impact HIV vul- importantly for HIV vulnerability, masculinity dictates that
nerability among Black men have been influenced by men should be sexually assertive, always ready to have sex,
traditional masculine norms such as aggression, view sex as primarily pleasurable, believe that penetration
anti-femininity, and hypersexuality.5 is the goal of sex, sexually controlling, and have multiple
Furthermore, how masculinity is enacted may differ partners.10,11
among Black men due to differing salience or experience In several studies, Black men have discussed multiple
with racial inequalities and anti-Blackness that place Black partners as a ‘natural’ part of their masculinity.12,13 Since
men at a disadvantage in relation to White men.6 Accordingly, dimensions of masculinity require dominance over others,
the relationship between adherence to traditional masculine men may feel a sense of conquest by having multiple

CONTACT Ware Samuella Samuella@mirrorgroupllc.com; samuellaware@gmail.com Mirror Group LLC

© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 Journal of American College Health 2157

partners.5 Additionally, being able to perform sexually is an Wright (1997) states, ‘[Black] masculine sexuality is, in fact,
important dimension of masculinity, and men have discussed a metaphor for personal power’ (p. 455). Intersectionality
not using condoms because they believed it would contribute acknowledges that not all men benefit from masculinity and
to their inability to maintain an erection.14,15 Other dimen- that Black men experience disadvantages because of their
sions of masculinity such as anti-femininity, sexual aggres- race. Thus, it is important to examine the role of awareness
sion, and violence16 also influence sexual risk behaviors of anti-Blackness.
(e.g., concurrent and multiple sexual partnerships and con-
domless vaginal and anal sex).17
Alternatively, masculinity has also been shown to promote Present study
protective behaviors and the prevention of risk behaviors.18–20 This current study addressed the gaps in research related
Relatively fewer studies to date have focused on masculinity’s to masculinity and HIV-related protective behaviors.
association with HIV protective behaviors. The role of mas- Additionally, this study tested the association between mas-
culinity in protective behaviors is, however, complex. Studies culinity and HIV-related sexual risk behaviors. Importantly,
have found that dimensions of masculinity such as respect this study examined the role of awareness of anti-Blackness
or respectability can discourage multiple female partners that could influence both protective behavioral intentions
21,22
and subsequently decrease HIV acquisition. In previous and sexual risk behaviors.
studies, the use of condoms signified dimensions of mas- The first research question tested the association between
culinity such as hypersexuality;23–25 therefore, men were masculinity dimensions (respect/toughness and anti-
more inclined to use them. These studies show that mas- femininity/hypersexuality) and protective behavioral inten-
culinity’s influence is multifaceted and can serve to promote tions. Based on literature showing the complex relationship
healthy and risky sexual behaviors.5,26 Accordingly, the cur- between certain dimensions of masculinity and protective
rent study tested the association between masculinity dimen- behaviors,18,32 we hypothesized that those with lower scores
sions and protective behavioral intentions and sexual risk of respect/toughness and anti-femininity/hypersexuality will
behaviors among Black heterosexual college men. have higher intent to use protective behaviors.
The second research question tested the association
Theoretical framework: Intersectionality between masculinity dimensions (respect/toughness and
anti-femininity/hypersexual) and sexual risk behaviors.
Intersectionality, a term first coined by legal scholar Kimberlé
Following the literature demonstrating that toughness,
Crenshaw, is a framework that examines overlapping iden-
anti-femininity, and hypersexuality can increase sexual risk
tities and how structures of power construct the settings in
behaviors,5 we hypothesized that higher adherence to mas-
which racially and economically marginalized individuals
culinity dimensions will be associated with greater odds of
live.27 Black heterosexual men have unique, multiple iden-
engaging in sexual risk behaviors. Specifically, those with
tities that make understanding their behaviors complex and
higher scores of respect/tough and anti-femininity/hyper-
multifaceted. These intersecting identities help shape and
sexuality will have greater odds of engaging in condomless
frame their experiences and provide a matrix of penalty and
vaginal and anal sex.
privilege as they navigate society.28 Black men experience
the privilege that their gender dominance and heterosexism
in society allow while, at the same time, experiencing racial Methods
disadvantage due to racism, discrimination, and classism.
In Western culture, White heterosexual men occupy a This study was part of a larger concurrent mixed methods
dominant space of masculinity. Hegemonic/traditional mas- study that examined the sexual health needs of Black college
culinity is idolized as a standard of masculinity that all men students. To be eligible to participate in the larger study,
should enact. However, due to sociohistorical factors such students needed to be enrolled at one of the participating
as years of racism and discrimination, Black men are hin- four HBCUs or one Minority-Serving Institution (MSI) in
dered from enacting hegemonic/traditional characteristics.29 the South (n = 5), identify as Black/African-American, and
Scholars have theorized that Black heterosexual men may have engaged in sexual activity once in their lifetime.
feel as though they need to prove their manhood through Participants completed a 70-item survey and were provided
behaviors that distance them from other marginalized groups, with a $25 gift card incentive for completing the survey.
such as women, to emulate hegemonic/traditional norms. This study focused on participants who identified as male
Additionally, experts in the field have theorized that because and heterosexual (n = 158). Human protection oversight and
of a hindrance to obtaining hegemonic masculinity, due to approval were provided by The University of North
racial disadvantage, Black men practice an alternative form Carolina-Greensboro.
of masculinity called subordinated masculinity.6 To acquire
power, Black men adapt their own masculinity revolving Recruitment
around sexual prowess, by ‘acting out’ through elements of
sexual promiscuity, hypersexuality, aggressiveness and vio- Purposive sampling was used, and emails were sent to
lence, hatred for feminine qualities, heterosexuality, and departmental listservs such as academic departments, athletic
denial of vulnerability.30,31 Scholars assumed that through departments, and student organizations, across the five uni-
these acts, Black men acquire what they perceive as power. versities to invite students to participate. Additionally, flyers
2158 S. WARE ET AL.

were placed in high-traffic areas across three of the univer- alpha with this study’s sample for respect/toughness was
sity campuses, and emails were sent to student organizations. 0.72, and anti-femininity/hypersexuality was 0.70.
To ensure adequate representation of Black men in the study, We tested Awareness of Anti-Blackness as a potential cor-
quota sampling was used to recruit more participants by relate. It was measured by the 9-item Black Masculinity
targeting two schools. These schools were used to recruit subscale in the Masculinity Inventory Scale (MIS).34 The
only men until a reasonable sample of one hundred men subscale consisted of items that stressed what being a Black
was reached at which time the recruitment was open man is like in relationship to White men (e.g., ‘Life is easier
to women. for White men than Black men’ and ‘The road to success
is easier for White men than Black men’). This subscale
had a 5-point response option (1 = Strongly agree to
Data collection and analysis 5 = Strongly disagree). The scale score was calculated as the
mean across the 9 items. A higher score indicated a higher
Participants completed the survey via a secure online survey
awareness of anti-Blackness. The Cronbach’s alpha with this
in Qualtrics, a Web-based data collection tool. Eligible par-
study’s sample was 0.90. Based on literature that states that
ticipants were prompted to review the study information
age is an important variable in masculinity development
and provide informed consent before completing the survey.
and behaviors among college students,35 age was used as a
control variable and was measured in years (continuous
Measures variable).

The outcome variables were sexual risk behaviors and pro-

tective behavioral intentions. Sexual risk behaviors were Statistical analysis
based on participants’ self-reports of sexual behavior and
condom use in the past 3 months. Sexual risk behaviors Participants who responded to all the questions relevant to
were dichotomized into two categories: those who had had the current study were included in analyses; non-response
condomless vaginal or anal sex in the last 3 months (elevated was treated by casewise deletion. For the number of con-
risk), and those who had not had sex or who had used a domless sexual behaviors in the past three months, we
condom during every vaginal or anal sexual encounter in removed unrealistic outliers. For example, some students
the last three months (no/low risk). Protective behavioral reported over 5,000 condomless sexual behaviors. Although
intentions were measured by an 8-item subscale in the STD possible, we believed it was not probable and therefore
Attitude Scale (Yarber, Torabi, & Harold Veenker, 1989), removed them from the analysis with sexual behaviors as
which included items that focused on STDs (i.e. gonorrhea, the outcome.
genital herpes, syphilis, HIV infection, and AIDS) prevention The data in this study were analyzed using SPSS (IBM
(e.g., ‘I will avoid sex contact anytime I think there is even SPSS Statistics for Windows, 2021). We used a stepwise
a slight chance of getting an STD’). Each item in this sub- linear approach to test if masculinity dimensions (respect/
scale had a 5-point response option (1 = Strongly disagree to toughness and anti-femininity/hypersexuality) were inde-
5 = Strongly agree). Scale scores were calculated as the mean pendently associated with protective behavioral intentions,
across the 8 items. Higher scores indicated a higher intent accounting for awareness of anti-Blackness. Model 1 included
to use protective behaviors, and lower scores indicated a respect/toughness and anti-femininity/hypersexuality, Model
lower intent to use protective behaviors. The Cronbach’s 2 included awareness of anti-Blackness, and Model 3 adds
alpha for the subscale for the study sample was 0.83. age. Similarly, we used a stepwise binary logistic approach
Correlate variables included two separate subscales to test the relationship between masculinity dimensions and
(respect/toughness and anti-femininity/hypersexuality) that sexual risk behaviors (the dichotomous outcome: condomless
measured masculinity dimensions, modified from the Male sex in the past 3 months [yes/no]). In the logistic regression
Role Attitudes Scale (MRAS).33 Respect/toughness included models, Model 1 included respect/toughness and
three items: ‘I believe a man always deserves the respect anti-femininity/hypersexuality, Model 2 included awareness
of his wife and children’, ‘I believe it is essential for a of anti-Blackness, and Model 3 added age.
man to get respect from others’, ‘I believe a young man
should be physically tough, even if he is not big’.
Anti-femininity/hypersexuality included four items: ‘I do Results
not think a husband should have to do housework’, ‘I Participant characteristics
believe a man will lose respect if he talks about his prob-
lems’, ‘It bothers me when a man acts like a woman’, ‘Black Participants were 127 Black heterosexual men who were
men are always ready for sex’. Both subscales had a 5-point enrolled in a college/university in the South. The majority
response option (1 = Strongly agree to 5 = Strongly disagree) were 21 years old or younger (61%), lived off-campus (53%),
included in models as separate correlate variables. For and had sex in the last 3 months (77%). After being cate-
both variables, scale scores were calculated as the mean gorized into a sexual risk category, most students’ behaviors
of responses to the component items. High scores indicated were classified as elevated risk (59%). Table 1 provides
a higher endorsement of the dimension. The Cronbach’s details of participant characteristics.
 Journal of American College Health 2159

Bivariate analyses: Correlations Multivariable results: Masculinity dimensions

and protective behavioral intentions
As shown in Table 2, respect/toughness was significantly
correlated with protective behavioral intentions (p = 0.05) Table 3 provides the results of the stepwise linear regression
and anti-femininity/hypersexuality was significantly cor- analysis with the two dimensions of masculinity: respect/
related with sexual risk behaviors (p = 0.03). Additionally, toughness and anti-femininity/hypersexuality and protective
awareness of anti-Blackness was significantly correlated with behavioral intentions. A stepwise linear regression was
protective behavioral intentions (p ≤ 0.001) and sexual risk conducted to examine whether respect/toughness,
behaviors (p = 0.03). Additionally, age was significantly anti-femininity/hypersexuality, and awareness of
associated with sexual risk behaviors (p = 0.02), justifying anti-Blackness were associated with protective behavioral
the use of age as a control variable in regression models. intentions. In Model 1, respect/toughness and anti-femininity/
hypersexuality were shown to be significant correlates, with
Table 1. Participant characteristics (N = 127). respect/toughness being positively associated with protective
M ± SD (Min, behavioral intentions while anti-femininity/hypersexuality
Demographic n (%) Max) was negatively associated with protective behavioral inten-
Age tions. That is, those who scored higher on respect/tough-
21 or younger 77 (60.6)
22 or older 50 (39.4)
ness had a higher intent of using protective behaviors.
Housing However, those who scored higher on anti-femininity/
 On-campus housing 60 (47.2) hypersexuality had a decreased intent to use protective
 Off-campus housing 67 (52.8)
Classification
behaviors. In Model 2, awareness of anti-Blackness was also
 Lower classman (Freshman & Sophomore) 45 (35.4) a significant correlate of protective behavioral intentions.
 Upperclassman (Junior & Senior) 71 (55.9) Additionally, those who had a higher awareness of
 Graduate 11 (8.7)
Member of Intercollegiate/Intramural Athletic team
anti-Blackness had a higher intent of using protective
Yes 35 (29.2) behaviors. However, in Model 3, after controlling for age,
 No 85 (70.8) awareness of anti-Blackness was not a significant cor-
Member of Student Organization
Yes 67 (58.8)
relate. Therefore, our hypothesis that those with lower
 No 47 (37.0) adherence to respect/toughness and anti-femininity/hyper-
Member of Greek Organization sexuality will have higher intent to use protective behaviors
Yes 22 (18.0)
 No 100 (82.0)
was partially incorrect.
Sex in the last three months
Yes 98 (77.2)
 No 29 (22.8)
 No/Low Risk 52 (40.9) Multivariable results: Masculinity dimensions
 Elevated Risk 75 (59.1)
Respect/Toughness* 3.9 ± 0.8 (1.0,5.0)
and sexual risk behaviors
Anti-femininity/hypersexuality* 2.8 ± 0.9 (1.0,5.0)
Awareness of anti-Blackness* 3.9 ± 0.8 (1.0,5.0) To examine the association between the two dimensions of
Protective Behavioral Intentions* 3.8 ± 0.7 (1.0,4.8) masculinity: respect/toughness and anti-femininity/hyper-
*
scale range: 1-5. sexuality with sexual risk behaviors, a binary logistic

Table 2. Correlations.
Anti-femininity/ Awareness of Protective Behavioral Sexual Risk
Variable Hypersexuality Anti-Blackness Intentions Behaviors Age
Respect/ 0.25** 0.66** 0.52** 0.10 0.20
Toughness
Anti-femininity/ Hypersexuality 0.11 −0.73 0.19* 0.01
Awareness of Anti-Blackness −0.50‡ 0.20* 0.07
Protective Behavioral Intentions −0.11 0.05
Sexual Risk Behaviors 0.10
Age
Note. *indicates p < 0.05, **indicates p < 0.01, ‡indicates p < 0.001.

Table 3. Linear regression results: Associations for protective behavioral intentions.

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Variable B 95% CI B 95% CI B 95% CI
Respect/Toughness 0.57 [0.35, 0.60]** 0.39 [0.16, 0.506]** 0.39 [0.15, 0.50]**
Anti-femininity/Hypersexuality −0.22 [−0.05, −0.28]* −0.20 [−0.04, −0.26]* −0.20 [−0.04, −0.26]*
Awareness of Anti-Blackness 0.26 [0.06, 0.38]* 0.27 [0.06, 0.39]
Age −0.08 [−0.33, 0.09]
Contrasts F(df1,df2) ΔR2
Model 1 27.11(2,124) 0.30**
Model 2 21.34(3,123) 0.04**
Model 3 15.93(4,122) 0.00
Note. *indicates p < 0.05, **indicates p < 0.01, df = degrees of freedom.
2160 S. WARE ET AL.

Table 4. Logistic regression results: Associations for sexual risk behaviors.

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Variable OR 95% CI OR 95% CI OR 95% CI
Respect/Toughness 1.15 [0.74,1.78] 0.70 [0.38,1.28] 0.70 [0.38,1.29]
Anti-femininity/ Hypersexuality 1.49 [0.98,2.24] 1.59 [1.04,2.44]* 1.59 [1.03,2.44]*
Awareness of Anti-Blackness 2.02 [1.10,3.71]* 2.00 [1.08,3.68]*
Age 1.40 [0.66,3.00]
Contrasts Wald (d.f.)
Model 1-Model 2 5.74 (2)**
Model 2-Model 3 2.41 (2)
Note. *indicates p < 0.05. **indicates p < 0.01.
Contrasts assessed using Wald tests. d.f.=degrees of freedom.

regression was conducted (see Table 4). Results for Model distinct subscales: respect/toughness and anti-femininity/
1 indicated that there was not a significant association hypersexuality. In our analyses, respect/toughness was
between sexual risk behaviors and respect/toughness or shown to be positively correlated with protective behavioral
anti-femininity/hypersexuality. In Model 2, accounting for intentions. Research has shown that certain aspects of mas-
awareness of anti-Blackness, for every unit increase in culinity and definitions of manhood can be protective buf-
anti-femininity/hypersexuality there was a 59% increase in fers and health promoters for Black men.18,20,32 Particularly,
the odds of engaging in sexual risk behaviors. In Model 3, roles and responsibilities in community and family have
after controlling for age, for every unit increase in shaped health behaviors among Black men. A commitment
anti-femininity/hypersexuality there was still a 59% increase to roles as a leader and protector in their families and
in the odds of engaging in sexual risk behaviors. Therefore, community has been conceptualized as ‘healthy’ aspects of
our hypothesis that those that adhere to respect/tough and masculinity by Black men.39 Having roles and responsibil-
anti-femininity/hypersexuality will have greater odds of ities can present Black men as respected members of the
engaging in condomless vaginal and anal sex was partially community. For instance, Black college men have stated
correct. that those in leadership roles such as coaches and father
figures have helped them form healthy masculinity. 40
Cultivating relationships for Black college men with Black
Discussion
male leaders through mentorship on campuses can help
In our study, masculinity was associated with protective promote and develop healthy masculinity that can promote
outcomes, but in different directions for the two dimensions protective behaviors. For college health professionals, this
of masculinity and the two outcomes. Respect/toughness study highlights the need for the inclusion of certain
was positively associated with protective behavioral inten- dimensions of masculinity in sexual health programming
tions but was not associated with condomless sex in the and communications.
past 3 months. Anti-femininity/hypersexuality, on the other Due to the sex-ratio imbalances on college campuses,
hand, was associated with increased odds of engaging in Black college men may have greater access to multiple
condomless sex in the past 3 months. It is also of note that female partners and an increased risk of acquiring HIV.
awareness of anti-Blackness was positively associated with Utilizing dimensions of masculinity that target the respect-
condomless sex in the past 3 months. In contrast with our able and protective nature of some Black men may resonate
original hypothesis, this correlational study provides initial more with this population. Incorporating these dimensions
evidence that these two dimensions of masculinity may be can facilitate HIV testing, partner communication, and con-
associated in different ways with sexual health interventions dom use by emphasizing how these protective behaviors can
and behaviors. still align with masculine norms and ideologies. This shows
Interventions that work with men to equalize gender an opportunity to highlight and intervene on dimensions
relations between women and men, 36 such as of masculinity, that are often labeled as detrimental to sexual
gender-transformative HIV prevention interventions, are health, that can promote risk prevention and sexual health
effective in altering negative elements of masculinity such promotion. This continued examination of assets of mas-
as hypersexuality, aggression, heterosexism, and hypermas- culinity that can contribute to protective behaviors and sus-
culinity that can serve as risk factors for HIV.37 To avoid tain sexual health is needed not only to dismantle ingrained
emasculating men, by equating masculinity itself as detri- stereotypes of Black heterosexual men 41 but promote dis-
mental, examining positive aspects of masculinity is also plays of healthy masculinity.
crucial. A few qualitative studies have uncovered some pos- Additionally, our study aimed to use an intersectional
itive aspects, such as self-determinism and accountability, approach by examining awareness of anti-Blackness.
the importance of family, pride, and spirituality.38 This study Intersectionality, which posits that social identities are not
uncovered that being respected was positively correlated to independent of each other but are multiple and intersect-
the intent to use protective behaviors for Black heterosexual ing,42 is not often used in quantitative analyses. The use of
college men. an intersectional approach acknowledges the intersecting
Masculinity was measured using an adapted masculinity social identities that Black men encompass.43 An intersec-
scale, but after a factor analysis, the scale showed two tional approach allows for the contextualization of Black
 Journal of American College Health 2161

men’s lives without reinforcing negative stereotypes. 44 times an individual engaged in condomless anal or vagina
Additionally, the use of intersectionality allows scholars to sex. Therefore, the outcome variables do not fully capture
analyze sexual health disparities that are multidimensional, the risk of STI/HIV infection, because the number of poten-
reflecting the experiences of those most affected.42 Although tial exposures to infection is not accounted for (e.g., fre-
intersectionality has faced challenges in quantitative quency of condomless anal or vaginal sex and the number
research,42 this study shows the feasibility and its needed of sexual partners with whom the respondent engaged in
use in quantitative methodology. The inclusion of intersec- condomless sex). Additionally, this study was cross-sectional
tionality allows for the contextual understanding of behav- and therefore casual relationships cannot be inferred. Lastly,
iors. Ultimately acknowledging that behaviors do not occur masculinity was measured using a modified version of
in a vacuum but are influenced by other factors. MRAS, which was not created for Black college men.
Previous research on masculinity and HIV risk behaviors Psychometrics were conducted to ensure the measurement
has focused on a community sample,45 whereas the current was a reliable and valid measurement for analyses.
sample focuses on the target population and within the
context of a specific social environment (i.e., college setting).
Previous literature has stated that ‘acting out’ is caused by Conclusion
the acknowledgment of the awareness of anti-Blackness Black heterosexual men are a vulnerable population who
Black men face compared to White men and a sense of are at risk for HIV acquisition based on their lived expe-
powerlessness.46,47 When Black men believe that they expe- riences and not solely behaviors. The results from the
rience anti-Blackness in society and are unable to meet the study indicate that respect/toughness was a significant
economic and socio-political requirements of traditional correlate of protective behavioral intentions, and
masculinity, they experience a fragmented masculinity that anti-femininity/hypersexuality was significantly associated
increases their HIV vulnerability. Black college men are with sexual risk behaviors. Our results also indicate that
presented with more opportunities for education and aware- awareness of anti-Blackness was a significant correlate of
ness of racial inequalities through classes, campus organi- sexual risk behaviors. Our study highlights the importance
zations, and peers 48 in comparison to Black men who are of certain dimensions of masculinity and awareness of
not enrolled in institutions of higher education. However, anti-Blackness in HIV risk prevention among Black het-
this awareness of anti-Blackness and specific social identity erosexual college students. This is an opportunity for pub-
markers were still linked to ‘acting out.’ Black college men lic health messaging to focus on dimensions of masculinity
are at times not seen as a vulnerable population because of that promote healthy behaviors. Also, this study allows for
their enrollment in higher education and opportunity for the use of intersectionality in quantitative methods and
upward mobility; however, awareness of anti-Blackness was contextualizes masculinity in the lives of Black heterosex-
still a notable association. Acknowledging this ultimately ual college men.
means, incorporating racial equity in sexual health inter-
ventions and programs focused on Black college men. This
study highlights that racial inequality has an impact on both Acknowledgments
masculinity and risk behaviors and should be explored more
We would like to acknowledge Dr. Kelly Rulison for her assistance
when examining HIV vulnerability.
with data analysis and interpretation.

Limitations
Conflict of interest disclosure
Although this study allowed for the examination of dimen-
sions of masculinity among Black heterosexual college men, The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The authors
it is not without its limitations. Our sample included a confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical
guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the United
purposive sample of heterosexual Black college men and
States and received approval from the University of North
may not be generalizable to all Black heterosexual college Carolina-Greensboro.
men in the South. Our study focused specifically on four
HBCUs. HBCUs are not homogeneous and have varied char-
acteristics in student population, size, and campus culture/ Availability of data and material
environment. Therefore, the findings from this study cannot
Data may be provided upon request.
be generalized to all HBCUs in the South. Thirdly, sexual
risk was a self-reported behavior. Although self-report of
behaviors is a reliable technique in data collection, there Funding
can still be discrepancies between practiced behaviors and
reported behaviors.49 Due to the non-normal distribution This work was supported by the UNC-Greensboro Health and Human
Sciences Office of Research (Research Excellence Grant),
of responses, we dichotomized sexual risk behaviors into
UNC-Greensboro Health and Human Sciences Deans Office (Graduate
two categories and used a logistic regression analysis process. Research Assistant Award), UNC-Greensboro Office of Research and
However, there are limitations to this approach that should Engagement (Faculty First Award), UNC-Greensboro Health and
be noted. First, the use of this approach only predicts dis- Human Sciences Office of Research (Top Off Funding Faculty Research
crete variables and does not account for the number of Grant) and the Linda Arnold Carlisle Faculty Research Grant.
2162 S. WARE ET AL.

ORCID 21. Fleming PJ, Andes KL, DiClemente RJ. But i’m not like that”:
young men’s navigation of normative masculinities in a margin-
Samuella Ware http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7656-1611 alised urban community in Paraguay. Cult Health Sex.
Amanda E. Tanner http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4488-7160 2013;15(6):652–666. doi:10.1080/13691058.2013.779027.
Yarneccia D. Dyson http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4580-0178 22. Younge SN, Boyer CB, Geter A, Barker JC, Corneille M. An
exploration of the sexual behaviors of emerging adult men at-
tending a historically Black College/University. J Black Sex
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