U.S.

TRANSMISSION CAPACITY:
PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Eric Hirst
Consulting in Electric-Industry Restructuring
Bellingham, Washington

June 2004

Prepared for
Energy Delivery Group
Edison Electric Institute
Washington, DC
Russell Tucker, Project Manager

and

Office of Electric Transmission and Distribution

U.S. Department of Energy
Washington, DC
Larry Mansueti, Project Manager
ii
 CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

LIST OF ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. TRANSMISSION CAPACITY: DATA AND PROJECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

HISTORICAL DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
CURRENT CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
PROJECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3. REVIEW OF TRANSMISSION PLANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

NORTHEAST POWER COORDINATING COUNCIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
MID-ATLANTIC AREA COUNCIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
SOUTHEASTERN ELECTRIC RELIABILITY COUNCIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
FLORIDA RELIABILITY COORDINATING COUNCIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
MIDWEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SOUTHWEST POWER POOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
ELECTRIC RELIABILITY COUNCIL OF TEXAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
WESTERN ELECTRICITY COORDINATING COUNCIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4. DISCUSSION OF PLANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

iii
iv
 SUMMARY

Transmission lines, substations, circuit breakers, capacitors, and other equipment

provide more than just a highway to deliver energy and power from generating units to
distribution systems. Transmission systems both complement and substitute for generation.
Transmission generally enhances reliability; lowers the cost of electricity delivered to
consumers; limits the ability of generators to exercise market power; and provides flexibility
to protect against uncertainties about future fuel prices, load growth, generator construction,
and other factors affecting the electric system.

Because most of the U.S. transmission grid was constructed by vertically integrated
utilities before the 1990s, these legacy systems support only limited amounts of inter-regional
power flows and transactions. Thus, existing systems cannot fully support all of society’s goals
for a modern electric-power system.

This report, using regional and national data on transmission capacity plus transmission
plans from a variety of sources, examines the current status of the U.S. transmission system.
It also looks at plans to expand transmission capacity over the next decade.

The data show a 3

continuation of past trends. Transmission (GW-miles) Summer Peak (GW)

Specifically, transmission 2.5

capacity is being added at a
GROWTH RATE (%/year)

much slower rate than 2

consumer demand is
g ro wing (Fig. S-1 ). 1.5

Between 1982 and 1992,

transmission capacity per 1

MW of peak demand
declined at an average rate 0.5

of 0.9% per year. During

the following decade, 0
1982-1992 1992-2002 2002-2012
capacity declined even Transmiles

more rapidly, at 2.1% per Fig. S-1. Annual average growth rates in U.S.
year. Projections suggest transmission capacity and peak demand for
that this decline will three decades: 1982 to 1992, 1992 to 2002, and
continue, but at a slower projections for 2002 to 2012.
rate during the coming
decade, by 1.1% per year from 2002 through 2012.

v
 A review of 20 transmission plans and related documents shows enormous variability
in the topics covered and the comprehensive and quality of the reports. Roughly half the studies
focused on reliability, while the other half focused on economics (reducing congestion to lower
the cost of power delivered to consumers). Few reports addressed all the reasons for adding
transmission capacity to a system: meet reliability requirements, lower costs to consumers,
interconnect new generation and load, replace old or obsolete equipment, and, in some cases,
improve local air quality.

In addition to substantial differences among the reports, many transmission owners and
regional reliability councils do not publish transmission plans at all. Thus, the geographical
coverage of this study is spotty and limited.

Most of the recent and planned investment in transmission facilities is intended to solve
local reliability problems and serve growing loads in large population centers. Few projects
cross utility or regional boundaries and are planned to move large blocks of low-cost power
long distances to support large regional wholesale electricity markets. Thus, many opportunities
to lower consumer power costs will be forgone because of insufficient transmission capacity.

vi
 LIST OF ACRONYMS

ACC Arizona Corporation Commission

ATC American Transmission Company

BPA Bonneville Power Administration

CRR Congestion revenue rights

ECAR East Central Area Reliability Coordination Agreement

EEI Edison Electric Institute

EIA Energy Information Administration

ERCOT Electric Reliability Council of Texas

FERC U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

FRCC Florida Reliability Coordinating Council

ISO Independent system operator

LMP Locational marginal price

MAAC Mid-Atlantic Area Council

MAIN Mid-America Interconnected Network

MAPP Mid-Continent Area Power Pool

MISO Midwest ISO

NERC North American Electric Reliability Council

NPCC Northeast Power Coordinating Council

NTAC Northwest Transmission Assessment Committee

vii
PJM Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland Interconnection, LLC

PSC Public service commission

PUC Public utility commission

RMR Reliability must run

ROW Right of way

SERC Southeastern Electric Reliability Council

SPP Southwest Power Pool

SSG-WI Seams Steering Group—Western Interconnection

STEP Southwest Transmission Expansion Project

TLR Transmission loading relief

WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council

viii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

There’s plenty of talk about transmission. But real action on transmission

construction is scant. Conferences and reports abound. Projects of all sizes are
being proposed. But, except for local reinforcements and new generation
interconnections, few transmission construction proposals are moving forward.
The vast majority of larger projects are stalled for lack of financial commitment
(Mullen 2003).

The August 2003 blackout that hit the Midwest, Northeast, and Ontario was a wake-up
call on the U.S. transmission system. Whether one considers the transmission grid adequate,
“fragile,” “antiquated,” or even “third-world” (Burns, Potter, and Wiotkind-Davis 2004),
almost everyone agrees that the electricity industry and government policy makers should pay
more attention to transmission, in particular construction of needed new facilities.

A survey of state regulators showed considerable concern about transmission adequacy

(Mullen 2003): “Just 23% in the Midwest and a paltry 18% in the West described the grid as
‘fully adequate.’ … Regulators in the Northeast and South were more sanguine. In the
Northeast, 40% of respondents described the grid as fully adequate, versus 63% in the South.”
On a positive note, a survey of 72 top officers in U.S. and Canadian electric utilities found that
“Transmission is seen as the most profitable sector [and] where most capital will go” (GF
Energy 2004).

This report analyzes recent data and projections on U.S. transmission capacity and
capital expenditures on transmission. In addition, this report reviews recent transmission plans
and related documents published by electric utilities (both public and private), independent
system operators (ISOs), standalone transmission companies, regional reliability councils, and
state public utility commissions (PUCs).

The motivation for this project goes well beyond the August 2003 blackout. Indeed, this
project is stimulated primarily by the long-term and continuing decline in the amount of
transmission capacity relative to peak electrical demand (Hirst 2000; Hirst and Kirby 2001;
U.S. Department of Energy 2002).

How much should we invest in the U.S. transmission grid to meet the needs of our
growing economy? Estimates range from $27 billion over the next several years (Richardson
2003) to $50 or $100 billion during this decade.* Although this question sounds reasonable,
answering it appropriately is fraught with difficulties. Many issues complicate development of
a responsible answer:

Size and shape of load: How do population and economic growth, combined with
changing technologies, affect growth in electricity use (MWh) and demand (MW)?

Location of generating stations: How does the spatial distribution of generation

(addition of new units minus retirement of old units) change over time? In particular,
are new units primarily built near load centers or in remote locations (e.g., wind- and
coal-fired stations)? What is the relationship between the locations of generating units
and the topology of the transmission network?

The importance, as a policy matter, of robust wholesale electricity markets: More

transmission will be needed, all else equal, if national policy favors large regional
markets for electricity [as does the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
through its initiatives promoting regional transmission organizations and standard
market design]. On the other hand, if we return to the days of regulated, vertically
integrated utilities that trade primarily with their close neighbors, less new transmission
will be required.

Magnitude of production-cost differences among power plants: Large spatial and

temporal differences in production costs provide strong economic motivation to build
transmission lines to permit the movement of cheap power from generators to load
centers.

Level of bulk-power reliability we want and are willing to pay for: Greater reliability
will likely require additional investments in transmission, generation and demand
management as well as in improved system control and operations.

Amount of additional capacity that can be wrung out of today’s transmission system:
The application of existing and new computing, communications, and control
technologies could enhance reliability and permit more transactions to flow across the
grid. Other solid-state technologies enhance the ability of the grid to respond rapidly to
changes in power flows and voltages to improve stability and voltage control. Better
operations permit system operators to run the grid closer to its physical limits without
imperiling reliability.

Use of nontransmission solutions (i.e., suitably located generation and demand-

management programs) to transmission problems: More generally, will economic

*
“[Department of Energy] Secretary Spencer Abraham suggested … that $50 billion in new transmission system
investment is needed. Others have suggested that the total amount needed is over $100 billion” (White et al. 2003).

2
 signals [especially, locational marginal prices (LMPs) and congestion revenue rights
(CRRs), key elements of FERC’s standard market design] stimulate the construction of
generating units and the creation of demand-management programs at locations that
reduce congestion? Will these economic signals motivate construction of appropriately
located merchant transmission projects?

As an example of how different answers to these questions might affect the amounts,
types, and locations of transmission investment, consider the needs for reliability and economic
efficiency. Krapels (2003) suggests that “A few billion well-placed dollars will solve the
reliability problem; it will take tens of billions to thoroughly modernize and optimize the grid.”

More broadly, new transmission can be built for different purposes, including:

Interconnection of new load or generation: Facilities required to connect to the

transmission grid, but not necessarily to transport power across the grid.
Reliability: Facilities required to meet NERC, regional reliability council, and other
standards, primarily the NERC (1997) Planning Standards.
Economics: Facilities that lower the cost of electricity production by reducing losses and
congestion to permit greater use of low-cost generators to serve distant load centers.
Replacement: Facilities that replace old, worn-out, and/or obsolete equipment.

The amount of money needed for transmission investment will depend on which categories are
considered.

Finally, opinions vary widely on the severity of our transmission problems and the need
for additional capital expenditures. Huntoon and Metzner (2003) suggest we need “a stable
regulatory environment” to address the “myth of the transmission deficit.” They believe new
transmission needed for reliability purposes should be determined on a regional basis through
existing institutions, and transmission needed to relieve congestion should be built on a
competitive basis when it is the most efficient solution to congestion. Hirst and Kirby (2001 and
2003) believe that separating reliability from economic needs is very difficult and that
substantial investments for both purposes are required. Others believe that serious transmission
problems exist but can be addressed in large part with nontransmission solutions, in particular
dispersed generation and demand management (White et al. 2003).

Chapter 2 presents data and projections on U.S. transmission capacity from 1978
through 2012. These results show trends over time at the national and regional levels (using the
10 NERC regions, shown in Fig. 1).* Chapter 3 provides information from 20 transmission
plans and related documents produced by utilities, ISOs, state agencies, and others. Again, the
discussion is organized around the NERC regions. Chapter 4 discusses the planning materials

*
The Eastern Interconnection contains 75% of the nation’s summer peak demand, while ERCOT and the
Western (WECC) Interconnections contain 8 and 17%, respectively (NERC 2003d).

3
covered in Chapter 3 and
identifies several critical
transmission issues in
various regions and their
resolution. Finally, Chapter 5
presents conclusions from
this project.

Fig. 1. Map of the United States showing the locations

of the 10 reliability regions. WECC and ERCOT
are Interconnections as well as regions. The
remaining eight regions are part of the Eastern
Interconnection.

4
 CHAPTER 2

TRANSMISSION CAPACITY: DATA AND PROJECTIONS

HISTORICAL DATA

For the past few decades, the Edison Electric Institute (EEI 2003) has collected and
published data each year on the number of circuit miles of transmission lines in the United
States.* Since 1989, NERC (2003c) has published similar data.# Together, these two data sets
provide a long historical record on the amount of transmission capacity available to move
electricity from generators to distribution systems.

Although these data sets contain much useful information, they suffer from data-quality
problems. For example, the NERC data show several occasions when the transmission mileage
in a region drops from one year to the next. Almost 20% of the year-to-year changes in
historical transmission mileage show declines. It is highly unlikely that a utility would retire
a line from service rather than replace the conductors or towers with newer ones (perhaps with
higher voltage and MVA ratings).

In addition to data-quality issues, interpreting these data is complicated by the seven

issues listed in Chapter 1. In particular, locations of generating units relative to load centers has
an enormous effect on the need for transmission. Also, not all transmission facilities add
mileage to the system; devices such as transformers, capacitor banks, breakers, meters, and
communication systems are important elements of the grid.

I used the NERC data from 1989§ through 2002 and the EEI data (with a small
adjustment to match the NERC data for the years when both data sets were available) for the
earlier years to develop a record of transmission capacity (in both circuit miles and MW-miles);

*
The EEI data have, at various times, included distribution as well as transmission lines, and data from rural
coops as well as from other types of utilities. These data are reported for 12 voltage levels ranging from less than 22
kV to 601 kV and over.
#
The NERC data are based on utility and regional-reliability-council filings to the Energy Information
Administration (EIA 2001 and 2002) on forms EIA-411 and 412 and to FERC on its Form-1. EIA-411 collects
information on “Proposed Transmission Lines,” while EIA-412 and FERC Form-1 collect data on “Existing
Transmission Lines.” NERC reports transmission mileage for four voltage levels ranging from 230 kV to 765 kV.
§
These capacity values are as of December 31 for the year stated, i.e., from the end of 1989 through the end
of 2002.

5
 160,000

140,000
U.S. TRANSMISSION CAPACITY

120,000

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000 Miles GW-miles

20,000

0
TransMiles 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
U.S. TRANSMISSION CAPACITY (normalized)

300

250

200

Growth Decline
150

100
Miles/GW Summer Peak

MW-miles/MW Summer Peak

50

0
TransMiles 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Fig. 2. U.S. transmission capacity from 1978 through 2002 in miles and GW-miles
(top) and normalized by summer peak demand (bottom).

6
see top part of Fig. 2. Utilities added transmission lines at a much higher rate during the first
four years of this period than during the following 20 years (3.8 v 1.2% per year).

I normalized these capacity figures by peak demand as shown in the bottom part of
Fig. 2. Normalized transmission capacity increased from 1978 through 1982 and then declined
steadily through 2002. Between 1978 and 1982, normalized transmission capacity (as measured
by MW-miles/MW-demand) grew at an average annual rate of 3.3%; during the following 20
years, normalized transmission capacity declined at a rate of 1.5% per year. (The numbers for
transmission miles per GW of demand were similar: +2.6%/year for the first four years and
1.6%/year for the next 20 years.)

EEI (2003) collects 5 TRANSMISSION INVESTMENT (billion 2003-$/year)

data on annual investments in

transmission facilities for 4
-$50 million/year
*
investor-owned utilities. As
shown in Fig. 3, these data 3
show a steady decline in
construction of new y = -0.0504x + 104
transmission facilities from
2
2 R = 0.43

1975 through 1999, with

substantial increases during 1
the final four years (2000
through 2003).# These results
0
are shown in real (i.e., 1975 98054
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
corrected for inflation) 2003
Fig. 3. Annual transmission investments by investor-
dollars, using the Handy-
owned utilities from 1975 through 2003.
Whitman Index of electric-
utility transmission costs to adjust for inflation from year to year. Between 1975 and 1999,
investment fell at an average rate of $83 million per year; from 1999 through 2003,
transmission investment increased at an average annual rate of $286 million, a substantial
reversal of trends. The average level of investment for the last four years was $3.6 billion,§ 34%
higher than the average for the prior four years ($2.7 billion). It is not clear what accounted for
this reversal of trends or whether the change is temporary or long-term.

These trends in transmission capacity and investment are reflected in bulk-power

operating data (NERC 2004). The number of times system operators in the Eastern

*
Investor-owned utilities own about three-fourths of the total U.S. transmission grid, with municipal, federal,
rural cooperative utilities, and transmission-only companies owning the rest.
#
To some extent, this change in trend might be caused by differences in data-collection procedures used by EEI
before and after 1999.
§
EEI resurveyed utilities to obtain more accurate data. The revised results for 2000 through 2002 were 5%
higher than the original numbers shown in Fig. 3.

7
Interconnection called for
Lev el 2 * o r h ig h er 250 2003 2002

NO. OF TLRs LEVEL 2 AND HIGHER

2001 2000
transmission loading relief
1999 1998
(TLR) increased from about 200
1997
300 in 1998 and 1999 to
more than 1,000 in 2000 150

and 2001, with jumps to

1,500 in 2002 and almost 100
2,000 in 2003 (Fig. 4).#
Over a five-year period, the 50
need to curtail power
transactions or deny 0
requests for new Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

transactions increased by a
TLR

factor of six.
NO. OF TLRs LEVEL 2 AND HIGHER

250 12-month rolling average

A recent survey of
200
transmission congestion
examined the six operating
150
ISOs (in New England, New
York, mid-Atlantic,
100
Midwest, Texas, and
California). Dyer (2003)
50
found that the “Total
congestion costs 0
experienced by the six ISOs Jan- Jul- Jan- Jul- Jan- Jul- Jan- Jul- Jan- Jul- Jan- Jul- Jan-
for the four-year period 98
TLR
98 99 99 00 00 01 01 02 02 03 03 04

from 1999 2002 totaled Fig. 4. Number of Level 2 or higher Transmission

approximately $4.8 billion.” Loading Relief calls in the Eastern
Congestion in New York Interconnection from July 1997 through
accounted for more than
December 2003 (top) and the 12-month rolling
half of this total.
average from July 1998 (bottom).

*
NERC has six levels of TLR, ranging from 1 (least severe) to 6 (emergency conditions). Level 2 requires the
system operator to “hold Interchange Transactions at current levels to prevent Operating Security Limit violations.”
Higher levels restrict nonfirm transactions first and then, if necessary, firm transactions.
#
The patterns and the number of TLRs are, in part, a function of regional differences in weather. For example,
the summer 2000 temperatures were low in the north and high in the south, leading to substantial north-to-south
electricity flows. According to NERC (2003d), “Because weather patterns are unpredictable, transmission constraints
and congestion have the potential to shift from day to day, season to season, and year to year.” TLR calls may be
affected more by trends in wholesale transactions than trends in peak demands.

8
CURRENT CONDITIONS

NERC (2003a and b) issues summer and winter reliability assessments, as well as a 10-
year assessment (NERC 2003d) each year. Table 1 summarizes the transmission issues noted
in each region’s report to NERC for the 2003 Summer, 2003/2004 Winter, and 2003 2012
reliability assessments.

Table 1 shows considerable variation among regions in the status of their transmission
systems. Some regions, such as FRCC, MAAC, SERC, and WECC, report no serious problems.
Others, however note episodic or ongoing problems. For example, imports to southwestern
Connecticut remain a serious and perhaps long-term problem in New England. ERCOT faces
problems moving the output from generation to the growing urban loads in Dallas-Ft. Worth
and Houston. However, ERCOT, unlike some other regions, is able to plan and build new
transmission facilities in a timely fashion.* Imports from MAPP to Wisconsin (MAIN) remain
a critical concern. Curiously, not one of the NPCC reports mentions the transmission
constraints for imports to New York City and Long Island.

PROJECTIONS

Each year, as part of its annual Reliability Assessment, NERC (2003d) issues its
Electricity Supply and Demand Database and Software (NERC 2003c). This database shows
planned transmission-line additions for each of the following 10 years, from 2003 through 2012
for the latest version (Fig.5).

The projections are consistent with the historical data: both show continuing declines
in normalized transmission capacity. Between 1992 and 2002, 9,600 miles (7,300 GW-miles)
of transmission were added; between 2002 and 2012, an additional 10,400 miles (10,300 GW-
miles) are expected to be added.

Although normalized transmission capacity declined by almost 19% between 1992 and
2002, it is expected to drop by only 11% during the following decade (2002 to 2012). In other
words, transmission capacity is expected to continue to decline during the coming decade, but
at a slower rate than during the past decade.

*
According to Jones (2004), “ERCOT is very active in improving its transmission infrastructure and has added
over 700 miles of new 345 kV and 200 miles of 138 kV transmission in the past three years. Many more miles are now
in the construction and certification phase.

9
Table 1. Regional transmission issues from recent NERC reliability assessments
2003 Summera 2003/2004 Winterb 2003 2012c
NPCC “In southwestern Connecticut, No issues reported “transmission systems … meet
reliability problems are NPCC criteria and are
possible due to transmission expected to continue to do
constraints;” four transmission so;” SW Connecticut faces
upgrades are planned in New serious constraints; Maine and
England SE Massachusetts/Rhode
Island are constrained,
resulting in locked-in
generation
MAAC “transmission system is “bulk transmission system is “transmission capability over
expected to perform expected to perform reliably” the next five years is expected
adequately” to meet MAAC criteria
requirements;” “sufficient
transmission will be added to
meet MAAC criteria”
SERC “SERC has extensive “heavy and widely varying “transmission capacity is
transmission interconnections electricity flows are expected to be adequate to
between its subregions … anticipated within SERC … supply firm customer
[which] permit the exchange driven by excess generation demand;” large amounts of
of large amounts of firm and within SERC and external merchant generation without
non-firm power” weather conditions” firm transmission rights might
cause problems
FRCC “transmission system is expected to perform adequately”
ECAR “transmission system will be “transmission system could transmission system expected
more constrained this become constrained” to “perform well;”
summer;” TLRs may need to construction to begin soon on
be invoked 765-kV line in southeastern
ECAR
MAIN “transmission system is “transmission system is “transmission system [is
expected to perform reliably;” expected to perform reliably;” expected to] perform
constrained interfaces concern over import adequately … [if] proposed
continue to require special capabilities from TVA reinforcements are completed
operating attention and on schedule;” integration of
procedures; “several lines in new generation “continues to
southern MAIN have be a major challenge;” “major
experienced heavy loadings reinforcements” planned
requiring TLRs”
MAPP “MAPP continues to monitor “transmission system is adequate to meet firm obligations”
the 19 transmission constraints
within the Region;” export to
MAIN is limited by the Eau
Claire-Arpin limit.
SPP “SPP does not anticipate LaCygne-Stilwell line rebuilt “transmission system will
operational issues for the ahead of schedule reliably serve native network
upcoming summer months;” load;” uncertainty over cost
LaCygne-Stilwell 345-kV line recovery limits transmission
to be rebuilt upgrades

10
 2003 Summera 2003/2004 Winterb 2003 2012c
ERCOT 12 “most frequently “major ERCOT transmission Transfers to Dallas-Ft. Worth
encountered ERCOT constraints center around the and Houston continue to be
transmission constraints” transfer of generation to serve major constraints; “a number
listed; five major projects to the load centers of Dallas-Fort of major transmission projects
“help mitigate these Worth and local congestion in will be completed”
constraints” the Corpus Christi and Rio
Grande Valley areas.”
WECC “The transmission system is considered adequate for all “Transmission constraints will
projected firm transactions and most economy energy transfers.” continue to limit the
deliverability of generation to
customer demand”
a
NERC (2003a).
b
NERC (2003b).
c
NERC (2003d).

The NERC data and 300

U.S. TRANSMISSION CAPACITY (normalized)

projections show results for MW-miles/MW Summer Peak

275
each of the 10 reliability Miles/GW Summer Peak

regions as well as for the

250
United States as a whole
(Fig. 6 and Table 2).
225
Between 1989 and 2002,
normalized transmission 200
capacity declined in all 10
regions by amounts ranging 175
from 14 to 27%. The largest
declines (more than 25% 150
over this 13-year period) 1989
TXLines
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

occurred in SERC and Fig. 5. U.S. transmission capacity normalized by

NPCC. The smallest summer peak demand from 1989 through 2002
declines (less than 20%) plus projections for 2007 and 2012.
occurred in MAPP, SPP,
and WECC.

Over the next 10 years, normalized transmission capacity is expected to vary from +2%
(NPCC) to 18% (FRCC) across the regions. All but one region (NPCC) projects declines in
normalized capacity, with the largest drops (more than 15%) expected in MAAC, MAPP, and
FRCC.

11
 500
TRANSMISSION (MW-miles/MW demand)

450
WECC
400 MAPP
ECAR
350
TOTAL
300 SERC

250 SPP
ERCOT
200
NPCC
150 MAIN
FRCC
100
MAAC
50

0
TXLines
1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

1.1
TRANSMISSION CAPACITY (1989 = 1)

NPCC
1
WECC
FRCC
MAPP
0.9
MAAC
SERC

0.8 TOTAL
MAIN
SPP
0.7 ECAR
ERCOT

0.6
TXLines
1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

Fig. 6. U.S. transmission capacity for the 10 reliability councils normalized by

summer peak demand from 1989 through 2002 with projections for 2007
and 2012 (top) and normalized by 1989 values (bottom).

12
Table 2. Normalized transmission capacity (MW-miles/MW demand) for the 10 NERC regions and the U.S. as a whole,
1989 through 2002 and projections for 2007 and 2012a
Data Projections
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2007 2012
ECAR 276 263 256 265 259 239 225 230 223 223 213 228 210 213 204 182
ERCOT 153 145 149 147 141 139 132 135 125 116 114 112 120 117 118 104
FRCC 143 146 139 132 126 132 127 128 128 117 121 123 118 113 103 93
MAAC 124 122 113 120 113 116 110 121 108 110 103 108 98 96 88 81
MAIN 129 125 124 131 122 121 112 111 113 109 102 107 101 101 101 94
MAPP 372 363 356 393 365 330 305 315 299 320 310 337 319 319 288 264
NPCC 129 137 130 137 129 128 127 134 123 122 115 121 108 97 105 99
SERC 212 201 202 202 192 195 172 180 179 172 177 156 163 155 146 137
SPP 163 155 156 155 148 150 133 139 128 134 122 123 134 137 138 130
WECC 488 457 485 452 467 448 445 428 431 411 420 416 437 404 384 371
U.S.
245 237 235 237 229 225 211 216 208 205 201 200 198 192 184 171
totals

The bold numbers are the maximum values for each region, and the italic numbers are the minimum values for the historical
a

period, 1989 through 2002.

13
 Because the individual transmission-owner reports show that almost 70% of the new
transmission lines are to be built during the first five years of this 10-year period, the
projections for 2007 might be more meaningful than those for 2012. Between 2002 and 2007,
normalized transmission capacity is expected to vary from +8% (NPCC) to 10% (MAPP).
Three regions show expected increases for this initial 5-year period (ERCOT, SPP, and NPCC),
while four regions show declines of 5% or more (SERC, MAAC, FRCC, and MAPP).

Of the 416 transmission projects planned for the next 10 years,* 95% are shorter than
100 miles, with an average length of only 18 miles. These numbers suggest that most planned
transmission projects are local in scope and are not intended to address large regional issues.
The 21 longer projects (5% of the total) average 170 miles in length.

SUMMARY

Table 3 shows growth in transmission capacity and summer peak demand for three
decades, 1982 to 1992, 1992 to 2002, and 2002 to 2012. Although transmission capacity
increased during each decade, growth in peak demand was always greater. The gap between
the two growth rates was greatest during the middle decade (a 2.1% per year decline in MW-
miles/MW demand v 0.9% and 1.1% declines in the first and third decades). This planned
reduction in the transmission-capacity gap combined with the recent increases in transmission
investment (Fig. 3) offer some optimism about the future of transmission capacity in the United
States. However, projections of new transmission capacity have traditionally been optimistic,
overstating the construction that actually occurred.

These data and projections provide useful indicators of the state of transmission grids
in the United States. However, they are not necessarily accurate measures of transmission
adequacy because of the seven factors listed in Chapter 1. Unfortunately, no better regional and
national information on U.S. transmission systems exists.

*
Only seven of these projects are retirements, with a total of only 220 miles of transmission lines to be retired
between 2002 and 2012. Even if transmission lines have a 50-year lifetime, at least 2,500 miles would be retired each
year (or, more likely, replaced with newer facilities using the same right of way). The unreasonably small number of
retirements is another indication of data-quality problems.

14
Table 3. Comparisons of growth in transmission capacity and summer peak demand
for three decades
Percentage change per year
1982-1992 1992-2002 2002-2012
Transmission (miles) 1.66 0.63 0.73
Transmission (GW-miles) 1.94 0.55 0.63
Summer Peak (GW) 2.82 2.68 1.87
MW-miles/MW demand -0.85 -2.07 -1.12
Miles/GW demand -1.12 -2.00 -1.12

15
16
 CHAPTER 3

REVIEW OF TRANSMISSION PLANS

I reviewed 20 transmission plans and related documents from a variety of sources,

including ISOs, regional reliability councils, individual utilities, groups of utilities, state
regulators, transmission companies, and consulting firms. The purpose of this review was to
identify the key transmission problems in each region and the recommended solutions to these
problems. I had intended to use these planning reports to estimate regional and national needs
for new transmission in both MW-miles and investment dollars. This review was to be a
bottoms-up complement to the data review presented in Chapter 2.

In practice, the coverage of plans was quite spotty in both geography and substance. I
likely overlooked some important documents that should have been included in this study.
More important, several transmission owners and reliability councils do not make transmission
plans available to the public. Two reasons were cited for keeping such studies confidential:
national security (especially in the aftermath of 9-11) and competition.

Because of these limitations in plan coverage, the results of this review of transmission
reports should be considered suggestive rather than definitive. In addition, I focused less on
results (because fewer than expected plans were available) and more on the quality of the plans
themselves. I used the planning process proposed by Hirst and Kirby (2002) to draw
conclusions about the quality of these 20 planning documents.* In brief, Hirst/Kirby suggest
that transmission plans include the steps shown in Table 4.

For convenience, the discussion of plans is organized around the 10 regional reliability
councils (see Fig. 1 in Chapter 1 for a map showing the locations of these regions). As the U.S.
electricity industry continues to evolve (whether towards greater competition or back to more
regulation is unclear), the future planning role of the councils is uncertain. Many councils have
no planning role per se. Instead, they assess the adequacy of plans developed by their members.
The Midwest ISO (MISO) includes transmission systems in three councils (ECAR, MAIN, and
MAPP). WECC, both a reliability council and an Interconnection, is enormous, encompassing
roughly half the land mass of the contiguous United States.

This chapter briefly describes each of the 20 planning reports. Chapter 4 synthesizes the
key issues, findings, and lessons learned from the reviews of these 20 documents.

*
Because I did not review the planning processes used by any of these entities, my comments focus solely on
their planning reports.

17
Table 4. Summary of Hirst/Kirby proposed transmission-planning approach
1. What is the purpose of this plan? These purposes could include maintenance of reliability,
promotion of competitive electricity markets, support for development of new generation,
promotion of economic growth, and so on.

2. Describe the current situation, covering bulk-power operations, wholesale markets, and
transmission pricing. What problems (e.g., reliability, congestion, losses, generator market
power), if any, occur that are caused by limitations in the transmission system? What
transmission projects are under construction or planned for completion within the next few
years to address these problems? What are the estimated costs and benefits of these
projects? What entities are expected to benefit and to pay for these projects?

3. Describe the likely future bulk-power system(e.g., in five and ten years). What are the
levels, patterns, and locations of loads? Describe the region’s fleet of generating units,
including locations, capacity, and operating costs (or bid prices). What are the likely
effects of new generation on use of the transmission system? Given the many uncertainties
that affect future fuel prices, loads, generation, transmission, and market rules, create
various scenarios that can be used to analyze potential problems and transmission
improvements (Steps 4 and 5).

4. What transmission problems, both reliability and commercial, are likely to exist given the
scenarios developed in Step 3?

5. What transmission facilities might be added to address the problems identified in Step 4?
What effects would these facilities have on compliance with reliability standards,
commercial transactions, losses, and regional electricity costs? What are the likely capital
costs and benefits of these transmission additions? Can any of these transmission projects
be built on a merchant (i.e., for profit and unregulated) basis?

6. What nontransmission alternatives (including suitably located generation and price-

responsive load programs as well as alternative transmission-pricing schemes) might be
deployed to address the problems identified in Step 4? To what extent can these
alternatives address the problems for which the transmission facilities suggested in Step
5 were proposed?

7. Based on the foregoing analyses, recommend transmission pricing, generator locations,

demand-management programs, and construction of new transmission facilities. If market
participants do not propose the solutions analyzed in Steps 5 and 6, recommend those
transmission facilities (from Step 6) that should be built under regulation. Summarize the
benefits and costs of these proposed projects. Can the projects ultimately be approved,
financed, and built in a timely fashion?

18
NORTHEAST POWER COORDINATING COUNCIL

The U.S. portion of NPCC is home to two ISOs, ISO New England (which covers all
six New England states) and the New York ISO. NPCC also includes the Canadian provinces
of Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritimes, which are not covered in this report.

ISO New England

ISO New England (2003) has a well-established planning process and has now
published three annual plans. The latest one is well written, accessible to people with different
interests and backgrounds (including nonspecialists), and comprehensive. The plan covers
reliability and congestion (economics), analyzes local and regional transmission issues, and is
open to market solutions (generation, demand management, and merchant transmission) as well
as regulated transmission solutions. This plan, which covers 10 years (2003 to 2012), identifies
nearly 250 regulated transmission projects that would cost between $1.5 and $3 billion. This
large range in estimated cost occurs because specific costs have not been calculated for several
of the projects analyzed.

ISO New England develops the plan with its Transmission Expansion Advisory
Committee, which has an open membership. The ISO also works closely with the region’s
transmission owners and with the surrounding control areas (on inter-regional issues).

The most critical areas within New England remain imports into southwestern
Connecticut, followed by northwestern Vermont. The cost to address the Connecticut problems
is almost $900 million for Phases I and II. The report also identifies major transmission
facilities needed to increase imports into the Connecticut and Boston areas.

The resource-adequacy and congestion studies use a simple transportation model that
does not address local issues. The transmission planning studies, on the other hand, are much
more detailed and consider “thermal, voltage, short circuit and stability limits, and system and
equipment performance under potential contingency conditions.”

This report is well organized. It includes a 40-page summary, a 165-page technical

report, and an appendix of nearly 300 pages. The Technical Report provides detail on the
demand forecast, resource capacity and energy issues, distributed resources (including demand
response), system dynamic performance, transmission-performance assessments and proposed
solutions for each of the New England subregions, and inter-regional coordination. The
Appendices provide additional details on the data, assumptions, computer models, and results
for each study. Thus, this plan is accessible to different kinds of readers with different policy
and technical interests.

The Technical Report illustrates how various improvements can permit existing
equipment to be operated closer to its limits; see Table 5. That is, some transmission

19
investments don’t add new capacity; instead, they permit existing capacity to be more fully
utilized. The cost of these projects is about $39 million.

Table 5. Deerfield and Buxton enhancements and benefits on Maine to New

Hampshire transfer limits (MW)
Existing With Deerfield With SVC and With SVC and 391
system 500 MVAR Sect. 391 Loop Loop, Breakers and
SVCa 2nd Auto
Voltage 950 1,175 1,250 1,650
Thermal 1,225 1,225 1,325 1,625
b
Stability 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400
a
SVC means static VAR compensator, which provides dynamic voltage support.
b
Preliminary results suggest that the stability limit can be increased to 1,400 MW.

One measure of 50

success for a transmission

plan is the extent to which 40
projects are implemented. Proposed Planned
STATUS IN 2003

Under Construction In Service

As shown in Fig. 7, more 30
than half the projects from
the 2 0 0 2 plan had 20
progressed one or more
steps as of a year later. In 10
part, transmission projects
are moving ahead in New
0
England because very little Proposed Planned Under Construction
transmission construction NERTOP03
2002 PROJECTS
occurred during the past 15 Fig. 7. 2003 status of transmission projects included in
years. So the region is now the 2002 New England transmission plan.
playing catchup. For
example, three 345-kV lines into the Boston area are under construction. Projects are going
ahead now because the need is real and imminent (there is no more fat in the system) and
because transmission owners have greater confidence in the ISO and FERC treatment of
investments (i.e., assurance they will get paid for investment).

The New England plan provides only a limited discussion of the economics (benefits
and costs) of the various transmission projects being considered and planned. Economic
analysis of new transmission is complicated by notions of scarcity pricing (i.e., LMP),
accounting for reduction in market power, changes in reliability-must-run (RMR) contracts, and
loss reductions. However, the New England plan does discuss congestion, LMP, and interface

20
flows. It considers congestion from various perspectives: consumers, producers, and the system
as a whole.

National Grid

National Grid (2003), which owns and operates transmission in New England and New
York, publishes a Five Year Statement. The 2003 Statement, the fourth one issued by National
Grid, is an assessment of the transmission system in New England and New York, based on
likely changes over the next five years (to 2008) in generation and load. This report focuses on
system adequacy, an assessment of the amounts of transmission and generation capacity
available to serve peak loads. It deals with flows across and among 13 zones in New England
and 11 zones in New York, not within each zone.

Although this report 60

is not a transmission plan,

CONGESTION RISK (%)

50
it provides valuable 40
information to market
30
participants on the current
and likely future status of 20

the transmission grid in 10

this large region. The 0

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d e m a n d - m a n a g e m e n t Fig. 8. The likelihood of congestion at 17 boundaries

programs. For example, within New England and New York in 2008.
Fig. 8 shows the likelihood
of congestion occurring at key locations within the region, based on a probabilistic analysis.

Chapters in this report cover load growth, generation, reserve margins and capacity
positions, the current transmission system, deterministic and probabilistic analyses of the ability
of the transmission system to handle expected summer-peak power flows, and opportunities for
locating new generation.

The report notes that, “At the time this report was prepared, there were no planned
transmission reinforcements within New England and New York directed at improving
congestion relief (rather than local reliability …).” However some such projects are likely to
be proposed soon. According to Hipius (2004):

Uncertainties related to industry restructuring have slowed the process for

considering such projects. Questions such as who pays, how the revenues are

21
 collected and distributed, and how large a return is appropriate given increased
risk have made it harder to initiate such projects. New England has mechanisms
in place that may enable the utilities to get past these issues more easily than in
New York. In fact, projects to relieve congestion in New England have been in
the planning stages and are moving toward implementation. In New York, the
questions have not been satisfactorily resolved, and the problem is compounded
by long-term retail rate freezes. Since transmission costs are not unbundled from
retail rates, improving the transmission system could create unrecoverable costs
for some utilities. These are not impossible problems to solve, but they are
difficult and politically charged. In New York, the costs to construct a truly
major system reinforcement (e.g., DC lines into New York City) have been
viewed as prohibitive by the utilities, and doubts about their financial viability
have always been a deterrent. It may be less costly to live with some level of
congestion than to eliminate it entirely. And it’s made worse by the fact that
upstate utilities would be shooting themselves in the foot to reinforce their
transmission paths into southeast New York—upstate utility customers would
pay higher locational prices, to the benefit of New York City and Long Island
customers, and their reward might be having to pay for all or part of the project!
Aside from the paths into southeast New York and Long Island, there is very
little congestion on the New York system, so reinforcements into the southeast
are the only kinds of projects one might expect to be proposed and built.

The north-to-south diversity in New England and New York suggests there are
additional opportunities for cost-effective inter-regional electricity trade with Canada and PJM.
With no constraints in the transmission system, imports from Quebec would increase by about
900 MW (20% over baseline conditions), and imports from PJM would decrease by about 400
MW (8%).

Power flows in this region are from the western, northern, and eastern extremities of the
system. Transfers progressively increase and become more concentrated as they approach
Boston, New York City, Long Island, and Connecticut.

The best places to site new generation are in Boston, southwestern Connecticut,
Norwalk/Stamford (in Connecticut), and New York City and Long Island. The worst locations
for new generation are Maine and New Hampshire in New England and the Millwood and
Dunwoodie regions in upstate New York.

New York ISO

The New York ISO does not yet have a planning process in place. The ISO is working
with its stakeholders to develop a formal planning process, initially to focus on reliability, later
to develop a comprehensive process that will include congestion. The ISO expects to file its
planning approach with FERC in summer 2004.

22
 The ISO and its contractors have published several interesting transmission-planning
studies. As part of its reliability responsibilities to NPCC and the New York State Reliability
Council, the New York ISO (2002a) analyzed the reliability of the New York transmission grid
for the year 2007. This electrical-engineering study included four assessments: (1) load flow
and stability analysis to assess the thermal, voltage, and stability performance of the NYISO
bulk-power system under normal (design) contingencies; (2) load flow and stability analysis
for extreme contingencies; (3) consequences of failure or misoperation of Special Protection
Systems; and (4) evaluation of the dynamic control systems on certain generators.

The study is based on the 2002 FERC 715 filings from the utilities. The study lists the
proposed transmission improvements through 2007, which “consist of five 345-kV
transmission modifications to interconnect new generation, a DC tie between Connecticut and
Long Island, a DC tie between Sayreville, NJ and Manhattan, and plans to add about 30
additional miles of 115 and 138 kV transmission.”

This study focuses exclusively on reliability with no mention of economic investments

in transmission. It looks only at planned generation and transmission projects to see if they will
yield a reliable system in 2007. The answer is yes, although close attention needs to be paid to
voltage levels in southern New York.

Obessis (2002) reviewed the day-ahead energy market prices in New York to identify
the key transmission constraints. Congestion cost electricity consumers $1,240 million in 2000,
$570 million in 2001, and $451 million for the first half of 2002. [Recent analysis shows
congestion costs of $310 million in 2001, $525 million in 2002, and $688 million in 2003
(Patton 2004).] The Central East interface, in upstate New York, accounted for two-thirds of
the total congestion, in and around New York City accounted for one-sixth, and in and around
Long Island accounted for the remaining one-sixth. The report states: “Upgrading the noted
constraints will not necessarily eliminate or even significantly reduce congestion costs. …
[O]ther transmission constraints are likely to be lurking behind the ones noted here, and would
themselves cause congestion if the present set are relieved.”

The New York ISO (2002b) analyzed “the amount of congestion cost reduction that will
result between 2003 and 2010 as a result of the expected generation additions, increased tie
capability with neighboring control areas and upgrade of selected internal transmission
bottlenecks.” This report, however, analyzed only the physics of transmission and did not
examine the costs and benefits of transmission investments.

Locational pricing in New York has had a substantial impact on the location of new
generation, with large shifts to downstate locations (including New York City and Long Island).
Adding new transmission lowers congestion costs, but primarily in the short term (2003) and
less so in 2006 and 2010. The reduction in benefits over time is a consequence of the assumed
increase in downstate generation. An issue not addressed in this study is whether less
generation would (should?) be built downstate if new transmission is constructed.

23
 This report concludes that development of combined-cycle units in the congestion zones
“will be the major element …” in providing congestion relief. “… generation development,
which is responding to locational market prices, is locating in areas where the capacity
additions have a positive impact on congestion costs. The generation expansion scenario results
in a close to 60% reduction in congestion costs between 2003 and 2010. Since the opening of
the NY wholesale electricity market and the implementation of locational pricing there has been
a noticeable shift in the location preference of generation development.”

However, although congestion is a persistent problem in the state:

“… there has not been any major transmission projects proposed to expand the
AC transmission network in NY with the primary objective to improve market
efficiency. This situation exists even in light of the fact that since January 1,
2000 NY has experienced transmission congestion costs on the order of 2.23
billion dollars or annual rate of 900 million dollars a year. This level of
congestion cost is equivalent to slightly more than 75% of the annual revenue
requirement (1,155.9 million dollars) necessary to recover the embedded cost of
the [New York] transmission assets … .”

Although congestion costs in downstate New York are very high (perhaps the highest
in the United States), little transmission is planned to reduce these costs. Four reasons have
been suggested for this lack of transmission expansion. First, as noted above, New York has
not decided who will pay for new transmission and how. That uncertainty, coupled with retail-
rate freezes, inhibits utilities from making what might otherwise be needed investments.
Second, building more transmission might not lower overall electricity costs in New York.
Instead, such investment might lower costs for downstate consumers at the expense of upstate
consumers. That is, the amount of low-cost generating capacity located upstate (upstream of
the congested interfaces) is not sufficient to serve the needs of both downstate and upstate
consumers. Third, locational pricing is motivating investors to build new generation in and near
New York City and Long Island. Finally, the congestion costs are largely hedged through
Transmission Congestion Contracts, leading to large differences between net and gross
congestion costs..

Conjunction LLC, the developer of a proposed 2,000-MW merchant transmission

project from upstate to downstate New York, cancelled an auction of capacity on the proposed
DC line in March 2004. It appears that potential buyers of transmission capacity, on this and
other merchant projects, are unable to accept the risks associated with long-term commitments.
Because of this risk aversion, some merchant developers are seeking regulatory solutions to
financing problems (Hipius 2004).

24
MID-ATLANTIC AREA COUNCIL

MAAC includes some or all of the following states: Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
Maryland, Delaware, Virginia and the District of Columbia. MAAC contains one control area,
PJM. (PJM West includes parts of ECAR and MAIN.)

Although PJM has an extensive planning process, its focus has been on generator
interconnection and reliability. PJM is nearing completion of its Economic Planning Process
in response to FERC’s (2003) approval of PJM’s process for assessing the economic need for
new transmission. FERC recognizes that these issues are difficult, complicated, and not yet
fully resolved. To illustrate, should congestion be measured on the basis of the actual power
flows across congested interfaces or the amounts that would flow if the constraints were
relieved? Should congestion be measured from the perspective of retail customers, generators,
or both?

However, PJM’s long history of LMPs and CRRs provides powerful economic signals
to investors in new generation (and demand-management programs) on where to best locate
new power plants (and demand-management programs), reducing the need for new
transmission. Congestion costs for PJM amount to $400 to $500 million a year, 6 to 9% of total
PJM billings (PJM 2004). In March 2004, PJM opened a market window for solutions to
congestion on 34 PJM transmission facilities (PR Newswire 2004). This 1-year window is
intended to encourage market participants to propose generation, merchant transmission,
distributed generation, or demand-management programs to reduce congestion on these
facilities.

PJM’s (2003) latest plan accommodates over 175 generator interconnection requests and
six merchant transmission projects, and contains more than 200 transmission upgrades to
address reliability requirements through 2007 (Table 6). To date, PJM’s transmission plans call
for nearly $700 million in investment, of which over $225 million has been completed (Gass
2004).

The PJM plan is primarily a compilation of the projects needed to interconnect new
generation to the PJM grid and those needed to comply with NERC and MAAC reliability
requirements. The latest report identified four sets of potential reliability problems; projects
have been identified and scheduled to resolve these problems. The projects include: adding
static and dynamic reactive support to solve voltage magnitude and voltage drop problems,
replacing transformers to remedy thermal overload problems, upgrading the current carrying
capability of a transmission line to eliminate overloads under contingency conditions, and
replacing circuit breakers with larger circuit breakers where their fault interrupting capability
is inadequate. However, the PJM plan contains no information on nontransmission alternatives
and no assessment of the economic benefits (e.g., reduction of congestion costs) of new
transmission. Future PJM plans will identify projects required for economics, consistent with
the aforementioned Economic Planning Process.

25
Table 6. Executive Summary of PJM Regional Transmission Expansion Plan
PJM’s 2003 RTEPlan recommends transmission enhancements to meet baseline
network system needs over a 2003 through 2007 time frame and to meet the needs of 132
proposed generation projects representing 27,500 MW in PJM Generator Interconnection
Queues A through H.

August 2000 Plan: Board of Managers approved first RTEPlan, encompassing more than
$550 million of network reinforcement transmission upgrades and direct interconnection
facilities for the 45 generation projects in Queue A, representing more than 18,100 MW of
capacity.

August 2000 Addendum: Reliability Committee approved Addendum to the August 2000
RTEPlan prompted by the withdrawal of two Queue A projects, resulting in a reduction of
$175 million of transmission upgrade costs.

June 2001 Plan: Board of Managers approved second RTEPlan including $420 million for
network reinforcement upgrades and direct interconnection facilities associated with 43
generation projects in Queues B and C, representing more than 12,500 MW of capacity.

June 2001 Addenda: Reliability Committee approved three Addenda to the June 2001
RTEPlan prompted by the withdrawal of generation projects from Queues A, B, and C,
resulting in a reduction of $190 million in transmission upgrade costs. Committee also
approved increase of $31 million in Queue B/C baseline costs based on updated cost
estimates.

October 2002 Plan: Board of Managers approved third RTEPlan, including $144 million for
network reinforcements costs and direct interconnection facilities associated with 39
generation projects in Queues D, E and F, representing 8,600 MW of generating capacity.

June 2003 Plan: Board of Managers approved fourth RTEPlan, including $148 million for
network reinforcement costs and direct connection facilities associated with 41 generation
projects and one merchant transmission project in Queues G and H. Two expedited merchant
transmission projects in Queue J were also approved.

SOUTHEASTERN ELECTRIC RELIABILITY COUNCIL

SERC is the largest NERC region as measured by total generation and load. SERC
includes parts or all of 13 southeastern and south central states. The Region is divided into four
subregions: Entergy, Southern, Tennessee Valley Authority, and Virginia-Carolinas.

26
 I was unable to identify any published transmission plans for this region. However, I did
find two relevant planning documents, and I obtained transmission-planning data (on a
confidential basis) from a few utilities within the region.

The Southeastern Association of Regulatory Commissioners (2002) assessed the

generation and transmission infrastructure within this region, including the role of the states in
planning and siting generation and transmission, and development of regional transmission
organizations. The information on transmission in this report comes entirely from the NERC
ES&D data base (discussed in Chapter 2).

The assessment notes that “the SERC transmission systems meet NERC and SERC
reliability criteria and should have adequate capability to supply forecast demand and energy
requirements under normal and contingency conditions. Interregional transfer studies indicate
that the ability to transfer power between SERC and other regions, above contractually
committed uses, has become marginal on some interfaces.”*

SERC (2003) publishes an annual reliability review, which looks at demand and energy,
supply resources and additions thereto, and existing and planned transmission. This assessment
looks only at reliability issues, with no attention given to the economics of imports, exports, and
intraregional transfers. The latest assessment states:

Joint planning studies for the near term horizon continue to indicate that
bulk transmission system performance in the SERC Region is adequate to meet
projected peak demands and provide contracted firm transmission services. In
some instances, operating procedures continue to be utilized to facilitate
transfers. The ability to transfer power above contractually committed uses, both
intra-regionally and inter-regionally, continues to be marginal on some interfaces
under both studied and actual operating conditions. This is a reliability concern
because it impacts the geographic diversity of external resources that can be
called upon during emergency import scenarios that may result from large unit
outages.

SERC completed its second annual Survey of Transmission Development on annual

capital expenditures for transmission construction from 2003 through 2007. The five-year total
is $6.3 billion, of which $200 million is to interconnect new generation. The 2002 actual figure
was lower than the forecast ($1.0 v $1.3 billion), and the 2003 forecasts are lower than the 2002
forecasts, probably because of a slowdown in construction of new generation. The survey
shows that all the planned transmission is inside SERC, with no connections planned to other
regions. In addition, almost all the planned transmission is within the individual utility

*
Conversations with several transmission planners in SERC suggest that deliverability limits are caused
primarily by the many gas-fired merchant power plants built in the southeast that did not obtain firm transmission
service.

27
subregions. Although interesting, the SERC report provides little information on the need for
additional transmission (for both reliability and commerce) and says nothing about the costs
of individual projects or about nontransmission alternatives.

FLORIDA RELIABILITY COORDINATING COUNCIL

Created in 1996, FRCC encompasses peninsular Florida. Florida may represent the other
end of the spectrum from New England in terms of the availability of useful information on
transmission planning and plans. Searches of the websites of the Florida Public Service
Commission (PSC) and FRCC uncovered no documents related to transmission plans.*

Conversations with staffers at the two organizations provided little information. FRCC
provides almost no data to the public, revealing its workings and results only to its members
and the PSC. The reasons offered for this tight control on its information concern commercial
confidentiality and national security. Commission staff, similarly, provided little guidance on
the availability of transmission information. In the end, I obtained only one document (FRCC
2003) that contained any information on transmission: a two-page table that lists proposed
transmission lines (including line ownership, length, in-service date, voltage, and capacity). No
narrative accompanied the table to explain the current status of the Florida transmission grid,
likely future problems, potential solutions to those problems, and the specific projects and their
costs that would resolve these problems.

MIDWEST

As defined here, the Midwest includes ECAR, MAIN, and MAPP. I combined these
regions into one section because the Midwest ISO covers parts of all three. Some utilities in
ECAR and MAIN are, or plan to become, part of PJM West.

Midwest ISO

MISO includes transmission systems in 15 states, with more than 110,000 miles of
transmission. MISO (2003) issued its first transmission plan in mid-2003. It assembles the
reliability-related projects from the individual member utilities, discusses plans to do an
independent “top-down reliability review” in 2004, and presents a very interesting economic
analysis of congestion reduction, based on simulated LMPs. Thus, the focus of this initial plan
is on a regional congestion analysis under a variety of generation- and transmission-expansion
scenarios.

*
The Commission’s December 2002 report, Review of Electric Utility Ten-Year Site Plans, and its September
2003 Statistics of the Florida Electric Utility Industry 2002 might be expected to include information on the
transmission system, but neither report contained any such information.

28
 During the two-year period, 2001 and 2002, MISO called TLRs on 110 flowgates, 19
of which accounted for 80% of all the calls. Transmission owners plan to make transmission
improvements that will address 12 of these 19 flowgates.

The local plans are “reliability driven,” and focus on the 2002 to 2007 period. These
transmission-owner projects call for the addition of 3,600 miles of transmission, relative to
today’s 112,00 miles of transmission. Only about 1,200 of the 3,600 miles to be added represent
new right-of-way (ROW), while the rest involve existing ROW. And about two-thirds of the
mileage is for lower voltages, 115 and 138 kV, with the rest at 161, 230, and 345 kV. The total
cost of these projects is about $1.8 billion. Capacitor banks would add $0.13 billion to the $1.8
billion. Of this nearly $1.9 billion total, 59% is for “native network load,” 20% for “generator
interconnections,” 14% for “transmission service,” and 6% for miscellaneous.

MISO’s economic analysis is a 6-year plan, from 2002 to 2007. Its results are
approximate, intended to show the “relative effects of transmission additions or generation
development scenarios.” The simulations were based on a security-constrained dispatch model
with a full transmission-system model. The analysis examined four generation scenarios and
a baseline plus 10 transmission additions. The transmission additions range from about $300
million for 765- and 500-kV lines to $8.8 billion for the long-term vision called the High
Voltage Overlay. The high cost of this High Voltage Overlay could not be justified by the
reductions in power-production costs. Table 7 lists the results for the most promising
transmission projects. This is one of the very few plans that provides estimates of the costs of
new transmission projects and the benefits of these investments.

Table 7. MISO analysis of transmission projects, benefits and costs in million $

Annual Capital costs
benefitsa Totalb Annualized
Rockport - Paradise 1,421 / 670 294 59
Expanded Rockport - Paradise 1,685 / -- 844 169
Iowa and S. Minnesota 444 / 304 667 132
SPP expansion 517 / 259 503 101
a
Reductions in marginal energy costs with gas at $5/MBtu and at $3.24 to $3.85/MBtu.
b
The fixed charges rate for these projects is 20%.

The first transmission project would cost $294 million, with an annualized cost of $59
million, compared with a reduction in marginal energy costs of about $1.4 billion a year, for
a benefit/cost ratio of 24. However, much of the benefit from this project would occur outside
MISO, in SPP, SERC, and MAAC, raising difficult issues of who should (and would) pay for
these investments.

29
 Like some of the other better transmission plans, this one is well written. It includes an
extensive Executive Summary, available separately from the main 300+ page report.

East-Central Area Reliability Coordination Agreement

I was unable to locate any transmission plans within ECAR. The utilities I spoke with
do not publish their plans. And, a review of the ECAR website uncovered no transmission-
planning reports. Although ECAR’s mission does not include planning, ECAR conducts
assessments of the transmission system to determine whether the transmission plans of its
members will maintain reliability. ECAR’s Transmission Facilities Panel has the following
functions:

Maintain surveillance of transmission line construction schedules.

Develop programs of mutual assistance for times of emergency with regard to exchange
of crews and materials.
Collect and analyze scheduled maintenance practices and unscheduled outages.
Correlate transmission line performance with types of transmission line design and
equipment specifications.

ECAR’s Transmission System Performance Panel has the following functions:

Develop procedures, methods, and criteria for evaluating ECAR bulk power
transmission system performance.
Appraise the reliability of the ECAR bulk power transmission system, both present and
future.
Perform technical studies as required.

Mid-America Interconnected Network

MAIN, located west of ECAR, includes all of Illinois and portions of Missouri,
Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota and Michigan. American Transmission Company (ATC 2003),
a transmission-only entity within MAIN, published its third plan in September 2003. Formed
in 2001, ATC owns and operates 8,900 miles of transmission in Wisconsin, upper Michigan,
and Illinois. ATC issues a detailed planning report every year, with six-month updates in
between. The ATC system is divided into five zones. Planning occurs at the project level (e.g.,
generator interconnection), zonal level, the ATC level, and regional level (with surrounding
utilities and MISO). ATC has a formal public- and customer-involvement process.

Over the next 10 years (2003 2012), ATC plans 38 projects involving 460 miles on new
ROW and 70 projects on 1,050 miles of existing ROW. In addition, ATC plans to install 38
new transformers and 34 new capacitor banks. These projects are expected to cost about $1.7
billion. “ATC anticipates total capital expenditures of around $2.8 billion over this same

30
period.”* The extra $1.1 billion is for generator interconnections, strategic or conceptual
projects, small transmission-distribution interconnections, capital-related maintenance projects,
and replacements of protective relays. This new investment is equal to the current book value
of the ATC transmission system, which is heavily depreciated.

ATC categorizes projects as conceptual, proposed, or planned depending on how far

along in the analytical, planning, and regulatory processes the project is. ATC also considers
strategic projects, which would “increase transfer capability into the ATC system,” and
therefore would improve the economics (lower production costs) of power supply to ATC
customers. ATC conducts several types of analyses: power-flow analyses for summer onpeak
and shoulder peak for 2004, 2008, and 2012; stability analysis (“to ensure that generators
remain stable during transmission system contingencies”); and transfer capability assessments.

The ATC report discusses transmission-system characteristics and limitations for each
of the five zones, as well as alternative solutions to the identified problems. Issues relate to
generator instability, voltage instability, overloaded lines and equipment, low voltages, and the
need to import more power from neighboring zones or regions. The ATC plan emphasizes the
importance of the Arrowhead-Weston project, a new 220-mile 345-kV line from Minnesota to
Wisconsin. Finally, ATC creates two umbrella plans, one for the northern zones and the other
for the southern zones. These umbrella plans seek to optimize system performance over all the
projects in each zone.

Mid-Continent Area Power Pool

MAPP, located west and north of MAIN, covers the upper midwest and includes the
following states and provinces: Minnesota, Nebraska, North Dakota, Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
and parts of Wisconsin, Montana, Iowa and South Dakota. The MAPP members own 20,000
miles of transmission.

MAPP (2002) prepares a 10-year plan every two years focusing on voltages of 115 kV
and higher. This plan includes sections for each of the five subregions within MAPP. MAPP’s
Transmission Planning Subcommittee (part of the Regional Transmission Committee) develops
the MAPP plan based on the individual utility plans and the plans from the Subregional
Planning Groups. The plan includes a section on “A Visionary Concept of Future
Transmission” that includes “over 1,900 miles of new 500-kV lines at a cost of about $1.3
billion for lines and substations.” The plan focuses on broad regional transfers (economics) and
not on local or reliability issues (although the subregional planning groups do look at
reliability). This report provides no information on the costs and benefits of these proposed
transmission additions.

*
This $2.8 billion exceeds the $1.9 billion for all of the MISO transmission owners because the ATC number
is for 10 years and the MISO number is for five years, ATC includes lower voltages than did MISO, and ATC looked
at a broader range of projects.

31
 Exports from MAPP tend to occur during shoulder periods, when MAPP has low-cost
generation not needed to serve load. Imports, on the other hand, tend to occur during peak load
conditions. MAPP analyses
covered maximum imports
and exports during peak 1000
load periods and a 72% Upgrade New

shoulder period. Analyses

MILES TO BE ADDED
800
were conducted for 2002,
2007, and 2012. 600

As shown in Fig. 9, 400

MAPP plans to upgrade

1,600 miles of existing 200

transmission lines and build

almost 1,800 miles of new 0
115 161 230 345
lines. On a GW-mile basis, VOLTAGE LEVEL (kV)
almost two-thirds of the
MAPPTX

Fig. 9. MAPP plans for transmission additions, as of

capacity additions will
mid-2002, by voltage level, existing and new
come from new
rights-of-way.
construction.

Minnesota

A 2001 state law requires the Minnesota utilities to submit transmission plans to the
Minnesota PUC. Fifteen Minnesota Electric Utilities (2003) prepared the second such report.
These utilities own and operate more than 6,500 miles of transmission, worth more than $750
million. “The biennial report is meant to enable the PUC to review transmission projects in the
overall context of other regional transmission projects being considered.” If the Commission
decides a particular project is important enough, it can place it on its “priority electric
transmission list,” which means the project does not need a separate Certificate of Need to
proceed with construction.

This report looks at transmission problems and alternative solutions (transmission only)
over the next 10 years. The report clearly notes the advanced age of the Minnesota transmission
system and the lack of recent investment:

Minnesota’s electric transmission system has historically been very

reliable, but like the grid generally, is experiencing unprecedented demands.
Portions of Minnesota’s transmission system are 35 to 50 years old, and others
date back as far as 80 years. Minnesota’s last major transmission facility addition
was constructed in coordination with Sherburne County No. 3 generating plant,
which went into service in late 1987, nearly twenty years ago. More recent
investments … [were] designed to preserve reliability and provide incremental

32
 improvements in transmission efficiency by taking advantage of new
technologies (e.g., capacitor banks to maintain voltage). … This limited
expansion of the transmission system over the last two decades has resulted in:
portions of the system being at or near capacity;
the system being unable, without more capacity, to handle load growth;
and
problems associated with interconnecting and delivering the output of
new generation facilities.

The report provides details for each of the six planning zones, including a description
of the transmission system, the utilities and their contacts, system inadequacies, and alternative
solutions ( “… information on alternative means of addressing each inadequacy, studies that
are planned to determine the best method to correct each inadequacy, and economic,
environmental, and social issues associated with each alternative”). The discussions of these
issues are short and general. Usually, cost estimates for each alternative are provided.

This report focuses mostly on local reliability issues, rather than statewide or regional
problems. That is, the report does not discuss congestion or the possible benefits of increasing
regional transmission capacity for imports or exports to Minnesota. Such broader issues exist
in and around the twin cities (Minneapolis-St. Paul). Constraints to the east and south of the
cities limit the ability of Xcel Energy to make long-term purchases and sales. For example, the
output from a planned low-cost generator in Wisconsin could not be reliably imported to
Minnesota because of transmission limitations.

To some extent, the lack of attention to regional issues might be associated with the
emergence of MISO as the regional planning entity. As this report notes, the regional planning
efforts of MISO and MAPP are “in a transition period” as MISO develops. Eight of these 15
Minnesota utilities are either MISO members or have applied for membership.

SOUTHWEST POWER POOL

SPP includes Oklahoma, Kansas, and portions of Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico,
Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana. SPP routinely performs regional assessments of the
transmission system and coordinates studies among its transmission owners.

Begun in 2000, the latest SPP (2001) study identified potential upgrades to relieve
known constraints within the region. This plan focused on five interfaces that limit imports to
and exports from SPP. This study did not deal with reliability problems (except for some
discussion of voltage levels), and it did not look at congestion within SPP. The analyses were
conducted for the summers of 2004 and 2006. The total cost for the five projects was estimated
at $337 million. This plan was very technical and, perhaps as a consequence, difficult to
understand.

33
 Subsequently, SPP participated in the transmission planning efforts of MISO, discussed
above. These activities continued until termination of the MISO-SPP merger discussions in
early 2003.

SPP is now doing a major reliability study, to be completed in late 2004. SPP is not sure
how best to conduct an economic assessment of transmission given the uncertainties about what
markets and pricing might be like within the region, which is why it is focusing on reliability
for now.

ELECTRIC RELIABILITY COUNCIL OF TEXAS

ERCOT, located entirely within Texas, includes about 85% of the state’s electrical load.
Its 2003 report, the fourth of its annual transmission plans, defines two types of congestion: (1)
commercially significant constraints (CSCs) limit flows among the four major zones in
ERCOT, and (2) local constraints operate within one of the zones (ERCOT 2003a). From June
2002 through May 2003, CSCs cost $32 million while local constraints cost $206 million, for
a total congestion cost of $238 million.*

The ERCOT report identifies three CSCs plus five significant local constraints. The
report also lists major ERCOT-recommended projects that have been completed, recommended
and under development by the transmission owners, and under study or design development.
ERCOT transmission owners added over 700 miles of new 345-kV and 200 miles of 138-kV
transmission in the past three years, as well as two STATCOMs, switching stations, and other
equipment.#

This report provides no dollar estimates on the costs to build any of these projects.
ERCOT has begun a project to track cost estimates, called Transmission Project and
Information Tracking. The report also does not explain how the ERCOT results and
recommendations are derived from the outputs of the studies done for the three ERCOT
planning regions (South, North, and West). In particular, is the ERCOT plan more than the
compilation of the three regional plans? The report mentions but offers no analysis of how
generation and demand-management might solve transmission problems. Because the report
focuses on the cost of congestion in ERCOT (based on the ISO’s expenditures on balancing-

*
RMR units (generators run out of merit order) provide a costly solution to congestion. It is not yet clear
whether the most economic solution is to continue running RMR units or to build new transmission. This RMR issue
occurs primarily in and around large urban areas, especially Dallas-Ft. Worth (and less so in Houston, which has a
stronger local transmission system).
#
The Texas PUC decided that all transmission investments are to be paid for by all retail consumers, thus
eliminating the debates that occur in other parts of the country over who should pay for what kinds of transmission
investments. Because ERCOT lies entirely within Texas, transmission planning and construction are overseen only by
the PUC, not by FERC as well.

34
energy costs and out-of-merit energy and capacity costs), it does not consider transmission
needed to meet NERC planning standards.*

… this report communicates to generation entities, load-serving entities, other

market groups, the public, and the PUCT the nature of transmission constraints
and the projects being considered by ERCOT to relieve these constraints. It
serves as a starting point for developing proposed projects for approval within
the ERCOT Transmission Planning Process, and it may be useful in the
preparation of regulatory and other reports that require transmission grid
planning information.

This quote suggests this report does not include transmission needed primarily for reliability
nor for generator interconnection. The report also notes that “ERCOT performs no specific
routing evaluations,” which may explain why the report includes no cost estimates for the
various projects.

Future ERCOT studies will identify the extent of congestion and the numbers of hours
congestion is likely to occur. Such analyses will help determine where new transmission is the
preferred solution. The Texas PUC ordered ERCOT to implement nodal pricing by summer
2006. Such economic information (now available only in New England, New York, and PJM)
will likely affect transmission planning as well as the locations of new generation.

WESTERN ELECTRICITY COORDINATING COUNCIL

WECC is the largest geographically of the 10 regional councils, with long distances
between major power plants and large load centers. Its territory is equivalent to more than half
the contiguous area of the United States. WECC includes all or parts of Arizona, California,
Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas,
Utah, Washington, and Wyoming, as well as the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British
Columbia, and the northern portion of Baja California in Mexico.

SSG-WI

The Seams Steering Group—Western Interconnection (SSG-WI 2003) developed a

transmission study for the entire region. It used 2008 as the baseline, which “includes

*
The ERCOT transmission owners simulate system performance under normal (no contingency), N 1, and N 2
conditions to determine compliance with NERC and ERCOT reliability requirements. Transmission owners are required
to develop and report plans to resolve criteria violations. ERCOT staff perform spot checks of these assessments.
ERCOT staff also conduct their own studies of all projects at or above 345 kV and those involving multiple owners.

35
generation and transmission infrastructure reasonably certain to be in place by 2008.”* The
study focused on and analyzed three generation scenarios for 2013. These scenarios
emphasized different fuels in the mix of generation: natural gas, coal, or renewables. The
scenarios consider three different gas prices and two different levels of hydroelectric output.
The need for new transmission is more sensitive to the price of gas than to hydro conditions.
The transmission investments required for the three 2013 scenarios are: $2.6 billion for gas
(1,300 miles of new transmission), $16.7 billion for coal (7,600 miles), and $6.7 for renewables
(3,400 miles).

The key findings from this study are

If new generation is primarily gas fired relatively few transmission additions will be
required.

The development of coal and renewable resources in remote locations will require
substantial transmission additions. However, this could be more cost effective from an
overall perspective than new natural gas generation because it would lower power
production costs substantially.

There are areas on the grid that will be congested in the near future; solutions to these
problems should be investigated in subregional forums.

These findings show the interactions between generation investment and transmission
investment. The need for new transmission to support wind farms located far from load centers
was also identified in ERCOT (to move wind output from west Texas to the load centers) and
Minnesota (to move wind output from the southern part of the state to the Twin Cities).

This study looked only at congestion (economic) issues and did not consider
transmission investments that might be needed for reliability. The report examined the 33 major
transmission interfaces in the west and not any intracontrol-area issues.

Because the SSG-WI study was conducted over such a large geographical area, it could
not analyze transmission on a disaggregate basis. Therefore, this study cannot form the basis
for specific investment decisions. Four sub-regional planning groups, coordinated by SSG-WI,
do detailed transmission planning, including that needed for reliability. The Central Arizona
Transmission System group, formed in 2000, prepared detailed studies, some of which led to
construction of new transmission, especially around the Palo Verde substation. CATS, recently

*
The 2008 case also shows “significant stranding of low-cost generation in Canada and in the Desert
Southwest. Approximately 1,300 miles of new 345- and 500-kV line would be required to completely eliminate this
identified congestion, which could result in an annual savings in the production cost of generation … totaling at least
$110 million.”

36
renamed the Southwest Area Transmission Planning Committee, expanded to include all of
Arizona plus New Mexico and parts of Colorado, Nevada and California.

The Southwest Transmission Expansion Project (STEP) is evaluating the economic

benefits and costs of new transmission to move generation from Palo Verde to other areas in
the west, especially California. The Rocky Mountain Area Transmission Study includes the
transmission systems in Montana, Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Wyoming. Finally, the Northwest
Transmission Assessment Committee (NTAC) was recently formed to provide “a forum to
address the further planning and development of a robust NWPP [Northwest Power Pool] area
transmission system. This planning and development would identify future transmission needs
by performing studies to identify solutions. The forum would look at expanding current system
capability. This would mean more than reliability planning or maintaining current capability”
(Northwest Power Pool 2004).

Arizona Corporation Commission

As in Minnesota, the Arizona Corporation Commission (ACC 2002) requires its utilities
to file transmission plans every year. The ACC staff then reviews these plans, including
discussions with the utilities and open meetings, and prepares a report to the Commissioners
on the state of Arizona’s transmission grid and the utilities’ plans to meet future needs. The
Commission is then required by legislation “to issue a written decision on the adequacy of the
existing and planned transmission facilities in Arizona to meet the present and future energy
needs of the state in a reliable manner.” The 2002 assessment is the second one issued by the
ACC.

The utility plans must provide: “(1) The size and proposed route of any transmission
lines proposed to be constructed. (2) The purpose to be served by each proposed transmission
line. (3) The estimated date by which each transmission line will be in operation.” These
requirements do not encompass any economic information, in particular the cost of each
proposed project and its likely benefits. The utility plans include about 50 projects, roughly half
of which were in the first biennial assessment.

This is an interesting and well written report. It discusses the existing transmission
system and plans to expand the extra-high voltage system (345 kV and above) for regional
purposes. The system was originally constructed to move the output from large generation
resources in the northeastern and northwestern portions of the state to the major load centers
(the Phoenix and Tucson metropolitan areas). The report also examines import constraints to
the major load centers (especially Phoenix and Tucson), plans for local areas (the system below
230 kV), and transmission related to merchant generation.

The chapters in this report discuss the existing transmission system, the utility 10-year
plans, the extra-high voltage system and several 230- and 500-kV projects to expand it, local
import constraints for five regions and the RMR contracts used to relieve congestion in these

37
areas, and local transmission internal to each major load center (for areas with no local
generation).

The staff is pleased with the utility plans and the utility responsiveness to staff concerns
expressed in the first transmission assessment. This report is much more positive on the state
of transmission in Arizona than was true for the first biennial assessment, in large part because
important projects are being constructed in Arizona (Table 8).

Table 8. Transmission lines and substations added in Arizona since the first Biennial
Transmission Assessment (2001 and 2002)
Description Voltage (kV)
White Tanks - West Phoenix #1 and #2 230
Browning Substation 500 / 230
Redhawk - Hassayampa #2 500
Palo Verde - Hassayampa Common Bus 500
Gila River - Jojoba #1 and #2 500

The plans to expand transmission around the Palo Verde substation are not enough to
accommodate the full output of all the new generation planning to interconnect at this hub. This
problem was also cited in the first biennial assessment. About 10,000 MW of generation is now
connected to the transmission system at Palo Verde with plans to add another 3,600 MW. The
capacity of the transmission system today is only about 7,300 MW, which suggests that up to
6,300 MW of generation could be locked in and unable to deliver its outputs to markets. The
STEP effort is addressing these transmission issues.

In addition, load growth in Phoenix, Tucson, and a few other places pose potential
problems for transmission imports and suggest the need for more local transmission. Finally,
there is little spare capacity on the extra-high voltage system to move power long distances
across or within the state.

California

Budhraja et al. (2003a) examined the value of transmission in permitting imports of

power from other parts of the WECC. California’s transmission import capability totals about
18,200 MW and consists of the following key links:

7,900 MW from the Pacific Northwest, built at a cost of $1.6 billion with benefits from
1969 through 1999 of $7.2 billion;
1,900 MW from Utah, built at a cost of $1.2 billion primarily to provide access to 1,600
MW of coal-fired generation in Utah;

38
 7,500 MW from the Desert southwest, built at a cost of $1.3 billion with benefits from
1971 through 1999 of $5.7 billion; and
800 MW from the Baja region of Mexico.

California’s import capability increased rapidly from almost nothing in the late 1960s
until about 1995 and has been flat since then. “Since the late 1980s, California IOUs have been
unsuccessful in gaining regulatory approvals to build major new projects. These include for
example: Third Pacific AC Intertie, Palo Verde-Devers No. 2, Path 15 [work on Path 15 is now
underway, and the planned operating date for the project is late 2004], Path 26, and Valley-
Rainbow.”

Failure to gain regulatory approvals were caused by uncertainty about future benefits,
especially long-term benefits, economic valuation methodologies that do not recognize the
strategic value of transmission, and use of average conditions that ignore the insurance benefits
that occur during emergencies and other unusual conditions.

Budhraja et al. (2003b) focuses on the long-term (to 2030) need for additional
transmission investments to permit greater imports to California. The report estimates a need
for 26,500 MW of import transmission capability.

Hence, the state needs to expand the current level of 18.2 GW of transmission
interconnections by 8.3 GW to meet its future electricity needs. …
Several new interconnection projects are under discussion including
Devers-Palo Verde 2, with approximately 1,400 MW of capacity; doubling the
interconnection between California and Baja Mexico, adding 800 MW of
capacity; and doubling the interconnection to Utah, adding 2,000 MW of
capacity. This still leaves a need to develop another 4,000 MW of
interconnections in the base case and over 9,000 MW in the higher imports
scenario as part of California’s Grid of the Future.

The California ISO reviews individual utility transmission plans on an annual basis. The
ISO conducts a stakeholder process, analyzes the utility’s modeling results, recommends
revisions (if necessary) to the utility, and makes final recommendations on whether these
projects are economical and should proceed to construction. Thus, the California ISO (2003)
plan is primarily a review and compilation of the utility plans. Appendices to the ISO report
provide details on the electrical-engineering analyses conducted for the northern and southern
portions of California’s electric grid for different seasons. This report lists nine “Major New
Transmission Projects,” but says nothing about the costs and benefits of these projects.
Appendix D lists almost 50 major transmission projects, but, again, provides no discussion of
these planned facilities.

The California ISO does not conduct independent analyses of the need for new
transmission, in particular the need for transmission between and among the utilities (as
opposed to the local analyses of the individual utilities themselves). The ISO’s key function is
to ensure that the utilities have done their studies properly and that the projects proposed by one

39
utility will not have adverse effects within another utility’s service area. The STEP process
(discussed above) is used to conduct interutility and regional studies between California and
the Southwest. The NTAC process (also discussed above) will fill a similar role between
California and the Northwest.

The California Energy Commission (2003) noted that:

Under existing generation and load conditions, the transmission system regularly
experiences congestion on major paths that prevents its optimal economic
operation. Also, transmission constraints in major load centers such as San
Francisco and San Diego affect both the economic and reliable operation of the
system. Transmission upgrades, generation additions, and demand-side
management actions may provide solutions to these problems. However, the
existing transmission planning and permitting processes have not provided
effective and timely mechanisms for bringing forward such projects to provide
California with a more robust and reliable transmission system.

Bonneville Power Administration (BPA)

BPA operates over 15,000 miles of transmission lines, including connections to Canada,
California, the southwest, and eastern Montana. “Despite significant growth in the Northwest
population and economy, there has been virtually no substantial transmission construction since
1987” (BPA 2003a). In 2001, BPA identified 20 projects needed to expand and improve the
reliability of its transmission grid. Since then, slower economic growth and, especially, the
cancellation of several merchant generating units have reduced the need for some of these
projects. Six of the 20 projects are under construction or nearing completion.

In December 2003, BPA completed the 9-mile Kangley-Echo Lake 500-kV transmission
line at a cost of $40 million, to improve reliability in the Seattle area. It is also working on five
other projects needed for reliability plus five needed to interconnect new generation. Although
BPA does not issue formal transmission plans, its website provides information on individual
projects; see http://www2.transmission.bpa.gov/PlanProj/Transmission_Projects/.

BPA plans to spend almost $1.8 billion over the next five years. This planned
expenditure is allocated across different project types as follows (French 2004):

Main Grid (63%): major new transmission facilities, i.e. 230- and 500-kV additions to
the BPA system, including major substations, transmission lines, series and shunt
capacitors, and shunt reactors. These projects are usually associated with new
generation projects or long-term load growth.

Area and Customer Service (7%): Similar to Main Grid projects, but usually at 115-kV
and lower, smaller in size and scope, often needed to support a customer or a group of
customers in a specific location.

40
 Upgrades and Additions (16%): Small projects that upgrade existing equipment or
increase capacity, such as the addition of a sectionalizing breaker to prevent the loss of
a substation for a faulted breaker, reconductoring a transmission line with a larger
conductor to increase power flow, the addition of a bus tie breaker position to allow
maintenance activities to take place without jeopardizing system operation, or upgrading
communications and metering facilities to provide additional data.

System Replacement (14%): Replace old, worn-out, and/or obsolete equipment. Items
include many different elements, from circuit breakers and disconnect switches to relays
and control equipment, metering facilities, trucks and test equipment.

BPA (2003b) explicitly examines nontransmission solutions to transmission projects.

As part of that process, BPA is testing a demand-response program on the Olympic Peninsula.
BPA hopes to acquire about 30 MW of peak-demand reduction that would permit it to defer
otherwise needed transmission investments.

41
42
 CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION OF PLANS

Chapter 3 discussed 20 transmission plans and related documents. This chapter

summarizes the key elements of this very diverse set of planning documents. These studies
varied considerably in the topics covered, the provision of information on the current status of
the transmission system and its uses and problems, alternative solutions to these problems, the
costs and benefits of these alternatives, and the clarity of presentation (Table 9).

The studies were roughly split in their focus on transmission needed to maintain
reliability v transmission needed to reduce congestion. Few of the studies took a broad view
of transmission needs and studied both reliability and economics, as well as interconnection and
equipment-replacement issues. In several cases, the analyses of transmission needs for
reliability and those for economics were conducted by different groups. This separation makes
it difficult to ensure consistency among studies.

The studies generally did not report the projected costs of the transmission projects
studied. Even fewer analyzed the potential benefits of these projects and sought to compare
costs and benefits; the Midwest ISO and SSG-WI studies were the sole exceptions. Almost all
these plans ignored transmission-system losses and the potential for reducing losses. Without
a clear understanding of the costs and potential benefits of a transmission project, it is difficult
for regulators and stakeholders to consider whether the project should be built and, if so, who
should pay for it.

Analyzing the economic benefits of transmission projects is difficult. Reliability projects

could be assessed in terms of their ability to reduce the loss-of-load-probability and the value-
of-lost-load. While it is possible to calculate changes in LOLP associated with different
amounts and location of generation and transmission, estimates of VOLL vary widely. The
VOLL is probably very case specific, a function of the particular customer, when the outage
occurs, how long it lasts, and whether the customer had advance notice of the outage.

For transmission projects aimed at reducing the cost of power production and delivery,
the benefits can be assessed from the perspective of customers, generators, or the system as a
whole. Such transmission projects can involve major wealth transfers between consumers and
producers in different locations. For example, consumers downstream and suppliers upstream
of a constrained interface benefit from construction of transmission facilities that relieve the
constraint, but downstream suppliers and upstream consumers can be hurt by such investments.

43
Table 9. Characteristics of transmission-planning studies reviewed in Chapter 3
Considered: Analyzed:
Source Comments
Reliability Economics Costs Benefits
Northeast Power Coordinating Council
ISO New Well written and organized,
England (2003) comprehensive
National Grid Useful guide to market participants,
(2003) not intended to be a plan
Obessis (2002) Analyzed key constraints, not a
plan
New York ISO Traditional electrical-engineering
(2002a) study, not a plan
New York ISO Analyzed reductions in congestion
(2002b) costs from new generation
Mid-Atlantic Area Council
PJM (2003a) Focused on generator
interconnections and compliance
with reliability rules
Southeastern Electric Reliability Council
Southeastern Assessed infrastructure, not a plan
Assoc. Reg.
Comm. (2002)
SERC (2003) Traditional reliability assessment,
not a plan
Florida Reliability Coordinating Council
No published reports on transmission plans from either FRCC or the Florida PSC
East Central Area Reliability Coordination Agreement
Midwest ISO Good analysis of congestion costs
(2003) and solutions, plans to conduct
independent reliability assessment
Mid-America Interconnected Network
ATC (2003) Comprehensive and ambitious plan,
well written
Mid-Continent Area Power Pool
MAPP (2002) Focused on regional power
transfers, subregional groups focus
on reliability

44
 Considered: Analyzed:
Source Comments
Reliability Economics Costs Benefits
MN Electric Analyzed issues for six planning
Utilities (2003) zones, not for larger region
Southwest Power Pool
SPP (2001) Focused on five interfaces, very
technical, hard to read
Electric Reliability Council of Texas
ERCOT (2003) Focused on congestion, its costs,
and transmission solutions, well-
written
Western Electricity Coordinating Council
SSG-WI Analyzed transmission needs for
(2003) alternative generation scenarios,
well-written
ACC (2003) Well-written assessment of utility
plans from a statewide perspective
Budhraja et al. Transmission needed to import
(2003a and b) power to California
California ISO Sketchy summary report, technical
(2003) appendices

Such an economic-analysis “approach must address the impact a transmission expansion

would have on increasing transmission users’ access to generation sources and demand areas,
the impact on incentives for new generation investments, and the impact on increasing market
competition [and reducing market power]” (California ISO and London Economics
International 2003). Such an analysis must also account for the many uncertainties about future
demand, amount and location of new generation, fuel prices, and the interactive and
decentralized nature of investment decisions for generation and transmission. It is especially
difficult to analyze the benefits of new transmission when investors can locate new generators
in areas that lack sufficient transmission to move that power to load centers.

None of the studies (except perhaps the ISO New England plan and BPA) analyzed
alternatives to the projects presented, both other transmission projects and nontransmission
solutions to transmission problems

Many of the planned projects are local. They focus on improving reliability of delivery
to large load centers. Few of the projects cut across control-area boundaries and are aimed at
increasing transfer capabilities throughout a region. The New England, Midwest, ERCOT, and
SSG-WI plans are exceptions to this statement. None of the projects (except for a few
merchant DC links and the SSG-WI study) encompass large regional power flows.

45
 As shown by the spotty geographical coverage of the plans, many entities provide little
or no public information on transmission. The director of the transmission-planning department
in a large utility stated: “We publish those portions of our transmission plan that are necessary
to meet regulatory requirements, such as the federal EIA-411 and FERC Form 715 data
requests, as well as various state filings. When we request regulatory approval for a specific
project, our application focuses on that project as required by state certification rules. None of
our regulatory commissions requires the filing of a comprehensive, systemwide transmission
plan.” Thus, many transmission owners likely prepare plans but do not publish them.

The electricity industry often encounters opposition to its proposals for construction of
new transmission lines. Addressing and overcoming such opposition requires that transmission
owners explain clearly, and in layperson’s terms, why the project is needed, possible
alternatives to that project, expected project costs, expected benefits, and who the beneficiaries
will be. Closing the gap between current planning reports and best practices provides a clear
opportunity to improve prospects for transmission-system enhancement.

The ERCOT (2003b) System Planning charter sets forth a useful structure for analyzing
transmission problems and proposed solutions:

Description of the reliability and/or economic problem that is being solved;

Description of the proposed project, feasible alternative(s) considered, data, and all
studies supporting the need for the project, accurate maps and one line diagrams
showing locations of project and feasible alternatives;
Analysis of rejected alternatives, including cost estimates, effect upon transfer
capability, and other factors considered in the comparison of alternatives with the
proposed project;
Assumptions used in computer studies such that credible performance deficiencies can
be identified;
Performance analyses that are consistent with system operating practices and compliant
with the ERCOT Planning Criteria;
Documented process to identify specific performance deficiencies (reliability and
economic);
Stakeholder/market participant review of the assumptions justifying transmission
projects based on economic benefits as opposed to reliability criteria violations;
Consideration of both transmission and non-transmission solutions to performance
deficiencies; cost estimates should account for transmission investments, system losses,
and congestion relief. To the extent generation dispatch can alleviate reliability needs,
both reliability and economic impacts should be considered in the selection of solutions;
Consideration of alternatives submitted by market participants and due consideration
of their transmission project proposals, with an opportunity for timely input by other
stakeholders;
Implementation of planned solutions on a schedule that permits adjustment of scope or
schedule when conditions change significantly;

46
 When resource limitations prevent the timely completion of projects, project service
dates should be prioritized considering the severity of need and the project-specific
limitations such as construction clearance availability, equipment lead-times, and
regulatory approval processes.

Hirst and Kirby (2002) also developed a transmission-planning process, the key
elements of which are
shown in Fig. 10 and Table Define Purpose Situation Analysis: Situation Analysis:
of Plan Current Future
4.
Alternative Scenarios
The Chapter 3 Transmission
and
rev iew o f p u b lished Problems
Risk Assessment
transmission plans shows
Recommended
that only a few of those Projects Potential Solutions
d o c u men ts meet th e - Benefits - New Transmission
- Generation
- Costs
stringent goals of the - Demand Management
ERCOT c h a r t e r a n d Merchant
- Transmission Pricing
- System Operations
Hirst/Kirby proposal. The Projects
planning documents
prepared by ISO New 0107

England, National Grid,

Fig. 10. Proposed transmission planning process.
Midwest ISO, American
Transmission Company, ERCOT, and SSG-WI are all models that other transmission owners
and planners could use to improve the content of their transmission plans and planning reports.

Table 10 lists a few of the key transmission problems throughout the country and the
steps being taken to address these problems. This is definitely a partial list, both because I was
not privy to all the relevant transmission plans in the United States and because my review of
the plans discussed in Chapter 3 probably overlooked some key problems and projects. The
table suggests that different regions face different kinds of problems, and that some problems
are being addressed and others are not.

47
Table 10. Incomplete list of key transmission problems and their solutions
Problem Solution
New England: imports into SW Many projects underway, especially for
Connecticut and NW Vermont, and also Connecticut and Boston, to expand capacity,
Boston area although less quickly than would be optimal
New York: Major congestion in moving Additional generating units constructed and
power from upstate to New York City planned in congested area; proposals for
and Long Island merchant DC lines, completion of which is
uncertain.
SERC: Lots of merchant generation
coming online with insufficient
transmission to deliver output to distant
load centers
Midwest ISO: Limited import capability ATC proposes Arrowhead-Weston 345-kV
from MAPP to MAIN (into Wisconsin); line from Minnesota to Wisconsin
limited transmission from the Dakotas
(wind and coal generation) to load
centers. Constraints also exist from
southern Indiana and Kentucky
ECAR: Long-term reliability problem in Construction of Wyoming-Jacksons Ferry
southeastern part of region 765-kV line, first proposed in 1991, to be
completed in 2006
ERCOT: Constraints in moving power Many transmission projects completed,
from outlying regions to Dallas-Ft. Worth underway, and planned
and Houston areas
WECC: Need for large new transmission
projects a function primarily of
generation fuel choices and locations
California: Imports into San Francisco Local generation in and near San Francisco
and San Diego constrained, economics and San Diego; expansion of Path 15 in
limited over Path 15 and from Palo Verde California underway; proposal for second
to southern California 500-kV line from Devers to Palo Verde
Pacific Northwest: Reliability problems Kangley-Echo Lake 345-kV line completed
delivering power to Seattle area in late 2003

48
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS

NERC’s (2003d) latest Reliability Assessment noted that

The pace of transmission investment has lagged behind the rate of load
growth and generating capacity additions. Many factors have led to this
condition, including the way in which the grid was developed, viable alternatives
to the construction of new transmission lines, and public, regulatory, and
financial obstacles to the construction of new transmission facilities. In light of
these factors, it is likely that transmission owners will increasingly rely on
system upgrades rather than new transmission lines for increased transmission
capacity.
The North American transmission systems are expected to perform
reliably. However, in some areas the transmission system is not adequate to
transmit the output of all new generating units to their targeted markets, limiting
some economy energy transactions but not adversely impacting reliability.

This assessment is supported by the data NERC collects on installed and planned
transmission capacity. These data and projections, discussed in Chapter 2, show a continuation
of past trends. Transmission owners continue to add transmission capacity at a much lower rate
than consumer demand is growing. These trends are roughly consistent across all 10 reliability
regions. Interpreting these trends is difficult because details on the types of transmission
construction and the problems these investments are meant to solve are not available. While I
consider these trends troubling, others might view them as an indicator of increased efficiency
of transmission usage or a consequence of the recent construction of gas-fired generation close
to load centers.

However, other analysis indicates that the transmission investments planned for the next
several years may not even be enough to replace today’s aging infrastructure let alone meet
growing demand: “The evidence suggests that investor-owned utilities have reduced
transmission and distribution spending to bare-bones levels, that spending will have to rise
significantly in the near future in order to meet the needs of customers, and that the higher level
of spending will trigger rate hike filings in order to cover the costs of the new capital” (Hyman
2004). And U.S. transmission investment as a share of electric revenue declined from 10% in
1970 to 6% in 1975, 4% in 1980, and just over 1% from 1985 through 2000 (Boston 2004).

The one exception to these declining trends are the EEI data on investments in new
transmission facilities made by investor-owned utilities. Although these data show the same

49
long-term decline in construction expenditures, the data from 2000 through 2003 show
substantial increases in transmission investments.

Given the value of these NERC and EEI data for understanding transmission issues,
more time and attention should be devoted to ensuring complete reporting by all transmission
owners, expanding the data collected to cover facilities that add capacity but do not add mileage
to the transmission system, verifying the accuracy of these data, analyzing them, and reporting
the results of these analyses. Although EIA and FERC collect data on past and projected
transmission facilities, neither cleans the data nor publishes summaries. Given the importance
of transmission as a policy issue, this situation should change even though tight budgets limit
what can reasonably be done. EIA (2004) proposes to expand its data collection on Form EIA-
412 to include “Transmission System Upgrades” to existing lines (e.g., reconductor line, install
dynamic thermal rating, install capacitors, or install reactors) and terminal stations (e.g.,
transformer, bus bar, protection system, or switchgear).

The review of transmission plans and related documents (Chapter 3) shows wide
variation across utilities and regions. The need for new transmission is not uniform across the
country; rather, it is very location specific. Krapels (2003) writes that:

“In 90 percent of … the United States, it is challenging, but possible, to establish

a mix of generation and transmission assets that constitute an efficient power
infrastructure. In the other 10 percent, it is extremely difficult to do so, and over
time these areas have evolved into ‘load pockets.’ These are typically densely
populated areas where generation facilities were built decades ago, are difficult
to refurbish (and thus highly polluting) and where transmission grids are
similarly dated and compressed.
The majority of the people in this country live in that 10 percent of the
landscape. Thus, the central interest in transmission policy should be—but
seldom is—in the 10 percent of the landscape that contains the load pockets of
the power markets.

Locational prices and congestion revenue rights can help stimulate market solutions to
transmission problems. By themselves, however, they are probably not enough. And LMPs and
CRRs are used in only a few parts of the country where ISOs are well established (New
England, New York, and PJM with plans for the Midwest, ERCOT, and California). The
difficulties merchant projects have experienced recently in obtaining long-term commitments
from users indicates the limits of this approach. PJM just initiated a process to encourage
market solutions to transmission problems. If market participants do not propose solutions
within a year, PJM will recommend regulated transmission solutions.

Most of the transmission planned for the next few years is focused on local reliability
needs. Other than a few merchant DC projects, I found no plans to build transmission lines to
connect large regions. Although the SSG-WI study discusses several such projects, the region’s

50
transmission owners and state regulators have not yet committed to their construction.
Exacerbating this omission is the lack of an agreed-upon methodology for analyzing the
benefits (to whom?) and costs of such projects.

The transmission reports discussed above vary widely in the topics they cover and the
quality of their presentation. A few, in my view, are excellent, in particular those prepared by
ISO New England, National Grid, the Midwest ISO, American Transmission Company,
ERCOT, and SSG-WI. These exemplary documents, as well as the ERCOT charter and
Hirst/Kirby proposal, could form the basis for an industrywide effort to define and disseminate
a “best practices” approach to the content and reporting of transmission plans. By and large,
the best published plans were prepared by ISOs, transmission-only companies, and SSG-WI
(which has ISO-like characteristics). This observation emphasizes the importance of deciding
what types of entity should conduct certain types of planning (e.g., utilities focus on local
reliability problems and regional planning entities focus on broad regional economic issues).
It also emphasizes the importance of industry structure (e.g., large regional transmission
organizations or vertically integrated utilities) in determining what information needs to be
made public.

Several entities either restricted access to their transmission plans or denied access
altogether. Restricting access to those with a reasonable use for the information makes sense.
However, it may be inappropriate to prohibit all public access to transmission information
because of concerns about competition and terrorism. With respect to competition, if the plan
is released to all current and potential market participants at the same time, none has a
competitive advantage. To protect critical infrastructure, sensitive information (e.g., detailed
maps showing the nature and location of transmission equipment) could be restricted to those
with a clear need to know. But much of the information in transmission plans, because it is
prospective, does not fall into this category and could be made available more readily. The
electricity industry, on either a regional or national basis, should develop criteria for
transmission owners to use in determining which data should be kept confidential for
commercial or national-security reasons.

The regional and national data and projections combined with the transmission-planning
reports suggest that enough new transmission will likely be built to maintain reliability.
However, many economic opportunities to build low-cost power plants in remote locations or
to move power from cheap generators to distant load centers will be foregone because sufficient
transmission for economic purposes may not be built. If state and federal regulators adopt clear
policies to support transmission construction, needed investments—for both reliability and
economics—would more likely be built. Such policies include decisions on: whether such
investments are to be regulated by state commissions or FERC, appropriate rates of return on
such investments, and how and from whom investment costs are to be recovered.

51
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work described in this report was funded by the Energy Delivery Group, Edison
Electric Institute and the Office of Electric Transmission and Distribution, Electric Markets
Technical Assistance Program, U.S. Department of Energy under contract No. DE-AC03-
76SF00098 with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. I thank Russell Tucker (EEI), Larry
Mansueti (DOE), and Charles Goldman (LBNL) for their support throughout the course of this
project.

I thank John Adams, James Alders, Scott Barnhart, Bill Bojorquez, Jay Caspary, James
Dyer, Chris Eisenbrey, Scott Gass, George Hakun, Michael Henderson, Joseph Hipius, Douglas
Larson, John Makens, Bernard Pasternack, Armando Perez, Dean Perry, William Reinke, Jerry
Smith, Perry Stowe, Brian Silverstein, Peggy Suggs, Ausma Tomsevics, Charles Tyson, Jeffrey
Webb, and James Whitehead for their help in providing information and insights during the
course of this project.

I thank John Adams, Grace Anderson, Scott Barnhart, Terry Boston, Vikram Budhraja,
Chris Eisenbrey, Wally Gibson, Charles Goldman, George Hakung, John Howe, Joseph Hipius,
John Hughes, Brendan Kirby, John Makens, Larry Mansueti, Paul McCoy, Bernard Pasternack,
William Reinke, Julie Simon, Marsha Smith, Tracy Terry, and Russell Tucker for their very
helpful comments on a draft of this report.

52
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